Micronesica

eti .% fttlepomn (eatet fLbr 95.Ti iuto has situation 1995). This Labor of (Department employment total of 0.5% is ment

o usatal cagdi h at2 er Le 1971) (Lee years 25 last inthe changed substantially not

erh etr Dprmn o omre 94 n urn arclua employ­ agricultural current and 1984) Commerce of Department Center, search

Agricultural Crop Production on Guam during the 20th Century 20th the during Guam on Production Crop Agricultural

Abstract-Agriculture riod of American governance (1898 to 1941 and 1944 Thepri­ 1941 to present). and to (1898 governance of riod American mary event affecting agriculture during this period was the transition to a to transition the was period this during agriculture affecting event mary

ay ul-p meitl atrad. ro t WI, h eooy of economy the WWII, to Prior afterwards. immediately build-up tary

lcmn b imports, by placement ac; 2 hs ta eeiprat eoe h itouto o h cash the of introduction the before important were that those (2) bacco;

reasons, i.e., coconut, taro, yam, sweet potato, banana, pineapple and pa­ and pineapple banana, sweet potato, yam, taro, coconut, i.e., reasons, paya; and (3) those that have become important since the late 1950s, i.e. 1950s, late the since important become have that those (3) and paya;

al dsperd s omril omdte bcue f opee re­ complete of because commodities commercial as disappeared cally

economy and have remained relatively important for cultural or economic or cultural for important relatively remainedand have economy

ah ae eooy Epomn fr oeay ae bcm wide­ became wages monetary for Employment economy. based cash aemln ccme, en, gpat tmt ad cantaloupe. and tomato eggplant, beans, cucumber, watermelon, mili­ the during and (WWII) of World II War years last the during spread

umwsbsd nsbitne agriculture subsistence on based was Guam n um a e iie it he categories: three into divided be can Guam on due to high temperature, high relative humidity, water stress, imbalances stress, water humidity, relative high temperature, high to due f ol uret, n te curne f iess n pss Te recent The pests. and diseases of occurrence the and nutrients, soil of mrec o adcpn ad raetl akt a el str man­ turf as well as markets ornamental and landscaping of emergence

velopment, mechanization, improvement of post harvest technology, de­ technology, harvest post of improvement mechanization, velopment, fruits and vegetables fresh of supplies local erratic and demand creased eomn o poial mre sse, n frhr xaso o the of expansion further and system, market profitable of velopment in variation of Sources commodities. many of importation the encourage newly developed ornamental, landscape and turf industry. turf and landscape ornamental, developed newly trop­ and typhoons periodic are: vegetables and fruits of production local cl trs si strto drn riy esn pyilgcl disorders physiological season; rainy during saturation soil storms; ical

oe hn 0 o h fo cnue o um sipre (cnmc Re­ (Economic imported is Guam on consumed food the of 90% than More gmn bsns o ofcuss a dvriidte sads agriculture. island's the diversified has courses golf of business agement

niomnal sud n ssanbe rpig ytm, e co de­ crop new systems, cropping sustainable and sound environmentally

oeise o ums uuearclue drse aedvlpet of development are addressed agriculture future Guam's on issues Some

College of Agriculture and Life Science Life and of Agriculture College

02:8-1, 1997 30(2):389-415,

. MARUTANI, M.

i.e.

on Guam has changed dramatically during the pe­during dramatically changed has Guamon

ie arwot sgrae fedcr ad to­ and corn field sugarcane, arrowroot, rice,

J.

Introduction

BROWN,

,

nvriy fGa ag/o Ga 96923 Guam Mangi/ao, Guam of University

F.

RZ AND CRUZ

.

In

a historic sense, the crops the sense, a historic

(1)

.

G.

those that have basi­ have that those

Despite a steady increase steady a Despite

WALL

In­ "' :; E ::,

C • E > 0 E •

~

-

:i ~ < "' .5.

a. w

1000

3000

2000

4000

0

2000

1980

Population

Agriculture Employment Agriculture

1960

--0- -+-

YEAR

1940

Quarantine 1996).

&

Micronesica 30(2), 1997

1920

Population of Guam from to 1901 1990 and the number off arm-

1900

0

1.

ers and farm laborers from 1920 to 1996.

50000

250000

150000

200000

100000

:; E

::,

C

... 0

"'

ii

.s.

.5!

:i ...

Figure

Social, economic, and political factors also limit agriculture on the island. A

There manyare environmental problems that limit local agricultural production.

This paper discusses the environmental and economic factors that have

sia, Korea, Japan, the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, New Zealand,

of Agriculture, of Plant Protection

390 Guam is a tropical island that receives abundant heat and light the year-round and seasonal rainfall. The island environment is characterized by occurrences of unpre­ in island population since World War II (WWII) (Figure), the numbers 1 of com­

fruits and vegetables consumed on the island are imported from the mainland

Taiwan, Palau, Philippines, People's Republic of China, and Thailand (Department

in thein socio-economic structure on the island during and after WWII has greatly in­

dictable heavy rain and wind, and poor soils mostin areas of the island. The periodic mercial farms and growers have remained the same or decreased. The majority of occurrences of typhoons constrain development of perennial crops. In addition, the introduction of new pests and diseases have created problems with crop production. United States, and foreign sources include Australia, Federated States of Microne­ otic biotic and constraints which results in heavy a reliance on imported produce.

fluenced production patterns. Prior to WWII, the economy of Guam was primarily

Local producers frequently fail to provide a constant supply to the market due to abi­ shaped the pattern of crop production on the island, focusing on historical events and the current status of agriculture on Guam. historical review of agricultural production systems on Guam reveals that the change

based on subsistence agriculture. Shifts in the labor force from farming to a wage­ based economy reduced local crop production and allowed for expanded imports of

tivities. Lands the in central region the of which island, wereprimarily agriculture, in have been expropriated for development of military bases and as business districts.

produce. Moreover, government policy on land use has greatly restricted farming ac­ west of Hawaii, 2,600 km east of the Philippines, and about 2,500 km south south­ south km 2,500 about and Philippines, the of east km 2,600 Hawaii, of west

pad o ocnc rgn wt ahget lvto o 0 m Sronig hills Surrounding m. 407 of elevation highest a with origin, volcanic of uplands

lis Fod aefeun drn teriy esn Siso ocnc pad are uplands volcanic on Soils season. rainy the during frequent are Floods plains. on i h suh h cnrl at fte sad osss fbt hly limestone hilly both of consists island the of part central The south. the in point a with wide km 9 to 6 and long km 48 is island The latitude. N 13°33' and tude total area of 549 km of area total business activities take place. take activities business

east of Japan. of east

plants can be grown throughout the year in the field with well drained soils in the in soils drained well with field the in year the throughout grown be can plants between elevations with plateau limestone flat a is island the of part northern The eily nai sis Dmtro ta. 96) iig oices p adt im­ to and pH increase to Liming 1986b). al. et (Demeterio soils acid in pecially on soils (4%), lands bottom on soils classes; three into together grouped are types mountainous of consists island the of part southern the 17 contrast, and In 30 m. 4 rv viaiiy fsi uret admcoil ciiy sarcmedd prac­ recommended a is activity microbial and nutrients soil of availability prove (61 first in the uplands soils %).The limestoneon soils and (35%) uplands volcanic tice for acid soils. In calcareous soils from central and northern parts of the island, the of parts northern and central from soils calcareous In soils. acid for tice

rms iln i h Mraa sad can lctd bu 610k et south­ west km 6,100 about located chain, Islands Mariana the in island ernmost ai oii hv H eeal ls ta 55 Dmtro t l 18a.Te third The 1986a). al. et (Demeterio 5.5 than less generally pH have origin canic Watermelon Guam of part southeastern and northern the in limestone overlying soils of class are shallow and have a pH of 7 of pH a higher. or .0 have and shallow are hl mn goes n h nrh utvt yr-og en n ccme. These cucumber. and bean yard-long cultivate north the in growers many while

north. In general, inorganic chemical fertilizers are commonly used to supplement to used commonly are fertilizers chemical inorganic general, In north. mineral nutrients of soils. of nutrients mineral ero­ to subject are which slopes steep many and rivers numerous by divided are ls aede, ee,pol dand ly ol o otm o aly ad coastal and valleys of bottoms on soils clay drained poorly level, deep, are class highest the around areas at and coast east south the along found is Limestone sion.

on i h suhr prs fteiln.Tee sawd rne fsi ets and depths soil of range wide a is There island. the of parts southern the in found and government most where area, inthis greatest is the Development plateaus. and drainage, and in general, steep slopes limit cultivation. The southern soils of vol­ of soils southern The cultivation. limit slopes steep general, in and drainage,

erant plant, is commonly grown in the deep soils of the southern part of the island, the of part southern of the soils deep inthe grown commonly is plant, erant

iron and other micro-nutrient deficiencies are common due to high soil pH. Water pH. soil high to due common are deficiencies micro-nutrient other and iron tes s omn n hlo sis vryn te ietn drn the during limestone the overlying soils shallow in common is stress n rniin eid between periods transition and

h iln tpgah dvds um no he mjr epyia regions. geophysical major three into Guam divides topography island The oa o 5si ye aecaatrzd nGa (on 98.Tee soil These 1988). (Young Guam on characterized are types soil 55 of total A

