Aquaculture Asia, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp.1-38. April-June 2006

Item Type monograph

Publisher Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific

Download date 04/10/2021 20:01:22

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/18131 ISSN 0859-600X Volume XI No. 2 April-June 2006

Marine fish marketing systems in Bangladesh

Sugar industry by-products as pond fertilisers Nucleotides as immunostimulants

Poor households raise prawns for export High-health shrimp post-larvae

Now available on CD-ROM! Applications of GMO fish Aquaculture Asia Volume XI No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X is an autonomous publication April-June 2006 that gives people in developing countries a voice. The views and opinions expressed herein are Mariculture: The new hot topic those of the contributors and do not represent the policies or When we fi rst started analysing our website logfi les about four years ago it was position of NACA. apparent from the statistics on what pages visitors read the most that shrimp farm- ing was the fl avour of the decade in the aquaculture world. However, over the last two to three years we have seen interest in shrimp farming tail off after many Editor countries switched into cultivation of Penaeus vannamei and as increasing produc- Simon Wilkinson tion levels impacted market price, making it a less attractive investment. [email protected] The new hot topic is mariculture, particularly of fi nfi sh. While interest does not (currently) appear as frenzied as that formerly surrounding the shrimp farming in- dustry, it is nevertheless very strong and apparently increasing as improvements in Editorial Consultant hatchery technology and husbandry make commercial seed production an increas- Pedro Bueno ingly viable proposition. Many people have suggested that the growing competi- tion for land is also a factor driving the aquaculture industry to look more closely at its ‘offshore’ farming options. NACA But are we ready for a sudden expansion of mariculture? Looking back at the An intergovernmental development of shrimp farming there are a few lessons that should be learned (or organization that promotes at least, not forgotten). It is clear that the early, explosive growth of the shrimp rural development through farming industry took caught policy makers off guard with regulation lagging far sustainable aquaculture. NACA behind the development of the industry throughout much of its history. The lack seeks to improve rural income, of checks on development was undoubtedly a major factor in many of the environ- increase food production and mental and aquatic animal health issues that subsequently arose. To be fair, that foreign exchange earnings and kind of development had not been seen in the aquaculture industry before and it to diversify farm production. The was something of a learning experience for all concerned. ultimate benefi ciaries of NACA This time, however, both governments and industry should be better prepared. activities are farmers and rural We know that unchecked aquaculture development can lead to environmental communities. problems, resource management issues and adversely affect the productivity of the industry itself. Many of the issues that are likely to emerge with the up scaling of the industry are already known from localised development hotspots, as are many Contact tools and mechanisms that can be used to prevent or mitigate against them. The The Editor, Aquaculture Asia need to engage farmers directly in environmental management, given the predomi- PO Box 1040 nance of small-scale producers in the region, and to help them fi nd ways to profi t Kasetsart Post Offi ce from it (such as the Better Management Practices developed by the Consortium on Bangkok 10903, Thailand Shrimp Farming and the Environment – discussed in this issue’s Notes From the Tel +66-2 561 1728 Publisher column), are better appreciated. Fax +66-2 561 1727 Given the speed with which development tends to take place in the region, Email there is a need to plan ahead in order to facilitate orderly expansion of established [email protected] and emerging mariculture industries. As Andre Norton once wrote, “I merely note Website http://www.enaca.org that if you want to catch something, running after isn’t always the best way”.

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1 In this issue

Aquatic animal health

Selection of high-health postlarvae: A prerequisite for sustainability of the 4 Indian shrimp industry S. Saurabh, V. Kumar, S. Karanth and G. Venkateshwarlu.

Nucleotides - novel immunostimulants in aquaculture feed 10 Page 9. P. Kalaimani Arasi, N. Felix

Genetics and biodiversity

Brood stock and all female scampi grow out ponds in South India 11 P. Balamurugan, C. Balasundaram, P. Mariappan and S. Dharaneedharan

Genetically modifi ed fi sh and its potential applications 13 Page 19. M. Karthik, D.B. Akolkar, V. Kumar, and S.D. Singh

Research and farming techniques

Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot, Nepal 17 Tek Bahadur Gurung, Sadhu Ram Basnet and Krishna Prasad Lamsal

Sugar industry by-products as plankton boosters and yield enhancers in Page 22. carp culture systems 19 S. Felix, T. Francis, K. Mohan Naidu, C. Senthil and P. Herald Robins

A note on the growth and production of Penaeus monodon in low saline culture systems of Kerala 22 G. Prasad

People in aquaculture Page 25.

Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: Poor households raise prawns for export 25

Asia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Marine fi sh marketing systems in coastal Bangladesh: Potential for development 28 Nesar Ahmed and Helen T. Sturrock Page 28.

2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Notes from the Publisher

Investments into NACA: The bottom line for farmers and governments

We continue with the theme “invest- ed by 49 service labs. Each of the labs Pedro Bueno ment” in this issue. In the previous were provided with 10 samples which is the Director- issue, we looked at NACA itself as were prepared, re-tested and validated General of an investment. NACA is founded on very meticulously by scientists from NACA. He is the cooperation and collaboration with the CSIRO, Australia and CIBA, India. former Editor of intention of sharing regional resources This exercise provided several use- Aquaculture Asia among members and associates - gov- ful lessons, noteworthy amongst them Magazine. ernments, institutions and individuals are: (1) voluntary participation by the - for the ultimate benefi t of primary private sector; (2) a sense of confi dence quality and traceable antibiotic-free producers. Investment made in foster- the industry has on such regional proc- shrimp. The crop results in 2005 from ing specifi c collaborations with well esses; (3) ownership and commitment 930 demonstration ponds spread over defi ned practical long term objectives of the national government through its 484 hectares of area in 15 aquaclubs can be very rewarding. This begins a institutions like MPEDA and CIBA; (4) of Andhra Pradesh showed a two-fold series on selected projects and initia- technical support by project partners increase in production, 34% increase tives that NACA governments have under the NACA umbrella; and (5) the in size of shrimp, 15% increase in invested in. effi ciency and cost-effectiveness of the crop duration, 68% improvement in First, on health management. Two whole process. Investments such as this survival and 65% less disease preva- examples under the regional health can have long lasting impacts and it is lence when compared to surrounding programme illustrate the benefi ts of expected that MPEDA will use the ring non-demonstration ponds. As a result, such investments and hold promise for testing experience to setup a laboratory for every 1000 rupees ($22) invested, further strengthening of regional coop- accreditation programme in the near demonstration farmers made a profi t of eration to benefi t farmers, who are the future. 128 rupees ($2.9), compared to the 38 focus of the current NACA fi ve year BMP Shrimp. The second example rupees or $0.86 made by non-demon- (2006-2010) work programme. is work with small-scale shrimp farm- stration farmers. PCR Lab Inter-Calibration. The ers in India. The shrimp consortium For NACA, the biggest success fi rst example concerns the running of a partners-NACA, FAO, WWF, WB, is the visible positive change in the voluntary PCR ring testing exercise in UNEP-through wide ranging stakehold- attitude of shrimp farmers that the India. PCR screening of broodstock or ers consultations have built a consensus project has sparked. Economic rewards, seed, or both, for white spot syndrome on international principles for responsi- while important, could be short lived, virus (WSSV) can be effective in ble shrimp farming. Developing better but attitudinal changes in farmers are reducing the risk of disease outbreaks. management practices and assisting a long-term benefi t from a modest But in many cases diseases on farms shrimp farmers to implement them so investment. Responsible farmers and a continue to impact very signifi cantly on that improved compliance to interna- sustainable process to keep the lessons production, even when PCR-screened tional principles can be accomplished learned perpetuating within the farming seed is used prior to stocking. Of sev- is not an easy task. The investment on community are the biggest long-term eral reasons cited for the continued oc- this, through the MPEDA/NACA/ rewards any project can ask for. currence of disease on farms, the lack ACIAR/ICAR project in India, is Genetics and Biodiversity. Global of harmonization and inter-calibration another good example of long term awareness of the importance of biodi- of PCR testing capabilities of various benefi ts of meaningful and practical versity and genetic conservation rose PCR labs is one of the most impor- regional collaboration. The project, with the publication of the Brundtland tant. Responding to this, NACA, with now on its fi fth year, has been highly Report, “Our Common Future’ in 1987, ACIAR collaboration through ACIAR’s successful in bringing together shrimp and the establishment of the Conven- regional shrimp health project, facili- farmers (organized into aquaclubs and tion on Biological diversity (CBD). tated the project partners from India, the aquaclubs into clusters) to collec- Earth has very meagre useable fresh- Australia and Thailand to set up and tively implement better management water resources, some 0.06% of all the run the fi rst voluntary PCR ring testing practices to reduce disease-related water on the planet, but this resource is exercise in India, which was participat- losses, improve yields and produce home for approximately 25% of global,

