CHAPTER NO. 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Fungal Diversity and Conservation 2 1.2 Aphyllophorales 3-4 1.3 4-7 1.3.1 The 34 districts of Maharashtra State 6 1.3.2 Sacred groves in Maharashtra 6-7 1.3.3 Flora of Deccan or Desh 7 1.4 7-10 1.4.1 Geology 8-9

1.4.2 Physiography 9

1.4.3 Classification of Deccan Trap 9-10

1.5 District 10-20 1.5.1 Physiography and Climate 10-11 1.5.2 Boundaries 11 1.5.3 Sub-divisions 11-12 1.5.4 Western Belt 12 1.5.5 Central Belt 12-13 1.5.6 Eastern Belt 13 1.5.7 Sahyadris 13-14 1.5.8 Minor Ranges 14-16 1.5.9 Geology General 16-17 1.5.10 Climate 17 1.5.11 Distribution by Talukas in 17-20 1.6 Aims and Objectives 20-21

1 CHAPTER NO. 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Fungal Diversity and conservation: Fungi are among the most important organism in the world, not only because of their vital roles in ecosystem functions but also because of their influence on humans and human-related activities. Fungi are essential to such crucial activities as decomposition, nutrient cycling, and nutrient transport and are indispensable for achieving sustainable development (Palm and Chapela 1998). Fungi are also of great economic importance, having both positive and negative effects on human activities. Because of the diversity and abundance of fungi, and the vital roles they play in both natural and altered ecosystems as well as human- related activities, we believe that fungi must be included in considerations of biodiversity conservation. However it seems, they frequently have been ignored, because of their perceived intractableness. Fungi (Kingdom Fungi) and fungus-like groups (e.g. water molds, Kingdom Straminopila; slime molds and relatives, Kingdom Protista) encompass an astounding breadth of taxa, morphologies (ranging from amoeba like protists and single-celled aquatic chytridiomycetes to large basidiomycete mushrooms), ecologies and life history strategies, yet only limited and incomplete information is available for most species, Current estimates of species number for fungi differ significantly (e.g., Hawksworth 1991), but 1.5 million species hypothesized by Hawksworth is a commonly used figure. If his estimate is correct, then less than 5% of the fungi have been described. To further complicate matters, fungi tend to form symbiotic relationships with plants and animals, necessitating consideration of the plant or animal host when treating obligate plant mutualists, such as mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes, plant pathogens, and animal-associated fungi. Although the diversity of fungi and fungus like organisms is daunting, we believe that variety, numbers, and importance mandate their inclusion in conservation dialogues and biodiversity projects. We also believe that they are tractable in a meaningful way. If the estimate is correct, then sites share enough species to make broad-scale inventory work possible yet harbours sufficient number of unique species to make valuable contributions to our understanding of fungi biodiversity and the ecological, evolutionary and genetic processes of these fungi and their associated organisms (Mueller Bills and Foster, 2004).

2 1.2 Aphyllophorales: The order proposed by Rea (after Patouillard) for basidiomycetes having macroscopic basidiocarps in which the hymenophore is flattened (Thelephoraceae), club-like (Clavariaceae), tooth like (Hydnaceae) or has the hymenium lining tubes (Polyporaceae) or sometimes on lamellae, the poroid or lamellate hymenophores being tough and not fleshy as in the Agaricales. Traditionally the order has had a core of 4 families (as indicated above) based on hymenophore shape but detailed microscopic studies of basidiocarp structure and molecular evidence have shown these groupings to be unnatural. Keys to 550 spp. in culture of Aphyllophorales as given by Stalpers (Kirk et al. 2008). It is an important group of Basidiomycota of about 1200 described species depending upon what is included in the order and there is debate on this question.

It is almost certain that the group is polyphyletic, a topic that will be mentioned throughout this chapter. Without microscopic examination, sometimes it is difficult to recognize a thin oppressed basidiocarp. On the other hand, many species produce conspicuous basidiocarps that are visible even from a distance. The common names given to Aphyllophorales badsidiocarps are based on the variously shaped, usually large basidiocarps and the tissues directly supporting the hymenia. However, many interesting species go unnoticed on the underside of dead wood. Collectively, the order Aphyllophorales can be grouped as those hymenomycetes that possess holobasidia but usually lack gills. The hymenia are borne on definite gymnocarpous- basidiocarps. (Gymnocarpous means that the hymenium is exposed while the spores are still immature) This is in contrast to angiocarpous basidiocarps produced by gasteroid forms in which the fertile layer is enclosed by the basidiocarps until after the spores have matured. In Aphyllophorales species the hymenium may be found on one side of the basidiocarp (unilateral) or all over the surface (amphigenous). The hymenophore and its overlying hymenial layer may be smooth, ridged, waited, toothed, pored or lamellate. If pores or lamellae are present, the texture of the basidiocarp may be papery, leathery, or woody, but usually not soft and putrescent (subject to decay), as in the mushrooms and boletes of the order Agaricales. The large group is taxonomically problematic and one of the challenges that faces mycologists working on these fungi is delimiting monophyletic groups and determining their

3 FIGURE -1 ^ MAP-1

INDIA Map of showing Western Ghat's

Arabian Bay of Bengal Sea

Western Ghats

Indian Ocean

Map of India Showing Western Ghats

Map of Western Ghat's Specific of India ancestor-descendent relationships. Much is left to learn about the biology of these fungi. The major importance of the species of Aphyllophorales as a whole is their saprobic activities as decomposers, particularly in the degradation of cellulose and lignin. Although most species are saprobic in soil, litter, bark, dead wood, or the non-conducting xylem (heart wood) of living trees, some species may be truly parasitic or pathogenic on shade and forest trees, non-woody crops, nonvascular plants and other fungi including lichen-forming fungi. The group also contains mycorrhizal forms associated with forest trees. Many Aphyllophorales species decay wood of trees that are already dead, but some, primarily species in the family’s Polyporaceae, Hymenochaetaceae, Stereaceae and Hericiaceae, are specialized to enter wounds in living trees and to make their way to the heartwood. These organisms help to prepare the way by a series of physical and chemical changes that overcome the natural defenses of the tree. (Alexopoulos et al. 2002).