Guam is a tropical island of the Western Pacific, located at 144°55' E longi­ E 144°55' at located Pacific, Western the of island tropical a is Guam

Many vegetable crops have been grown been have crops vegetable Many

umsisaelwi hshrs n a elmtn o rppouto, es­ production,crop for limiting can be and in low are phosphorus soils Guam

1

Latin names of crops are given in Tables given3-5. are crops of names Latin

1

which is the most important crop in economic terms and an acid-tol­ an and terms economic in crop important most the is which

Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 20th the during Guam on al: Agriculture et Marutani

2

or 135,680 acres (Young 1988). It is the largest and the south­ the and largest 1988).It is the(Young acres 135,680 or

Environment and Agriculture and Environment

dry

GEOGRAPHY

and wet seasons. wet and

SOILS

in

the different soil regimes on Guam. on regimes soil different the

dry

season

391 392 Micronesica 30(2), 1997

DAYLENGTH AND LIGHT INTENSITY Guam has daylength ranging from 11 hours and 19 minutes in December to 12 hours and 56 minutes in June. Although the difference in seasonal daylength is small, some plants display photoperiodic responses in their development. As an example, Euphorbia cyathophora L., an introduced weed from the New World, :flowersfrom December to February and winged beans flower and produce fruits from January through March. Some cultivars of potato e.g. 'Kennebec,' initiate formation of :flowers and new tubers much earlier on Guam than when they are grown in temperate regions (Marutani 1986). Early tuberization can be attributed to physiological responses to short-day conditions of Guam. Conversely, supple­ mental lighting applied to kangkong, a leafy vegetable, increases its yield by pro­ moting vegetative growth. The highest monthly average of possible sunshine (57%) was recorded in March and April, and the lowest monthly average of possible sunshine (34%) was reported in August (NOAA, 1994). The average daily solar radiation at Barrigada (centralGuam)fromJanuary 1 to March 31, 1986wasrecordedas 18.2MJ·day- 1, ranging 10.0 to 25.2 MJ·day- 1 (Marutani 1986). Effects oflight intensity on plant phenology was studied on dendrobium orchids (McConnell 1988). Dendrobiums growing in 30% shade have been found to initiate :flowering about one month ear­ lier than those grown in full sun. Vegetable seedlings which are grown in shade and are not acclimatized before transplanting to the field are usually scorched by sunlight.

PRECIPITATION Average annual rainfall from 1965-1994 was 256.7 cm (NOAA 1994). Aver­ age monthly rainfall ranges from 10.4 cm (March) to 38.1 cm (August). Dry months are February, March and April, and wet months are from August to Octo­ ber. Transitional periods are from November to January and from May to July. Several typhoons and tropical storms pass the island yearly, resulting in large amounts of precipitation within a short period of time and causing severe damage to crops, especially those grown in poorly drained clayey soils. During the rainy season, some agricultural lands become unusable because of poor drainage; on the other hand, irrigation is essential for optimal growth of crops during the dry sea­ son. In general, the best vegetable production is during the dry months when envi­ ronmental conditions are favorable with workable soil, lower night air tempera­ tures and lower air humidity. As an example, more tomatoes are produced during the dry season than the wet season (Lee 1980). Guam is subject to drought during ENSO (El Nino) events (Lander 1994).

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY Mean air temperature is about 26°C and it remains relatively constant throughout the year (NOAA 1994). There is a slight seasonal change in tempera­ ture with January and February being coolest. The average monthly maximum temperature is 30°C and the average monthly minimum temperature is 22°C. The eprtr ws eodd n etme, 97a 3.°. eaie uiiy usu­ humidity Relative 35.0°C. at 1957 September, in recorded was temperature

ture and high humidity limit development in some plants. On the other hand, some hand, other Onthe plants. some in development limit humidity high and ture temperate crops can acclimatize to the tropical conditions, but exhibit early matu­ early exhibit but conditions, tropical the to acclimatize can crops temperate ain n senescence and ration highest the and 12.2°C, at 1965 March, in occurred temperature recorded lowest eprtr fo My o uy ih eprtr i amjr tes asn some causing stress major a is temperature High July. to May from temperature

oao utvr hdbte tbr pras eas o ih eprtr (Marutani, temperature high of because perhaps tubers bitter had cultivars potato the for mended nulse data). unpublished Re­ data). unpublished (Marutani, April after planted when drop fruit and flower throughout the year the throughout and humidity is poor flower development, failure of pollination and subsequently and pollination of failure development, flower poor is humidity and iteo ofutpouto o oao Sm ihyedn tmt clias recom­ cultivars tomato yielding high Some tomato. of production fruit orno little tempera­ High night. at 85% above and afternoon the in 65-75% from ranges ally uig the during

tropical storms. Ironwood or Australian pine tree, pine or Australian Ironwood storms. tropical and humidity high by caused be to appears tomatoes in production fruit duced utvr o ltue o eeo btens (auai t l 1993) al. et (Marutani bitterness develop to lettuce of cultivars hy r itritn drn te an sao ad eoe togs ad steady and strongest become and season rainy the during intermittent are They these was the powerful typhoon, Omar, that had peak gusts of 52.3 of gusts peak had that Omar, typhoon, powerful the was these er o Saih ue Snhz 91) ot aiis anand w residencies, two maintained families 1991 Most ). (Sanchez rule Spanish of years devastating typhoons, e.g. Karen (in 1962) and Pamela (in 1976) destroyed the is­ the destroyed 1976) (in Pamela and 1962) (in Karen e.g. typhoons, devastating ekas Topo 14) rte md a al cmue o h fr (Oakley farm the to commute daily a made they or 1947) (Thompson weekdays cane Wild farms. on windbreaks common the of one 1992 when during occurred extreme The plants. many defoliated and severely land sawnbek priinn scin o utvtn areas. cultivating of sections partitioning windbreak, a as December and August late between typhoons five by visited was Guam giutr. tws rdc o r-otc Caor clue smdfe b 333 by modified as culture Chamorro pre-contact of product a was It agriculture. as ee avse fo Dcme t Fbur (hmsn 97. Breadfruit 1947). (Thompson February to December from harvested were yams was harvested from May through August. Other staples were arrowroot, wild yams wild arrowroot, were staples Other August. through May from harvested was spent farmer a where (ranch) lancho a on temporarily other the and a village in one

and a flour made from the seeds of the federico palm ( palm federico the of seeds the from a made flour and

and rice and

o 14) or a h rmr epr rdc o h sad(afr 1905) (Safford island the of product export primary the was Copra 1947). son

94 aao ace 1964) Sanchez & Carano 1944;

h tae id bo esel o otesel truhu ms o h year. the of most throughout northeasterly or easterly blow winds trade The

lnig idras srcmedd ordc psil dmg t rp by crops to damage possible reduce to recommended is windbreaks Planting

During the Spanish occupation, the island economy was based on subsistence on based was economy island the occupation, Spanish the During

.

Field com was harvested primarily in July and August while rice, taro and taro rice, while and August July in primarily harvested was com Field

dry

esn (25-40 season

dry

Marutani et al et Marutani

.

esn rdcd e lwr n ris ihhg icdne of incidence high with fruits and flowers few produced season

aae ocosb hs som cnb eattn. Several devastating. be can storms these by crops to Damage

.

h ms poone avre fet f ih temperature high of effect adverse pronounced most The

SPANISH RULE-UP

:

Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 20th the during Guam on Agriculture

giutrl History Agricultural

km·hr

.

On the lancho, the primary crops were field com field were crops primary the lancho, the On

-

WINDS

1

).

rpcl ersin cnbcm storms become can depressions Tropical

TO

Casuarina equisetifolia Casuarina

1898

(Sacrharum

Cycas circinalis Cycas

.

sp.) is also used also is sp.)

iial, some Similarly,

m·sec-

L.)

(Thomp­

Forst., is Forst.,

.

1

n of One

•

.

393 &

ty­

9% of

.

Constenoble (Dyer

W.

1898-1941

Micronesica 30(2), 1997

NAVAL GOVERNMENT,

US

The island, however, was not self-sufficient in food production. Safford

Early American Early efforts in the area of agriculture development included the es­

The Naval Government encouraged agriculture but its efforts were sporadic. Despite the attempts of the Naval Government to encourage agriculture on

The US Bureau of the Census conducted the first Census of Agriculture on

1905). Soon afterwards, the United States Congress appropriated the necessary

1947). 1912).

Sanchez 1964), and the recommendation that the US Government send vegetable, Stored grains were often destroyed by rats and weevils. Manual ca. Sanz 1827) (

during food shortages exacerbated by typhoons (Safford 1905).

