PART I : THE ENVIRONMENT

A. Physiography

The two major geographical regions of Maharashtra

are, the Konkaa or coastal tract and the Desh or plateau

region. They present a striking contrast to each other

in terms of physiography, vegetation and climate - the

three environmental ractors, urbicb to a greater or lesser

degree, influence cultural development.

The present study is concemea with the Konkan

(Fig.lj which stretches from the Damanganga river in the

north, to the Terekhol river in the south. This region

is some 530 km long and 30-50 km wide between 20^ and

16® N. Latitude and 72® 40* and 73® 55* B. Longitude.

The whole, is divided into several administrative

districts of which Thana, BomDay, Kolaha, Katnagiri and

bawantwadi are referred to in the present study.

Physiographically the Konkan can be diviaed into

three more or less parallel zones :

1. Eastern - The Sayhadris (or western Ghats) form

the vertebral column of Maharashtra (Fig.i), with

arterial drainage flowing both to the east and to the

west. In the sub->Sayhadrian tract, the transverse

ridges of the Ghats extend westward, producing an

appearance of general ruggedness characterised by bare

rocky expanses. These denuded, bevelled surfaces,

suriaouated by Isolated hills stand out in direct

contrast to the thick monsoon forests on the Ghats. 8

The foothills are thinly populated, economically backward and villages are concentrated along the main river courses and at the base of the Ghat passes.

2, Central > To the west of the eastern zone, the landscape, in Ratnagiri district widens into gently undulating plateaus, while in Kolaba district, the outliers of the Ghats are higher (sometimes rising to 600 m) and are more sharply outlined than in the other districts. This is the zone where the rivers enter the plain and wJiere their courses are characterised by meanders as they wind their way among the isolated hills and the transverse ridges of the Ghats.

3* Western - Mainly because they tend to interfinger, the actual line of demarcation between the central and western zones cannot be clearly defined. However, the point at which the rivers become tidal can be considered an effective boundary. There is a gradual opening out into the estuaries, which form the focus of human activity. On the coast, headlands alternate with bays giving this part of the coast its ria-like appearance (Pl. la ). These headlands might almost be said to constitute watersheds on a micro-scale.

Characteristic features of the north Konkao are the sand spits merging with mud flats near the sea,

(uid low coastal ranges alternating with longitudinal Talleys further inland. The south Konkan is rocky,

rugged country with elevated plateaus and Intersecting

creeks. The coastland gradually widens from north to

south as the Ghats recede from the coast, but nowhere

are there wide river plains, because the off-shoot

ridges of the Sayhadris have restricted the spread

of alluvium. The only large basin is that of the

Ulhas river near Bombay.

The 100 m contour stands out as a prominent

topographic feature. It more or less separates the

Konkan river basins from the hills and also separates

these hills from each other.

In the river valleys, the debris washed down

from the Sayhadris by the monsoon torrents has created

large shingle beds in the streams. Near the mouths of

the silted estuaries, sandbars developed by marine

activity, have blocked many of the rivers, so that the

partially impounded waters spread out laterally to

form swamps. In historical times this process has i rendered once-flourishing ports useless, for example Kalyan and Sopara.

The crastllne of the Ghats varies from 600 - 900

\The peaks of maximum height (e .g . Kalsubai - 1,599 n) V.not always coincident with each other, nor does the wa^rshed between the east-west drainage always follow I the' Crestline. The latter has aptly been described (Spate \ and t«armonth, 196?) as a succession of high and low plateau iO

tops (like Paachganl and Mahableshwar) which are

connected by saddles and occasional rounded, isolated

columns. The western Xlank of the Sayhadris is a

fractured edge of the Deccan Plateau marked by a

series of terraces typiced of the lava landscape.

Geomorphologists (Spate and Learmonth, 1967;

Dikshit, 19 71) are generally of the opinion that the

Konkan appears to be a plane of marine erosion, the bevelled

surfaces in the Deccan lava surmounted by isolated hills

which look very much like old off-shore islands (Spate and

Learmonth, 1967:643)* The drowned river valleys and

submerged forests (e .g . at Bombay, Mangalore and Cochin)

suggest subsidence on a macro-regional scale, probably

followed by a period of stability to account for the

development of sandbars and mangrove swamps.

The Konkan is a land of contrasts: of hills and

plains, wet and dry seasons, forests and cultivated valleys, bare rocks and laterite plateaus. 11

B. Geology

The geological formations of the Konkan can

be divided into four main groups (Fig. 2 ):

1. Pre-Cambrian metamorphics;

2. Cretaceous-Eocene volvanlcs, or the Deccan

trap;

3. Tertiary laterites and submarine fossill-

ferous sediments;

4. Quaternary soils, alluvia, laterites and

littoral formations.

1. Pre-Cambrian Metamorphics

These include the Peninsular gneisses, the

Oharwarian schists, quartzltes, etc., and the indurated

shales and quartzltes of the Cuddapah series. They are

exposed only in south Ratnagiri district.

Quartzltes and crush conglomerates occur as

narrow bands almost parallel to the coast and show a

steep easterly dip, while the banded haematite quartzltes

and mica schists further inland have a northerly dip.

These quartzltes have been used to manufacture

Palaeolithic artifacts and are white^ pinkish and

red-brown. They are also hard, compact and fine-grained.

In addition, there are quartettes vhich are coarse-grained

and friable and more akin to sandstone. Both types occur

around Malvan.

2. Cretaceous-Gocene Volcanics

The most conspicuous geological formation - the 12

Deccan Trap covers the whole of the Konkan with the exception of the southern part of Ratnaglrl district.

The lavas are sub-horizontal and petrologically uniform in coraposition.

These peninsular volcanic eruptions are believed to have begun at the end of the Cretaceous and to have ceased soioetlme during the Socene. On a limited scale, however, there has been a continuation of eruptive activity (possibly even in the late

Tertiary or early (Quaternary) indicated by a few isolated lava flows seen to occur in the post-Miocene valleys in parts of Ahmednagar and Satara districts of upland Maharashtra (S.N . ftajaguru, personal conuauni- cation).

The most common rocks are amygadaloidal, compact, porphyritic and agglomeratic basalts, and it is only around Bombay that acid traps occur. The latter show a gentle dip (l2^ - 15°) a little south of west

(Sukheswula, 1953). The compact basalts are well

Jointed and the master joints or fractures observed in the Ulhas valley for example (B.M, Karmarkar, personal communication), appear to have controlled the drainage of some of the tributary streams in this basin.

The basalts are extensively traversed by post-trappean basaltic and doleritic dykes, particularly in the north

Konkan.

Inter-trappean shales and sandstones, at times 13 fossillferous, occur only around Bombay, e .g . at

Worli (Sukheswala, 1953) and Utan (P I.l b ).

Accessory minerals like Chalcedony, agate, calcite, magnetite, etc., occur as cavity fillings or veins in the basalt. Cherts are seen to occur as local siliceous segregates in the inter-trappean rocks in north liombay, for example, at Kandivli.

These rocks have been used in the manufacture of

Middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic artifacts.

3. Tertiary Formations

a) Laterite. The laterites can be divided into two groups, (i) Tertiary and (ii) Quaternary. They occur infrequently in the north Konkan, but comprise one of the prinncipal geological formations of Ratnagiri district. Laterite occurs at various elevations throughout the region (Pig. 3 ), ranging from 600 m to about 5 m above sea level. Occasionally, (e.g. at Borlai), the laterite is rich in bauxite. Essentially these formations are non-fossiliferous.

The Ratnagiri laterites alone have been studied by the writer and are discussed in greater detail ahead

(B.1-5).

b) Suomarine fossiliferous sediments. Patches of blue and white clays have been reported (Vilkinson,

1871, 1872) lying on the weathered trap surface at

Ratnagiri. Only a few meters thick, this clay contains imbedded fruit and thin carbonaceous seams composed for 14 the most part of leaves,' These beds are overlain by laterlte. Suryanaruyana (1970) has identified fossil fruit of the genus Terminalia and Nyssa. from a deposit near Kalinudi (Ratna^iri district). The fossils are associated with a post-trappean lateritised sediment comprising carbonaceous, pyritlc and ferruginous shales, with intercalated peaty resinous material. More plant fossil beds hare been recently discovered (K.R. Dikshit, personal communication). The writer has also exaotined one of these deposits excavated from a well section at Nandivde,

JaygHd. Unfortunately, the fossil impressions were damaged during excavation and could not be identified, but a general description of the stratigraphy is given in

Figure kh.

These beds are believed to be homotaxial with the

Cuddedore sandstones of late Tertiary age.

4 . Quaternary Formations

These can be divided into five groups: a) coastal, b) alluvial, c) intermediate, d) slope deposits and e) soils.

Of these, the first two are discussed in detail in sections

I I . 6 and 8.

c) The intermediategroup comprises estuarine and lagoonal muds and clays, which form a wide belt in the north Konkan and narrow down as one moves southward. The clays, generally bluish in colour, have variously been described as marine or alluvial. The influence of the tide which extends a number of km upstream, is pronounced, 15

so that what In other areas remains as purely alluvial soil, here becomes a mixture of aliuTium and marine clay,

d) Slope deposits are noticibly rare in this region. They are generally confined to the foothill tract of the Western Ghats where they are observed forming narrow belts of slope colluvium, composed of red, reddish-brown and yellowish-brown sandy silts with angular to subangular sands and gravels. The latter comprise locally derived rocks.

e) Soils - these include red soils (latosols and oxisols), black soils and saline soils (Fig. 5)«

The red (and greyish) soils are either the end- product of the decomposition of trap (murrum) or are lateritic soils. The foi*mer are observed in the north

Konkan, mainly Thana and Kolaba districts, where the

Deccan lavas on weathering have initially given rise to this friable murrum. These soils are moderately weathered, but intense leaching combined with high rainfall has caused the soil to become distinctly acidic, with a low content of primary minerals and a clay fraction dominated by kaolinite and sesquioxides. Fertility is poor.

The lateritic soils predominate in the south Konkan.

They are shallow, gravelly and sandy, have a low clay content] which combined with high porosity make them relatively infertile.

The black soils are very fertile, have a high water 16

retention capacity and clay content. In the Konkan, however, they are restricted to the relatively flat terrain in the valleys.

According to western standards (B.S.Z.N., 1973)*

Indian soils, with the exception of lateritlc soils, would all oe classified as saline because they contain > 0.2% soluble salts. These soils are found throughout the Konkan, with a higher or lower saline content depending on their position relative to the sea. Of variable depth and generally poor fertility, they do, nevertheless, with careful bunding yield good paddy crops during the monsoon months. 17

C. Climate and Vegetation

1. Climate

The monsoon is the most important climatic factor. It not only influences the nature of landscape development and vegetation, but its disquieting variability also controls the economic and social patterns of the population.

Maharashtra as a whole is characterised by a typical monsoonal climate, but as seen in Figure 6, the average rainfall throughout the State is highly variable.

There are three hyetal zones: wet, intermediate and semi-arid. The Konkan belongs to the first of these, where the average annual rainfall is approximately 250cm and variability is <. 15%,

Precipitation increases from north to south and also from east to wpst, with the Ghats receiving the maximum rainfall. Although some data has been collected on the Arabian Sea monsoon system (Miller and Keshavamurthy,

1968), indicating an association between variations along the Konkan coast and variations in vorticity gradients and movement of tlie midtroposhperic cyclic centre, the long-term fluctuations are as yet not fully unilcrstood.