1.3 M aharashtra: This state occupies a substantial portion of the in the Western peninsular part of the subcontinent. Its shape roughly resembles a triangle, with the 725 kms Western coastline forming the base and the interior narrowing to a blunt apex some 804.672 kms to the East. It has an area of 307,713.897 sq. kms. It is surrounded by the states of , Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and (formerly Mysore) and, on the West, the Arabian Sea.(Figure 1, Map 1) Maharashtra state was part of Bombay Presidency during the British rule, subsequently it formed part of Bombay State. The present state of Maharashtra was formed on 1st May, 1960. Its political boundary extends from to and to Sindhudurg and districts. It is about 800 kms East-West and 700 kms North-South, lying between 22° 1’ to 16°4’ N latitude and 72°6’ to 80°9’ E longitude. The area of Western Ghats of Maharashtra known as 'Sahyadris’ (Figure 1, Map 1) lies between 72°61’ to 74°40’ E and 15°60’ to 20°75’ N. The North-South run of Western Ghats is 750 kms and average breadth is 80 kms. The ghat region traverses 11 districts viz., , Raigad, , Sindhudurg, Dhule, Nasik, , Pune, , and Kolhapur. The ghats receive high rainfall (2500-4400 mms) and are densely forested. They also constitute the main watershed of the Deccan, feeding the great East

4 FIGURE-2 ^ MAP-2

Map of Maharashtra State Showing Major Regions

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Yavatmal Chandrapi

mm m mw^ Gadchiroli • •• Thine* • #S •••••••

• • • § Raig»d '■ • • •

• • •

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Desh/ Deccan

* ^ Sindhudurg Map Showing Maharashtra State - Major Regions * * * *

Map of Maharashtra State Showing Forest Cover

MADHYA PRADESH

GUJARAT Dhule AmravaU J a lg a o n W ardha

W ashim T.

A u ra n g a b a d

Jalna

A hm ednagar P a rb h a n r

N anded ANDHRA PRADESH

Latur ARABIAN SEA H i Dense forest | Open forest ShW apur ■ Scrub Non-forest Water-bodies \— -1 District boundary

K olhapur State boundary

KARNATAKA

Forest Cover of Maharashtra flowing rivers of Godavari, Krishna and their numerous tributaries, as well as smaller and shorter rivers flowing into the Arabian sea. The Western face of the ghats is cut by deep ravines and cayons. Between the foot hills and the Arabian Sea lies a narrow strip (64.37376 kms in width) of rugged land broken by numerous rapid flowing rivers and streams, creeks and isolated ranges of hills. The rainfall in this area ranges between 1900-2500 mms a year. The Maharashtra plateau is a table-land, it accounts for major portion of State’s area; it slopes gradually away from the Eastern sides of the Ghats. It is made up of an impervious base of basaltic rocks overlaid with the Deccan lavas. The flora of Maharashtra is heterogeneous in composition. The Deccan traps continue into Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat through Khandesh. There is similarity between the plants of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and South Gujarat. The rainfall and humidity progressively increase towards South and West. As a result Sahyadri regions in Karnataka have rich vegetation of moist deciduous species and some evergreen species which do not occur in Maharashtra. The Junagadh hill, Gimar Parvat and Barda-dongar have species akin to those in dry parts of Deccan of Maharashtra. The flora of Saurashtra resemble the flora in deciduous forests of Deccan and that in drier parts of Konkan like Deogad. The forest area recorded for Maharashtra State is 63,842 sq. kms. The total forest cover is 46, 143 sq. kms which is 15% of area, out of which 23622 sq. kms is dense forest, 22,397 sq. kms is open forest and 124 sq. kms is mangrove forests. (Figure 2, Map 2) The vegetation of Maharashtra can be classified into the following zones (Figure 2, Map 2) : Konkan strip adjacent to Arabian Sea, Sahyadris or North West Ghats; Desh forming a flat plain to East, with side off-shoots of ranges of Sahyadris, Khandesh at the North with low hills of Satpura and Vidarbha (Mahabale, 1987). The vegetation of these zones differs due to factors like rainfall, temperature, humidity, type of soils and topography. The pattern of vegetation in these places is influenced by the vegetation of adjoining regions also, the plants from the lndo-Ganga plains reach as far as Khandesh, the Tapi and Narmada basins, and those from Gujarat enter at the North; those from Malabar at the South reach South Konkan. The vegetation of low lying valleys of Sahyadris differs from that of higher altitudes because of climatic and edaphic factors. The flora of Maharashtra is considered to have formed part of'Dandakaranya’ of ancient times.

5 Major regions of Maharashtra belong to the 'Deccan’ as proposed by Hooker and Thomson (1855). The Deccan Peninsula of which Maharashtra is a large part is relatively a dry elevated table land and it is a part of the most ancient Indian continental land mass the Deccan peninsula.

1.3.1The 34 districts of Maharashtra State:(Mahabale, 1987)(Figure 2, Map 2)

1. Konkan -Bombay, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg and Thane.

2. Desh or Deccan- Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Nasik, Pune, Sangli, Satara and . 3. Khandesh - Dhule, and Nandurbar. 4. Marathwada- , Beed, Hingoli, Jalna, , , Osmanabad and .