394

(1905) noted that the food shortages had occurred on many occasions due to

(Driver 1991) stated that "This grain (field com) is scarce during the period be­

able-bodied men the of island were working for the government 7). (Thompson 194 affiliated Agricultural Experiment Station under H. L. funds and the USDA Agricultural Experiment Station was established in 1908 in

tablishment of an experimental agricultural station and stock farm (Carano Guam, the first ten years of US administration of Guam saw the beginnings of a grain, fruit and grazing grass seeds suitable for the tropics plus animals and tools sory labor law was passed in 1918 that required all unemployed males [farmers] tween harvests because it is immediately attacked by grubs, motivating farmers to a public farmers market were built in Agana (Carano & Sanchez 1964). The first agriculture, the trend towards a monetized economy with decreased subsistence March 27, the 1905, Naval Government established an agricultural school with an Many lancho had been abandoned and land owners had begun to lease their co­ farming continued through the pre-Japanese occupation period (Thompson conut plantations to Japanese traders instead of farming themselves (Fullaway

Piti Village (Dom 1909). Guam in then 1920, again in and 1930 The 1940. Census 1920 found that 60 In 1913, the government began a project to encourage farmers to increase the phoons pest and problems, particularly during the storage period between harvests. cultivate their farms to the fullest extent or to lease them to others. A compul­ to Guam (Sanchez ). Between 1991 and 1900 1904, a sanitary slaughter house and for wage paying jobs in the government sector. By 1911 almost one-fourth of the aged to 16 60 to cultivate at least one hectare. In spite of government support for plant very little of it." Emergency supplies of food were imported from Manila

There were 3,606 acres of field crops reported for Guam in 1919. The important pattern that was to characterize Guam's agricultural economy during most of the twentieth century. This was the abandonment of subsistence agricultural activities plant and animal quarantine laws were promulgated on February 1, 1905, and on

male employment was engaged in agriculture (US Bureau of the Census ). 1921 planted areas on their farms. In 1917, the governor ordered all land owners to pared to the growth of the urban population of Agana of 16.9% (US Bureau of the16.9% of Bureau(US of of Agana population of urban the growth the to pared

S ess lhuh eea pce fCcriaee a en ouetd by documented been had Cucurbitaceae of species several although Census, US

ie arwot n sgrae Tbe . oou wste ot motn fruit important most the was 1 (Table Coconut ). sugarcane and arrowroot rice,

pn S oenet usde (rw 12) ih ne t ipr great import to need a with 1926) (Brown subsidies Government US upon amounts of food (Anon. 1928). Vegetable production was not reported in the 1920 1928). in the reportedVegetable (Anon. not foodwas of amounts production

cumbers, radishes and cabbages were grown. Taro leaves as a vegetable were also were a vegetable grown.as leaves Taro were cabbages and radishes cumbers, cassava, tobacco, yams, taro, potatoes, sweet com, field were acreage by crops Yam Taro 1992). (Palomo farms family on grown crop, followed by banana, pineapple, coffee and breadfruit (Table 2). During the During 2). (Table breadfruit and coffee pineapple, banana, by followed crop,

Total dependent society oriented agriculturally an remained 1931 still Guam Census ).

Vegetable crops: il n otco: ars (acres) (acres) crop: root and Field Beans com Field Tomatoes

Peppers Tobacco Eggplant Cassava Rice Arrowroot

Pumpkins Green onions Green Lettuce Melons Mungbeans cu­ beets, eggplants, that reported (1912) Fullaway Additionally, (1905). Safford Sweet potato •Data are based on US Bureau of the Census 1921, 1931, 1941, 1951, and 1961. 1951, and 1941, 1931, 1921, Census the of Bureau US on based are •Data Cucumbers hToe

Radish Chinese cabbage Chinese Sugarcane Watermelons Sweetcorn

1920's, there was a substantial growth of the rural population of 48.9% as com­ as 48.9% of population rural the of growth substantial a was there 1920's,

Table 1. Harvest area of field crops, root crops and vegetables grown on Guam in 1919, 1929, 1919, in Guam on grown vegetables and crops root crops, of field area Harvest 1. Table

() masls hn 1 hectare. than less means "(1)"

"-"

Crop

means no data reported data no means

Marutani et al et Marutani

,7 3,565 2,173

,0 606 4,376 6,086 3,606

99 99 99 1949 1939 1929 1919

7 103 718 1,033 473

536

160

81 58 32

80

13

.

:

Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 20th the during Guam on Agriculture

99 99ad 1959.• 1949 and 1939,

404

543

165 9 517 197

51

75 53

Area harvested Area

hcae) (hectares) (hectares)

(acres)

2176

321

199 181

39

93

86

(1) (1) 1 (1) (1)

5 2

1

(hectares)

279

22

77

15 10

15

13

(1) (l)h

(1)

(1)

4

2 2

5

(hectares)

(hectares)

1959

24

24

30 28 59 35

21

27 26

15

15

12

11

10

(1) (1)

_c

5

2 3

8

395 120

7,776

10,689 15,656

34,481 53,776 76,136

68,447 48,950 37,583

41,931

145,835

660,964

315,406

in 1959

(pound)

1,113,967

Amount harvested

(Ceiba pentandra

_b

3,372

2,798

153,687

51

234

1995

1,870

12,405

142,222

760

3,951

2,643

11,270 1,330 3,431

10,220

36,615

535,240

-- (number) --

Micronesica 30(2), 1997

Number of Plants

225

1,098

8,496

6,380 9,629 418

6,847 7,719 2,211 6,643

6,203 4,602 1,758 2,320 7,407

36,493

157,528 134,263 35,603 77,816

250,521

and the amount of crops harvested in 1959.•

In 1929, Guam produced 6,086 acres field of crops. Field com

.

69

367

490 1,820 1,026

1919 1929 1939 1949 1959

------·------

The number of fruit and tree crops grown on Guam in 1919, 1929, 1939, and 1949 1959

The Census reported 1930 persons 6,178 "engaged in gainful occupations" of

In the 1933, copra market collapsed and copra production on Guam fell to an

Gaertn) as an alternative to copra and it also initiated program a to encourage

"-" means no data reported.

report was combined with lemons for 1959.

Table 2.

1). The number 1). of coconut trees had increased to 1,021,884 reflecting the growth

396 Coffee 32,191 101,488 90,254 7,968 232

Oranges 2,788 4,891 5,477 860 Soursops 2,178 Lemons 1,992 Starfruits Cacao Crop Limesc

Coconuts 404,581 1,021,884 885,424 241,816 Bananas 155,142 Kapok on the island. The agriculture sector employed 2,688 males or 64% of the male Pineapples 42,637 Tangerines civilian work force Betelnuts Breadfruit 15,970 Guavas of the copra industry over the decade (Table 2). In 1929, copra exports reached a Papayas 1,247

hThe Mangoes 284 Avocado Grapefruit 33 which 5,217 were male. Of those males, were 1,019 active duty military stationed creases in the number of mangos and avocados during this period (US Bureau of had again the largest acreage, followed by taro, sweet potatoes, and yams (Table all time The low. Naval Government tried to encourage kapok (L.)

•Data are based on US Bureau of the Census 1921, 1931, 1941, 1951, and 1961. economy flourished producing an era of relative prosperity for the island during °The

the island and new homesteads were created. There were substantially larger in­

the Census 1931).

peak of almost millionsix pounds with a value of over $200,000. The agricultural

the (Thompson 1920's 1947). Most fruit or tree crops increased by a factor of two to four the period over 2) (Table the as population expanded into the rural areas of

the production of rice. The effort with rice was a moderate success and rice

tural labor began for all able-bodied women and children over the age of twelve of age the over children and women able-bodied all for began labor tural

utrl rdcin ru kon ste akna t h iln.Fre agricul­ Forced island. the to Kaikontai the as known group production cultural

period from 1916 to 1941. 1941. 1916 to from period

had increased to approximately 18,500, and in 1944, the Japanese brought an agri­ an brought 1944, Japanese the 18,500, in and approximately to increased had

flourished during most of the Japanese period. By 1944, Japanese troop numbers numbers troop Japanese 1944, By period. Japanese the of most during flourished

pounds as compared to a local production of 416,000 pounds (Carano (Carano pounds 416,000 of production local a to compared as pounds

and Sumay to family lancho lands or other farm lands away from the population population the from away lands farm other or lands lancho family to Sumay and

Naval Government marginally succeeded in the joint goals of monetizing the the monetizing of goals joint the in succeeded marginally Government Naval

peppers listed in order of their importance. importance. of their order in listed peppers

available under the Japanese occupation. Consequently small scale agriculture agriculture scale small Consequently occupation. Japanese the under available

were imported throughout the period. In 1934, rice imports were 2,335,773 2,335,773 were imports rice 1934, In period. the throughout imported were

cessity as there was little in the way of food imports or wage paying employment employment paying wage or imports food of way the in little was there as cessity

centers

the population were farmers in 1898. By 1940, the farming population including including population farming 1940, the 1898. By in farmers were population the

economy and encouraging agricultural production (Rodgers 1995). Virtually all of of 1995). all Virtually (Rodgers production agricultural encouraging and economy

beans, string beans, pumpkins, eggplant and native eggplant, pepino, tomatoes and and tomatoes pepino, eggplant, and native eggplant pumpkins, beans, string beans,

tion. Oakley (1944) reported 150 acres of vegetable plantings in 1938. 1938. Thompson in plantings vegetable of 150 acres reported (1944) Oakley tion.

farm laborers had decreased to approximately 60.6% approximately to decreased had laborers farm

acres were watermelon and 10 acres or less of cantaloupes, cucumbers, Spanish Spanish cucumbers, cantaloupes, of less or acres 10 and watermelon were acres

producers' cooperative. cooperative. producers'

eeal rdcin paetywsnt usata eog owrat enumera­ warrant to enough substantial not was apparently production vegetable

ess 1941) Census

culture reported a total of 4,376 acres of field crops in 1939 (US Bureau of the the of Bureau (US 1939 in crops field of acres 4,376 of total a reported culture

counted for 2,833 or 60.6% of the civilian male employment. The Census of of Agri­ Census The employment. male civilian the of 60.6% or 2,833 for counted

the rural population during the 1930s. There were 6,885 gainfully employed per­ employed gainfully 6,885 were 1930s. There the during population rural the