Rainfall records are generally available for the last eighty years for some of the aistricts of the

Konkan. Annual averages are: Thana - 245 cm; Bombay - 180 cm; 18

Uran - 200 cmj Alibag - 200 cm; Ratnagiri - 250 cm and

Malvan - 215 cm. July is the wettest month and receives

one-third of the annual total. Though the variation from

year to year Is not great, there are years when ralniall

is greater or lesser than the normal percentage values.

In aatnagiri district, for example, between 1901 - 1950,

there v/ere six years when recorded rainfall was less than

80% of the normal average. The heaviest rainfall recorded was of the normal in 1931 and the lowest was only 58%

of the normal in 1941.

The year can be divided into four seasons: the summer, from March to Hay; the monsoon, from June to

September; the post-monsoon period, from October to November and the winter, from December to February.

There is no marked variation In diurnal or seasonal temperatures in this coastal region. Generally temperatures rise from March, and May is the hottest month.

Though the temperatures drop by about 3 * during the monsoon, they rise again in the post-monsoon period and

October can often be as hot as May. Night temperatures are lowest in January. The maximum summer temperatures rarely rise above 38^ C, but can go up to kO^ C in the inland areas. The minimum is generally around 26^ C. Areas within

20 - 25 km of the coast are pleasantest, while further inlMl especially In the foothill regions of the Ghats and without the mitigating cool sea breezes, the climate can become very 19

oppressive. Humidity is rarely less than 50% and during the monsoon rises above 80%.

Winds are strong for most of the year.

During the monsoon they are mainly westerly or south­ westerly. For the rest of the year their direction varies from north and east in the mornings to west and northwest in the afternoons and evenings. Winds can reach gale force during the pre-monsoon period near the coast. Thunderstorms occur in April and May and again in late September to mid-

November. These are associated with cyclonic storms which develop in the Arabian Sea and move in close proximity to the coast.

Recently, and based on Thornthwaite and Mather's

(i955) scheme, Rao and others (1972) have worked out an agro-climatic classification for India. Their classification of the climate of the Konkan is given in Table 1.

2. Vegetation

The type and growth of vegetation are mainly influenced by rainfall and soil. With respect to rainfall, it is the distribution pattern which is crucial. In the

Konkcm, the rainfall is abundant, but the heavy downpours, extensive erosion eind rapid transition to and prolonged dry conditions, are definitely adverse to the development of a good soil cover. In addition, geology and relief have also exerted a restricting influence. 20

Four distinct regetation belts exist. In the east, the upper slopes of the Sayhadris, as also the tops of outliers like Matheran, are covered with tropical evergreen forests. Anong the more important species are

Mangifera indica (Aan1>)^, Eugenia .lambolana (Jambul),

Bridelia retusa (Asana), Terminalia belerica (Beheda),

Largestroenia lanceolata (Nana) and Ficus glomerata (Umbar).

The lower slopes and hills are populated by moist deciduous species, for example, Tectona grand!s (Sag), Terminalia tomentosa (Ain), Anogeissus latlfolia (Bhavda) and Dalbergia latifolia (Sissum). In the south Konkan, the laterite plateaus support certain of the moist deciduous species

(e.g. Tectona grandis). as well as some of the evergreen species (e.g. Mangifera indica). In addition there is the scrub and bamboo vegetation and grasses. The extreme coastal belt along the sandy beaches is planted with cocoanut palms

(Cocos nucifera) and Casurina eguistifolia. The tidal marsheSi lagoons and banks of estuaries are inhabited by mangroves

(See Appendix i ) .

At present about sixty-two percent of the land has been taken over for cultivation and much of the original forest cover destroyed by human interference with the natural vegetation. "In i?56, when Fort Victoria was captured by the British, most of the tributary ravines and water courses

The terms in brackets are the local names for these trees and are referred to in the Gazetteers of India. Maharashtra State Gazetteers, Kolaba iHstrict (2nd Edition), 1964; Ratnagiri District (2nd Edition), 1962. 21

Of the lower reaches of the Baukot creek, were clothed with fine teak" (Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency,

Vol.X, Ratnagiri and Savantvadi, 1880:31-32). Today this area could more approptifttely be aescribed as

"deshabille*, having been almost completely denuded by large-scale deforestation. 22

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D. Flurial Morphology

Alluvial deposits are of considerable significance

in the study of Indian prehistory as Pleistocene

formations in the Peninsula are largely confined to

river valleys. In addition, the prevailing bias in

Indian prehistoric studies has been towards the collection

of artifacts from stratified river gravels. Stone Age

tools have, therefore, been sequentially dated by

changes observed in the geomorphic history of river

valleys and/or by aninal and plant fossils recovered

from the alluvium.

The geomorphic history and relative chronology

of fluvial deposits is generally based on inferences

drawn from presently observed morphology which includes

both erosional and depositional features. In the Konkan,

examples of the former include rock-cut and fill-cut

terraces, waterfalls, nick-points, elevated thin gravel

cappings and potholes, while the latter comprise

relatively thinner gravel veneers, silt deposits and

a variety of nearshore and estuarine formations.

Attempts have been made to explain climatic change

on the basis of evidence for aggradation and erosion.

Zeuner (1950) interpreted the gravel deposits in the

river vcdleys of Gujarat as reflecting increased aridity

during the Pleistocene. Sankalia (1962) on the other

hand, equated erosion and aggradation with the dry and

wet phases of late Pleistocene climates. Present data,

however, do not justify a simplistic correlation of gravels with wet and silts with dry phases of climate.

A more recent und systematic study (Rajaguru, 1970) of alluvial deposits in western Maharashtra, suggests that there probably was a degree of climatic variation in the Peninsula during the Pleistocene, from wetter to slightly drier conditions. In the Konkan, studies on fluvial morphology in the context of archaeology, were restricted to the observations made by Todd (1939) and

Malik (1959) on the sections of the Kandivli nullahs and the Dahisar river. As such it was essential for the writer to survey some of the more important rivers of this region. Any palaeoenvlronioental reconstruction based on a study of the fluvial deposits of Bombay and Salsette alone, cannot be considered representative of the fluvial history of the Konkan, and would have to be corroborated by observations on the mainland rivers.

1. Characteristic Features of the Konkan Rivers

These rivers have their source either in the

Sayhadris - the trunk streams - or in the transverse ridges of the Sayhadris - the tributary streams. They have relatively short courses and narrow channels. The Vaitarna, which is the longest river covers a distance of 155 taOf while all the streams in Ratnagiri district for example, are less than 70 km long. The length eind width of these rivers are necessarily limited by the physiography of the coastal zone.

No single drainage pattern can be considered specific to this region and the following are examples 25 of some of the types that have been obserred :

a) A number of inlnor streans which originate in the transverse ridges of the Ghats, and which have courses varying between 25 - 40 ka, generally have a dendritic pattern.

b) The tributary waters of the Panvel Creek form a radial pattern of streams, which have their source in the surrounding hill ridges.

c) Trellis or rectangular patterns are common in Ratn€igiri district, where the rivers often make almost right-angled bends to pass between hill ridges.

d) The three main rivers approaching Bombay,

(the Vaitama from the north, the Ulhas from the east and the

Amba from the south) while they do not exactly converge here, present a remarkably centripetal drainage system.

e) It is likely that part of the drainage of the

Konkan is superimposed. At many places, for example in south Ratnagiri district, one does not find any correlation between the present river course and the lithostructures of the bedrock over which they flow.

The gradient in the upper reaches of the Konkan rivers (i.e. from the Ghats to the central lowlands) is steep, so that within 50 km and often less of their source, they drop from a height of 650 m to about 20 m above sea level. This is clearly demonstrated in the longitudinal profiles of some of these rivers (Figs.7,8,9). Tlie marked difference in gradiant between the upper and lower reaches 26

of these rivers results in strong vertical erosion in

the Sayhadrian and suh-Sayhadrian tracts, with equally

heavy deposition in the estuaries..

These monsoon-fed streams are intensely

seasonal. Their entrendied courses (most pronounced in

Ratnagiri district) drastically limit their value for

irrigation. Furthermore their flood regime is unsuited

to good soil development and therefore to agriculture.

Allaviation is confined to the middle and lower reaches

and soil developnmnt is best along meander sweeps.

The larger rivers are navigable from i5 ~ 35 loa

upstream from the coast. Biver courses are generally

divided into two well-marked sections, ahove and below

the limit of the tide. The upper courses are steep, rugged,

entrenched euid gravel deposits are a common feature. Below

the tidal limit, streams widen and wind between banks,

sometimes so low as to necessitate artificial raising of

the banks to keep out overflow during the high tide. The

tidal impact is so pronounced that many of these rivers have two names2 one for the upper course as freshwater

streams and the other for their lower reaches as saltwater

creeks (e .g . the Karli river, which is called the Sarambhal upstream; and the Banda, known as the Terekhol river

downstream),

During the monsoon months the rivers become

swollen torrents almost impossible to ford. After October-

November, however, the flow is drastically reduced and 27 water forms chains of pools separated by gravel beuiks,

rock ridges £ind In s o b i s cases dykes.

2. Brosional Features

In general these are most pronounced In the source

region of the river valleys and can probably be ascribed

to the fact that the entire drainage system of the Konkan

is relatively recent and to the nature of coastal topography.

a) The Vasishti river flows through a wide basLn

at Chiplun, its valley bordered by steep slopes, with

truncated plateaus at elevations of 150 to >00t. m. Similar rejuvenated veaiey-in-valley profiles are observed in the

source region of the Savitri near Mahableshwar and the

Raygad-Pachad cure a.

b) The longitudinal profiles of these rivers

(Figs. 7 ** 9) inflicate steep, vertical erosion in the narrow zone from the source to the point where the river enters the plain. These profiles were drawn from topographic

sheets with a scale of 1 inch to i mile. Nick points are not discernible on the profiles drawn to this scale, but field observations show that most of these rivers have a number

of barriers and rapids in their middle reaches. Whether

these are the product of lithological or structural control,

or whether they are due to base level changes, is difficult

to ascertsdLn at this stage.

c) A more obvious erosional feature is the

occurrence of waterfalls. These have not resulted from the

differential erosion of hard rocks capping soft rocks. 28

In all probability, therefore, they appear to be of tectonic origin, consequent on the faulting and formation of the scarp of the Western Ghats. Similar types of tectonically produced falls have been reported from Karnataka, for example the tiersoppa Falls

(Radhakrishna, 1965).

d) The deep, narrow gorges through which a number of the large rivers initially flow, are the result of the headward migration of these waterfalls.

e) River capture, for which ideal conditions exist in the continental divide formed b y the Ghats, i s noticeably rare. The two m a i n examples occur at the headwaters of the Vaiturna (Arunachallam, 1964) and the

Ulhas (Rajaguru, 1970).

► t) Cross sections of the Konkan rivers reveal the following general picture: a narrow channel, a low and also relatively narrow flood plain, bounded irregularly by isolated hills or the transverse ridges of the iiayhadris

(PI.2a, 2b).