April-June 2006 3 Aquatic Animal Health

inland vertebrate biodiversity; a fact that imposes an increased responsibility Selection of high-health postlarvae: A on inland aquatic resources manage- ment and development. prerequisite for sustainability of the The Genetics and Biodiversity pro- gram was established about two years Indian shrimp industry ago, to assist member governments in managing and conserving their natural Shailesh Saurabh*, Vikas Kumar, Santhosh Karanth and G. aquatic genetic resources. This goal can Venkateshwarlu. be achieved through capacity building and research. Basic knowledge and Central Institute of Fisheries Education (Deemed University-ICAR), Fisheries available tools and techniques that are University Road, Versova, Mumbai-400061, India. applied for genetic characterisation, Email: [email protected]. which in turn, are used as fundamental basics to develop sound management Shrimp culture as an industry has been hatcheries from whom you buy your plans, will continue to be dissemi- contributing signifi cantly to the export postlarvae is a critical decision. Some nated through training workshops. The earning, employment generation, of the useful criteria are given below fi rst training workshop on the use poverty alleviation and to the economic to help farmers identify high-health of molecular genetic techniques in development of India in recent years. postlarvae: aquaculture and inland fi shery manage- India’s vast coastal belt and condu- ment organised in December last year, cive environment has led to the rapid Appearance brought over 20 participants from 11 expansion of shrimp farming activities. member countries. The workshops, in Culture practices are gradually be- Tail cooperation with Kasetsart Unviersity’s ing intensifi ed but also vary with the Princess Walailak Centre, FAO, MRC investment capabilities of the entre- A PL tail should be noticeably open. and World Fish Centre, covered both preneur. Since shrimp larval quality The presence of pigment cells in the theoretical and practical application of plays a key factor in infl uencing the uropods, which gives the tail an open population genetics. Participants from successful shrimp culture, farmers and appearance, is a useful indication of the this workshop acquired competence to PL producers need a rapid and simple stage of development. If the uropods provide technical services for relevant technique to evaluate postlarvae health are not pigmented which make the tail future projects. The training manual is quality with respect to future growth appear closed, then the postlarvae are being published for wider use. and survival. Characterizing good PL not suffi ciently developed for stocking. Potential negative impacts of genet- quality can benefi t shrimp farmers by The preferred age of PL at stocking for ics related management issues such as increasing crop profi ts and help hatch- Litopenaeus vannamei or L styliros- inbreeding, genetic drifts, introgressive ery managers to identify and assess the tris is 7-10 days old and 18 days for hybridisation and unconscious selection effects of factors affecting PL quality. Penaeus monodon. will be addressed through development In recent years, shrimp health man- of broodstock management strategies. agement has become the main focus of Colour NACA has been actively involved in improving production and minimizing such activities, for example conser- infectious diseases in shrimp ponds for This criterion has often been used as a vation of the Mekong giant catfi sh smooth development of aquaculture measure of PL quality. However, there project. The bottom line for farmers of industry. To accomplish this goal, one is very little information available the Genetics and Biodiversity program should be concerned with the quality regarding the effect of molt stage and is to provide farmers with genetically of postlarvae especially the selection of color. Good quality PL have transpar- improved strains with fast growth rate high-health postlarvae shrimp (Table 1 ent bodies with star-like brown or dark and better able to tolerate disease. The & 2), before stocking in the pond. brown pigmentation. However, a pink bottom line for the environment is to or red colouration can indicate stress minimize negative impacts on biodiver- Criteria for selection of related to rearing or handling. sity from aquaculture and inland fi shery high-health postlarvae (PL) management practices. Swimming activity and behaviour This issue’s Note’s From the Pub- The success of any farming operation lisher was written with Dr. Nguyen T.T. is dependent upon the quality of the PL should be visibly strong and active, Thuy and Dr. C.V. Mohan. postlarvae stocked in the pond. Strong, swimming from side to side and re- healthy postlarvae placed into a healthy spond rapidly to external stimuli. This environment have the best chance of activity of PL can be easily observed growing well and giving good survival, if water in a basin containing PL is harvests and profi ts. Weak or diseased agitated or whirled. The healthy ones postlarvae will not perform well and move to the sides against the current potentially can place every shrimp in whereas the weak ones remain in the a pond at risk. Clearly, the choice of

4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Aquatic animal health

Table 1. Indicators of high-health postlarvae. hardiness. If PL hardiness is indicative of future growth and survival perform- ance, stress tests may become impor- • Active swimming with straight bodies and respond rapidly to external tant parameters of PL quality. In most stimuli. procedures PL are subjected to sud- • Transparent body and tail muscle with few pigmentation spots. den changes in salinity or to selected • Clean shell which indicates that the animal is generally growing fast and chemical solutions. There are several molting frequently. types of stress tests that can be used, • Appearance of a clear, thick and smooth muscle. including temperature, salinity and pH • High index of gut fullness. stress tests. At least two tests should be • Dark colour and relatively large hepatopancreas with a large number of used for each batch of PL. since salinity lipid vacuoles. and formalin stress tests are the most • State of branched gill lamellae in postlarvae. effective and the easiest to perform; these are used by most of the commer- cial hatcheries to evaluate the health status of the PL. Some of the stress center. Unhealthy PL appear lethargic In either case, it should be investigated tests commonly used by entrepreneurs and unresponsive to external stimuli. immediately. are given below:

Size Clean shell Formalin test

Larger animals are generally more A clean shell represents frequent molts, Before stocking in grow-out ponds aggressive in searching for food and indicating fast, consistent growth. Slow postlarvae are selected by exposing the have a better chance of survival over growth is indicated by the presence of animals to 150 ppm formalin for 30 smaller ones. It is preferably to stock protozoans such as Zoothamnium, Vor- minutes. This is used to cull weak PL PL of uniform size and any signifi cant ticella, Epistylis or Acineta, fi lamentous for white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). variation is indicative of different age bacteria, dirt, organic matter and necro- This technique has been successful in levels. Generally speaking, age vari- sis (black spots or brown lesions) on reducing the number of infected PL ations are acceptable as long as size the shell. Lack of luster or shine on the stocked into ponds. differences are minimal. Uniformly shell can be an early sign of disease. sized postlarvae coming from a single Salinity Shock complete spawning and large clutch of Pathognomonic lesions eggs appear to perform well in ponds. This is commonly applied stress test Postlarval stages between PL 15-20 are In assessing the general well being of to determine postlarvae hardiness. In preferred for stocking. Selection for the PL, consider the following typical this test, PL are rapidly immersed in postlarvae length and depth does not external lesions as an indicator of poor freshwater for 15 minutes followed directly indicate that the PL are sound larval quality: by normal seawater for another 15 but only indicates the state of nutrition • Epibiont fouling: The presence of minutes. PL in good health show high of larvae. The number of rostral spines these organisms indicates poor water survival after being returned into nor- indicates the age of the postlarvae (4 to quality and larvae that have an ir- mal seawater. 6 spines- PL 15-20). regular molt cycle. It is important to PL should also be examined for check both moribund and active PL Temperature test signs of infestations (debris adher- for their degree of fouling. ing to the body, swimmerets etc.) and • Cuticle black spot. Subject 50-100 PL to a temperature of deformities (broken rostrum, crooked • Postlarvae with larval mycosis 22-24°C for 5-10 min. High-health PL body, enlarged head, undeveloped gills • Appendage or body deformities. don’t die and recover quickly when put etc.). High-health PL should appear • Opaqueness of trunk muscle. back in water of 28-32°C. clean and have no physical abnormali- • Reddish discolouration. ties. • Whitish line along the dorsal part of Stress hormone test the trunk exoskeleton. Feeding • Monodon Baculovirus occlusion Some researchers have tried using bodies (MBV). stress hormone such as corticosteroids Gut fullness can be determined with • Presence of luminescence. to assess the response of PL to induced the help of a dissecting microscope. stress using chemical. The test is still A healthy PL will have a full diges- Stress tests in experimental stage and needs further tive tract, except after a long time in documentation to verify its usefulness. shipment. The presence of empty guts Acute stress tests have often been may be the fi rst sign of disease or can used to distinguish between healthy be the result of underfeeding or stress. and weak PL and are often used by commercial hatcheries to evaluate PL

April-June 2006 5 Aquatic Animal Health

Starvation Index of gut fullness segment of the tail of the PL should be conducted to determine the muscle to 50PL are kept starved for 24 h in a Since water temperature should be gut ratio. This gives a useful indication fl at-water bowl without aeration. High- maintained at around 22°C during long of the nutritional status of the postlar- health PL show good survival when transport, it is unlikely that the index vae. The muscle should be completely returned to normal condition. of gut fullness will be more. However, fi ll the shell from the gut down. A high These stress tests are simple, rapid, a percentage estimate of gut fullness muscle to gut ratio is generally prefer- and inexpensive and do not require upon arrival can serve as a guideline able. When the PL are stressed, the specialized equipment or extensive for the farmers to evaluate the intensity muscle has a grainy appearance much scientifi c skill. They be used either at of feeding behavior during acclimation. like the grain in the wood. The muscle a hatchery or in the fi eld to evaluate Larvae collected from estuaries will will appear grayish or brown in colour. health status of PL. probably contain higher gut fullness Healthy PL have a clear, thick, smooth because the trip is shorter and the tem- muscle. Prestocking/acclimation perature is probably higher. Condition of the hepatopancreas examination of PL The hepatopancreas of the PL Mucus and debris on setae should be examined for its general Routine assessment of PL during ac- condition that is primarily indicated by climation consists of Accumulation of mucus and debris on the number of lipid vacuoles and its 1. Microscopic examination of ran- the setae, antennae and appendages is overall size. The presence of a rela- domly selected PL at the moment of a strong indicator of stress. With the tively large hepatopancreas with a large arrival or before being stocked into help of microscope take a three-dimen- number of lipid vacuoles is considered acclimation tests; and sional image of the PL and examine the a sign of good health. PL with a small 2. Routine assessment of PL through- spaces between the setae and antenna hepatopancreas containing few lipid out acclimation. hairs for any build-up of debris. vacuoles is a sign of under feeding and improved feeding prior to harvest may 1. Microscopic assessment Opaqueness of swimmerets and be required in order to enhance their tail muscle quality standard. Microscopic assessment helps further to evaluate the quality of PL before An obvious sign of stress is change in Colour of the hepatopancreas packing at the hatchery for shipment to opaqueness of the tail muscle. Normal- the farm. It should be done upon arrival ly, the tail muscle will be transparent The hepatopancreas should not be of PL at the farm site to assess the ef- with a few pigmentation spots. How- transparent and should have a good fects of transportation on PL. ever, when stressed, the tail muscle and colouration. Typically, it should be • Immediately upon arrival, collect swimmerets may become or in extreme dark yellow in colour. A dark colour twenty PL from one of the trans- cases, completely white. This problem hepatopancreas generally indicates bet- port containers or bags while the can be quite serious and potentially ter health of postlarvae. acclimation supervisor examines fatal if left untreated. the parameters of the water in the Gill development transport containers and bags. Physical deformities • This evaluation should be done im- The state of gill development should mediately to determine any stress Although deformities are not directly be examined as it gives a better idea resulting from transportation and not related to stress, a large number of de- of when PL are able to tolerate salinity from being held in the acclimation formed PL within a population can be changes, which often occur when the container. indicative of chronic diseases. Deform- shrimp are transferred to the on-grow- • Examine each PL sampled and ities can also be used as an indicator for ing facilities. When the gill lamellae record the condition based on the future survival estimates in the grow- have become branched like Christmas clinical index mentioned earlier. out pond. Morphological examination trees, approximately around PL 9-10, • Record all results on a PL State of should be focused on the following: they are generally able to tolerate fairly Health Examination form. • Complete, well-developed, unbent rapid changes in salinity and can be • Collect 1 litre of water from the rostrum. easily be acclimated to on-growing acclimation tank (sampling from • No curvature or cramped tail. conditions. Where gill lamellae remain the bottom upwards) and carefully • Well-formed eyes and eye stalks. unbranched, the shrimp should not be examine PL, with the aid of a dis- • Well-formed complete swimmerets. subjected to major or rapid salinity secting microscope for more precise • Overall physical appearance. changes and should not be considered observation, for the following char- ready for transfer from the postlarval acteristics: Muscle to gut ratio tanks.

A microscopic examination of the rela- tive thickness of the ventral abdominal muscle and the gut in the 6th abdominal

6 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Aquatic animal health

Intestinal peristalsis cles. Strong gut peristalsis in combina- Melanization tion with a full gut is an indication of A high power microscopic examination good health and high nutritional status PL should be examined for melaniza- of the intestinal tract of the PL should of PL. tion, which often occurs where limbs be conducted in order to ascertain the have been cannibalized or where bacte- peristaltic activity of the intestinal mus- rial infections have occurred. Excessive melanization is a cause for concern and Table 2. Scorecard for high-health postlarvae.