5. Vidarbha- , Amravati, , Buldhana, , Gadchiroli, , Nagpur, Wardha, and . 1.3.2 Sacred groves in Maharashtra: Sacred groves may exist as a part of a larger forest or may stand-alone as patches. Groves are dedicated to the exclusive use of particular deities (Freeman 1994). All the vegetation in a grove is under the protection of the reigning deity of that grove and use of the grove by people is restricted (Hughes and Chandran 1998). The deity is often represented as an un-iconic image (Often a stone, which has not been carved in to any particular shape or figure) within the grove. Such preservation of the entire forest stand is different from protecting isolated specimens of sacred tree species such as peepal {Ficus religosa), which are worshipped without any association with a deity (Gadgil and Vartak, 1981). There are more than 400 sacred groves in various regions of Maharashtra. They are found in Western Ghats, Konkan and drier parts of the state. Pune has nearly 109 sacred groves, followed by Kolhapur with 37, Thane with 21, Satara and Sindhudurg with 16 each, Raigad and Ratnagiri with 15 each. Some examples of sacred groves are Janni near Mangaon village in Panshet water catchment area of Pune district, Khandoba near Shirdale village in of Pune district, Bapuji boovalhe in Sinhagad hill of Pune district, etc. The total area documented for the sacred groves is 3,570 hectares. The sacred groves exhibit rich floristic diversity and are more or less pockets of climax vegetation. The well

6 FIGURE - 3 ^ MAP-3

Map of Maharashtra State Showing Pune District

Nadurbar Bhandara Amravati Nagpur Dhule j a|gaon Gondiya Akola Wardha Buldhana Washim Chandrapur Aurangabad Yavatmal Jalna Thane Hingoli Gadchiroli Ahmednagar Parbhani Mumbai Beed Nanded

Raigad Latur

Osmanabad Satara Solapur Ratnagiri

Sangli Kolhapur

Sindhudurg

Satellite Map of Maharashtra State preserved vegetation in the sacred groves is quite distinct from surrounding areas which support dry deciduous or scrub type of vegetation. Most of the sacred groves contain a small number of montane subtropical evergreen, moist deciduous and some dry deciduous elements which are rare or threatened.

1.3.3 Flora of Deccan or Desh: The region to the East of Sahyadris lying between rivers Krishna, Bhima, Sina and Godavari is known as 'Desh’ or ‘Deccan’. The area of 'Desh’ is approximately 565 kms. Climate here is hot and dry and the rainfall is irregular. Soils are derived from Deccan traps and are deep black or reddish. In river valleys they are alluvial. The Sahyadri ranges run directly on the Western fringes in Kolhapur, Sangli, Satara, Pune, Nasik and Western part of Ahmednagar whereas in other districts only their lateral extensions or spurs run. Parts close to direct ranges of Sahyadris are called 'Dang, 'Maval’ or 'Pangan’ and are just like Konkan in soils being lateritic or gravelly. The highest peaks of Sahyadris such as Kalsubai (1646 m), Harischandragad (1424 m) and (1438 m) are in Deccan. Some pockets of semi-evergreen vegetation occur here in regions close to Sahyadris. When they degenerate, they produce moist deciduous forests in high rainfall regions or changes into dry deciduous forests in low rainfall areas. But when they also degenerate they form a thorn savannah or a scrub. There are open grasslands where the soil is poor. In many dry sandy or gravelly areas succulents and xerophytes occur. Near Daund, Acacia nilotica sp. indica grows in river banks and forms a thick Acacia tract.

1.4 Western Ghats: The Western Ghats, form a 1500 kms long escarpment parallel to the South-Western coast of the Indian Peninsula (Figure 1, Map 1) recognized as the second largest endemic centre in India and is among the 34 biodiversity hot spots of the world (Synge, 2005). ‘Biodiversity hotspots’ are regions where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are under exceptional loss of habitats (Myers et al., 2011). The Western Ghats are known for species-rich-habitat and support maximum biodiversity (Wilson, 1988). At least 4,050 to 4,500 flowering plants have been identified in these Ghats, of which about 1,500 (Mac Kinnon and Mac Kinnon, 1986 a, b, Nayar, 1996) or 1,600 (Nair and Daniel, 1986) or 1,720 species and 135 intra specific taxa (Shetty

7 and Kaveriappa, 1991) are endemic. Whereas Western Ghats and Sri Lanka together have 2,100 endemic species (Myers et al., 2011). In general, centers of species richness coincide with centers of endemism (Crisp et al., 2001). The hill chain of Western Ghats has been recognized as one of the world’s 18 biodiversity hot spots, i.e., region of high levels of biodiversity under threat of rapid loss. If we want to protect Western Ghats biodiversity, we need to avoid crisis and confrontation. We need totally new approach, which should encourage us to look at whole ecosystems and not at tiny plots of land. It should strike out a compromise and balance between man and nature. Maharashtra has a large number of sacred groves ('Devraies’) which represent relict type of vegetation and conserve many rare and threatened plants. Earlier these were protected due to the fear of the ruling deity but due to education, belief in the supernatural is diminishing and so these have to be managed properly by educating and creating awareness among people. Sacred groves should be conserved. Recently, the Union Government has proposed statutory protection to sacred groves by including it in the draft bio-diversity bill. With this, India will become the first country to legislate bio-diversity. 1.4.1 Geology: Geologically this area is called the Deccan Trap . It consists of high precipitous truncated plateaus ranging in height anywhere between 304.8 to 609.6 m above sea-level, with an occasional plain or undulating intervening terrain. In fact, this is a common feature of the entire Western Ghats. The land consists of marked horizontal volcanic lava beds of varying hardness, the more resistant and compact types are prismatic or columnar joints forming the plateau tops or vertical cliffs and the softer portions make the hilly inclines or intervening plains .The volcanic rocks (traps) here have great thickness and form horizontal sheets. Each individual sheet varies in thickness from 12.192 to 30.48 m, the average being 12.192 to 15.24 m, the slope is Westward. These lava beds are sometimes associated with inter trappean beds of limestone, sand-stone, clay etc. The lava flows may commonly be found of: the compact and harder varieties; the softer nodular flows with vesicular infillings of calcite, crystalline and amorphous quartz, zeolites (especially heulandite and stilbite); the porous ash or scoriaceous beds; the red bole bed representing altered ferruginous flows; Palagonite brown or green and intrusive acid and basic dykes, cutting across the various lava flows. The traps usually alter into spheroidal blocks. Lateritic soil is a common decomposition product of the trap. The hill slopes are