Terraces provide examples of vertical fluctuations in the river level. In addition, is the meagre evidence from bore>hole data, which reveal buried channels at a depth of

13 - 15 m below the present bed level. The modern flood plain is on an average 1.5 to 2 .0 km wide. The depth of the alluvial cover is shallow and no buried channels have so far been located more than 2 km away from the present river channel, thereby indirectly indicating the extent of lateral movement of the river. 29

g) Only a single exeuaple of stream eroded potholes was observed. These potholes are associated with a fluvial gravel outcrop and lie on the elevated rock-cut surface of an earlier channel of the Surya river (Pl. 3a, 3b).

h) Rejuvenation is a common feature of most of the rivers in this region. It is most prominent in the middle reaches of streams, and the almost total absence of overbank flooding, even during the height of the monsoon, reinforces this observation,

3* Depositional Features

The most significant depositional feature is the alluvium^, which occurs in the form of cut-and-fill terraces. Fluvial deposits are, for the most part, confined to the middle and lower reaches of the rivers, comprising floodplain, estuarine and nearshore formations.

The alluvial deposits of the Indian Peninsula have been divided into two groups (Krishnan, 1953:529); the Older and the Younger alluvium. They are not always easily distinguishable in the field, but generally they are differentiated as follows. The Older alluvium is dark, yellowish-or-reddish-brown, often rich in CaCOv concretions called kankar. It also contains fossils of extinct species, including Bos namadicus and Blephas antiquus. Generally regarded as belonging to the I^lelsiocene. Four radiocarbon assays on plant and shell fossils from the Older Alluvium have produced dates ranging from 19,000 to 39,000 B.P. The Younger alluvium is lighter brown, less kankary and in many cases it is observed to merge \ gradually with more recent deposits. It is usually assigned to the late Pleistocene or Holocene. This description is, however, mainly applicable to the alluvial deposits of the Deccan plateau. 39

a) Alluvial terraces are observed at two elevations. A higher and earlier one, composed mainly of reddish-brown silt, occurs 6 - 7 m above the present

Ded level. The lower, younger terrace is 3.0 - 3*5 m high, and is composed of reddish or yellowish-brown silt. Where the higher terrace is missing, the lower formation sometimes occurs as a paired terrace, otherwise it is observed as an inset-type terrace cut into or deposited against the eroded surface of the earlier formation.

b) The alluvial cover throughout this region is comparatively thin, and the maximum height of the terraces rarely exceeds 8 m.

c) Gravel deposits are commonly associated with the earlier terrace formation. They occur either as basal cemented conglomerates or as moderately cemented lenticular bodies at varying heights in the alluvium. In the Konfcan, gravels occur primarily as channel bar or point bar deposits or ridges, typical of the general braided character of these streams. Apart from a handful of artifacts collected from stratified contexts in the alluvium, no other fossils have yet been found in these deposits, and unlike the rivers of upland Maharashtra, the basal gravels are singularly devoid of tools.

d) The finer of the alluvial deposits is represented by a sandy silt or silty sand. Though unconmion, localised patches of current-bedded pebbly gravels do occur in them.

These silty sands (e .g . on the Ulhas at Karjat; Fig.iOb, 10c) do not exJiibit any distinct lamination. Kankar nodules and 31 caliche deposits, so widespread in sections on the east-flowing rivers of Maharashtra, are absent in this region. (An exception is the section described ahead, 4a), iii), on the Surya river).

e) The terraces do not continue upto the coast• Almost invariably they reach a point approximating to the limit of the tide, where the alluvium is replaced by tidal clayey silts.

f) As regards the character of modern bed load and over-bank deposits in comparison with older formations, they are more or less identical.

g) It has been found that it is not always possible to make a distinction between the older and younger alluvium in the Konkan, as has been done for many of the plateau rivers of the Peninsula. Where gravels are present they are, to a greater or lesser degree, consolidated and certainly belong to an earlier phase of deposition. The terrace system of which they form a part, is always higher than the subsequent surface formed by the later fill.

Differentiation between older and younger alluvium is possible only where both formations occur in a morphological context, otherwise separation is extremely difficult. In fact the occurrence of two or even three phases of erosion and deposition in the Konkan only indicates that these rivers experienced changes in sediment discharge, at least twice in the recent past. 32 k, Ubservations on the River Sections Studied

The following pages contain descriptions of a number of sections from eight rivers examined during the course of fieldwork. They are, the Vaitarna, and three of its tributaries the Pinjal, Deherji and Surya, the

Ulhas, Uahisar, Savitri, Kodzai, Gad, Kasai and Manor!.

This survey was carried out with a view to discover stratified archaeological evidence, as well as to arrive at a more comprehensive picture of the fluvial histozy of the region. The rivers are not dealt with in any order of priority, but described in succession from north to south.

a) Vaitarna River

The headwaters of the Vaitarna consist of two streams, the Vaitarna and the Alvand, which rise on the southern slopes of the Trimbak hills north of Igatpuri.

Near the source, along the crest of the Ghats the gradient is gentle, about 6 m per km, and for 12 km the river Hows first south and then west, against the general eastward grain of the country. ViThere the stream leaves the plateau, in a deep, precipitous gorge, the gradient is suddenly steepened averaging more than 150 m per km.

The central portion of the Vaitarna, between

Uadhre and Manor, is extremely rocky and irregular. A prominent feature is the occurrence of numerous dykes which run both parallel and transverse to the stream (Pl. 4 a ).

On an average these dykes are about 3 - '5 m wide and

2 - 3 m high. 33

Gravel beds are also fairly common along this stretch of the river, but nowhere do they occur on both bcmks at the same place. At Vada, for example, the gravels are dlscontinaoas, even along the same side of the river, and are intercalated by fine sand and silts.

The nature of sedimentation is basically alluvial. Colluvieil deposits were observed mainly in the cuttings on the bank of the main stream where it is joined by nullahs. On the left bank of the Vaitarna, at Borande, the section (F ig .lie ) comprises a bouldery gravel^ resting unconformably on compact, anygdaloidal basalt. The gravel varies in thickness from 1.6 > 2 .0 m. It comprises sub-rounded boulders in a matrix of fine ferruginous sand.

It is cemented, well-sorted and graded. Overlying the gravel is a silty sand 0.9 m thick, in whidi Middle

Palaeolithic flakes were found. The subsequent deposit is a pebbly-sandy gravel, i .2 m thick, overlain by 0 .6 m of non-kankary, reddish-brown (5 pebbly-sandy silt, and capped by modern surface soil. A dyke cuts across the river immediately downstream of this section. Still further downstream, the basal gravel is disconformably replaced by

^ Sediment character descriptions follow the terminology of Butzer, 1972, chapter 10. 2 Soil colour descriptions are based on the Munsell Soil Colour Charts. Specific numbers are indicated in i)rackets only once, or again if the colour shows variation despite the same descriptive term. aapinoq iCoii:}. jcenaoj aq^ u‘f ^nq *popanoj>qns aj;«

8i 0A «a 9 9qi|. m^oq n j (m s*f) aaddn nw ptre

(■ g*x) aaMOT » o%xxj papfATp aq ireo qoTqA ‘ laABJcS pa^namao

*pap«a9 V JO Si^sTsnoo ^fsodap res«q aqj;

* (pBOj nTBm aq!^ no aSp^Jq aqq. moaj oreaji^sdn

nni 9*T ‘ sfTOq ^qST-i) T^fnTd (T

*panimza osp? aaaM «nj«!^Ti3A

aq!^ JO saTJB^nqjj^ aqi^ jo aaaqqi no snoT^oas

*nnTAnTI« jo p«aads

-p3ja!).«i aq!^ pa^OT^ii^saj; aAwq (q g 'T J ) saSpTJ n j q pan^TiB s-N

Xn«m aq^ aoireN pire «p«A pnnoxe saxs aq)^ ni

*83[ireq q^oq no paAJasqo

aq treo ao«jja^ n ^ - 9 aqi^ *qo^aj:^s jajjq b joj pire ai^na?

ST ^naTpvjS aqt^ *ii8aj!^8nMop aaq^^anj joireH saqoeoJtddB jaAjJ

aq^. sy •!^H3-XTTJ saoBjjns jaq;^o aq^^ oxjvin 'a o e ja n s

^no-3iooj » 8T 3iuoq %vi9ji aqi^ no njoji^vid m zT » m ’ ^TTs

Xpires ( ^ / S HLK L) qsTnAOjq jo pasodmoo s t 3[ireq ^q9T

uo 90'BXJL9% m ^ - 9 aqx 't a A a i paq aAoqe n £ Xxno j:a^i|.Bi

aq;^ *pa3{iTeqiBa st ^TTs n/noaq-qsTPpaji ‘ aaSmioX *pnooas

« qo^qA ^.sutbSq *^TTS Xpires nMOjq-qsTppaj « sasTJdnioo

3 [U «q ^.jai aq^ no aocjja:^ m ZT *n0i;9.0as-880J 0 x^oTdX;^

B a^BJt^BHTTT

aJB BnJB^fBA aq^ no paAJtasqo sao-ejja;^ aqx

*noi;!^daj:TP nreaa!|.sni>iop aqr^ n^ ^OT !|.noqB

JO dfp iBnoT4.T6odap v aABq snoT^Bmjoj asaq;). *i«jana9 ni

(® £ •* 3 ) 88an3lOl:q:^ aiqBjap^snoo 8nTB^^^^B lOAvaS Xtqqad-Xpnes

aq!|. 'asaq^. jo •(qiT'^Td) snoT!|.Bnaoj janjj ^nT^xjaAO aq;^

H 35

and moderately sorted, while in tbe latter they are

pebbly, well-sorted and contained in a yellowish-brown

(10 YR 5 A ) silty matrix. The contact between the two

gravels is uneven and at places they merge imperceptibly.

Capping the gravel is a 3 ** 5 m thick reddish-brown silt.

Inconspicuous cross-bedding was observed to occur

sporadically in the lower portion of the silt (P1.4b).

On the opposite bank is a prominent bouldery gravel bar,

similar in texture and composition to the lower gravel

described above,

i i ) Deherji river (right bank, upstream

from the bridge on the main road).

A gravel bed was observed about 20 m

upstream from the bridge. It is only 0 .7 m thick,

comprising sub-rounded, un-consolidated, cobble-grade

gravel. The overlying formation is a reddish-brown to

brownish silt 5 - 6 m thick where it caps the gravel and where the latter terminates, directly overlies bedrock,

attaining a maximum thickness of about 7 ** 7*5 m*

dykes were observed at this point, one running parallel to

the river, the other across it . No basal gravel conglomerates were subsequently noticed, but 3 km further upstream, a

sub-angular, pebbly gravel lens (0.26 - 0.45 m) occurs,

3 m above bed level. It extends horizontally for a distance

of 2 m, is then pinched out, reappearing briefly further

ahead. The height of the terrace on this river is 6 - 7 36

ill) Surya river (left bank, 1 km upstream

from the bridge).

The 6 - 7 m terrace is well developed along this stretch of the river. The lateral spread of the {dluvium on both banks, however, does not exceed i 50 •> 300 m, beyond which lie the trap hill ridges.