Criteria Observations Qualitative assessment Score Very active +++ Activity level of postlarvae swimming Swimming activity Moderate ++ behaviour Low + < 15% +++ Calculation of coeffi cient of variation Size variation 15-25% ++ (CV) of PL size >25% + < 5% +++ Deformities Deformities in limbs and head 5-10% ++ > 10% + Full gut with faecal strands +++ Gut fullness Degrees of fullness of digestive tract Moderately full ++ Empty gut + < 5% +++ Fouling organisms Degree of fouling by epibionts 5-10% ++ > 10% + < 5% +++ Muscle opaqueness Opaque muscle in tail of PL 5-10% ++ > 10% + > 3:1 +++ Comparison of ratio between muscle Muscle to gut ratio 1-3:1 ++ and gut thickness < 1:1 + Abundant vacuoles +++ Condition of the Relative quantity of lipid vacuoles Very small vacuoles ++ hepatopancreas No lipid vacuoles + Dark +++ Colour of the Relative colouration of hepatopancreas Pale ++ hepatopancreas Transparent + Complete +++ Gill development Degree of branching of gill lamellae Intermediate ++ Slight + High +++ Intestinal peristalsis Movement of gut muscle Moderate ++ Low + No necrosis +++ Very minor necrosis ++ Melanization Melanization of body or limbs Appendages and parts of body + affected < 5% +++ Direct observation of Night time observation of the tank 5-10% ++ luminescence > 10% + < 5% +++ Molting Molts in the water 5-10% ++ > 10% + Negative +++ PCR Virus Positive + > 80% +++ Survival rate Estimation of survival rate in each tank 50-80% ++ < 50% + Score rating: +++ = Excellent; ++ = Fair; + = Poor

April-June 2006 7 Aquatic Animal Health

requires treatment through water qual- molting. Do not mistake exoskeletons • Divide the number of live PL by ity and feeding regime enhancement for dying or dead PL. If a major molt the number of PL originally placed and sometimes reductions in stocking occurs, check gill movement and heart in the cages to calculate survival density to prevent cannibalism and activity. If no organs appear to be ac- rate. Multiply that number by 100 reduce bacterial loads. tive, mass mortality may be occurring. to obtain the percentage of PL that survived. 2. Routine (acclimation) Index of gut fullness • After counting the PL, examine assessment seams and corners for trapped or Active feeding and high index of full- squeezed PL and holes where they In addition to the stress test and micro- ness are positive signs, indicating that may have escaped. scopic examination, a routine assess- there is little stress. Generally, PL will • The survival count is a useful indi- ment of PL should be done every hour not feed if they are under stress. A low cator of the acclimation process. A during the acclimation period. Constant index of gut fullness and excessive feed survival rate of 80-100% suggests observations provide subjective as- present may indicate stress. If this oc- high quality PL, 60-79% survival is sessments of the PL general condition curs, suspend feeding and reduce water considered acceptable and survival during fl uctuations of water quality in- exchange. below 60% considered not adequate herent in acclimation. If indications of for pond stocking. stress are observed, steps can be taken Presence of mortalities to slow down the acclimation process Detection of pathogens and reduce the stress. This routine as- Under normal conditions, a mortality sessment can be conducted by sampling rate greater than 3% should put the Various molecular biology techniques 1 litre of water and carefully examining acclimation supervisor on alert. Check such as DNA probes and polymerase the PL swimming in the container and water quality, reduce rate of water chain reaction (PCR) provide accurate, the acclimation tank for the following: exchange and if guts are full, reduce the sensitive and rapid diagnostic tools temperature to slow the PL metabolic for detecting and identifying shrimp Level of swimming activity rate. These procedures may provide pathogens especially viral diseases. Re- suffi cient time for a thorough investiga- cently, various sets of primer sequences If PL accumulate on the surface, agitat- tion into the cause of the mortalities. have been successfully designed from ing aggressively and if there DO level WSSV. These primers have been used is low, inject pure oxygen into the wa- Frequency of cannibalism in the PCR methods for WSSV, both in ter. If PL are lethargic and swimming postlarval shrimp and shrimp brood- activity is diminished, reduce the rate Generally, cannibalistic behaviour stock. PCR exploits the capability of of water exchange, allowing PL more indicates that there are insuffi cient amplifying a small amount of genetic time to adjust physiologically. quantities of feed or a high level of material from an organisms, this facili- mortality. An increase in feed quantity tate the detection of virus especially Erratic swimming behaviour and frequency should minimize can- carriers which normally contain small nibalism. amount of virus particles. The estab- A periodic rhythm of cramping up and lishment of PCR laboratories, both relaxing signifi es an attempt to molt. Survival rate from the government and private sector A large percentage of the acclimation for successful screening of WSSV post- tank’s populating molting is an indica- Survival cages and a holding tank with larval shrimp in India not only helps tion of stress. If this occurs, reduce the sub-sampled PL may be used to deter- in improving the high-health shrimp rate of water exchange, increase feed mine the survival rate and to monitor postlarval production but also minimize and reduce the temperature to less than mortalities as follows: the spread of WSSV in grow-out ponds 23°C to suppress cannibalistic activity • Before stocking, collect 200 PL as well. by nonmolting PL. from several different tanks and place into different cages to deter- Good management Opaqueness of tail muscle mine survival. • Place the cages near the edge of a Producing high-health postlarvae is not This sign is an indicator of physiologi- pond at a minimum depth of 50 cm. only dependent on reducing the impact cal stress. If observed at a high frequen- The cages should be fi rmly anchored of shrimp pathogens but also relies cy, slow down the acclimation schedule to the mud, with a minimum of 15 heavily on good hatchery management. to allow for physiological adjustments. cm water depth in the cage. Many factors affect the quality of PL • Do not feed PL in the cages and viz. feed quality and quantity, molting, Presence of molts leave them undisturbed for 48 hours. water quality (temperature, salinity, • After 48 hours, remove all PL from ammonia, suspended solids, faeces), Floating exoskeletons indicate molting. the cages and count them indi- phytoplankton density and other en- Take proper steps just to discourage vidually. Live PL should be counted vironmental conditions. Factors such cannibalism. A slow acclimation water separately from dead ones. as the seawater supply system, regular exchange is recommended to prevent disinfection and dry-out of hatchery