commonly characterized by loose trap boulders or soil covers causing surface creep or rock-fall during the wet season.

1.4 .2 Physiography: Physiographic map of the Western Peninsular India shows three distinct features from West to East, i.e. Konkan Coastal Belt (KCB), Sahyadri uplands and main plateau. These areas are basically covered by nearly horizontal disposed basaltic lava flows of Deccan traps of upper cretaceous to Eocene age. The KCB is narrow strip of land West of Sahyadri up to the Arabian Sea. While Westerly facing Western Ghats range separates KCB from Sahyadri uplands. The Konkan Coastal belt is cut by many East-West trending ridges, some of which reach up to the coast. It is transversed by numerous Westerly flowing short rivers. The Sahyadri ranges are parallel to the West coast along the Western border of Maharashtra with average elevation of 1100 to 1300 m on ASL. (Above Sea Level) Lava flows in this region are highly dissected to form steep Westerly facing scarps and gentle Easterly slope thus results these uplands as asymmetrical shape. The hills in this zone are generally table like top and attributing a step like terraces. The Maharashtra plateau is more or less vast plain of uplands and is traversed by East-West to North-West - South-East trending alternating ridges and valleys. The main hill ranges in Maharashtra are the Satmala-Ajanta range, the Harishchandra- Balaghat range and Mahadeo hills.

1.4 .3 Classification of Deccan Trap Basalt: Based on petrological, mineralogical and chemical criteria has divided the stratigraphic sequence of Deccan Traps in to 3 subgroups which consisnts of 12 formations. This sequence is well exposed in Northern part of Western Ghat area. The oldest Kalsubai subgroup forms the base in the Northern region near Kalsubai peak and Nashik, where as middle subgroup occurs South of Kalsubai region. Youngest subgroup is Wai, which exposed in the South. According to this classification the youngster traps seemed to be stepped over Eastern and Southern parts of Deccan traps. Based on geological map of Southern Deccan Traps of Deccan Volcanic Provice (DVP). The study area is covered by Ambenali and Poladpur formation of Wai subgroup.

9 Table No. 1. Classification of Deccan Trap Basalts (Beane et al 1986)

Sub-group Formation Member/Flow Wai Desur Panhala Mahabaleshwar Ambenali Poladpur Lonavala Kalsubai Bhimashankar Monkey Hill GBP Thakurvadi Giravilli GBP Neral Manchar GBP Tunnel-5 GBP Jawahar Kashele GBP Thalghat GBP

1.5 Pune District: Pune, an important district of Maharashtra is located between 17°52’ to 19°23’North and 73°20’ to 75° 10’ East and extends over an area of 15, 640 sq. kms. (Figure 3, Map 3) It has a near triangular shape with its base coinciding with the continental divide, which marks the boundary between the plateu on the East and the Konkan to the West. (Figure 4, Map 4) It extends South-South-Eastwards over a distance of approximately 212 kms. Along the Sahyadri ranges, it has a North South width of about 150 kms. Pune District is in the Western region in Maharashtra in India. It is bounded by to the North-West, to the West, to the South, to the South-East, and to the North and North-East. Pune district lies in the Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountain range and it extends on to the Deccan Plateau on the East. Pune stands on the leeward side of the Western Ghats. Pune is at an altitude of 567.842 m. (Anonymus-Geological Survey of India, 1976)

1.5.1 Physiography and Climate: The Western part of the district is rugged comprising the Sahyadri ranges where many peaks are above 1066 m above sea level. A few peaks like Sinhagad

10 Map of Pune District showing Sampling localities

•

Q Sampling Localities

Kalikamata Devrai b p o Mulshi oongarvad^ OAmbegaon Haweli

Map of Pune District showing Sampling localities

19' 23'N.73 ' 5 IT.

19 (>4'N.7.V 32'H

19' 04'N .73' 32*1 18 52'N.73 28’1 18' 52'N,73 28'1 18 53'N .73' 25'1 18 49’N.73 24 1 18 45’N.73 24'1 18 42'N.73 29'E

18 29’N.73 ' 25’F 18 29’N.73 25’F 18' 22'N.73 39'F 18' 27-N.73 ' 26’E

18 22'N.73 ' 46’H

18' 17N .73 ‘ 52’E (18°22’:73°45’), Purandar (18°18’:73058’) and Toma (18°17,:73°37’) reach heights of 1316.6 m (4320’), 1389.8 m (4560’), 1403.9 m (4606’) respectively. Arms of this Western Ghats extend in an Easterly direction. Pune district constitutes a part of Krishna valley. The rivers are fed by the monsoon rains. They have cut deep into the Western Ghats and have steep valleys. Towards East, much meandering is noticed with alluvial patches along the banks. Pune district being generally about 488 m above mean sea level (MSL) enjoys an equitable climate. Patches of forests are found in the Western Ghats while most part of the district is barren of vegetation.