The section (Fig.i2b) comprises two allavial deposits, a gravel and an overlying silt. The basal unit is a sub>rounded, pebble grade gravel 3 .0 - 3 .5 m thick* It is sorted, graded, poorly consolidated and sporadically interdigited with brownish silt lenses. One km further upstream, the gravel is absent, and a yellowish silt, rich in kankar nodules, overlies the ai^gdaloidal basalt bedrock. The section then passes into an unsorted, sub-angular, colluvial gravel, the dominant rock component being locally derived basalt. Still further upstream the section is composed of a sandy gravel, unconsolidated and laminated in the upper levels and non-lajninated and consolidated at the base. The number and size of the kankar nodules increases in this section, and post-depositional calcification has given this deposit the appearance of a coarse sandstone.

One of the more interesting morphological features on this river, is the occurrence of potholes (Pl.3a) in the rocky surface of the iO-12 m terrace on the left bank.

The potholes are approximately 0.30 m in diameter, shallow and oriented in a NW-SE direction, which is roughly parallel 37 to the present river course. An isolated outcrop of poorly sorted, mainly sub-rounded, pebble grade grayel was observed near the potholes (P1.3b)*

b) Ulhas Riyer

The headwaters of the Ulhas drain cm area approximately 10 sq.km around Lonavala, on the eastern margin of the continental divide. In actual fact, between the Ulhas and the east-flowing Indrayani river, this divide is insignificant, and a number of the minor tributary streams in this area have typical **boat-hook” bends, suggestive of river capture (Rajaguru, i970).

The gradient of the Indrayani, over the first 15 lui of its course is i .8 m per km, while that of the Ulhas for the same distance is 53.3 » per km. At Khandala, the

Ulhas leaves the plateau and descends 75 m down the

Ghats scarp as a waterfall and then flows northward through a deep (240 - 300 m) gorge for a distance of 8 km.

It enters the plain at Karjat. From this point onwards, the alluvial sections comprise low silty cliffs, 3 - 5 m high. Beyond Badlapur, the river is flanked by extensive tidal-alluvial flats. At Thana the Ulhas has reached the sea and the whole estuarine area consists only of mud flats covered with mangrove shrubs.

Figure iO illustrates sections on the Ulhas observed necur Karjat. One section was studied on the right bank (F ig .iO a), upstream from the railway station. Here, 38

1,2 m of bedrock basalt are exposed at the base. The

overlying deposit is 3.3 m thick and is graded, passing

from a pebbly gravel through a sandy-pebbly gravel to

a current-bedded sandy gravel. The whole is capped by

about 2 m of reddish-brown silty soil. Two sections on

the left bank were also studied. Near Shirse (Fig.iOb),

the basalt is overlain by a cemented pebbly gravel and

a cross-bedded reddish sandy silt, the whole being approximately 1.5 m thick. This is overlain by a sandy gravel, showing traces of cross-bedding and with an intervening silt lens, with a total thickness just under

2 m, and is capped by a reddish silty soil. Also on the left bank (Pig.iOc) but 3 km downstream from Karjat, a dyke traverses the river bed. A pebbly-sandy gravel 2 .2 m thick unconformably overlies the basalt bedrock. Between this lower gravel euid the succeeding 1.5 m of pebbly gravel, is a partly cross-bedded silty lens, about 0.75 m thick. Overlying this is 2 m of reddish-brown silt.

c) Dahisar River

This is the only river of any size that flows through Bombay, the other streams being the ephemeral nullahs that course down from the Padan Hills during the monsoon (Fig.13). Sections on this river have been described by Malik (1959) and sections on the nullahs at

Kandivli have been described both by Todd (1939) and

Malik (1959). Not only these archaeological papers, but also the early geological papers on Bombay (Carter, 1852;

Buist, 1851) mention the occurence of a blue cls^r. This 39

has variously been, descrilied as a bluish mottled clay which overlies bedrock and underlies the basal cemented

gravel (Todd, 1939; Malik, 1959) or as a blue alluvial/

tidal clay (Carter, 185'2; B u ist,i85i).

The writer has carefully examined sections

both at Kandivli as well as on the Oahisar river, and it

is clear that there is no blue clay deposit overlying the

gravel,

The stratigraphy seen at Kandivli reveals an

irregular distribution of deposits which reflects the

general unevenness of the surface topography. The basaltic

bedrock occurs not only 2 m below the present surface, but

also as ridges and outcrops. Overlying the bedrock is a

gravel deposit. This has been traced as a vast sheet deposition extending from Kandivli, and possibly further

south, towards the northern limits of Salsette and the point where the Dahisar river merges with the tidal flats of the Manori creek (Fig.1 3 ).

As seen in the sections at Kandivli this sheet gravel (P1.5a) comprises sub-angular to sub-rounded, boulder

to pebble grade material, contained in a matrix of reddish- brown silty sand or sandy silt. Pebble lithology is dominatl by acid trap rocks, with a smaller proportion of material

comprising laterite, basalt, chert and cryptocrystalline

silica. In one section, two pockets of mottled yellow clay were observed above the bedrock and below the gravel.

Essentially the product of local deposition, this phenomenon 40

can be observed even today where stagnant water has collected in hollows and depressions causing chemical alteration of the bedrock. The thickness of the gravel A at Kandivli varies from 0 ,5 ~ 2 .0 m.

At Borivli, the main road through the

National Park runs along the surface of the gravel f i l l .

To the BSE of, and directly behind the Gcuidhi Memorial bill, the higher surface lies 8.25 ra above bed level and comprises sub-rounded, boulder to pebble grade gravel in a reddish-brown sandy silt matrix. The lower terrace is

2 .7 m above bed level. At the base of the section is

1 - 2 m of unsorted, slightly graded, consolidated, sub­ rounded bouldery gravel, predominantly comprising trap rocks. Overlying this is a brownish, non-kankary,silty sand, 0.5 ** i.O m thick, with occasional lenses of pebbly gravel. This second terrace is not a sub-recent, inset fill terrace, but represents a second phase of erosion, and possibly a lowering of base level. The latter phenomenon may, however, be of sub-Recent age.

About 0.4 km downstream and to the NB of the

Gandhi Memorial hill, the total thickness of the section is 3*0 - 3*5 B> comprising a gravel capped by a s ilt. Here the gravel is 1.6 - 2 .0 m and rests embanked against the weathered slopes of the h ill. It is composed predominantly of sub-rounded, pebble and boulder grade debris from the weathered trap hill {uid is poorly cemented. The overlying reddish-brown silt is i.O m thick. Both at this point along

^3 j2. the river and a little upstream and downstream, sections occur on the left bank only, where hoth alluvial and oolluvial material have been deposited against the hill slope. The right is almost non-existent, comprising only a vast spread of irregularly dissected gravel.

Further downstream at Dahisar village, two sections were observed on the river and one in a well cutting about 500 m to the west on the left bank. The section in the well is about 5 m thick* At the base about 0 .5 - i.O m of deeply weathered, rhyolitic, mottled yellowish trap is exposed. This might deceptively give the appearance of being clay. Overlying this, the remainder of the section comprises the sub-angular to sub-rounded rubble gravel horizon. The whole is capped by less than 0.i5 m of modern silty soil.

On the right bank of the river and downstream of the bridges across i t , the sections vary in height from

1 .0 - i .5 m. The deposits comprise an unsorted, ungraded, consolidated, sub-rounded pebbly-bouldery gravel in a matrix of brownish semdy silt. Pebble lithology is dominated by basic trap rocks, with occasional lateritic pebbles and rare examples of chert, chalcedony and acid trap. One km upstream, the gravel becomes more bouldery.

Bedrock is also exposed at intervals in the bed of the stream, and where water has dried up sub-angular to sub­ rounded, boulder grade material was observed. Associated with the gravel is a silty sand, fairly compact, unlaminated and yellowish-reddish-brown in colour. 42

With the exception of Zeuuer (quoted in

Sankalia, 1962), who suggested that there was only one fill, with two stages of cutting, the Dahlsar and

Kandirli sections have been described (Todd,1939 and

Malik, 1959) as representing two phases of. aggradation and erosion. It appears to the writer that the sequence of events in the area was probably as follows. A major stage of aggradation caused the deposition of this sheet gravel throughout the area. At Kandlvli, the westward spread of the gravel was halted by the N-S hill ridges, while at Borivli and Dahlsar, the lateral extent of the gravel is wider where unobstructed. Two stages of cutting followed, producing the two terraces on the Dahlsar. The

Kcmdivli nulleihs show only a single phase of downcutting, but they are not representative of any major geomorphio changes. Being ephemeral, streeims they do not allow for regional extrapolation.

d) Savitri River

This river forms a geographiced boundary between the districts of Kolaba and Ratnagiri. It rises about 1000 ffl above sea level at Mahableshwar, its source being a spring in the plateau below Arthur's Seat. For the first 80 km, the course of the river is ungraded and by the time it reaches Mahad, situated 58 km from the estuary at Bankot, the river is already tidal. The section described below was observed on the left bank of the Savitri, enroute from Mahad to Rajawadi. At the base lies a 43

consolidated, sub-angular, bouldery conglomerate, 4 a thick. Orerlylug this Is a discontinuous band of greenish clay, 0 .5 m, capped by 1 - 2 m of reddish- brown s ilt. The surface of the terrace lies 6 - 7 ■ above the bed level. (Fig.i^ib).

Throughout this area, generally three depositional episodes are conspicuous:

i) a basal deposit of heavily weathered, bouldery-pebbly gravel, overlain by a lateritic sandy gravel and followed by a reddish clay. This sequence forms a distinct terrace at a height of 8 - iO m. It is clearly seen on both banks between Poladpur and Kamble.

i i ) An unweathered bouldery-pebbly gravel, capped by a brownish (reddish or yellowish) silt, about

6 - 7 m high, as seen at Mahad.

iii) Laminated flood deposits and yellowish clays associated with tidal flats and comprising the most recent formations.

Older erosional surfaces are fairly well preserved around Aaygad Fort.

e) Kodzai River

A short, northerly tributary of the Vasishti river, the Kodzai, for the greater part of its course flows through a gorge, some 220 - 330 m deep. The Aood plain where it emerges from the gorge, rises about 5 m above bed kk levol and Is almost 5^0 ra wide. The sections observed are on the banks below the Panh€ile > Kajl caves, where the alluvium is composed oX reddish«brown, non-kankary silt, with slope washed pebbles distributed throughout this matrix.

The Panhale - Kajl caves date to the 10th century A .D ., and were carved into the reddish, brecclated, amygdcaoidal basalt hillside, about 7 m above the present bed level of the stream. They provide an archaeological datum for gauging the possible sequence of fluctuation of river level in the area. Most of the caves were filled with flood silts when they were re-discovered in 1971. It appears likely that c.lOOO - 1500 A .O ., the caves were occupied, during which period the river flowed either at its present level or possibly even at a slightly lower level

Bore-hole data gives evidence for a buried channel, 13 m below the modern bed level. At a subsequent date, a phase of aggradation, caused the caves to be filled with and obscured by silt. Two points to be noted, however, are t u.er£ (a) whether the caves^flooded as the result of a single major, possibly catastrophic flood; or whether silt accumulation over a number of years and produced by a more widespread cause, was the responsible factor, cannot be stated with any certainty; (b) the magnitude of the rise in river level at Panhale •" KaJl cannot be held Idie seune for other neighbouring areas, because the gorge-like nature of the setting here, and the resultant constriction of the 45 river would produce a distortion of the true degree of fluctuation. It can be stated, however, that generally speaking, throughout this area, river valleys are relatively deep eoid narrow. Flood plain development on smaller streams like the Eodzai, is poor, and only the larger rivers

(e.g. the Vasishti) have wider valleys with a better developed terrace system.

f) Gad River

An interesting section was observed on the right bank of the Gad, below the highway bridge, south of

Kanakavli. Archaecui-gneiss rocks are exposed here both at the base of the section, as well as in the rejuvenated bed of the river. Bedrock is unconformably overlain by 3 - 5 » of boulder conglomerate, which contains predominantly qaartizitic material along with a number of trap rocks.