(194 7) reported vegetable production to be about 350 acres in 1939. Of this, 50 50 this, Of 1939. in acres 350 about be to production vegetable (194 reported 7)

market by providing transportation by federal truck and by organizing a vegetable vegetable a organizing by and truck federal by transportation providing by market

sweet potatoes, yams, cassava, arrowroot, sugarcane and tobacco (Table 1). 1). (Table Again, and tobacco sugarcane arrowroot, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes,

Agricultural Experiment Station was discontinued in 1932 (Nafus (Nafus 1932 in discontinued was Station Experiment Agricultural

sons of which 5,313 were male with 640 on active duty active on 640 with were male 5,313 of which sons

rice production decreased to 517 acres in 1939 (US Bureau of the Census 1941). 1941). Census the of Bureau (US 1939 in acres 517 to decreased production rice of Agana than those living in the city. This is indicative of a continued growth of of growth continued a of indicative is city. This the in living those than of Agana

average weekly sales of $400 in 1932 (Sanchez 1991). The work of the USDA USDA the of work The 1991). (Sanchez 1932 in $400 of sales weekly average

from 14,856 pounds in 1929 to 18,283 pounds in 1939. 1939. in 18,283 pounds 1929 to in 14,856 pounds from

The effort to produce kapok was a failure with production increasing only slightly slightly only increasing production with failure a was kapok produce to effort The

1964). Food was the largest import expenditure averaging 39% in the pre-invasion in pre-invasion the 39% averaging expenditure import largest the 1964). was Food

acreage increased from 197 in 1929 to 640 in 1937 (Thompson 1947). However, However, 1947). (Thompson 1937 in 640 1929 to in 197 from increased acreage

1991). By 1939, the Naval Government again felt the need to revitalize the the Agana revitalize to need the felt again Government Naval 1939, the 1991). By

During the Second World War, much of the population moved from Agana Agana from moved population the of much War, World Second the During

During the period between 1898 and the Japanese invasion in 1941, the US US the 1941, in invasion Japanese the and 1898 between period the During

The 1940 Census reported a greater increase in the population living outside outside living population the in increase greater a reported Census 1940 The

The farmers market was leased to a private enterprise in 1931 and produced produced and 1931 in enterprise private a to leased was market farmers The

. .

The population again turned to subsistence agriculture and fishing by ne­ by fishing and agriculture subsistence to turned again population The

. .

Field com was still the most important crop, followed by taro, rice, rice, taro, by followed crop, important most the still was com Field

Marutani et al et Marutani

WORLD WORLD

: :

Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century Century 20th the during Guam on Agriculture

WAR WAR

II, 1941-1944 1941-1944 II,

. .

Large amounts of foodstuffs foodstuffs of amounts Large

. .

The agricultural sector ac­ sector agricultural The

& &

& &

Schreiner Schreiner

Sanchez Sanchez

397 397 . .

(RECAPTURE), 1944-1945 1944-1945 (RECAPTURE),

Micronesica Micronesica 30(2), 1997

RETURN RETURN

US NAVAL GOVERNMENT, 1946-1950 1946-1950 GOVERNMENT, US NAVAL

AMERICAN AMERICAN

Sanchez Sanchez 1964).

& &

Subsistence Subsistence agriculture did not substantially recover after the war. In 1946,

The The small farms and the remaining farmers on the island formed the nucleus

The The Census 1949 Agriculture of reported a drastic reduction the in area culti­

From From late through 1944 1945, many subsistence farmers who had never par­

The American American The forces landed on July 21, Destruction 1944. on the island was

1991). The The 1991). Naval Government again tried to encourage agriculture as a major in­

supplement supplement to wage income, although for a few, subsistence farming remained a

for for a development slow of a small-scale truck-farming industry that developed on

and and yams or fresh vegetables, i.e. eggplants, hot peppers, green beans, squashes,

way oflife. oflife. way these On farms, the crops traditional, were breadfruit, i.e. bananas, taro

as as an export industry was now dead due to a lack of labor, appropriation of co­

the the dietary staple of the island. Small scale cultivation continued, primarily as a

totally totally replaced locally grown field com and imported rice was quickly becoming

Masa Masa harina, ready a made com imported flour, from the United States had almost

barriers barriers of time and distance from the major post-war food supply sources on the

vated vated the for main field crops of Guam (US Bureau ). of the Census (Table 1951) 1

the the island the over next 40 years. This industry took advantage of natural the trade

had had been firmly established on the island and it was unlikely that the island would

melons melons and tomatoes (Sanchez 1991).

dustry, dustry, however by 1948 it reported to the United Nations that a wage economy

conut conut groves by the military and the destruction of trees during the war (Sanchez

there there were only 1,300 acres in cultivation with 435 farmers (Bowers 1951). Copra

(Carano (Carano

revert revert to pre-war its agricultural economy (Sanchez 1991).

either either by the Japanese or by the US military, or had been ruined for agricultural

(Thompson (Thompson Much 1947). farm land had been taken for away use military as bases

time time (Sanchez 1991). By the end of 1945, 4,791 Guamanians were employed full

ticipated ticipated in the budding pre-war wage economy became wage earners for the first

able able within the vast military activities ). August (Sanchez On 31, 1991 1945, there

of of the Japanese mainland. By October 1944, hundreds jobs of had become avail­ use use by the military activities.

time time by the military or industry and another 1,382 were employed part time

were were 201,918 US troops on the island in addition to the local population of21,838

can can military facilities began in earnest. Guam became the center of military ac­

ganized ganized Japanese resistance was declared be to finished build-up and the Ameri­ of

camps camps and fed with the remains of the Japanese food stores. August By the or­ 10,

tremendous. tremendous. Much of the Chamorro population was housed in temporary refugee

tivity tivity in the western Pacific and the primary staging area for the planned invasion

398 398

had had become scarce ). (Sanchez 1991 Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the American by time the of July invasion in food the on 1944, island Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 399

US west coast to specialize in the production of fresh vegetables and fruits for the local market. By 1949 the Census of Agriculture already reported the increase in fresh vegetable production on the island (Table 1).

INTERIOR GOVERNANCE, 1950-1959 After the implementation of the Organic Act on August 1, 1950, which trans­ ferred responsibility for the governance of Guam from the Navy to the Department of Interior, the USDA investigated Guam's agricultural development in September 1956 (USDA 1958). The USDA report estimated 700 full time farmers on island and in addition 3,400 families who produced some of their own food. There was a considerable amount of mechanical equipment available, but agriculture was "very much underdeveloped." Fertilizer use was new and not widely practiced. The use of insecticides and pesticides was also new and somewhat more common than fer­ tilizer use. The most common cultivation practice was to clear an area and plant a single crop without the use of fertilizers, insecticides or pesticides, and then per­ mit the area to revert to jungle. Marketing knowledge was reported as severely lacking. Marketing was done in a primitive manner with the farmers feeling that they should be paid extremely high prices. Few farmers had any knowledge of their production costs. Although ~ fairly wide variety of produce was offered, quantities were small. There was little or no packaging and a wide variation in maturity of the products offered. The large potential market to the armed services was being only partially and sporadically met (USDA 1958). Agricultural credit was not viewed as a constraint, because of the existence of a number of government programs. Agricultural statistics were said to be practi­ cally non-existent. Research assistance was needed, with "agronomy and soils" and "agricultural economics and marketing" being the two most important areas. Extension personnel needed training. Better development of water resources was needed along with a soil and water conservation program. The local diet was said to be sorely deficient in fresh vegetables and fruits. A plant and animal quarantine program was suggested (USDA 1958). Two thirds of the value of Guam's farm output came from animal husbandry. Egg production was the most important component with a value of $1,301,385. There was no dairy activity. Meat production, primarily small hogs for roasting, was valued at $982,740. There was some slaughter of cattle (440 head) and carabao (86 head) for meat. Most slaughter was done for home consumption, but some was done under inspection and marketed at the Agana farmers' market or through local stores. Feed costs, the small scale of production activities and the lack of a packing house were seen to be the primary constraints to the animal husbandry industry. Education on sanitation and a livestock improvement program were suggested (USDA 1958). Many of the traditional field crops that had direct substitutes available from the United States such as arrowroot, sugarcane and tobacco had completely disap­ peared from the 1959 Agricultural Census report (Table 1). Production of field com dropped dramatically in 1959. The traditional crops such as bananas, taro, sweet 400 Micronesica 30(2), 1997 potatoes, yams, cassava and breadfruit remained significant, but at lower levels of production. For those crops, there were no direct substitutes available from the main­ land US markets. Vegetable production had again increased and the number of veg­ etable types had increased in 1959 (US Bureau of the Census 1961). These changes indicated that the switch from a subsistence agricultural economy to a market ori­ ented agricultural economy was substantially complete at the end of the 1950's.