Average rainfall in the district is 600 to 700 mms. This is usually during the monsoon months from July-October. Moderate temperatures are mainly observed here. The rainfall is unpredictable in tune with the Indian monsoon. Summers here begin from early March to July. Summers are dry and hot. The temperature ranges from 20°C to 38°C, though at the peak they may reach 40°C. From November to January, is the winter season. Temperatures at the peak drop to single digits but usually they hover around 9°C to 14°C sometimes lowers up to 3°C. January to March are the months with moderate temperatures.

1.5.2 Boundaries:

In the West, along the Sahyadris, Pune has a breadth of nearly 128.74 kms. From this it stretches about 209.21472 kms South-East, sloping gradually from about 609.6 to 304.8 m above the sea and narrowing in an irregular wedge-shape to about 32.18 kms in the East. It is bounded on the North by the talukas of Akola, and Pamer in Ahmednager District on the East by Pamer. ; , also in Ahmednager District and Karmala in Sholapur District; on the South by Malshiras in Sholapur District; Phaltan and Wai in North Satara District; on the West by Roha, Pen; Karjat in Raigad (Kolaba) District and Murbad in Thane District. (Figure 4, Map 4) 1.5.3 Sub-divisions: For administrative purposes, the district is divided into four prants, viz., Pune City, Haveli, Junnar and Bhimthadi. In the gradual change from the rough hilly West to the bare open East, the 209.214 kms of the Pune district form three belts. In the West are two more or less hilly belts 16.09 to 32.18 kms broad (West- East) and 112.654 to 128.74 m long (North-South). Beyond the second belt, whose

11 Eastern limit is roughly marked by a line passing through Pune North to Pabal and South to Purandar, the plain narrows to 80.46 m and then to about 32.18 m, and stretches East for about 144.84 m. These three belts may be called the Western, Central and Eastern Belts. (Figure 4, Map 4)

1.5.4 Western Belt: The Western Belt, stretching 16.09 to 32.18 m East of the Sahyadris, is locally known as Mawal or the sunset land. It is extremely rugged, a series of steps or tablelands cut on every side by deep winding valleys and divided and crossed by mountains and hills. From valleys of the numerous streams whose waters feed the Ghod, the Bhima and the Mula-Mutha, hills of various heights and forms rise terrace above terrace, with steep sides often strewn with black basalt boulders.

During the greater part of the year most of the deep ravines and rugged mountain sides which have been stripped bare for wood-ash manure have no vegetation but stunted under wood and dried grass. Where the trees have been spared they clothe the hill sides with a dense growth seldom more than 6.096 m high, mixed with almost impassable brushwood, chiefly composed of the rough russet-leaved karvi (Strobilanthes grahamianus), the bright green karvand (Carissa carandas), and the dark-leaved anjani or ironwood (Memecylon umbellatum). Here and there are patches of ancient evergreen forest whose holiness or whose remoteness has saved them from destruction.

1.5.5 Central Belt: The Central Belt stretches 16.09 to 32.18 kms East of the Western belt across a tract whose Eastern boundary is roughly marked by a line drawn from Pabal, about 19.312 kms East of Khed, South through Pune to Purandar. In this central belt as the smaller chains of hills sink into the plain, the valleys become straighter and wider and the larger spurs spread into plateaus in places broader than the valleys. With moderate certain and seasonable rainfall, rich soil and a fair supply of water both from wells and from river-beds, the valleys yield luxuriant crops. Except towards the West where in places is an extensive and valuable growth of small teak, the plateaus and hill-slopes are bare and treeless. But the lowlands, studded with mango, banian, and tamarind groves, enriched with patches of garden tillage, and relieved by small picturesque hills, makes this central belt, one of the most pleasing parts of the Deccan. Near Pune the country has been

12 enriched by the Mutha canal, along which, the Mutha valley, from Khadakvasala to about 32.18 kms East of Pune, is green with crops of vegetables and cereals.

1.5.6 Eastern Belt: East of the City of Pune the district gradually narrows from about 80.46 to 32.18 kms and stretches nearly 144.84 kms East, changing gradually from valleys and broken uplands to a bare open plains. During these 144.84 kms the land falls steadily about 243.84 m. The hills sink slowly into the plain, the tablelands become lower and more broken, often little more than rolling uplands and the broader and more level valleys are stripped off most of their beauty by the dryness of the air. The bare soilless plateaus, yellow with stunted spear-grass and black with boulders and sheets of basalt, except in the rainy months, have an air of utter barrenness. The lower lands, though somewhat less bleak, are also bare. Only in favored spots are mango, tamarind, banian and other shade trees and except on river banks the babhul is too stunted and scattered to relieve the general dreariness. Though it is very gradual the change from the West to the East is most complete. Rugged wooded hills and deep valley gives place to a flat bare plain; months of mist and rain to scanty uncertain showers; rice and nagli to millet and pulse; and thatched hamlets to walled flat-roofed villages. From Diksal, if a semi-circle is drawn with Daund (Dhond) as centre we get an area which comes within the 20"isohyet.This area records the lowest annual rainfall in the district. 1.5.7 Sahyadris: The hills of the district belong to two distinct systems. One running on the whole, North and South, forms the main range of the Sahyadris, about 117.48 kms in a straight line and about ninety following the course of the hills. The other system of hills includes the narrow broken crested ridges and the bluff flat-topped masses that stretch Eastwards and gradually sink into the plain. The crest of the Sahyadris falls in places to about 609.6 m, the level of the Western limit of the Deccan plateau. In other places it rises in rounded bluffs and clear-cut ridges 914.4 to 1219.2 m high. The leading peaks are: In the extreme North, Harishchandragad whose mighty scarps, nearly 1423.416 m high, support a plateau crowned by two low conical peaks. About 16.09 kms to the South-West, at the head of the Kukdi valley and commanding the Nane pass, the massive rock of Jivdhan, its fortifications surmounted by a rounded grass covered top, rises about 304.8 m above the Deccan plateau. About 4.828 kms South of Jivdhan, the next very