Capping this is a further 3 ** 5 b of reddish silt. On the right bank the terrace extends for i 50 m, but on the left bank, its lateral extension is blocked by a low hill.

About 40 km from Maivan, near Kasai, a few

Middle Palaeolithic artifacts were collected from the terrace of the Kasai river, which is a tributary of the Gad. Here, on the left bank, two fill terraces stand at 5 m and iO m above bed level. The latter is in fact an extensive laterite gravel deposit, composed of boulder grade material and neither graded nor stratified. It extends over o.5 km to the base of the surrounding Archaean h ills, which in a number of

instances preserve the remnants of laterite crusts (Fig.i4a). 46

The horizontal spread of the lower terrace is almost

150 m, comprising 3 ~ 4 m of yellowish loam. At the base of this section is a cemented pebbly gravel, about i m thick (PI.5b).

g) Manori River

This stream flows through Sawantvadi district.

A single stratified Lower Palaeolithic chopper was recovered from the section described below. A basal, bouldery gravel bed is exposed on the left bank, comprising poorly sorted, ungraded material, consolidated in a ferruginous matrix.

This artifact was prised out of this conglomerate. The gravel is unconformably overlain hy 3 m of yellowish, non- kankary, sandy silt. The gravel is absent on the opposite bank, where the entire section is composed of about 3 m of

(sub-Recent) sandy silt. 47 s. Laterlte Surfaces of the South Konkan

1. Introductozy Remarks

Among the most conspicuous morphological

features of the South Konkan are the extensive

laterite surfaces vrhiui occur at various elevations

above the sea level (Fig.3)> Early geological

descriptions of the Konkan, in keeping with the then

current ideas, ascribed the origin of these laterites

to tectonics and/or in situ weathering processes.

Chatterjee was the first to put forward the suggestion

that they might be marine erosional surfaces: "Field

study and altimetric frequency curves drawn with the

help of large-scale maps of the area reveal that the

entire tract from the foot of the scarp to the present

shoreline consists of a number of terraces of probable

marine origin" (l96l:54)« He drew attention to the

planation of these surfaces and their successively

lower elevations from east to west, and reproduced them

on a map (Flg.l5) to demonstrate their correlation with

the Mediterranean eustatic terrace sequence* The

European terminology for this sequence was retained, with

the exception of the Late Monastirian, in place of which

term Chatterjee suggested "Konkanieoi" because "such

beaches (2 m - 5 m above M .S .L .) are well developed in

Bombay on the Konktiu c o a s t ..." (Chatterjee, 19611:53).

The writer's interest in these surfaces has

been two-fold ; 48

a) Geomorphlc evolution - attefflpting to

understand whether the laterltes were produced by soil

forming processes; whether the apparent planation is

post'lateritic or not; whether the pleuiation was the

result of slope forming process i.e. peneplanation,

pediplanation or etch-planation; whether the planation

was caused by major base level changes, resulting either

from eustatic or tectonic movements.

b) Archaeology - attempting to establish a

relationship between these surfaces and man’ s occupation

of them in the late Quaternary. * 2. Summary of Earlier Observations

The earliest investigations in this field are marked

by studies carried out on laterites throughout the Indian

peninsula (Buchanan, iS07). Voisey (1833) and Carter (i852)

advocated a volcanic origin for laterite. Newbold (1844, 1846)

considered it a sedimentary product and placed the laterites

in a chronological sequence between the older Deccan trap and

the younger black clays of south India. Nedlicott and Blanford

(1879) first distinguished between high and low level laterites,

emphasising the difference between their relative positions

and modes of occurrence. Wingate (1852), who actually studied

the Konkan laterites, Benza (1836), Clark (1838) and others,

suggested that laterite was a residual alteration product.

The study of the chemical and mineral components of

laterite initiated a change in concepts, and laterite was 49 described as essentially a precipitate and not a residuum.

At this stage the deep profiles were recognised, the terms

"mottled" and "pallid" zones came into use, the mobility rather than the immobility ot accumulated products was considered responsible for laterite formation and the theory of alternating wet and dry seasons with a comple­ mentary fluctuation of the water table was stressed.

The association of laterite and planation surfaces developed with the dlTision of the Ugandan laterite surfaces into a series of peneplains by Wayland (l93^)> who proposed that laterite formed consequent upon the formation of a planation surface rather than as a process which occurred during active reduction of a land surface.

More recent research has demonstrated the inadequacies of

Wayland*s theory. Laterites are generally associated with low relief, but they are by no means restricted to planed surfaces. In Uganda, for example, they are comaonly recorded on slopes of upto iO° and in rare instances even upto 20 - 22® (MacFarlane, i9 7 i). In India, slope occurrence is reported from Goa (De Souza, 1968). Furthermore, relief of the order of 150 m is quite commonly observed and, in

India, some of the plateau laterites, for example, at

Mahableshwar, occur at elevations 1000 m.

The pallid and mottled zones, though exclusive to laterites are not innately connected with tliem so that their frequent absence makes it difficult to see them and laterites as necessarily complementary processes. Again fluctuations 50 in the water table are not alwa}r8 on adequate explanation of the mechanism which brings about lower level depletion and upper level enrichment. Bven the concept of a tropical wet and dry climate us a prerequisite for laterite formation is not universally applicable (Paton and Williams, i972),

Maignien has stressod the difficulties raised by '♦so poorly defined a phenomonon" (I966:i6) stating, that any discussion of "laterite" necessitates a distinction of what would be an adequate definition of the term.

3. The Writer’s Field Observations

These have been divided into four groups :

a) Types of laterite

b) Depth of laterite profiles

c) Modes of occurrence

d) Planation surfaces

e) Lateritic gravels

a) Types of laterite

These comprise:

i) Laterite with the characteristic 3-layered structure of lithomarge, lateritic clay and crust (e.g. at

Mumbri and Padvel).

11) A pisolithic laterite of varying thickness, but on an average 6-12 m, and essentially homogenous throughout (e.g . Nandivde well section. F ig .4b ).

i i i ) Detrital laterite, comprising a heterogenous, but relateritised and consolidated type as well as a purely detrital laterite gravel. Examples of the former occur at 51

DaTgad, where patches ot laterite debris (unsorted, with

subangular to subrounded pebbles) occur in a bauxitised layer overlying a lithomargic horizon, and also as a

c liff overhang above the entrance to the Chamundi Teople at Dabhol c. iOO m above sea level. The latter essentially

comprise laterite gravel conglomerates as seen at Kanakavli,

Kasai and around Mai van.

b) Depth of laterite profiles

The depth of laterite weathering ranges

froB 3 m to 6 m and sometimes to 45 m, e .g . at Miry a

bunder (Batnagiri) and Hathkamba respectively. Laterite also occurs as remnant cappings on a number of hills (Kasai)

and plateaus (Kumbhar Math). In the Konkan, laterite occurs both on trap and quartz!te, and the depth of the profile does not appefur to be related to the nature of the underlying rock.

c) Modes of occurrence

The early classification of the Konkan laterites into primary and secondary (Hedlicott and Blanford,

1879) corresponding to high and low level occurrences, does not appear to be entirely justified. The 3-layered lateritlc profile which is no loziger considered a prerequisite for the

definition of primary (in situ) laterite, substantiates

observations which indicate that many of the so-called

primary laterites (in the central zone) are probaibly detrital

in origin. 52

d) PI ana tl on surfaces

Planatiou surfaces (Fig.3) conunonly occur at elevations of 150 • 200 m, 60 - 90 m, 20 - 40 m and also as coastal promontories ranging from 3 - 25 a above sea level• The 300 - 600 m surface which occurs along the crest of the Western Ghats is only observed in the source region of valleys like the Savitri, where it is highly dissected and generally comprises only a thin laterite capping.

The most conspicuous surfaces are the ones which occur both on trap and quartzite at elevations of iOO - 200 m and 200 - 300 m (Fig.i6a-c). T h ^ are seen in the areas around Oabhol-Dapoli, Khed, Raygad and Pachad, and also in the region between Gohagar and Chiplun where laterite cover is generally very shallow or even absent.

In the neighbourhood of Shrivardhan and again between

Jayagarh and Batnogiri, this surface has a thicker laterite profile, but it is not horizontal, varying in elevation from

200 m at Hathkamba to 130 m at Chowke, near Mai van.

The remaining surfaces at lower elevations are observed extending inland from the coast for a distance of 16 - 20 km. In the Devgad-Vijaydurg area the laterite cover is well developed, about 12 - 18 m, and at Devgad the plateau slopes gradually from east to west, terminating in sea cliffs formed in the laterite at 9 * 12 m above sea level.

In the lowest elevation range, from 45 m and upto sea level, planation surfaces are observed on in situ 53 laterites, and also on laterite and alluvial fills e.g. at

Ratnagiri, Kasai, Hal van and Hadi. Along the short S - N

traverse from Malvern to Hadi, the surface elevation slopes gently from 30 m - 21 m. In this sector there are a number of wells whose profiles reveal quartzite boulders, generally large and angular, incorporated in the laterite (P1.6a-c).

At Sarjekot, the 12 m surface extends into the sea (P1.7a).

An interesting feature is the 245 m surface which extends for about 30 km between Jaygad and Ratnagiri.

It forms a N > S divide between the drainage on the east and west of it . Many of the streams on the eastern side have deep valleys and superimposed courses, with occasionally a peculiar N - S oriented direction, while the rivers on the western side are short, steep and probably younger. An analogous situation occurs in the eust-uest transect from

Kasai to Malvan.

e) Lateritic Gravels

These are observed not only on the coast itself but also further inland and at varying levels.

i) At Padve such a gravel deposit flanks the lower alluvial plain, and is fairly thick, approximately ±5 m, showing grading in some sections.

i i ) At Kasai (Pig.i4a) a boulder gravel deposit, containing quartzite pebbles derived from tibe adjacent hill and mixed with laterite blocks, it is also capped by laterite debris. This section abuts the slopes of an Archaean schist hill and is likely to be a post-laterite, but pre-detrital laterlte, formation. The occurrence of a secondary

boulder gravel at an elevation of about 180 m in this

area is farther evidence for the hypothesis of base

level changes.

i l l ) At Maivan (P1.7b) the sections in a

number of the smaller nullahs comprise laterltlc gravels.

Among coastal examples can he cited :

iv) A laterlte pebble gravel at Vijaydurg which unconformably overlies the laterlte bedrock at a

height of 9 ■* 12 m. The gravel itself is about 3 m thick.