THE PERIOD OF 1960--1996 In 1962, two events influenced the island's economy significantly. First, Presi­ dent Kennedy lifted the travel restriction to and from Guam. During the same year, Supertyphoon Karen stuck Guam. The island was virtually defoliated and 90% of the island's buildings were destroyed (Sanchez 1991). The recovery efforts in­ cluded launching a program to broaden the economic base of the island away from its dependency on the US military and reconstruction of the island after the ty­ phoon. The emphasis was to be placed on agriculture, tourism and possibly light manufacturing. In 1963, a tourism commission was formed. A new air terminal was opened in 1967 along with the inauguration of direct air service between Guam and Japan. From these beginnings, tourism grew to become the dominant industry of the island. In 1965, the US Congress mandated that the states and territories establish their own meat inspection programs or fall under the jurisdiction of the federal meat inspection program. The government of Guam did not meet this mandate. Guam did not obtain a federal inspector and the local farmers were unable to con­ tinue to slaughter meat for sale to the island consumers. All sales of meat since 1965 have been of live animals for home consumption. This initiated a long-term decline in the beef industry on Guam. Pork production was not impacted as strongly as the beef industry, because the pork producers had long specialized in the production of young pigs for roasting at special events (Y. Artero, personal communication). In 1966, the Guam Department of Agriculture began to report annual agricul­ tural production statistics for the island. The University of Guam was formed from the Territorial College in 1968 and it was awarded Land-Grant status in 1972. Local agricultural research and extension functions were transferred from the Guam Department of Agriculture to the University of Guam in 1973. In 1974, the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences was established within the University with three components: the Agricultural Experiment Station, the Guam Coopera­ tive Extension Service, and Resident Instruction. Karolle (1978) conducted a survey from January, 1973 to March, 1974 and reported that out of a population of 100,000 there were 256 active farmers, 37% of them full-time producers. The average farm size was 6.6 acres (2.7 ha) and the av­ erage tilled or vegetable cropping area was 3.6 acres (1.5 ha) with the median of 1-2 acres (0.4-0.8 ha). The total estimated area for vegetable, tree crop and pas­ ture cultivation was about 1700 acres (688 ha). A detailed map of farm locations was also provided by Karolle (1978). The majority of farms were located on lime- Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 401 stone plateaus in the northern and central regions of the island. In the South, there were two separate areas of farming; (1) south-western coastal plains and coastal river valleys, and (2) the south-eastern volcanic plateau surface. In 1980, Karolle reported 226 viable farms between 1974-1979. In 1983, the Guam Department of Commerce reported the detailed statistics of import and local production. Guam produced locally 38% of fresh fruits and veg­ etables (Economic Research Center, Department of Commerce 1984). They were products where freshness was of importance to the consumer and transportation over long distances was difficult, expensive and time-consuming. Guam's agricul­ tural community specialized in products with a natural competitive advantage, not staple products that could be imported cheaply. This general statement has been true for the island's agriculture since the early 1960's and remains so today. Khamoui (1984) reviewed market potentials for Guam produce. Guam did ex­ perience market gluts of a few commodities, but these were occasional experi­ ences and relatively small in size. The gluts could best be alleviated by improving and expanding storage and cooling facilities on island. Production levels of several local crops could be expanded at the expense of imported produce. If farmers were willing to accept prices slightly lower than import prices, then import substitution would readily occur. Khamoui was not optimistic about the prospects of develop­ ing export markets for Guam produce with the possible exception of avocados. Khamoui (1985) also reviewed agricultural production constraints on Guam. He classified these into physical and institutional constraints. Under physical con­ straints, he listed the underdevelopment of infrastructure, i.e., roads and irrigation systems, and support structures, i.e., storage and cooling facilities. Under institu­ tional constraints, he listed six major constraints: (1) inefficient and ineffective marketing, (2) unavailability of labor, (3) the land tenure policy, (4) inadequate capital, (5) an absence of effective agricultural policy and planning, and (6) the ef­ fects of current local and federal programs and policies. The population of Guam in 1990 was 133,152 (US Bureau of Census 1991). About one third of the island is presently being used for military bases and other US government facilities. Once prime agricultural land, the central part of the is­ land is now used by the Federal government for their facilities. Additionally, with the development of golf courses and an increase of residential and commercial buildings, agricultural land used for crop production has rapidly become even more scarce. In April, 1996, the number of farmers registered at the Guam Depart­ ment of Agriculture was recorded as 324 and there were 66 people leasing either local and federal government lands with the total of 665 acres for farming (R. Bar­ ber, personal communication). In recent years, along with landscaping businesses and plant nurseries, golf courses have become an important part of agricultural activities on the island. In 1996, there were eight commercial plant propagators/whole sellers of potted plants and landscape plant materials on Guam (R. McCarthy, personal communication) and there were nine golf courses with an estimated green area of 2000 acres (545 hectares) (G. Wiecko, personal communication). Additionally, many hobbyists sell

Category Category 3

•-

-

, taro taro , and coconut.

.

the the first group are crops that have basi­

30(2), 30(2), 1997

In In

Micronesica Micronesica

1940 1940 1955 1965 1975

Category Category 1 • Category 2

---

---~--+==-~--'~----

1920 1920

0 0

1987. Agricultural Agricultural 1987. production divided is into three

Category Category 3-crops that primarily are grown for com­

2-traditional 2-traditional crops that remained have produc­ in

cash cash economy, e.g., rice and sugarcane. Category

disappeared disappeared from production with the transition to a

mercial mercial marketing, e.g., watermelon and cucumber.

tion tion under the cash e.g economy,

categories: categories: Category I-subsistence crops that have

1000 1000

3000 3000

2000 2000

g g

C C

en en

Ql Ql

.9 .9

~ ~

.

Figure Figure 2. Agricultural production on Guam from to 1920

Classification Classification Agricultural of Crops on Guam

During During the 1991-1994 about 40 survey, species of 26 families were found cul­

Based Based on available agricultural statistics, crops grown on the island can be

crops crops that have been harvested from the wild many and of these can be included in

as as coconut, banana, pineapple and papaya. Table 4 lists some locally important

cash economy. Examples Examples cash economy. taro, are yams, sweetpotatoes, the tropical and fruits such

sugarcane sugarcane and tobacco. Second, there are the crops of importance to the indige­

is is shown in Figure 2.

cally cally disappeared because of replacement by imports, including rice, arrowroot,

categorized categorized into three groups (Table 3).

this this group are watermelon, cucumber, yard-long bean, eggplant, cantaloupe and

those those that have become important since the late 1950s. Examples of vegetables in

the the significant reduction in coconut production. Crops in third the category include

the the second category. Disappearance of commercial copra industry has contributed

ornamentals ornamentals on roadside stands, at flea markets, or in backyards. The plant rental

tivated tivated and sold at stores, flea markets and roadside stands on Guam (Table 5).

nous nous culture which and economy, are produced still even the after introduction of a

tomato. tomato. Changes production in of these three groups of crops from present to 1898

402 402 business business has also emerged as a fledgling industry. Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 403

Table 3. Three categories of crops grown commercially on Guam since 1898 to present

Category 1: Crops which have disappeared from commercial production after 1950's because of complete replacement by imports Rice (Oryza sativa) Arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Field corn (Zea mays) (cultivated up to early 1970's) Category 2: Crops which are very important to the island indigenous culture and economy before and after introduction of off-farm wage economy in 1950's to present Taro (Colocasia esculenta andXanthosoma sp.) Yams (Dioscorea spp.) Sweetpotato (lpomoea batatas) Sweet Corn (Zea mays) Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Banana (Musa spp.) Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Papaya ( Carica papaya) Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis and A. mariannensis) Category 3: Crops which have become important since the late 1950s. Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Cantaloupe, Honeydew, & Pepino ( Cucumis melo) Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) Pole bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Peppers, sweet and hot (Capsicum spp.) Bittermelon (Momordica charantia) Leafy vegetables which include: Chinese cabbages, pak-choi, & head cabbages etc. (Brassica spp.) Green bunching onion (Alliumfistulosum)

Table 4. Crops that have been harvested from the wild and the backyard garden on Guam.

Anonas (Annona spp.) Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) Betel nut (Areca catechu) Breadfruit (Artocarpus mariannensis) Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Cycad (Cycas circinalis) Guava (Psidium guajava) Donne or wild hot pepper (Capcicumfrutescens?) Mango (Mangifera spp.) Pandanus (Pandanus spp.) Piut or sour cherry (Ximenia americana) Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) Yams, spiny (Dioscorea esculenta var, spinosa) Yams, wild (D. esculenta var.fasciculata) Yams, white (D. rotundata) 404 Micronesica 30(2), 1997

Table 5. Crops planted, field collected and sold at various markets in Guam during 1990-1994.