13 prominent hill is Dhak. From the East Dhak shows only as a square flat tableland, but from the West it is one of the highest and strongest points among the battlements of the Sahyadris. 16.09 kms South-West of Dhak, where the direction of the Sahyadris changes from about West to about South, is the outstanding bluff of Ahupe. This rises from the Deccan plateau in gentle slopes, but falls West into the Konkan, a sheer cliff between 914.4 to 1219.2 m high. From here several spurs branch off forming valleys in which the rivers Pushavati, Mina, Kukdi, Ghod and several of their minor tributaries have their source. (Figure 1, Map 1) 12.874 kms South of Ahupe and like it, a gentle slope to the East and a precipice to the West, stands Bhimashankar, the sacred source of the river Bhima. About 22.53 kms South comes a second Dhak, high, massive and with clear-cut picturesque outline. Though its base is in Thana it forms a noticeable feature

among the peaks of the Pune Sahyadris. 8.04 kms further South, at the end of an outlying plateau, almost cut off from the Deccan, rises the famous double-peaked fort of Rajmachi. 16.09 kms South, a steep ends Westwards in a sheer cliff known to the local people as Nag-phani (Cobra’s hood) and to Europeans as the Duke’s Nose. About 9.65 kms South of Nag-phani and mile inland from the line of the Sahyadris, rises the lofty picturesque range known as the Jambulni hills. Further South the isolated rocks of Koiri and Majgaon command the Ambavni and Amboli passes. 9.65 kms further is the prominent bluff of Saltar (1075.944 m), and 24.14 kms beyond is Tamini (960.424 m), the South-West corner of Pune.

The Tamini range goes to the East for about 40.23 kms separating the Mula and the Mutha valleys. On this spur there are several peaks above 1036.32 m. Koludat is 1093.317 m. About 6.43 kms from the Loludat peak is the Mahadeo peak (1203.655 m). About 2.414 kms to the East of Mahadeo is Guruduhi peak (1085.392 m). The Tamini spur slopes towards the Northern edge of the Khadalkvasle lake. About 6.43 kms North of Tamini is the Pondi peak (970.178 m). From Saltar 4.82 kms to the South-West is the flat-topped Sudhagad fort. 4.82 kms to the South of Pondi is another peak Dipat (1004.01 lm).

1.5.8 Minor Ranges: From the main line of the Sahyadris four belts of hills run East wards. Of these, beginning from the North, the first and third consist of parallel ridges that fall Eastwards till their line is marked only by isolated rocky hills. The second and

14 fourth belts are full of deep narrow ravines and gorges cut through confused masses of hills with terraced sides and broad flat tops. The North belt, which is about 25.74 kms broad, corresponds closely with the . There are three well-marked narrow ridges, the crests occasionally broken into fantastic peaks and the side sheer rock or steep slopes, bare of trees, partly under tillage and partly under grass. The North-most ridge stretches from Harishchandragad along the Pune boundary and on to Ahmadnagar. South of this ridge two short ranges of about 32.18 kms fall into the plain near Junnar. The chief peaks in the Northern spur are: Hatakeshvar, about 8.04 kms North of Junnar and more than 609.6 m above the Junnar plain, a lofty flat-topped hill which falls East in a series of jagged pinnacles. It forms the Eastern end of the spur that divides the Madhner and Kokadner valleys. About half-way between Hatakeshvar and the Sahyadris, on a half-detached ridge at right angles to the main spur, is Hadsar, a great fortified mass, which with rounded top rises about 365.76 m from the plain, and ends Westwards in a rocky fortified point cut off by a chasm from the body of the hill. About 6.43 kms to the South-West, guarding the right bank of the kukdi, Chavand rises about 213.76 m from plain. It is a steep slope crested with a scrap 18.288 to 30.48 m high, whose fortifications enclose a rounded grassy head. 22.53 kms further East, , part of the broken ridge which separates the Kukadi and the Mina, rises from a three-cornered bases about 243.84 m from the plains and commands the town of Junnar. Its long waving ridge is marked for miles rounded by a flying arch, which stands out against the sky between the minarets of a mosque. 25.74 kms South-East, isolated, but like Chavand and Shivner marking the line of water parting between the Kukdi and the Mina, is the ruined hill-fort of Narayangad. It is a clear-cut double-peaked outline, the Western and higher peak being crowned by a shrine. South of these, a spur, 56.32 kms long, forms the South wall of the Mina valley. South to the crest of this spur, for about 24.14 kms, the second belt of Eastern hills stretches a confused mass of uplands separated by abrupt gorges, their steep slopes covered in the West with evergreen woods and in the East with valuable teak. The slopes are broken by terraces with good soil which are cultivated in places, and their tops stretch in broad tilled plateaus which often contain the lands of entire villages. In this belt of hill land several peaks rise from the center of a large plateau, such as Nayphad (1032.967 m), South of Dhumalwadi