At the base of the section and abutting the bedrock is a

2 m thick deposit of slope wash debris.

v) At Bhatya Bunder (Ratnagiri) a laterltlc

bouldery gravel, some 6 > 12 m thick, overlies a 3-layered laterlte profile, which in turn rests on the basaltic bedrock

(Pl.Sa). The top of this section is 24 - 25 m above sea level (Fig.4a) and the cliff is about 45 m inland from the

sea. Vi) On the Miramar beach at Panaji (Goa) an

isolated (apparently in situ) outcrop of gravelly laterlte was observed in the intertidal zone. Similar exposures

occur at Aksim and Catlian (S.N. Rajaguru, personal communicationX

To sum up: the laterites observed in the South

Konkan can be divided into the following groups :

(i) Primary laterites or those formed by in situ

subaerial weathering, generally with a 3-lay«red profile^

At this stage and in view of Inadequate geochemical data, the 3-layered profile has been retained as a feature for distingui­ shing primary laterlte. For the most part, however, this is applicable to the high-level plateau laterites only. 55 and an average deptb of 9 - 12 m (and very rarely upto 30 • 60 in).

(2) Detrital or secondary laterites, which have been redeposited and re-lateritised, as indicated by their greater thickness and sharp contact with the underlying rock. Ve (S.N. Bajaguru and the writer) have called this *pseudo-primary laterite*, because it mainly comprises laterite washes and slope debris, which have subsequently been so thoroughly re-lateritised as to be almost indistinguishable from true primary laterite.

These do not exhibit the 3**layered profile and are observed resting both on trap (Pl.Sb) and quartzite.

(3) Purely detrital laterite, which may be more accurately described as laterite gravels.

As stated in an earlier section (S.2) much work has been carried out on laterite genesis in the context of soil-forming processes, and on the development of both pedogenetic and groundwater laterites by lateral enrichment (reviews of the problems are given in Maignien,

1966; Croudie, 1973). In the context of recent advances, laterite formation can be, but does not necessarily have to be - (1) the end-product of in situ weathering in a tropical climate with alternating wet-dry seasons;

(2 ) characterised by a 3-layered profile; (3) formed on a pre-laterite, planed land

surface; 56

(4) the product of differential warping.

This may or may not account for the discrepancy in height of laterite capped h ills.

4. Plonation Processes

In the present context it is not the genesis of the Konkan laterites, but the processes which resulted in the presently observed planation surfaces, i^ich are of relevance to our understanding and reconstruction of the palaeoenvlronment.

The higher surfaces in this region are generally dissected and have considerable relief, while the lower ones are undissected and often exhibit a gradual westward slope (P 1.9a ). A tentative, diagrammatic reconstruction of the pre-laterite topography as shown in P I .10 , reveals the irregularity of contact between laterite and bedrock*

This suggests that in many places, planation post-dates the formation of laterite.

The theory of "apparent peneplains" (Trendall,

1965) suggests that a combination of surface wash and re-lateritisation might explain laterite planation surfaces.

This hypothesis has been criticised by HacFarlane (i97i) on the grounds that it evokes an incredibly large vertical range of ground-water movement and which, in the Indian context, would require an impossibly long period of time.

NacFarlane (I97 i) on the basis of very detailed studies on the laterite surfaces of Kyagwe, Uganda, has suggested that laterite can develop with the planation 57 surface and not merely after it has formed. In such cases the high relief may be the result of interruptions of the erosion cycle before the final planation surface has developed. A gradual, but Interrupted, lowering of the water table plays an active part in this process.

Another process (MacFarlane, 197i) involves the reworking and modification of two chronologically distinct laterite surfaces to form continuous but polycyclic sheets,

Budel's concept of etchplain formation is yet another hypothesis. "Etching is the process of differential groundwater weathering which is accompanied or followed by wash processes and creep, leading to the stripping of the surficial materials" (Thomas, 1968{332).

In the Konkan, it is possible to distinguish three groups of laterite surfaces :

a) An eastern or plateau zone (e.g. Fanchgani)

with levels ranging from 300 600 m*

b) A central zone (e .g . Hathkamba), at a

general elevation of 90 - 200 m.

c) A coastal zone, where surfaces vary from

10 - k3 m.

a) The Hahableshwar<-Panchgaui and Satara laterites are examples of in situ pedogenetic processes. Here peneplanation of the Deccan trap was followed by kaolinisation of the peneplained surface and consequent upon this the

3-layered laterite structure was developed. This surface 58 was uplifted in Tertiary times and has since been subjected to sub-aerial weathering (Valeton, 19*72^

Rajaguru, 1970).

b) The deep, but not always uniformly thicdE laterite profiles of tiie central zone are of a more or less homogenous and pisolithic nature throughout. These pseudo-primary laterites might have formed during the period subsequent to faulting of the Western Ghats.

The process of their formation was probably a combination of subaerial denudation, coincident with the development of newer, younger (Pliocene-Fleistocene) drainage systems. In some instances, for example, 3 Ion inland from Vijaydurg, where a conspicuous dead cliff was observed at an elevation of ^ 45-50 m, the original slope morphology may have been altered by base-level changes. If it is accepted that Pleistocene glacio-eustatic changes constituted a progressive lowering of the sea level with each successive inter-glacial stage, then base-level control has probably played an important role in the modification of the landscape.

Compared with the horizontal plateau laterites, in the central zone rounded hills and undulating surfaces are observed both on laterite and other rock types. One hypothesis for the formation of these surfaces has been suggested as follows (K.R.Dikshit, personal communication):

To begin with one assumes the existence of a horizontal laterite plateau, with an unspecified thickness of laterite. 59

A period of subaerial denudation follows, InvolTlng the stripping of a part or the whole of the laterlte cover.

During the third stage, the rounded landscape produced by the process of weathering and stripping undergoes a second period of planation and, if conditions are favourable, in situ lateritisation once again takes place. This is only a tentative hypothesis, but it does not specify what happens to the laterite stripped off during the second stage nor the period of time required for this denudation in the sub-tropical region of the

Konkan. The writer feels that it is likely that the central zone laterites, by virtue of their uneven distribution and thickness, probably do represent redeposited and re-lateritised accumulations of material stripped off from the plateau laterites subsequent to Neogene tectonic activity. It is also possible that lateritisation and planation might have taken place at two or several different levels in the central zone, with the differences in height corresponding more or less with the thickness of the weathered layer (Machatschek, 1969)*

c) In the coastal zone a number of types of laterite have been observed. Some examples and suggestions as to their formation and planation follow. The homogenous laterite cliff at Sarjekot, Mai van (P1.7a) today stands 12 m above sea level. This may be an older in situ formation or it may be a secondary, relateritised one. It is the only example seen by the writer to have a perfectly planed 60

surface. It Is now generally accepted that marine abrasion

proceeds too slowly for It to toe a suitable explanation for

this type of planation (Fairbridge, 1952; Machatschek, 1969)*

Secondly* no traces of marine deposits are found on this

surface which might indicate marine actirity. Finally, it \ is significant that Palaeolithic artifacts are found on

this surface and which typologically, may be tentatirely

be dated to the period between 15,000 and 30,000 B,P. I f

there had been a high sea level during this period and this

is an increasingly controversial issue, then these artifacts

would certainly have been washed away. « The laterite formation immediately inland from

Sarjekot and extending both north and southwards is undoubtedly

a detrital product. The large quartzite boulders incorporated

in it , point to reworking of the older, higher deposits in

the central zone.

The lateritic gravel overlying the 3-layered

laterite profile at Ratnaglri (Pl.Sa) has interesting

implications. Recent analysis (S.N. Rajaguru, personal

communication) of the pebbles in the gravel has disproved

Fox's ( 1923) suggestion that they are the product of the process

of bauxitlsation. The gravel appears to be a fluvial deposit.

A tentative reconstruction of the sequence of events is

suggested. These gravels were probably deposited during a

period of high sea level when the Kajvi river which flows

to the south was flowing at a higher level. During the

subsequent regression of the sea, the gravel was stranded 61 at its present elevation. The presently observed truncated profile is the product both of subaerial erosion and more recent quarrying of the cliff side. However, gxcetl<,locally there is no way at present to date these gravels.

5* Chronology

In connection with the chronology of Indian laterites as a whole, Sahasrahaddhe (1974) has suggested that primary laterites throughout the Peninsula, wherever they are capped by later sediments date to the period between the late Cretaceous and the Pliocene, In the

Konkan, nowhere are laterites capped by other formations, and in the plateau region too, they form the uppermost rock type. Valeton ( I97^)has proposed an early Tertiary

(Bocene) date for the formation of the plateau laterites and sugi^ests that they pre-date Neogene activity in the region. If the central zone laterites represent stripped and redeposited material from these plateau laterites then they belong to a later period. This is partly corroborated by the discovery of plemt fossils in the carbonaceous shales of Malvan, Devgad, Ratnagiri and Jaygad. The plant fossils themselves are of Tertiary age. The beds in which they occur are thought to be northern extensions of the Warkalll beds of the Malabar coast, the latter equivalent to the Cuddalore sandstones, which are dated to the Upper Miocene. The laterites in question overlie these Tertiary deposits and can therefore be ascribed to the late Tertiary (Miocene-Pliocene) or early Pleistocene periods. 62

In the Konkan, the formation of the primaxy and pseudo-primazy laterites necessarily pre-date valley formation. The lateritic gravels on the other hand are

probably coincident with middle to late Pleistocene

fluvial processes.

The general westward trend of the plateau

slopes and the succession of the terraces might indicate

control due to movements of base level, but direct marine planation can probably be ruled out. That base level movements have occurred at different periods is obvious

from the evidence of laterlte gravels at varied elevations

and the alluvial cut-and>fill sequences. Consequently

the breaks in landscape morphology may be ascribed to local or more widespread (i.e. Pleistocene glacio-eustasy) base level changes. The evidence of Lower Palaeolithic tools at elevations of 45 - 90 m and at sea level prove

that the formation of these terraces predate the Lower

Palaeolithic cultures and can be considered, if only in a very broad sense, a terminus ante quem chronological boundaxy.

It is now fairly clear that as far as the Konkan is conceraed, the original division of laterites into primary

and secondary is not applicable. Furthermore, high level

and low level types are valid distinctions only in order to

differentiate between the Mahableshwar-Panchganl plateau laterites and the Konkan ones, and not to sepeurate the coastal

formations occurring at different levels. Lastly, that

stripping re-laterltlsation and base level changes (local or 6 3 eustatic) are responsible for the present morphology

of the Konkan laterltes, which are themselves of

different ages. 64

F. Coastal Morphology

1. Coastal classification

Coastlines have b«en variously classified

depending upon the casual factors involved in their

formation. The coastline of the Konkan could be

classified as belonging to the Pacific type because

< broadly, it runs subparallel to the outer margins of

the continental shelf. However, because the coastline

preserves sectors which belong to the former Gondwanaland

and truncate the geologic grain of the hinterland, the

west coast, of which the Konkaui forms a part, has also

been tentatively classified as of the Atlantic type

(Ahmed, 1973s 197). More recently Inman and Nordstrom

(i97i) have proposed a new classification based on plate

tectonics. Under this classification the Konkan coastline

would be considered as a trailing-edge coast of the

Afro-trailing edge type.

2. Coastal features

The present coastline shaped by diastrophic

movement and subaerial erosion (Shepard, 1973) owes its

drowned or ria-like appearance to the post-glacial rise

in the sea level.