Scientific name Common name

Vegetables & Root crops: Amaranthaceae: Amaranth sp. Amaranth Araceae: Co/ocasia escu/enta (L.) Schott Red taro, suni Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merril Giant swamp taro (= C. edule Schott) Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott Coco yam (white tuber taro). sunin Honolulu Brassicaceae: Brassica rapa L. Pak-choi, petsai, napa B. oleracea L. var. capitata L. Head cabbage B. pekinensis (Lour.) Rupr. Chinese cabbage, napa Raphanus sativus L. Radish, daikon Convolvulaceae: Jpomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Sweet potato, kamuti I. aquatica Forsskal. Kang kong, water spinach Cucurbitaceae: Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Wax gourd, kondot Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. Watermelon, chandiya and Nakai Cucumis melo L. Pepino melons C. melo L. var. inodonts Naud Honeydew, melon-fino C. me/o L. var. reticulantus Naud Cantaloupe, melon bastos C. sativus L. Cucumber, kamba Cucurbita maxima Duchesne var. maxima Kabocha pumpkin C. moschata (Duchesne) Duchesne ex. Poiret Squash, pumpkin, butternut squash C.pepo L. Zucchini squash Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley Bottle gourd, kalabasa Luffa acutangula (L. Roxb. Luffa Momordica charantia L. Bittermelon, atmagosu Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. Chayote Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea alata L. Winged yam, dagun agaga D. escu/enta var, spinosa (Roxb.) Spiny yam, gadu Prain & Burkill D. escu/enta var.fascicu/ata (Roxb.) Wild yam, nika Prain & Burkill D. rotunda/a Poir. White yam, dagun apaka Euphorbiaceae: Manihot esculenta Crantz Cassava, mendioka, tapioka Fabaceae: Phaseo/us vulgaris L. Pole bean, bush bean Tetragonolobus purpureus Moench Winged bean (=Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. Vigna radiata L. Mungbean for bean sprout Vigna unguicu/ata subsp. Yard-long bean sesquipedalis (L.) Verde. Pachyrhizus erosus (L. Urb. Yam bean, jicama, hicama

Moraceae

Oxalidaceae: Oxalidaceae: Fruits & Nuts: Nuts: & Fruits

Myrtaceae: Myrtaceae:

Musaceae

Annonaceae: Annonaceae:

Lauraceae: Lauraceae:

Caricaceae: Caricaceae:

Bromiliaceae: Bromiliaceae:

Arecaceae

Tiliaceae: Tiliaceae:

Anacardiaceae: Anacardiaceae:

Zingeberaceae: Zingeberaceae:

Malvaceae: Malvaceae:

Liliaceae: Liliaceae:

Poaceae: Poaceae:

Solanaceae: Solanaceae:

Averrhoa carambola carambola Averrhoa

A. mariannensis mariannensis A.

Artocarpus atilis atilis Artocarpus

Psidium guajava guajava Psidium

Musa Musa

A

A. muricata muricata A.

Persea americana americana Persea

Ananas comosus comosus Ananas

Areca catechu catechu Areca

A

Annona squamosa squamosa Annona

M M

Mangifera indica indica Mangifera

A

L. esculentum esculentum L.

Lycopersicon esculentum esculentum Lycopersicon

Bambusa vulgaris vulgaris Bambusa

Zingiber officinale officinale Zingiber

Abelmoschus esculentus esculentus Abelmoschus

Solanum melongena melongena Solanum

Allium fistulosum fistulosum Allium

Carica papaya papaya Carica

Zea mays mays Zea

Cocos nucifera nucifera Cocos

Curcuma domesticaValeton domesticaValeton Curcuma

Corchorus olitorius olitorius Corchorus

C. C. frutescens

Capsicum annuum annuum Capsicum

. .

. .

. .

(=Hibiscus esculentus esculentus (=Hibiscus

heterophyllus heterophyllus

reticulata reticulata

tuberosum tuberosum

odorata odorata

spp. spp.

: :

: :

: :

L. L.

Griff. Griff.

L. L.

L. L.

L. L.

Rottboell Rottboell ex Sprengle

var var

Scientific Scientific name

L

L. L.

L. L.

. .

Tree. Tree.

Lam

(L.) (L.)

L. L.

(Park.) (Park.) Fosb

L. L.

L. L.

cerasiforme cerasiforme

Mill. Mill.

Schrad. Schrad. ex Wendi.

L. L.

Roscoe Roscoe

L. L.

L

Marutani et et Marutani

L. L.

L. L.

. .

Merr. Merr.

. .

(L.) (L.)

Mill. Mill.

L.) L.)

(=C. (=C.

Moench Moench

. .

(Dunal) (Dunal)

al: al:

Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century Century 20th the during Guam on Agriculture

longa longa

Table Table 5.

A. A.

L.) L.)

Gray Gray

(continued) (continued)

Guava, Guava, ahas

Banana Banana (cooking and dessert types)

Jackfruit, Jackfruit, langka, nangka

Breadfruit, Breadfruit, lemai

Avocado Avocado

Starfruit, Starfruit, carambola Papaya Papaya

Betelnut, Betelnut, pugua, ugum

Seeded Seeded breadfruit, dokdok Custard Custard apple, anonas

Mango Mango

Pineapple, Pineapple, pina

Coconut, Coconut, niyog

Soursop, Soursop, laguana

Sweetsop, Sweetsop, atis

Chinese Chinese ginger (white ginger)

Turmeric Turmeric (yellow ginger)

Jew's Jew's marrow, "Moroheiya" tossajute,

Eggplants Eggplants

Cherry Cherry tomato

Tomato Tomato

Hot Hot pepper, tabasco pepper, doni

Saipan Saipan mango Bell Bell or sweet pepper, hot pepper

Bamboo Bamboo for bamboo shoot

Okra Okra

Chinese Chinese chives,

Green Green bunching onion

Sweet Sweet corn

Common Common name

nira nira 405 405

(kg) (kg)

285,519 285,519

1985-93 1985-93

Crop Crop Production

Tomato Tomato 69,079

Beans Beans 131,413

Melon Melon 190,951

Watermelon Watermelon 1068,685

Common Common name

(kg) (kg)

99,832 99,832

keylime keylime

Sour Sour orange

Chiku, Chiku, chico, zapote

Orange Orange

Calamondin, Calamondin, kalamansi

Tangerine Tangerine

Local Local limes, kusai limes, Mexican lime,

1975-84 1975-84

5.(continued) 5.(continued)

Beans Beans

Melon Melon 112,049 Pineapple 133,997

Brassicas Brassicas 119,765 Bananas 204,943

Table Table

Micronesica 30(2), 1997 1997 30(2), Micronesica

Citrofortunella Citrofortunella

(kg) (kg)

29,587 29,587 Bittermelon 56,011 Bittermelon 62,894

v. Roy Roy v.

ten ten year intervals from 1965 to 1993 on Guam.•

P. P.

(Christm.) (Christm.) Swingle

1965-74 1965-74

Table Table 6. ten Top crops by production (weight in kg) over

(L.) (L.)

Osbeck Osbeck

Scientific Scientific name

L. L.

Blanco Blanco

(L.) (L.)

Crop Crop Production Crop Production

Taro&Tips Taro&Tips

Tomato Tomato 86,519 Yam Yam 31,984 Sweet potato 56,011 Eggplant 64,660

Brassicas Brassicas 38,438 Squash 62,177

Beans Beans 53,471 Eggplant 70,295 Squash 69,634

Eggplant Eggplant 59,776

Melon Melon 62,215

Bananas Bananas 143,274 Watermelon 641,635

Blanco Blanco (Neal, 1965) or

(Bailey (Bailey and Bailey, 1976)

The The top ten important commercial crops from to 1965 are 1993 listed Table in

reticulata reticulata

aurantium aurantium

mitis mitis

sinensis sinensis

mitis mitis

C. C.

C. C.

C. C.

C. C.

Citrus Citrus aurantifo/ia

Manilkara Manilkara zapota

1 1

9 9

8 8

5 5

3 3

2 2 Watermelon 104,788 Cucumber 196,570 Cucumber

7 7

6 6

4 4 Cucumber 79,530 Bananas 116,815

6. During 6. During the last decade, watermelon has been the most important crop on the is-

grower grower a possibility of exporting processed leaves of 'Moroheiya' or Jews marrow.

are are no records of crop exports; however, finding a market in Japan has given one

IO IO

long long eggplants more commonly are instead grown oflarge round US types and slen­

ence ence by consumers has shifted to the "oriental" types As of vegetables. an example,

der der Japanese-type cucumbers are more popular than large slicing cucumbers. There

cultural cultural farm survey.

A variety variety fruit and vegetable commodities and A being cultivated now consumed of are

and and peppers include hot and sweet types. Weights are the average of annual production for the time by by a diverse ethnic group of people on the island. Within a species, cultivar prefer­

•Beans •Beans include bush, yardlong and winged beans; brassicas include Chinese and head cabbages;

period. period. Source: estimated production from the University of Guam and Guam Department Agri­ of

Rank Rank

(1964); (1964); Stone (1971).