8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Aquatic animal health facilities and adequate aeration in larval hatcheries have also been established. Anonymous 1996. The manual on practical guidelines tanks, can also have an impact on the Most of these hatcheries have the for the development of high health Penaeus mono- quality of postlarvae produced by a necessary infrastructure capabilities but don broodstock, Fisheries Publication Series No. 2, hatchery. Moreover, the use of some need to be geared up for production of Prepared by ASEAN Fisheries Sub-Working Group. chemicals and antibiotics such as chlo- healthy and disease free postlarvae. Arcos, F. G., Palacios, E., Ibarra, A. M. and Racotta, I. ramphenicol and oxolinic acid in the The quality of shrimp seed is at S. 2005. Larval quality in relation to consecutive hatchery may reduce larval growth and present a prime factor affecting produc- spawnings in white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei inhibit defence mechanisms of larvae tion and economic effi ciency of the cul- Boone. Aquaculture Research, 36(9): 89. itself since these type of drugs reduce ture practices. Poor survival and lack Boonyaratpalin, S. 1990. Shrimp larval diseases. In: M. the activity of acid or alkaline phos- of predictability of PL in the grow-out B. New, H. de Saram and T. Singh (eds). Techanical phatase which are considered to play a phase are major obstacles in develop- and Economic Aspects of Shrimp Farming, IN- key role in the protein metobolism in ing a stable shrimp farming industry. FOFISH, Kualalumpur, Malaysia, pp. 158-172. shrimp. It is important to establish an effec- Briggs, M. R. P. 1992. A stress test for determining These factors can be regulated tive farming system for producing and vigour of post-larval Penaeus monodon Fabricius. through the use of good hatchery man- distributing high quality shrimp seed. Aquacult. Fish. Manage. 23: 633-637. agement practices and this will have Scientifi c research needs to be carried Chanratchakool, P., Turnbull, J. F. Funge-Smith, S. and a major impact on the quality of PL out on the genetic improvement of cul- Limsuwan, C. 1995. Health management in shrimp produced. The larval production plan tured shrimp species. Shrimp breeding ponds-Second Edition. Aquatic Animal Research should be aimed at producing the high- techniques should also be improved to Institute, Thailand, pp. 111. est quality seed, because subsequent maintain the genetic quality of species Clifford, H. C. 1992. Marine shrimp pond management: on-growing performance is directly at production level. Also, to maintain a review. In: J. Wyban (ed.). Proceedings of the spe- related to post larval quality. It is thus the quality of seed in production, a cer- cial session on shrimp farming. World Aquaculture in the on-growing phase where status of tifi ed system should be developed and Society, Baton Rouge, LA, USA, pp.110-137. PL quality is of immense importance. implemented for shrimp hatcheries. A Lightner, D. V. 1996. A handbook of shrimp pathology health certifi cate system and inspection and diagnostic procedures for disease of culture Conclusion mechanism should be established by penaeid shrimp. The World Aquaculture Society. the government for the trans-boundary Samocha, T. M., Guajardo, H., Lawrence, A. L., Castille, Success of any farming activity is movement of shrimp broodstock and F. L., Speed, M., McKee, D. A. and Page, K. M. dependent on the availability of high- seed within and beyond the country. 1998. A simple stress test for Penaeus vannamei health seed in required quantity at the postlarvae. Aquaculture 165: 233-242. right time. As the demand for shrimp References Treece, G. D. 2000. Shrimp Culture. In: Robert R. Stick- seed has increased with the develop- ney (ed). Encyclopedia of Aquaculture, John Wiley ment of commercial shrimp farming, a Anonymous 1991. Shrimp culture problems in southern & Sons, Inc. New York, pp. 798-868. growing number of commercial shrimp Thailand. Asian Shrimp News, 1989-1995: 117-120.

New from FAO, this CD-ROM illus- trates the vital role that aquatic bio- diversity from rice-based ecosystems plays for the livelihoods of rural people in southeast Asia. It contains the fi nd- ings of fi ve case studies on the avail- ability and use of aquatic biodiversity as well as local management arrange- ments from Cambodia, China, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Viet Nam. The rich variety of utilized aquatic species (fi shes, reptiles, am- phibians, crustaceans, molluscs, insects and plants) collected by farmers in their rice fi elds is presented together with information on traditional practices and local knowledge regarding collection tools and methods, species availability, consumption and preparation methods. Edited by M. Halwart and D. Bar- tley with contributions from P. Balzer, T Balzer, S. Pon, G. Guttman, A. Luo, J. Margraf, X. Choulamany, S. Funge- Smith and E. Meusch.

April-June 2006 9 Aquatic Animal Health

Nucleotides - novel immunostimulants in aquaculture feed

P. Kalaimani Arasi, N. Felix

Department of Aquaculture, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Tuticorin, India.

The outbreak of disease is a major or corn contain very low levels of Nucleotides in aquaculture problem in the aquaculture industry. To nucleotides. feeds prevent disease, antibiotics are widely used in culture systems. However, the Importance of nucleotides Sakai et al. (2001) reported that oral ad- prolonged use of antibiotics can result ministration of nucleotides resulted in in the development of resistant strains Fish and crustaceans possess specifi c enhanced phagocytic and NBT respons- of pathogens. This has lead to research receptors for nucleotides and they es in kidney phagocytic cells of com- on alternatives including immunostimu- may act as attractants. Nucleotides mon carp for more than 10 days post lants such as glucan, chitin, levamisole play a role in the immune system, treatment at 15mg/100g. Furthermore, and lipopolysaccharides to enhance the physiological functions including the number of Aeromonas hydrophila immune system of fi sh and shrimps. In encoding genetic information, medi- also decreased in the blood, kidney recent years, one of the immunostimu- ating energy metabolism and signal and liver after intraperitoneal injection. lants that has received greatest attention transudation. Dietary nucleotides also Burrels et al. (2001) reported benefi cial are nucleotides, the building blocks have a nitrogen sparing effect as the effects of dietary nucleotides when of RNA and DNA. They are also an absorbed nucleotides can spare the use challenging salmonids with infectious important constituent of enzymes and of amino acids as precursors in nucleic salmon anaemia virus and Vibrio an- cofactors such as ATP, NAD and FAD. acid synthesis. In early development guillarum. In another study with Atlan- Generally in mammals, dietary of larvae, nucleotides are essential for tic salmon (S. salar) indicated that fi sh nucleotides are thought to be semi-es- their rapid growth or cell replication. fed with 0.03% nucleotides increased sential in early infancy because some Their requirements are greater during antibody titres following vaccination of the epithelial cells of the intestine or states of disease or stress for increased against Aeromonas salmonicida, the blood cells cannot synthesize de novo blood cell production. Reproduction causative agent of furunculosis and had nucleotides to meet their requirements and egg development create additional reduced mortality. Peng Li et al. (2994) and must derive nucleotides from other demand for RNA and DNA, which can reported increased production in hybrid organs or from other dietary sources. be met by a nucleotide-enriched diet. striped bass and also resistance to In mammals the inclusion of dietary Nucleotides can carry chemical energy Streptococcus iniae infection. Ramadan nucleotides can enhance cell mediated in their early hydrolized acid-anhydrate and Atef (1991) showed that dietary immunity, lymphocyte proliferation, bonds and combine with other groups nucleotides signifi cantly enhanced the interlukin-2 production and improve to form enzymes. When nucleotides weight gain of tilapia. Rumsey et al. host resistance to bacterial infections. are given to fi sh as dietary sources, (1992) reported the incorporation of Likewise in fi sh and crustaceans several their immune system responds well to 0.6-4.1% yeast RNA extract in purifi ed reports have shown the benefi cial infl u- pathogen challenge. diets signifi cantly increased feed intake ences of oral administration of nucle- and weight gain in rainbow trout. otides on immune functions and disease Mechanisms of nucleotides In nature shrimps are supplied resistance. It has been demonstrated with nucleotides because they feed on in fi sh such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo Nucleotide formation in fi sh or shrimp detritus rich in microorganisms. These salar), coho salmon (Onchorynchus is very time and energy consuming so microorganisms are rich in RNA or kisutch), rainbow trout (O. mykiss), supply of nucleotides through feed will DNA (Giesecke and Tiemeyel 1982) so common carp (C. carpio), European save energy. Nucleotides can be par- the benefi t of supplemental nucleotides sea bass and hybrid striped bass, but tially absorbed in the gut, principally to shrimp is not clear. However, recent has not yet been reported in shrimps. as nucleosides, which are recombined work showed that shrimp fed with yeast with phosphoric acids to nucleotides extract showed higher total haemocyte Sources of nucleotides and nucleic acids and enter the blood counts, greater numbers of granulo- for transport to different organs for the cytes and a faster clearance rate of Commercial nucleotides are derived formation of new cells. When disease bacteria following challenge, a positive from brewer’s yeast and yeast extracts. occurs in fi sh or shrimp, it need not result. To date no information is avail- Single cell protein, fi sh solubles, ani- have to synthesize nucleotides used to able on specifi c dietary requirements mal protein solubles, complete fi shmeal produce DNA when cells divide. for nucleotides in shrimp but it has and unicellular organisms are also main been suggested that research could be sources of nucleotides. Oils, oilseeds done between 2 and 5% of hydrolized such as soya and grains such as wheat