15 (1148.18 m). Through this upland region the Ghod having its source near Ahupe and the Bhima having its source near Bhimashankar flow through narrow valleys. At the Southern limit of this hill region, on the North of the Bhima valley, are two conical hills Shingad (1293.266 m) and Kundeshwar (1245.412 m). The fourth belt of East-stretching hills is further to the South, in the , where the Mula and its seven tributaries cut the country into a mass of hills and gorges. This is almost as confused as the second belt of hills, but has fewer trees and more tillage, the hill-sides being less terraced and the hill tops narrower. South of Mulshi, a belt of about 32.18 kms broad cuts off Pune from the main line of the Sahyadris. Though separated from the main line of the Sahyadris the South- West of the district is not without hills. Starting 609.6 m from the main in the scarped flat-topped fort of Sinhgad, a range of hills stretches East for 11.26 kms, and near the Katraj pass, divides in two, one branch keeping East, the other turning South-East. The Eastern branch, with well-marked waving outline, stretches about 24.14 kms to the fortified peak of Malhargad. From Malhargad it passes 14.48 kms to Dhavleshvar and from Dhavleshvar about 9.65 kms to the famous temple of Bholeshvar. Beyond Bholeshvar for about 80.46 kms near to Indapur the line is still marked by low hills, rolling downs and barren uplands. The second branch, after leaving the main range close to the Katraj pass, turns South-East for 19.312 kms and with several bold spurs, centers in the fortified mass of Purandar. Out of the same mountain mass rises, from the level of the lower Purandar fort, the fortified peak of Vajragad which commands the lower and main fort of Purandar. Beyond Purandar the range forms the water-parting between the Karha and the Nira rivers, and after stretching 16.09 kms further East, is prolonged in low bare hills and stony ridges to near Baramati. About 22.53 kms East of Purandar, above the village of Jejuri, at the end of the last ridge, of any noticeable height, is the small plateau of Kharepathar which is occupied by an ancient much venerated temple of Khandoba. 1.5.9 Geology General: Almost all the rocks of the Pune district are varieties of Deccan trap-basalts. They were formed by the outpouring of enormous lava flows which spreads over vast areas encompassing about 517997.622 sq. kms in Western and central India. Because of the tendency to form flat-topped plateau-like features and their dominantly basaltic composition, the lavas are called “plateau basalts.” Such flows

16 are also called “Plateau basalts.” Such flows are called “traps” because of their step-like or terraced appearance. The rock is dark grey to greenish gray in colour.

Brownish to purplish tints are also met with. The specific gravity is 2-9 on an average. Generally two types are seen. The non-vesicular types are hard, tough, compact and medium to fine grained, with conchoidal fracture. The vesicular or amygdular types are comparatively soft and break more easily. The basaltic dykes of the district are all upright and do not seem to have caused disturbance or dislocation in the strata of basalt. The dykes about 1.219 m wide run obliquely across the Indrayani valley, 56.3270 kms North-West of Pune and intersect each other. The Bor-ghat road which runs through this valley to is frequently crossed by ridges which are presumed to be outcrops of dykes. Small dykes are seen near Pune Cantonment and at the Southern slopes of the hills near Bhosri and Dighi. These dykes are to be regarded as feeders for the trap flows and are expected to be present underneath the main mass of traps. In general they show regularity in direction, thickness and size. 1.5.10 Climate: The year may be divided into three seasons, the cold season from November to February, the hot season from March to May and the wet season from June to October. In the cold season dry Easterly land winds prevail during most part of the day and cool Westerly valley winds prevail during most part of the day and cool Westerly valley winds in the night, and from February onwards, there is a sea-breeze in the evening. By about the middle of March the temperature rises somewhat rapidly and hot breeze of variable direction prevails during day time. The hot season may be said to begin in the middle of March and end by June, though the hot winds and other characteristics of the hot weather are mostly over by the middle of May. In April and May the maximum temperature at Pune and several other places in the district often rises above 100°F and temperature as high as 108-110°F have been recorded. 1.5.11 Distribution by Talukas in Pune District: (Figure 4, Map 4)

Junnar Taluka: The area of total reserved forest in this taluka is about 240.868 sq. kms. Of this an area of about 72.5196 sq. kms along the Western Ghats remain untouched, on account of transport difficulties. The vegetation in this part is of evergreen

17 nature. The central part of the taluka contains mixed deciduous forest comprising mostly teak. The whole of the Eastern portion of the taluka is almost without any vegetation. Ambegaon Taluka: The area of total reserved forest in this taluka is about 160.579 sq. kms. Of this area of about 88.0595 sq. kms is situated along the Western border of the taluka. The vegetation in this part is of evergreen nature, and on account of transport difficulties the area has remained untouched. On the Western edge of the taluka is the temple of Bhimashankar. A plot of about 725 acres below this temple has been permanently preserved together with other areas which are required as check plots in research into the regeneration of evergreen forest. These temple groves, which are practically the only representatives of virgin evergreen forest of the Western Ghats, differ markedly from the dwarf or elfin evergreen found along these Ghats. The central parts of the taluka contain mixed deciduous forests. : The area of total reserved forest in this taluka is about 214.969 sq. kms. Of this, an area of about 72.5196 sq. kms, situated along the Western Ghats, is of evergreen type, and no exploitations are carried out in this area due to transport difficulties. This track contains a good deal of Hirda trees, whose fruit forms a valuable forest, produce. There is also a valuable growth of bamboos in the Velhavil and Bhomale reserves of this area. The deciduous zone of the Mawal taluka starts from Kalhat and ends at Talegaon-Dabhade in the centre of the taluka. The deciduous forests in the Mulshi taluka are situated in Ghotavade, Paud, Rihe and Marunji.