Sapotaceae: Sapotaceae:

References: References: Artero et al. (1993); Bailey and Bailey (1976); Fosberg et al. (1979 and 1987); Neal

406 406 Rutaceae: Rutaceae:

tive Extension offers training workshops to provide information on pesticide pesticide on information provide to workshops training offers Extension tive

Agency (EPA) regulations governing the use of pesticides. The Guam Coopera­ Guam The pesticides. of use the governing (EPA) regulations Agency

ticide users are required to follow the USDA and the Environmental Protection Protection Environmental the and USDA the follow to required are users ticide

ucae a adae hp,gre trsadohrceia itiuos Pes­ distributors. chemical other and stores garden shops, at hardware purchased and selling to third parties, and this system is not well established. established. well is not system and this parties, third to selling and

pesticides, although the use of power sprayers is increasing. Pesticides can be be can Pesticides increasing. is sprayers power of use the although pesticides, agencies. Only a few individuals act as wholesalers buying produce from growers growers from produce buying wholesalers as act individuals few a Only agencies.

ficient production. Harvested crops are delivered to stores, hotels or government government or hotels stores, to delivered are crops Harvested production. ficient

though the equipment is usually much smaller than that used on the farms in the the in farms the on used that than smaller much usually is equipment the though assistance from extended family members. Lack of farm labor is a constraint to ef­ to a is constraint labor farm of Lack family members. extended from assistance

iain ncliain omny nlds h ue ftatr ad paes al­ sprayers, and tractors of use the includes commonly cultivation in nization

chemicals. chemicals.

safety and usage and to provide certification for purchase and use of restricted restricted of use and purchase for certification provide to and usage and safety

gate crops while in the south both municipal water and surface water from rivers rivers from water surface and water municipal both south the in while crops gate

water. In the northern part of Guam, municipal water is used exclusively to irri­ to exclusively used is water municipal Guam, of part northern the In water. plants. Exchange of seeds and other planting materials occurs among growers. growers. among occurs The materials and other planting of seeds Exchange plants.

readily available in large quantities since the decline of the poultry industry in in industry poultry the of decline the since quantities large in available readily

fertility. Organic matter such as chicken manure is also utilized, but it is not not is it but utilized, also is manure chicken as such matter Organic fertility.

continental United States. Commonly, backpack-type sprayers are used to apply apply to used are sprayers backpack-type Commonly, States. United continental

etgto. cainly lc patc uc i sd o oto wes Mecha­ weeds. control to used is mulch plastic black Occasionally fertigation.

are used. Use of drip irrigation has allowed some farmers to adopt the practice of of practice the adopt to farmers some allowed has irrigation drip of Use are used.

Guam Department of Agriculture sells seedlings of some vegetables and fruits, fruits, and vegetables some of seedlings sells Agriculture of Department Guam

Guam. Drip irrigation is the most common method of applying supplemental supplemental applying of method common most the is irrigation Drip Guam.

or breeding lines for growers to try out under local conditions. conditions. local under out try for to growers lines or breeding

seeds. The Guam Cooperative Extension at the College of Agriculture and Life Life and Agriculture of College the at Extension Cooperative Guam The seeds.

and offers a service to produce seedlings for growers if they provide their own own their provide they if growers for seedlings produce to service a offers and

especially the Philippines, Korea and and Korea Taiwan influencing the production Philippines, have the especially been

occur after WWII. In later years, immigrants from the South-East Asian countries, countries, South-East Asian the from immigrants years, later In after WWII. occur

nity and the shift of food preferences and changes in crop production started to to started production crop in changes and preferences food of shift the and nity supermarkets. Sometimes growers collect their own seeds and propagate their own own their own and seeds propagate their collect growers Sometimes supermarkets.

try to adapt their tastes to fit the local produce. Instead they imported their famil­ their imported they Instead produce. local fit the to tastes their adapt to try and other plant materials mainly from companies in the US, Taiwan and Japan. Japan. and Taiwan US, the in companies from mainly materials plant other and

Sciences, University of Guam often distributes seeds of new commercial cultivars cultivars commercial new of seeds distributes often Guam of University Sciences,

of "oriental vegetables." vegetables." "oriental of

iar vegetables and fruits. American culture has been adopted by the local commu­ local the by adopted been has culture American fruits. and iar vegetables

Small quantities of vegetable seeds are sold at garden shops, hardware stores and and stores hardware shops, garden at sold are seeds vegetable of quantities Small

and pineapple. Lee ( ( Lee not did and they Guam, pineapple. came to 1971) when that noted Americans

land. Other important crops include cucumber, beans, melons, eggplant, bananas, bananas, eggplant, melons, beans, cucumber, include crops important Other land.

A few commercial growers have regular employees, while many farmers have have farmers growers employees, while have many regular few A commercial

No commercial seed companies exist on the island. Growers purchase seed seed purchase Growers island. the on exist companies seed commercial No

Commercial fertilizers are available and commonly used to increase soil soil increase to used commonly and available are fertilizers Commercial

Current Crop Production System and Marketing Marketing and System Production Crop Current

Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century Century 20th the during Guam on al: Agriculture et Marutani 407 407

Br., Br.,

(L.) (L.)

R. R.

congenta congenta

was was origi-

l l

Another Another epidemic

trilobata trilobata

Bellow Bellow and Perring)

nearly nearly devastated wa­

W W

Wedelia Wedelia trilobata

Jpomoea Jpomoea congesta

manihotis. manihotis.

citrulli, citrulli,

pv. pv.

Gaertn., Gaertn., and

subsp. subsp.

(L.) (L.)

(Bemisia (Bemisia argentifolii

Muniappan Muniappan or 1991) accidentally introduced. In­

Micronesica Micronesica 30(2), 997 I

Agricultural Agricultural Pests

& &

Eleusine Eleusine indica

Wall unpublished unpublished Wall data).

Xanthamonas Xanthamonas camperestris

. .

L., L.,

to to overcome production constraints, new cultivation methods such as

spp.). spp.). Recently, plumeria rust and dieback have been identified, and are

Pseudomonas Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes

order order

Many Many plant species have become weeds on Guam. Some plants were brought

Over Over 200 plant pathogens of vegetable and fruit crops have been identified

More More than 200 arthropods were recognized as pests of economically impor­

In In

1991). 1991). New diseases are also endangering ornamental plants such as plumeria

Cyperus Cyperus rotundus

1975 1975 (Schreiner & Nafus 1986, Schreiner 1991). One of the most recently intro­

Santos Santos (1988) reported a bacterial blight of cassava, an epidemic triggered by re­

(Plumeria (Plumeria

has has become troublesome, as this plant climbs mango trees.

caused caused by

Hitche Hitche (E. Manalastas, personal communication). The viny habit of

weeds weeds identified at a mango plantation in Talofofo were

formation formation on weeds and weed control practices in farming lands is limited. Major

in in as ornamentals (McConnell

now now widespread (G

termelon termelon production in the main growing area of Guam during 1987-1991 (Wall

cent cent introduction of

creased creased as rapid transportation systems have developed, and with the increasing in­

(Russo (Russo et al. Wall 1985, 1987, & 1988, The 1991). number of new diseases has in­

duced duced pests was silverleaf whitefly

troduction troduction of plant materials to the island. Introduction occurs not only from im­

ing ing 1955-1969, during 21 1970-1979 and 25 during 1980-1991 (Schreiner 1991).

toes toes and many cucurbits (Marutani et unpublished al. data).

had had a wide range of host plants, and was especially damaging to eggplants, toma­

which which was found in farmlands in A 1993. survey in 1995 revealed that this pest

new new pests, while the number of pests originated from Hawaii has increased since

portation portation of new planting materials, but also from imported produce. Wall &

troductions troductions of insect pests to was Guam reported as during 15 1945-1954, dur­ 13

that that prior to 1975, Asia and other Micronesian islands were the main sources of

and and poorly a developed marketing system. Currently, a simple hydroculture system

neighboring neighboring Micronesian islands, and Southeast Asian countries. It was assumed

Although Although the origin of some pests unknown, are three major sources were Hawaii,

lack lack of information on cultivar selection, high and variable water pH, shortage of

successful. successful. High capital costs for buildings and equipment require high produce

tant tant plants on Guam in the late (Nafus 1980's The number 1990). of accidental in­ first attempted attempted first the in tomatoes to grow 1960's (Brown al. et but has been not 1991),

without without a roof structure is the only commercially operational system on island.

knowledgeable knowledgeable and experienced operators, need for a typhoon resistant structure,

value value for economic returns. Problems associated with hydroponics systems are the

hydroculture hydroculture and bag culture have been employed. Greenhouse hydroponics was 408 408

velopment and transfer of information supported by both local agribusiness and and agribusiness local both by supported information of transfer and velopment

years have greatly influenced agricultural activities on Guam. Agriculture remains remains Agriculture Guam. on activities agricultural influenced greatly have years

government. government. water resources and capitalize on appropriate technological developments. The The developments. technological appropriate on capitalize and resources water

tems, private and public sector entities must focus efforts on securing land and and land securing on efforts focus must entities sector public and private tems,

need for diversification and expansion of agricultural commodities that capitalize capitalize that commodities agricultural of expansion and diversification for need

paya Ringspot Virus-W) and Zucchini Yellow Mosaic Virus, which damage many many damage which Virus, Yellow Mosaic Zucchini and Virus-W) Ringspot paya

now is distributed throughout the island (Stone 1971 1971 (Stone ) island the throughout distributed is now

to support production and processing of agricultural products, (3) need for labor to to labor for need (3) products, agricultural of processing and production support to bittermelon, was originally introduced as a vegetable crop, became naturalized, and and naturalized, became crop, vegetable a as introduced originally was bittermelon,

for lands dedicated for agricultural production and processing, (2) need for water water for need (2) processing, and production agricultural for dedicated lands for

important issues and opportunities facing the agricultural sector include: (1) need need (1) include: sector agricultural the facing opportunities and issues important

parasitic weed, dodder dodder weed, parasitic

o te eeomn o ssanbe n evrnetly on arclua sys­ agricultural sound environmentally and sustainable of development the for

nseii akt ihsbt lcly n o xot ()ne frcniuu de­ continuous for need (7) export, for and locally niches-both market specific on

cucurbitae cucurbitae agriculture industry to develop into a major component of Guam's economy and and economy Guam's of component major a into develop to industry agriculture

land's future agriculture (Barber 1995). The survey results indicated that for the the for that indicated results survey The 1995). (Barber agriculture future land's

sources, (5) need for development of sound agricultural marketing systems, (6) (6) systems, marketing agricultural sound of development for need (5) sources,

rtv Etnin o uvy ed fr mrvmn ad eeomn o te is­ the of development and improvement for needs survey to Extension erative

uto admngmn sses ocnev adehne h sads aua re­ natural island's the enhance and conserve to systems management and duction

a small but vital component of the island's culture, community and economy. economy. and community culture, island's the of component vital but small a

upr co pouto ad giuies ()ne fripoeet fco pro­ crop of improvement for need (4) agribusiness, and production crop support

athophora athophora

L., L.,

etable farms and some landscape plants plants landscape some and farms etable

made this plant a weed. Twelve weeds were important in a herbicide experiment experiment herbicide a in important were weeds Twelve weed. a plant this made

nally planted as a ground cover around trees, however its aggressive growth has has growth aggressive its however trees, around cover ground a as planted nally

echinatus echinatus

important cucurbits. Additionally, bittermelon serves as a host for melonfly melonfly for host a as serves bittermelon Additionally, cucurbits. important rus rotundus, Portulaca oleraceus, Echinochloa colonum colonum Echinochloa oleraceus, Portulaca rotundus, rus

a host to major virus diseases of cucurbits, i cucurbits, of diseases virus major to a host