The 500 km of crenulate shoreline stretching

from Daman to Goa, is characterised by a succession of

promontories and tidal inlets, most pronounced in the

region south of Bombay. 65

The continental shell is aligned more or less parallel to the west coast and has a naximum width of

300 km off the Gulf of Cambay, where sediments overlying the Deccan trap are approximately 2,500 m thick. There is a progressive narrowing down of the shelf southwards, so that southwest of Bombay it is 200 km wide, while off

Cochin it is only 60 km wide. Shelf breaks also show t markedly different topographic profiles (Fig.l7)»

(Hari Narain et a l ., 1968).

From Bombay to Malvan, and within a distance of

2 km from the shoreline, numerous rocky off-shore islands are observed. Geologically they are identical with the formations of the adjacent mainland. In the Konkan, beaches are generally confined to the bays between headlands (as seen in Fig.;lB and Pl.J-2b) and appeeu: to have developed as barrier beaches or have been formed in the erosional depressions between coastal c liffs. Baring the Malabar coast, south of the Konkan where they are a prominent feature and have produced the typical backwater lagoons, nowhere else along the coast are off-shore barriers well developed.

According to Ahmed (i973)» Malvan marks the northern limit of the occurrence of spits. The writer's observations, for example, the spit which has developed and deflected the natural outlet of the Gad river at Malvan and the Kalbadevi spit at Ratnagiri, show that this is not the case. The Konkan spits, however, are neither as common or impressive as those further south (e .g . Quilon). 66

Cemented beach deposits occur ubiquitously, in a variety of contexts. Pebble conglomerates, originally deposifcional features, now stand out as erosional forms at varying distances from the shoreline and at various elevations above the sea level. These are described in detail towards the end of this section.

The beaches of the Konkan eure, without exception, sandy beaches. Sand dunes, though not very well developed, are a common feature. This poor dune development may be partly ascribed to the relatively high humidity of the region, which possibly inhibits aeolian activity, as well as to the small size of the beaches resulting in restricted sand supply.

There is evidence for progradation of the shoreline at the mouth of certain estuaries, for example, on the Vasishthi

(P1.9b). Salt marshes and tidal flats have developed in the shelter of spits and behind bays. Only a very few examples exist of a line of fossil dunes which lie behind the zone of modern mobile dunes. The most notable example is seen necir

Tond.irili, just north of Malvan, where the dunes are over i2 m high and show a slight degree of pedogenesis.

In the region under consideration, the lithology varies from north to south. Basalt and other igneous rocks from the headlands between Dahanu and Dabhol. Around Ratnagiri, laterite overlies the trap and further south laterite and metamorphic rocks predominate. These coastal promontories rise to varying heights above sea level. Their profiles present different erosional forms depending on the nature of \ 67 the rock and the way In which it has undergone weathering and wave attack. Wave-cut platforms commonly fringe the base of headlands. Excellent examples are seen at Harnai,

Mandwa (Pl.lla) and Ratnagiri (Pl.ilb). Wave-cut notches and caves are also observed carved into the basaltic rock on the promontory at Ratnagiri (P l .il h ).

3. Coastal Processes

Marine erosion is strongest during the monsoon, when the wind whips the waves a few meters higher than they are during the rest of the year, and turbulence is very pronounced. Shore platforms in basalt are predominantly eroded by abrasion and quarrying along Joint planes. Boulders produced by the breaking up of the platform are observed at

Bombay and elsewhere. No boulder beds or reuaps, however, were noticed. The amygdaloidal basalt of Ratnagiri has not undergone retrogradation in the same way. Shore platforms here and even at Harnai and Mandwa are essentially horizontal pavements, but at other places (e .g . Bombay and Malvan) they have a gentle seaward slope. Without exception these hard rock platforms are covered by water during high water springs

€Uid during the monsoon. Potholes are a common feature of these platforms. The laterite cliffs at Devgad and Sarjekot are examples of block disintegration (Pl.iia). No data are available, nor have studies yet been carried out on the precise nature of the energy budget of wave action along the coast.

The writer's observations of the Sarjekot cliff, in two successive years of fieldwork, shows that once the laterite 68 blocks have been partially detached from the clllfside, their disintegration is fairly rapid.

The general distribution of world tides is based on a three-fold division into diurnal, semi-diurnal and mixed types (Davies, i972). The west coast of India experiences mixed tides, comprising two high tides and two low tides during each twenty-four hour cycle, but the ebbs and floods are not of the same magnitude. Tide type is important for determining the variation in length of time cA- between tides which allows for drying out^the beach or platforms, and is significant for weathering in the intertidal zone. Tidal variation also affects fluctuations in the groundwater level in areas where wells have been excavated in the backshore zone or in the barrier beaches between headlands. This in turn has probably influenced, to a greater or lesser degree, the general process of cementation of the beach and dune formations described in Section G.

Data on variations of sea level along the west coast of India have been collected by Lele (196? a,b) and Rama Raju and Heu*iharan (196?). Briefly, their results show that as far as the west coast is concerned there is a trend toweurds an increase in sea level, but the rates of this secular rise differ, as seen below :

a) Bhavnagar; for the period 1937-i955»i.75 m per

century;

b) Bombay : for the period i878-i958,0.i5 m per

century; and m 69

c) Cochin s for the period 1939-1958, 0.45 m per

century.

According to Lele (196? a), the differential rate of rise in the mean sea level is suggestire of tectonic movement8. It is also interesting to note this sizable variation from north to south and this factor would have to he taken into consideration when attempting to ooxistruct a generalised theory to explain the formation of cemented beach deposits in the inter-tidal zone along the west coast.

In assessing diurnal, seasonal and long-term variations of sea level, it is essential to study the effect of oceanographic and meteorological factors on annued. tide predictions. These have not been adequately isolated yet.

However, it has been observed at Cochin, that Increasing wind speeds cause tidal fluctuations and the writer's observations corroborate this for Bombay. A study of tide tables based on harmonic analyses of observations of 1971 (Tide Tables for the

Port of Bombay, Survey of India, 1970) shows no variation between the highest high water level during the monsoon and at any other time of the year. Yet tides appear to be markedly higher during the monsoon and this can probably be ascribed to increased wind velocities.

The strong southwest monsoon winds which affect the

Konkan during the monsoon, strike the coast obliquely. These winds correspond with the direction of maximum fetch, the length of the latter being about 1000 km (Ahmad, 1973)*

Theoretically this should cause a high velocity of wave movement 70 and a consequent churning of 1>ottom sediments, which would be pushed shoreward, causing the formation of ridges and off-shore bars. In practice, however, this does not appear to be the case in the Konkan. During the monsoon there is also the forceful seaward rush of river floodwaters. The tkat writer, therefore, tentatively suggests^the opposing forces of the river waters and waves which meet in the off-shore zone, result in a diminishing of the energy of both, and also a deposition of sediment load. This may account for the silting of the estuarine areas and growth of mud flats and marshes, but it does not adequately explain the absence of off-shore ridges. On the whole the southwest monsoon has an eroding effect on coastal topography, partly mitigated by the fact that the oblique striking of the waves allows for a break in their force.

As mentioned earlier in this section, among the more conspicuous and interesting of the coastal features are the cemented beach and dune formations, dlscussedln detail in the succeeding section. 71

1 G* Cemented Beach and Dune Fomations : Karal

1• Background

It is remarkable that little progress has been made for over a hundred years in the understanding and interpretation of these iormations. Littoral concrete

(terminology tor cemented beach deposits used in early geological writings; Carter, 1852; Bulst, 1851; Pascoe, 1964} was reported from Bombay* parts of the Gujarat coast

(e .g . Daman and Bulsar) and Saurashtra. Pascoe (1964) has recorded the distribution of these formations as follows :

"...found along the western side of Bombay 2 Island, where it forms the flat ground of the Bsplanaae and part of the surfaces on which the Fort was built; the same deposit is also found at Mahim and other places in the island resting sometimes upon rock, but more often on the

blue alluvial clay ... It is also seen to the south at

MalTan and north here and there as far as Daman, where it has been obserred apparently in the process of formation.. .Near

Bulsar, a little north of Daman, the deposit is stratified and dips at a low angle towards the sea . . . There can be little doubt that these shelly calcareous grits of Bombay are of marine origin; they represent an accumulation of the

1 According to the Marathi Shabdakosh.1933A:606, the word fearal ) means a brittle stone mixed with sand and at-A LV ( ^<*>1 ) is a well built with I? ar a I . 2 Deposits in this area and the Fort are no longer visible as they have long since been overbuilt by the modern city of Bombay. 72 sand and pebbles found on the shore together with marine shells and corals, and that their position indicates a rise of the land, trifling at Bombay but greater at

Kathiawar ... The beds may have been originally sand spits or beach deposits, very little , if at all above high water mark, and consolidated by the cementing action of carbonate

of lime after being raised." (Pascoe, 1964: 1906).

The term littoral concrete was probably never used by geologists, geomorphologists or geochemists except in this particular Indian context. Ahmad (1973)» however, continues to use the term adding, that some types resemble beach sandstone, others cay sandstone. The Gazetteer of

India, Maharashtra State, Vol.i, 1973:60, however, still uses the term "littoral concrete" quoting Pascoe.

2, Definitions

Contemporary literature defines beachrock as:

"...beach sand consolidated in place by interstitial cement, chiefly calcium carbonate " (Uiggins, 1968:70) or as " . . . a layered calcarenite (not always layered, and sometimes calcirudite) cemented with calcium carbonate and which occurs in one or more bands along the intertidal zone" (Millimau,

1974:278). Calcarenite is essentially rock formed from calcareous cement and clasfcic carbonates (Fairbridge, 1968: 188 ) fiolianite or eolian calcarenite is cemented calcareous dune sand (Fairbridge, 1968: 188).

The writer's observations show, however, that 73 the cemented beacb and dune formations of the Konkan can now be broadly differentiated. Consequently, no one term from those described above can be made generally applicable to these formations. Interestingly, however, the word karal is used throughout the Konkan to describe cemented sand and shell deposits of these kinds, irrespective of differences in composition and location. The writer therefore felt that it would be better to discontinue the use of the term littoral concrete and replace it with the word karal. This new term is used only in a broad classificatory sense when describing these formations below.

In toe Discussion (Part III, A,5)» the writer has, however, attempted a classification of the karal according to its genesis and composition, at which time the technical terms in use in current literature have been employed where specifi­ cally applicable.

3. The Writer’s Observations

The depositioual environments in which karal is encountered along the Konkan coast may be summarised as follows: A more or less crescentic beach and sometimes a straight beach stretches between two headlands, generally of varying height (Fig.18). The beach on its eastern side is often (e .g . Murud, Dabhol, Gahagar), but not always

(e.g. Manori, Mirya-Bhatti) Joined to the mainland. Where it is not Joined, it is separated from the latter by a lagoon or tidal marsh. Usually there is only a single line of mobile dunes which lie beyond the beach whose width n averages 500 m. The height of the dunes varies from

1.5 - ^.0 m.

Two broad divisions of karal formations in these environments are recognised: a) intertidal and h) coastal, and amongst these there are farther variations in the rock characters of the karal depending upon the position ot the formations and the mode of deposition.