10 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Genetics & biodiversity additives based on single cell protein or yeast in shrimps. Brood stock and all female scampi Conclusion grow out ponds in South India

From these experiments it is concluded Paramaraj Balamurugan, Chellam Balasundaram*, Pitchaimuthu that dietary nucleotides positively Mariappan** and Subramanian Dharaneedharan infl uence the immune system of fi sh or shrimp, although the evidence for Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, shrimp is not so clear. Further research 620 024, Tamilnadu, India, *Email: [email protected]; **Department of is required to investigate the impact of Biotechnology, J.J. College of Arts and Science, Puddukottai, 622 404, India. nucleotides on shrimp disease resist- ance or growth, and to commercialise useful nucleotides that are identifi ed. Freshwater prawn Macrobrachium all male pond is harvested for export rosenbergii enjoys a cosmopolitan while the brooders are collected by the References distribution having being introduced hatcheries on the spot. This recycling of onto every continent as an eco-friendly animals between hatchery and grow out 1. Burrels, C.; Williams, P.D. And Forno, P.F. (2001a) candidate species for aquaculture; ponds has led to inbreeding depression Dietary nucleotides: A novel supplement in fi sh emerging as an alternative to penaeid (New, 2000). feeds 1. Effects on resistance to disease in salmo- prawn culture (Kutty, 2003). Freshwa- nids. Aquaculture 199 (1-2): 159-169. ter prawn production exclusively con- Brood stock ponds 2. Burrels, C.; Williams, P.D.; Southgate, P.J. And fi ned to scampi has registered a 10-fold Wadsworth, S.L. (2001b). Dietary nucleotides: A (1000%) increase since the nineties The PL12 are reared in nursery ponds novel supplement in fi sh feeds 2. Effects on vaccina- (Moraes-Riodades and Valenti, 2001). for a period of two months and grow tion, saltwater transfer, growth rates and physiology To date M. rosenbergii culture has into juveniles (6.5±1.5g) at which of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 199 been conducted either for commercial stage they are harvested and stocked (1-2): 171-184. purposes or research activities in a total into grow out ponds. Prior to stocking 3. Fegan, D. (2003). Yeast - more than just a raw of 77 countries (New, 1995). With the the juveniles are sorted indigenously material. Asian Aquaculture Magazine, September- boom in the aquaculture of scampi has into males and females with 96±2% October: 28-30. come a corresponding growth in the de- accuracy (Super segregators, Wintech 4. Peres, H. And Oliva-Tales, A. (2003). The effect of mand for viable seed, which has topped aquatics, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh). dietary ribonucleic acid incorporatoin in perform- 6 billion throughout India (Sakthivel, The males are reared in a separate grow ance of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) 2003). In this context the practice of out pond while the females are stocked juveniles. Aquaculture 215: 245-253. collecting seed from the wild continues, separately in a brood stock pond. The 5. Peng, L.; Donald, H.; Delbert, M. And Gatlin III. contributing a signifi cant proportion of sex ratio in these ponds is maintained at (2004). Dietary nucleotides from yeast RNA infl u- the total seed supply for aquaculture four females to one male. The stocking ence immune responses and resistance of hybrid (FAO, 2000). Most wild stocks are over density ranges between 6-12m2. The striped bass (Morone chrysops X M. saxatilis) to exploited, for instance the scampi land- brood stock ponds are maintained for a Streptococcous iniae infection. Fish and Shellfi sh ings in Vembanad Lake have dwindled minimum period of six months adopt- Immunology, 16 (5): 561-569. to a mere 39 tons from 300 tons during ing the same rearing methods practiced 6. Sakai, M.; taniguchi, K. Mamoto, K. Ogawa, H. And 1960s (Kurup and Harikrishnan, 2000). for male ponds. No separate diet is fed Tabata, M. (2001). Immunostimulant effects of ne- However, more Macrobrachium to the brooders. After six months, the cleotides isolated from yeast RNA on carp, Cyprinus hatcheries also being established since brood stock ponds are harvested in toto carpio. Journal of Fish Diseases 24: 433-438. the technology for mass production or in a phased manner in two subse- 7. Nates, S.F. And Tacon, A.G.J. (2003). New ingredi- of seed is well developed. Although quent harvests within 15±5 days at the ents for shrimp feeds. Global Aquaculture Advocate Macrobrachium grows, matures, and convenience of hatchery owners. The 6 (5): 34-37. spawns readily under captive condi- survival rate of brooders is about 85% tions, most hatcheries rely on wild and the prawns are sold at the rate of broodstock, which has contributed to US $ 0.5/brooder. Why don’t you join our the over exploitation of wild popula- online community? tions and led to shortages (Hien et al., Female pond 1998). Hence the hatcheries in South India, particularly Tamilnadu and And- Due to the high commercial value of 2,500 members & 700 hra Pradesh, have resorted to a novel blue claw males (80-100 g/individual) free full-text aquaculture way to circumvent this problem. Here farmers have conducted all-male publications fi ve out of the nine major hatcheries culture since 1999. In the process they and the prawn farms are closely posi- have attained considerable success in tioned and hence the hatcheries have sexing the seeds manually. However • www.enaca.org • requested the farm owners to establish this practice has led to the surplus an exclusive brood stock pond. The availability of females, which are not