L., L.,

lished data). They were were They data). lished

odce i Briaa te eta rgo o Ga i 18 (auai unpub­ (Marutani, 1988 in Guam of region central the Barrigada, in conducted

tha tha

common names. names. common

of these plants were introduced into the island long ago, and some now have local local have now some and ago, long island the into introduced were plants these of

95 h ssanbe giutr etnin rga wsiiitd yGa Coop­ Guam by initiated was program extension agriculture sustainable the 1995,

Portulaca oleracea oleracea Portulaca

Amaranthus spinosus spinosus Amaranthus

HBK., HBK.,

Changes in economic and social structure and land tenure over the past 100 100 past the over tenure land and structure social and economic in Changes

Some weeds serve as alternative hosts of pests and diseases. As an example, example, an As diseases. and pests of hosts alternative as serve weeds Some

L., L.,

Murray, Murray,

Coquillett), which is one of the major insect pests of cucurbits. cucurbits. of pests insect major the of one is which Coquillett),

Eleuzine indica, indica, Eleuzine

Sorghum halepense halepense Sorghum

In In

Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century Century 20th the during Guam on al: Agriculture et Marutani

Euphorbia hirta hirta Euphorbia

Guam's Agriculture in the 21th Century Century 21th the in Agriculture Guam's

taro fields, weeds recognized as causing problems were were problems causing as recognized weeds fields, taro

L., /. /. L.,

(Cuscuta campestris campestris (Cuscuta

Dactyloctenium aegyptium aegyptium Dactyloctenium

L., L.,

congesta

and and

Corchorus aestuans aestuans Corchorus

Paspalum conjugatum conjugatum Paspalum

(L.) Pers., Pers., (L.)

L., L.,

, ,

Commelina benghalensis benghalensis Commelina

Momordica charantia charantia Momordica

(J. (J.

.

McConnell, personal communication). communication). personal McConnell,

e. Watermelon Mosaic Virus I (syn. Pa­ I (syn. Virus Mosaic e. Watermelon

Mimosa pudica pudica Mimosa

uce) ocsoal ifss veg­ infests occasionally Yuncker),

L., and and L.,

. .

(L.) Willd, Willd, (L.)

This wild bittermelon can be be can bittermelon wild This

Berg. (Manner 1991). A A 1991). (Manner Berg.

Physalis angulata angulata Physalis

(L.) Link, Link, (L.)

L., L.,

L., L.,

L., L.,

Boerhavia erecta erecta Boerhavia

iai micran­ Mikania

Cleome viscosa viscosa Cleome

uhri cy­ Euphorbia

Cenchrus Cenchrus

(Dacus (Dacus

L. All All L.

Cype­

409 409 In In 410 Micronesica 30(2), 1997

Current land prices limit the dedication of private lands to long term agricul­ tural production. The return oflands to the Government of Guam from the US Fed­ eral Government could provide some much needed acreage for agricultural activi­ ties. The Chamorro Land Trust Commission is tasked with managing Government of Guam lands for housing and agriculture for Chamorros. Current agricultural production lands as well as lands for future agriculture production need to be pro­ tected from the pressure of urbanization and other developments. Presently, water availability is one of the main limiting factors in agricul­ tural production. Most farms rely on municipal water for irrigation and other water needs. The current water distribution system is inadequate even for the small sized farms. Infrastructure upgrades are required in order to support agri­ culture expansion. Many farmers have adopted a drip irrigation system which has the potential to save up to 40% of the water used in comparison to a sprinkler ir­ rigation system. A drip irrigation system also added an advantage of operating at relatively low water pressures. An efficient use of currently available water would result in more production from the limited natural resources and to ensure a safe environment for the island. Education on proper water management would assist in advancing the adoption of technologies that increase the water use effi­ ciency. The shortage of agricultural labor is a serious impediment to promoting a vital agricultural industry. The word "agriculture" often implies "pulling weeds under the hot sun", "a low paying job", "hard work", "a second job" and "some­ thing to do after retirement." This misconception results in there being very few young people who are willing to engage in agricultural production. Some effective government policies to secure agricultural laborers should be considered to over­ come this problem. Improvement of the marketing system would lesson he burden of searching for buyers, resulting in farmers being able to focus their efforts upon crop produc­ tion and field management. Undoubtedly, mechanization of cultivation has to be implemented to overcome labor shortages. New cultivation methods should be in­ vestigated for their potential. Crops grown in high-input operations must have high returns to maintain profit. Selection of crops and cultivars for a specific cultivation system will be an important factor in determining their success and further devel­ opment of the system. Productivity of existing cultivated farmlands can be improved by selection of cultivars which are adapted to Guam's climate, resistant to pests, and have good post-harvest properties. Crop rotation, multiple cropping, use of green manure crops, alley cropping and hedgerow plantings are examples of management prac­ tices which help to fully utilize a limited farmland while maintaining an environ­ mentally sound ecosystem. Planting of windbreaks, and establishing proper orien­ tation and planting patterns of crops can reduce damage from storms. Soil management is another factor to be considered in improving the produc­ tivity of fields. The type of fertilizers and fertilizer application methods should be suitable for specific crops, soil classification and a type of irrigation system used. Marutani et al: Agriculture on Guam during the 20th Century 411

Compost or organic matter from animal and plant waste materials as well as proper soil amendments, e.g., liming, should be applied to increase soil productivity with­ out contaminating the surrounding environment. For proper pest management, chemical and organic pesticides (e.g., Bacillus thuringi.ensis and botanicals) should be used judiciously to maximize efficacy and minimize negative environmental impact. Various types of protective cultivation methods can be adopted to reduce the pest populations. The current quarantine system should be reevaluated and improved to minimize the entry of new pests. Personnel at the quarantine station should be well-trained and knowledgeable. A proper quarantine facility should be built for the island. One of the major obstacles to expanding the agriculture industry is the lack of an adequate marketing structure (Barber et al. 1996). Local middlepersons are re­ quired to channel product flow and communication between local producers and buyers. The establishment of grades and standards for local products would facili­ tate marketing. With the establishment of proper postharvest handling practices and development of a vibrant marketing system, production of commodities would increase for local consumers and possibly for export. A system for processing pro­ duce for export needs to be investigated since the use of dried or frozen fruits and vegetables reduces quarantine problems in shipping to neighboring countries (Bar­ ber & Cruz 1996). Diversification of agricultural commodities and expansion of crops that capi­ talize on specific market niches both locally and for export would promote the is­ land's agriculture. It is certain that the ornamentals, landscaping and turf industries on the island will expand as long as tourism is a major industry and as an increas­ ing population requires new housing developments. Demand for indoor and out­ door landscaping plants and for establishment and maintenance of the leisure in­ dustry such as golf courses will drive the development of new types of agribusiness on the island. Statistics on Guam agriculture should be readily available to the community. Information on current local production of agricultural produce and imports of commodities would provide guidance to the agricultural community. A marketing study is urgently needed to identify locally important agricultural commodities which have high economic values and crops that have high potential as export. These statistics will provide direction to the development of new crops for local consumption and for export. If appropriate marketing niches are found, then lo­ cally important herbs, spices and medicinal plants may be grown for export be­ cause of their uniqueness. Undoubtedly, education in agricultural sciences will take a major role in guid­ ing the adoption of modem technologies in crop production and promoting envi­ ronmentally sound and profitable agriculture. Local research results should pro­ vide the basic information to support agriculture education and production. Healthy agroecosystems will provide the island community not only with nutri­ tious food but also with recognition of esthetic values of plants and the mainte­ nance of indigenous culture and history. 412 Micronesica 30(2), 1997

Acknowledgments We are grateful following colleagues who have reviewed our manuscript and have provided valuable information and references; Victor Artero, Bob Barber, Joseph Mafnas, Edwin Manalastas, Robert McCarthy, James McConnell, Peter Motavalli, Donald Nafus, Lynn Raulerson, Robert Schlub, Ilse Schreiner, Greg Wiecko, and Lee Yudin. This publication is supported by Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, USDA Hatch Project No. 0155783 (GUA 00081).

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