These are described below and in Tables 2 - 4 * pages 84-92.

a. Intertidal

These deposits are found in between tides in the littoral zone of the seaward continental shelves, but they are also found in creeks on the banks of tidal rivers. At all places they are exposed at low tide and are partially or wholly submerged at high tide and during the monsoon. They are usually conglomeratic, composed of pebbly material which is associated with fine sand and whole or comminuted fragments of shells. The pebbles are sub>angular, sub-rounded and well-rounded and are either distributed throughout the rock (e .g . Elephanta Island) or occur in the form of thick or thin layers or bands (e.g . Uran), the arrangement of which depends upon the seasonal fluctuation in the deposition on the beach. The shell fragments if not finely comminuted, range in size from < 1 mm to 1 cm.

1) Littoral Zone

These shelly, pebbly karal formations

(Table 2) occur at Mahim (P1.13a), Blephanta Island (Pl.14 a,b). 75

Uran (P1.13l>), Mutha Bay (Pl.15 a,b) and Kalbadevi Spit.

Tbe fornations at Mahlm, Uran, Elephant a Island and Hutiia

Bay are well consolidated, whereas that at Kalbadevl Spit is relatively loose, probably due to its position at the tip ot the spit where it is subjected to strong wave erosion.

Lamination is distinct in the Uran deposits (P l .l 6 ), there being alternating laminae of coarse and fine material. The formations at Mahim and Kalbadevi Spit were found to contain living species (Teredo sp.) of uoring molluscs.

i i ) Creek Formations

Two examples may be cited (Table 2 ) . On the banks of the Apashi river immediately below Sakhar bridge karal is exposed in the section (Pl.i? a, b). This section is about 8 km inland from the sea and the river is tidal at

this point. The low btmks both to the north and south of the river merge with tidal flats further downstream. The strata are composed of laminated and non*>laminated layers.

The tormer are partially submerged at high tide in the dry season and the greater part of the section is covered by water during the monsoon. Other deposits of laminated karal are observed at two places in the tidal marshes approximately

2 km to the north of the section described above. These marshes comprise a few cm of brownish mud with an underlying stratum of blue-groy clay.

The second example is at Aksa, where two formations are observed on either side of the bridge across to Madh Island. The exposure to the east of the bridge across 76

the tidal creek occurs as a ledge abutting a slightly

raised slat Xlat (Pl.lSa). This foraation is homogenous

throughout, cross-bedded and shows a slight gradation Iron

finer material at the top to coarser at the base. On the

western side of the bridge an isolated karal formation occurs,

with pronounced cross-bedding and with pebbles incorporated

in the sand and comminuted shell matrix (P l.iS b ).

b. Coastal

The coastal Icaral formations of the Konkan are

difficult to distinguish either as true beach deposits or as

eolianite, due to the fact that both the beach sand and dune

sand comprise highly comminuted shell fragments. Larger

shells occur less frequently and pebbles rarely. No beach,

however, is without a certain proportion of coarse material.

Consequently any karal formation containing large whole shells

and/or pebbles is distinguished from eolianite, since dune

sands generally do not contain this coarse fraction. It has

in fact been observed that purely beach karal formations are

rare. Instead they appear to be associated or intercalated

with dune sands. On the other hand,dune formations are more

easily recognised from their physiography, structure and

textural characters. Thus two types of coastal karal

formations are recognised: i) beach-dune complex karal. and

ii) dune karal. The degree of consolidation varies in both

types and is affected by marine erosion and subaerial weathering. As a result, in a number of instances the lower

portion exhibits the original bard and well cemented lamination 77

(e .g . Manor!; P I.1 9 a ), while noTlng upwards In the section, the karal is sometimes less well consolidated and in the uppermost levels is often friable, with total obliteration of lamination.

i) Beach-Dune Complex Karal

The exposed thickness of these deposits varies from i m to iO m. Generally, however, the thickness appears to be more than 5 n, when these formations are encountered in wells, quarries and road cuttings (P1.24b).

In such cases the total depth cannot be estimated and only the exposed sections have been measured.

Karal when it is found in these contexts l£ either capped by modern dune sand (e .g . Hirya-Bhatti;

PI.20a) or is found in the inhabited area on the leeward side of dunes (e .g . Gorai). From north to south these formations have been observed at Gorai, Manori, Brangal, St.Xavier's

College, Chaul, Murud, Kolthara, Guhagar, Jaygad, Mirya-Bhatti and Vaiyri (Table 3). Generally, the karal is homogenous and is comprised of sand and finely comminuted shell fragments throughout the section as at Mirya-Bhatti. Exceptions are

Kolthara, Dabhol, where the basal portion of the section comprises a laterite pebble conglomerate (P 1 .2 ic ), and Manori, where a pebbly layer occurs 90 - i50 cm below the surface of the well. The pebble band at Manori is interesting from the point of riew of deposition of coarse material on an otherwise fine sandy beach. Today, at different times of the year, deposited on different parts of the beac^ and in differing 78

quantities, the writer has observed large shell and pebble drifts. These Isolated deposits probably reflect the direction and intensity of tidal currents at various times of the year. The writer feels that possibly, the pebble layer in the karal at Manori is an example of this type of deposition. Leading on from this, it is suggested that the lower laminated levels and the pebbly conglomerate represent water-laid deposits, while the non-laminated upper levels reflect subaerial deposition. It is in this context that the term beach-dune complex is applicable and also where the distinction between cemented beach and dune formations is still unclear.

Mention may be made of a fossiliferous clay band encountered intervening between the karal at a depth of

5 m below the surface of a well at Guhagar^.

Other interesting examples are the consolidated shelly karal excavated from the foundations of St. Xavier's

College, Bombay and the karal in a well section at Chaul.

The former on the basis of consolidation and the apparent recrystallisation of some of the larger shells may in fact be a relatively old formation, later obscured by reclamation in the area. At Chaul, in a well about 1.5 km inland from the sea, karal was encountered approximately 8.5 m below the surface. The strata reveal layers of clay and loose sand both above and below the karal.

^ This well is located on the property of Shri B.G. Khare. 79 i ii) Dune Karal

Dune derelopment in the Konkau is restricted

to a single line of mobile dunes (an exception is the

area around Malvan). These dunes are rarely over 5 m high

and exhibit gentle bedding, approximately iO^. On the basis

of the writer's observations, this type of karal has the most

widespread distribution. It is now apparent that many of the

cemented formations of the littoral zone are in fact indurated

dune sands. In a number of cases not only are the dunes

partially or wholly cemented, but in the adjacent backshore

areas, similar lithified material occurs in the sections of

wells and quarried as described above in b .i ) . A brief

general description of these deposits follows, with their

field relations given in Table 4.

At Gorai and iSrangal, the karal occurs in

patches below the uneven surface of the dunes and was found

to be both of a friable, as well as a consolidated type. At

Devgad (P1.12b), k m above the high tide level, an isolated,

well consolidatea karal formation was observed. At Marve

(P1.20b) and on the leeward side of the dune on the Kolamb

creek (P1.2ia,b), the karal is clearly laminated and highly

eroded. At Handwa, karal was observed as a consolidated

formation at the base of the dune (P 1.22b), while further to

the west and higher up in the section, the karal occurs as

a calcareous band, varying in thickness from 0.05 ** O.iO m.

The latter is partially laminated, while the basal formation

is non-laminated. At Madh Point also, two types of karal 60 were observed; an older consolidated, lEuuinated and graded formation (P1.23a, b) and 25 m to the east, as a partially cemented section of the modern dune, visible only where

the fresh dune sand has blown away. Another example of

this apparent **incipient* lithification is seen at Aksa

(P1.24a), where the leeward side the modem dune is partially cemented. The formation is friable, and distinct from the surrounding loose sand, by haviztg developed a blackish surfacial colouration. At Korlai (P1.22a), a section of karal is exposed in a cutting at the edge of a field which lies directly behind • « coastal dune. Karal was also observed at the base of this dune on the seaward side. At Hamai (P1.9a), almost the entire vertical section of the dune is cemented. There is no lamination or cross* bedding, but the basal portion comprises slightly coarser material. The horizontal extent of cementation is irregular.

At Jaygad, on the other hand, the dune on its northern side

(where it is cut by a small tidal inlet) is entirely lithified,

However, the section facing the sea remains massive, while that on the leeward side (Pl.i9b) exhibits very marked lamination in the lower levels, merging with the non-laminated upper portion.

At Srangal-Bhatti, a small excavation was carried out in order to obtain an undisturbed vertical sequence from 14 which samples could be collected for C dating. Indurated, undisturbed (by past quarrying) layers were encountered about

2 - 6 m below the surface. The upper levels now contain karal 81 blocks, whole and fragmented gastropod shells and pieces of broken pottery. This mixture is probably the result of the disturbance of the dune during the period when quarrying was in progress.

Perhaps the oost interesting of this group of karal formations are the dunes at Uran and Ganapatipule.

At the latter site, the karal occurs both at the base of the dune, where it is sore consolidated (P1.25a) and recurs further up in the section, where it is friable and exhibits gentle lamination. (P1.25b). The reddish colour of the sand may be the result'of'staining due to the washing down of lateritic debris from the adjacent hill, or it may be the product of pedog^net^ processes. At Uran, the dune (P l.i3b) is fronted by an intertidal karal formation (described earlier). The basal section of the dune comprises laminated karal with large shell fragments. Upwards in the section, the shells become less distinct and lamination is absent.

The uppermost reddish-brown horizon comprises sandy soil and represents a zone of leaching with development of indistinct prisms.

c. Concluding Remarks

Karal formations have villages situated on them, have had wells dug into them eind the material has been used for lining wells. Where the karal is quarried, it has been and is still used for the extraction of lime. The lime is obtained by some process of calcination of the shell material incorporated in the karal. Both Brangal-Bhatti 82 and Mlrya-Bhattl are so called because bhattl means kiln in Marathi, the local language*

The pottery from the excavation at Brangal-Bhatti appears to be of recent date. The discovery of a circular ring-like stone piece resembling the weight for a (Neolithic) digging stick, as well as a quantity of gastropod shells^, the snails of which are eaten even today, might suggest that this locality represents a kitchen midden. No other stone age remains were, however, discovered, though the promontory on the adjacent beach to the north at Srangal, was a Mesolithic site.

Karal formations have been observed to occur on the beach, in dw es a ^ in the backshore zone along the coast.

They are found in open tidal environments, in bays and creeks and in areas now cut off from the sea by reclamation

(e.g. St. Xavier's College). Karal is also found near the sites of ancient ports, for example, Sopara and Chaul, which are now away from the sea. Chaul was from early historical times upto the i?th century a considerable sea port. It has been referred to as Seymulla by P t o l e o y , c.i50 A.D. By

1634 A.D., however, the mouth of the Roha river was blocked by a sand bar on its northern side (Maharashtra State

Gazetteers, Kolaba District, 1964:715-730). Today only small fishing vessels ply in the silted estuary, though on the western side, the local inhabitants complain of active encroachment by the sea, and the geographiced location of a number of the tidal creeks in the environs is reported to have changed in historical times.

^ These shells belong to sp. Nerita> 83

The above data suggest that in the Konkan there is more than one type of coastal cemented formations. These differ with respect to the context in which they occur (in dunes, on beaches, e t c .).

They also differ In their composition, for example, there are pebbly conglomerates (P1.14b), shelly conglomerates

(P1.26b) and the most commonly occurring homogenous formations of sand and comminuted shells (P 1.26a). It appears, therefore, that both the various types as well as their mode of occurrence are Indicative of their different origins. 84

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