Mawal and Mulshi Talukas: Mawal has about 222.738 sq. kms and Mulshi about 176.119 sq. kms of reserved forest. Out of these, about 168.349 sq. kms from Mawal and about 150.219 sq. kms from Mulshi are situated along the Western Ghats. The vegetation of this part is of evergreen nature. In this region there are four big lakes, viz., the Andra, Shiravta, Walwan and Mulshi lakes, which have been constructed by the Tata hydro-electric companies for production of electricity. Hirda, Shikekai and bamboos form some of the items of minor forest produce in this zone. The deciduous forests in these talukas are of a poor type. The deciduous zone of the Mawal taluka starts from Kalhat and ends at Talegaon-Dabhade in the centre of the

18 taluka. The deciduous forests in the Mulshi taluka are situated in Ghotavade, Paud,

Rihe and Marunji.

Haveli-Taluka: The area of total reserved forest in this taluka is about 155.399 sq. kms. This taluka, situated to the East of the Mulshi and Mawal talukas, does not contain any evergreen forest. The vegetation is of mixed deciduous nature comprising mostly teak, Ain and Dhavada. The Eastern part of the taluka contains very little forest vegetation, except a few patches of Babhul growth is observed along the banks of the Mula-Mutha river. Deciduous forests are mainly concentrated around Sinhgad, Bahuli and Agalambe in the North-West comer of the taluka. The forest reserves situated on the Northern slopes of Sinhgad Fort are important and valuable Dharjai, Katraj and Parvati are most important grassy meadows (grass kurans) in this taluka. :

The area of reserved forest in this taluka is about 95.8295 sq. kms. The Northern and Eastern parts of the taluka are blank and have very little vegetative cover. The Western part contains mixed deciduous forests with teak as an important species.

Daund, Indapur and Sirur Talukas: The areas of reserved forest in these talukas are: Daund 134.679 sq. kms; Indapur 126.909 sq. kms; and Sirur 64.7497 sq. kms. Most of these areas, have no importance as forests, have been classified as pasture forest and handed over to the Revenue Department for management. Small strips along the blanks of the Mula- Mutha and Bhima rivers are Babhul reserves in change of the Forest Department. Bhimthadi Taluka: The taluka contains 95.8295 sq. kms of reserved forests, but all this area is now treated as pasture forest and placed in charge of the Revenue Department. Bhor taluka and Velhe Mahal: The forest of Bhor and Velhe mahal measure 120.909 sq. kms and 116.549 sq. kms respectively. The forests stretching along the Western boundaries of these talukas are of evergreen nature, wheras those found in the central and Eastern part of the talukas are of mixed deciduous type with teak as the main species. As the Bhor taluka and Velhe Mahal were merged in the Pune Forest Division, only in

19 1948, survey and settlement have not yet been made of the forest areas of these divisons. There are important forest reserves in the area. Hirda and Udha Bamboo are the important forest produce of this area.

Table No. 2. Talukawise Distribution of Forest area in Pune District (1947-48). (Anonymus - Poona District Gazetteer, 1954)

Range. Talukas included in the Range. Total Forest Area (Acres) 1 .Dhond Dhond 98,981 Indapur Sirur Baramati 2.Ghod Ambegaon 40,136 3. Poona-East Purandar 37,965 Haveli(part) 4. Poona-West Haveli(part) 38,713 Mulshi(part) 5.Khed Khed 52,400 6.Vadgaon Mawal 65,819 Mulshi(part) 7.Bhor Bhor 79,407 Velhe 8Junnar Junnar 57,714

Poona District 4,71,135

1.6 Aims and Objectives: The basic aim of the present investigation was to study various forms of Aphyllophorales fungi from the selected localities from the North-Western Ghats of Pune Districts. It has a near triangular shape with its base coinciding with the continental divide, which marks the boundary between the plateau on the East and the Konkan to the West. From the five talukas i.e Ambegaon, Mawal, Junnar, Bhor and Khed, the three talukas, Ambegaon, Mawal and Junnar have each more than fifty thousand acres i.e 54.6 per cent of forests, Ambegaon having the highest in the district, namely 57,440 acres.

20 The whole of the forest area in the district falls under “reserved” forests category. The forests in the districts mainly shows following types: Tropical stunted semi-evergreen forest, Tropical moist deciduous forests, Tropical stunted semi-evergreen forest and scrubby woodlands, Tropical moist deciduous forests, Tropical moist deciduous forests and scrubby woodlands, Tropical dry deciduous forests .Some of the localities shows mixed type of forests in which we could get the different patches of different types of vegetation. As the forest type changes, the Aphyllophorales fungal flora also shows variation in the forms.

The work was divided into two parts-

First part deals with the collection of samples from more than 14 different localities of Northern Western Ghats of Pune district: drying and preservation of the collected samples; obtaining spore prints from the freshly collected sporocarps and studying macro and micro-morphological characters of the sporocarp for detailed investigation. The main objective of this part is to understand thoroughly the taxonomy of wood rotting mycobiota from Pune district.

The second part of the present work deals with the preparation of Indian Aphyllophorales Reference database. In this study more than 1700 reference cards were prepared from the reference books, research papers of all India Aphyllophorales and the same data has been typed in MS Excel. The same data has been imported in the database prepared in MySQL and Apache. The database shows total 1646 records in which total 1217 species were recorded.

The ultimate aim of the present study was to compare occurrence and distribution of wood rotting Aphyllophorales from the Pune district and to give easy access to researchers and the students for the Indian Aphyllophorales Fungal information. The present work has tremendous mycological significance and it will update the knowledge of wood rotting Aphyllophorales of Pune and the database will inspire the students as well as researchers to study the Aphyllophorales from India. Such type of database gives the information in very short period which will help researchers to save their energy and time for further research.

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