April-June 2006 11 Genetics & biodiversity

Chanrachakool, P. 2003. Farm level management op- tions for minimizing shrimp disease risk. MPEDA/ NACA National Workshop on Shrimp disease con- trol and coastal management, Chennai, March 5-6, 2003. Papers for Technical Sessions, pp 1-6 FAO, 2000. Aquaculture production statistics 1989- 1998. FAO Fisheries circular 815 (Rev 12), FAO, Rome. Hien, T.T.T., Minh, T.H., N.T. Phuong and M.N.Wilder.1998. Current status of freshwater prawn culture in the Mekong river delta of Vietnam. JIRCAS Journal, 6: 89-100. Kurup, B.M. and M. Harikrishnan. 2000. Reviving the Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) fi shery in Vembanad lake, India. NAGA, The ICLARM Quar- terly (Vol. 23 (2): 4-9.April-June 2000. Kutty, M. N. 2003. Sustainable aquaculture- A compara- tive view of freshwater prawn and marine shrimp. Harvest of females for the local market. Freshwater prawns 2003. International symposium Souvenir, Kerala Agriculture University, Kochi, as lucrative as males. Hence the need (Personal communication, Amir Sagi, India. pp 14-20. of farms to have a supply of brooders International symposium on Fresh Moraes-Riodades, P.M.C., Valenti, W. C. 2001. Fresh- is a boon since it compensates the seed water prawns, 2003 held at Cochin, water prawn farming in Brazilian Amazonia shows cost to some extent (US $ 950/100,000 India). This practice of growing males, potential for economic and social development. juveniles with an average sex ratio of females and brooders separately is Global Aquaculture Advocate 4, 73-74. 47 females: 53% males). paradoxical since there is an increasing MPEDA/NACA (2003). Shrimp health management However when there is no oppor- dearth of wild brooders and an urgent extension manual. Prepared by the Network of tunity to raise brood stock to supply need for quality seeds. The disposal of Aquaculture Centers in the Asia-Pacifi c, in coop- a hatchery, the farmer is left with the females on reaching a marketable size eration with the Aquatic Animal Health Research 47% female juvenile population which of 20 grams and the supply of brooders Institute, Bangkok, Thailand, Siam National he can not afford to throw away since from the brooder ponds to the hatch- Resources, Bangkok, Thailand and Aus Vet Animal he has paid for them. Under such eries will aggravate the inbreeding Health Services, Australia. Published by the Marine circumstances the farmer often tries to depression in the years to come. There Products Development Authority, Kochi, India. 31p. partially redeem the cost by rearing the is an urgent need to protect, conserve New, M.B. 1995. Status of freshwater prawn farming a juveniles in a separate female pond. Af- and maintain the wild population by review. Aquaculture Research 26: 1-54. ter a rearing period of two months the according sanctuary status to the na- New, M.B. 2000. History and global status of freshwater females attain an average size of 15-20 tive stock in Vembanad lake which is prawn farming. In M.B. New and W.C.Valenti g/prawn which is harvested in one lot the home ground of scampi (Kurup (Eds). Freshwater prawn culture: the farming of and sold in the local markets at around and Harikrishnan, 2000) as a resource Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Blackwell Science, US$ 2/kg. Even a small scale farm with for augmenting heterosis of captive Oxford. pp. 1-11. two ponds thus assigns one for female cultured populations and to study the Patil, P.G. and M. Krishnan. 1997. The social impacts of or brood stock pond. Economically the current level of inbreeding depres- shrimp farming in Nellore district, India. Aquacul- return from the brooder pond is better sion in the industry. Maintenance of ture Asia, Jan-March, 1997. Pp3-5. as mentioned above but neither of broodstock and selective breeding by them are as lucrative as males because hatcheries would go a long was towards of the difference in growth rate. After sustaining the quality of broodstock and attaining sexual maturity (about 20 g larvae. Effective management of brood in female pond) the females have to stock ponds is essential since they are channel more energy for reproduction the source of larvae for the next genera- along with the obligatory processes of tion. The development of an exclusive somatic growth and molting. Hence the brood stock diet is also the need of the Got a question about farmers prefer to grow all males rather hour since it directly infl uences the aquaculture? than mixed culture since in monocul- quality and quantity of the broodstock ture of males the operational costs are and larvae. invested exclusively for males while in Ask your colleagues online. mixed culture it is spent on the slower References growing females also. The all male segregation technique Balasundaram, C., P. Mariappan and M. Ravichandran. • www.enaca.org/modules/newbb/ • employed in Macrobrachium rosenber- 1998. Social impacts of shrimp farming. Social gii culture needs scientifi c validation Welfare, 45 (7) 28-29.

12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Genetics & biodiversity

Genetically modifi ed fi sh and its potential applications

Karthik, M.1, Dadasaheb B. Akolkar2, Vikas Kumar3, and S. D. Singh4

Fish Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Fish Nutrition & Biochemistry, Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova, Mumbai – 400 061; 1,2 &3: Research Scholars; 4: Professor and Head of the Department.

Genetic engineering has brought with construct, it is not usually taken directly Current and potential it revolutions in the life sciences over from the donor’s DNA. These introns applications the past decade. The benefi cial trait of are spliced out during the production of a particular gene from one organism mRNA. mRNA is extracted from cells Gene transfer technology has been can now be transferred to another in or tissues where the gene is expressed applied for the expression of desir- a less amount of time and with more and is used to synthesize complemen- able traits to improve the aquaculture precision. This technology has already tary DNA (cDNA) by the enzyme production (by increasing growth or achieved a tremendous success in agri- reverse transcriptase. This cDNA is adapting fi sh to adverse environmen- culture and made it easier for farmers to then inserted into a plasmid vector and tal conditions). Traits that have been grow certain crops and reduced the use cloned into E. coli to produce a cDNA experimented with include growth of certain pesticides. In recent years, library. This cDNA library is then enhancement, salinity tolerance, cold genetic engineering has also been ap- screened using a probe to identify the tolerance and disease resistance. plied to produce specifi c animal strains matching cDNA. The desired cDNA Several useful genes that can be generally referred to as genetically is then snipped out and spliced to the transferred into different aquatic spe- modifi ed organisms (GMOs) that also promoter sequence. cies have been identifi ed (Table 1). have the potential to improve livestock It also appears that certain introns crops. However, its commercial appli- are required for the full expression Growth enhancement cation needs careful to address potential of the gene, which implies that some environmental, social and regulatory. introns may have a regulatory func- The primary aim of fi sh farming is The only genetically modifi ed animals tion even though the sequence is not to obtain faster tissue growth more that are likely to come to market in the translated. economically. The most important near future are fi sh. In this context, this Depending on the purpose of the hormone controlling growth and article provides an overview of recent gene transfer studies, transgenes can be development is growth hormone (a developments in genetically modifi ca- grouped into three general categories: peptide hormone) - also known as tion of fi shes and potential applications 1. Gain-of-function: Adds new func- somatotrophin, which is secreted by the of this technology. tion to the transgenic individuals. anterior pituitary gland. The secretion e.g. growth hormone (GH) enhances of growth hormone (GH) is controlled Transgenic fi sh growth. by the combined effects of two other 2. Reporter function: Identifi es the hormones, growth hormone releas- GMOs are defi ned by international success of gene transfer effort and ing hormone (GHRH), also known as agreements and much national legisla- measures the strength of a promoter/ somatocrinin, and growth hormone tion in a very narrow sense as being enhancer element. inhibitory hormone (GHIH), also essentially transgenic organisms, i.e. 3. Loss-of-function: Interferes with known as somatostatin produced by the organisms that have had foreign genes the expression of host genes (this hypothalamus. Growth hormone could inserted into their genome. Transgenic has potential application to produce be used as a growth-enhancing agent fi sh are produced by introducing for- disease-resistant transgenic brood through feed in fi sh culture; however, eign DNA segment/sequences (homolo- stock). two major factors, viz. diffi culty of gous or heterologous transgenes) into Since 1985, a wide range of trans- obtaining suffi cient quantities and newly fertilized or unfertilized eggs re- genic fi sh species have been produced digestion by protease enzymes, if given sulting in genomic integration of DNA including gold fi sh, medaka, zebra, orally, discourage its direct use. in a stable and heritable manner. salmon, channel catfi sh, common carp, Attempts have been made to Japanese loach, northern pike, rainbow increase growth rates and thus reduce Transgenes trout, tilapia, and walleye by various time-to-market size. In 1985, Zhu et gene transfer methods including mi- al. produced transgenic gold fi sh with A transgene, containing a strong croinjection, electroporation, retroviral human growth hormone gene driven expression promoter/enhancer element infection, lipofection, sperm-mediated by mouse metallothionein promoter. and a structural gene, is usually con- gene transfer, embryonic stem cells, Thereafter, many attempts have been structed in a bacterial plasmid. Since particle gun bombardment and calcium made with different growth hormones the gene sequences are interrupted precipitation. (eg. Rat growth hormone, fi sh growth by non-coding sequences i.e. introns, hormone) and with different promoters when a gene is developed as part of a (e.g. LTR sequence of the avian Rous

