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Japanese Americans in World War Ii

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Japanese Americans in World War Ii National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior National Historic Landmarks Program JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR II National Historic Landmarks Theme Study Cover photo Farm families of Japanese ancestry wait for a bus that will take them to the Tanforan Assembly Center, along with 595 others removed from the area near Centerville, California, under Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34. WRA photo by Dorothea Lange, May 9, 1942, courtesy of the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR II A National Historic Landmarks Theme Study Edited by Barbara Wyatt National Historic Landmarks Program Based in part on Confinement and Ethnicity by Jeffery F. Burton Mary M. Farrell Florence B. Lord Richard W. Lord NPS Western Archeological and Conservation Center Tucson, Arizona, 1999 With Contributions from S. Curtis Breckenridge Marilyn Harper Produced by the National Historic Landmarks Program National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, DC August 2012 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD................................................................................................................................. 1 PART 1, INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 3 Table 1. Wartime Properties Identified in Public Law 102-248 ................................................ 7 PART 2. HISTORIC CONTEXT ............................................................................................... 9 THE PRELUDE TO RELOCATION ......................................................................................... 9 REMOVAL ............................................................................................................................... 22 CONFINEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 34 ALTERNATIVES TO CONFINEMENT................................................................................. 43 RESISTANCE AND LEGAL CHALLENGES ....................................................................... 50 FREEDOM RESTORED .......................................................................................................... 56 RETROSPECTIVE ................................................................................................................... 58 PART 3. ASSOCIATED PROPERTY TYPES ....................................................................... 61 WCCA ASSEMBLY CENTERS ............................................................................................. 61 WRA RELOCATION CENTERS ............................................................................................ 61 INTERNMENT/DETENTION FACILITIES .......................................................................... 68 U.S. ARMY FACILITIES ........................................................................................................ 70 JAPANESE AMERICAN WARTIME COMMUNITIES ....................................................... 71 OTHER PROPERTY TYPES .................................................................................................. 74 PART 4. SURVEY METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 77 Table 2. Wartime Properties not Specified in Public Law 102-248 ........................................ 79 PART 5. REGISTRATION GUIDELINES FOR NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS ....................................................................... 81 EVALUATION CHALLENGES ............................................................................................. 81 NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION ........................... 87 NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK EXCEPTIONS ......................................................... 89 APPLYING THE CRITERIA................................................................................................... 90 APPLYING CRITERION 1 ..................................................................................................... 96 APPLYING CRITERION 2 ................................................................................................... 101 APPLYING CRITERION 4 ................................................................................................... 101 APPLYING CRITERION 5 ................................................................................................... 102 APPLYING CRITERION 6 ................................................................................................... 102 APPLYING THE EXCEPTIONS........................................................................................... 103 EVALUATING ABOVEGROUND INTEGRITY ................................................................ 105 EVALUATING ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEGRITY ............................................................. 108 PART 6. SURVEY RESULTS ................................................................................................ 109 WCCA ASSEMBLY CENTERS ........................................................................................... 110 Fresno Assembly Center ................................................................................................. 111 Marysville Assembly Center (Arboga Assembly Center) .............................................. 111 Mayer Assembly Center ................................................................................................. 112 iii Merced Assembly Center ................................................................................................ 113 Pinedale Assembly Center .............................................................................................. 114 Pomona Assembly Center ............................................................................................... 115 Portland Assembly Center .............................................................................................. 116 Puyallup Assembly Center .............................................................................................. 118 Sacramento Assembly Center (Walerga Assembly Center) ........................................... 118 Salinas Assembly Center ................................................................................................ 119 Stockton Assembly Center .............................................................................................. 123 Tulare Assembly Center ................................................................................................. 124 Turlock Assembly Center ............................................................................................... 125 WAR RELOCATION AUTHORITY RELOCATION CENTERS ....................................... 126 Relocation Centers Designated National Historic Landmarks ........................................... 128 Granada Relocation Center (Camp Amache) ................................................................. 128 Heart Mountain Relocation Center ................................................................................. 131 Manzanar Relocation Center ........................................................................................... 134 Rohwer Relocation Center and Memorial Cemetery ...................................................... 137 Topaz Relocation Center (Central Utah Relocation Center) .......................................... 140 Tule Lake Relocation Center/Tule Lake Segregation Center ......................................... 142 Other WRA Relocation Centers .......................................................................................... 146 Gila River Relocation Center .......................................................................................... 146 Jerome Relocation Center ............................................................................................... 149 Minidoka Relocation Center ........................................................................................... 152 Poston Relocation Center (Colorado River Relocation Center)/ Parker Dam Reception Center ...................................................................................... 154 Ancillary Relocation Center Facilities (WRA) ................................................................... 158 Antelope Springs ............................................................................................................. 158 Cow Creek Camp ............................................................................................................ 158 INTERNMENT/DETENTION FACILITIES ........................................................................ 159 Department of Justice Facilities .......................................................................................... 160 Catalina Prison Camp (BOP facility) .............................................................................. 160 Crystal City Internment Camp (INS facility).................................................................. 162 Fort Lincoln Internment Camp (INS facility) ................................................................. 164 Fort Missoula Internment Camp (INS facility) ............................................................... 165 Fort Stanton Internment Camp (INS facility) ................................................................. 166 Kenedy Internment Camp (INS facility)........................................................................
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