April-June 2006 13 Genetics & biodiversity

Sarcoma Virus (RSV), carp b-actin). Until such fi sh have been produced Transgenic production of The success of the growth enhancement and evaluated the risks and benefi ts of pharmaceuticals work with transgenic fi sh is impressive utilizing them commercially cannot and underscores potential usefulness readily be determined other than in Transgenic organisms can be used in aquaculture, eg. increased growth in the most general terms (MacClean and as biofactories for the production of salmon, channel catfi sh, rainbow trout, Laight, 2000). highly valuable pharmaceutical pro- carp, tilapia and northern pike. When teins. Like transgenic goats, cows, and the transgenic fi sh exhibit faster grown Disease resistance other livestock, fi sh can also be used to it appears that it also optimizes many of produce valuable biomedical products. their metabolic and physiological proc- The most important potential area of Comparatively low cost, and absence of ess (improvement in food conversion trangenesis is to enhance disease resist- risks of accidental transfer of retrovi- ratio, good palatability and consump- ance. Many bacterial and viral diseases ruses or prions to mammals are some tion of food). There are reports that have been serious threats to the survival of the advantages that make fi sh one of transgenically growth-enhanced fi sh of the aquaculture industry. The use the best biofactories for production of show some promise of improvement on of antibiotics in controlling diseases pharmaceuticals. both counts (Entis 1998; Rahman and has been banned by many countries Maclean 1999). due to the presence of residues in end Biosensors consumer products with fears of health Cold tolerance concerns. This has lead to increased The fi eld of environmental toxicol- interest in producing fi sh with inbuilt ogy has begun very recently to obtain Initial research attempts have been immunity from serious diseases. One benefi t from the transgenic technology. made to produce fi sh capable of liv- approach is aimed at increasing general In a generalized conceptual approach, ing at abnormally low temperatures. resistance against bacterial infections the transgenic fi sh would be placed Antifreeze protein (AFP) gene derived and another approach is to increase in water containing a chemical to be from polar region fi sh (winter fl oun- resistance against a specifi c viral tested. Following uptake, distribution der or ocean pout) was used in a gene pathogen. Enhancement of antibacterial and accumulation of the substance in construct with the aim of producing enzyme (eg. Rainbow trout lysozyme fi sh tissues, the genomically integrated Atlantic salmon surviving in very coding sequence and ocean pout AFP response elements would be activated low temperatures on the east coast of promoter into Atlantic salmon, an all and the reporter gene would be upregu- Canada (Fletcher et al. 1988). To date fi sh construct, by Hew et al. 1995), and lated. The fi sh would be removed from four major types of antifreeze proteins antibacterial peptide (eg. cecropins/plu- the water and assayed for reporter gene have been found in fi sh: Glycoprotein erocidin amide) have been attempted activity that would be proportional to from Antarctic cod, type I from winter to express the disease resistance traits. the concentration of the chemical to fl ounder, type II from sea raven, and Fish can be produced with built-in which the fi sh has been exposed (Winn, type III from ocean pout. However, immunity to a particular virus or any R. N., 2001). initial thrusts at improving cold toler- other pathogen, by inserting the gene Scientists from the National Uni- ance gene transfer have been minimally that determines the antigenicity of that versity of Singapore are developing a successful. Success may be achieved specifi c pathogen, into the germ line. breed of zebra fi sh danio (Brachydanio in the future by modifying the exist- Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis rerio) that can detect water pollutants ing constructs (Fletcher 1988, Davies, Virus (IHNV) G and N protein coding by changing its body colour. Fluo- 1989, Shears, 1991). sequences have been inserted in expres- rescent genes extracted from jellyfi sh sion vector and transferred to rainbow are used to give a fl uorescent glow Salinity tolerance trout by Anderson et al. (1996). It is to the body of the zebra fi sh. Such reported that N protein sequence alone fl uorescent-coloured transgenic fi sh Salinity tolerance is another trait that is failed to confer the immunity, but the will be able to respond to the presence being investigated to increase the en- G protein coding sequence either alone of chemicals, heavy metals and toxins vironmental tolerance/potential culture or in conjugation with the N sequence through the stress-responsive promoter. area. Two adenohypophysial hormones conferred immunity from the lethal ef- By using such transgenic fi sh, pollut- of the pituitary, corticotrophin and fects of the virus. ants can be detected with one quick prolactin are essentially concerned Even though disease resistance look. This transgenic fi sh, sold under with osmoregulation in fi shes. Prol- can be improved by hybridization, or the trademarked name GloFish, is to actin hormones play role in hatching, through selective breeding, the advan- be fi rst genetically modifi ed pet. The osmoregulation, behaviour and general tage of this method is that the desired Texas-based Yorktown Technologies metabolism. Once the euryhaline trait variety can be produced in a very short has licensed to sell as glofi sh the zebra is expressed, freshwater fi sh can be cul- period of time. fi sh, originally developed to detect tured in brackishwater or seawater (or environmental toxins. The team is vice versa) depending upon the level also working towards producing fi sh of gene expression. However, work on that give off a different coloured glow producing transgenic hyper prolacteina- depending on water temperatures. This meic fi sh is still at the inchoate stage.

14 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Genetics & biodiversity

Table 1: Some aquatic GMO’s being tested for use in aquaculture.

Species Foreign gene Desired effect and comments Country Atlantic salmon AFP Cold tolerance United States, Canada (Davies et al. 1989b, Fletcher AFP salmon GH Increased growth and feed effi ciency United States, Canada et al., 1988, 1992 & 2004, Hew et al., 1992 & 1995, Du et al., 1992) Coho salmon Chinook salmon After 1 year, 10- to 30-fold growth increase Canada (Delvin et al., 1995) GH + AFP Chinook salmon (Sin et al., AFP salmon GH Increased growth and feed effi ciency New Zealand 1993) Rainbow trout Increased growth and feed effi ciency United States, Canada AFP salmon GH (Chourrout et al., 1986, Nilsson et al., 1992, Agellon et al., 1988, Disney 1988) Cutthroat trout Chinook salmon Increased growth Canada (Delvin et al., 1995) GH + AFP Tilapia Increased growth and feed effi ciency; sta- Canada, United Kingdom AFP salmon GH (Brem et al., 1988, Maclean et ble inheritance al., 1995 & 2002, Martinez et Tilapia GH Increased growth and stable inheritance Cuba al., 1996, Rahman et al., 1998 & 2000) Tilapia Modifi ed tilapia P roduction of human insulin for diabetics Canada insulin-producing gene Salmon (Hew et al., 1995) Rainbow trout Disease resistance, still in development United States, Canada lysosome gene and fl ounder pleurocidin gene Striped bass Insect genes Disease resistance, still in early stages of United States research Mud loach Mud loach GH Increased growth and feed effi ciency; 2- to (Zhu et al., 1986, Tsai et al., + mud loach and China, Korea, Rep. 30-fold increase in growth; inheritable 195) mouse promoter transgene genes Channel catfi sh GH 33% growth improvement in culture condi- United States (Dunham et al., 1992) tions Common carp Salmon and human 150% growth improvement in culture China, United States (Zhu et al., 1989, Zhang et al., GH conditions; improved disease resistance; 1990, Chen et al., 1993, Chata- tolerance of low oxygen level kondi et al., 1995) Indian major carps (Venugopal Human GH Increased growth India et al., 2002a) Goldfi sh GH AFP China Increased growth (Zhu et al., 1985) Northern Pike GH United States Increased growth (Gross et al., 1992) Abalone Coho salmon GH + United States Increased growth various promoters Oysters Coho salmon GH + United States Increased growth various promoters Fish to other life forms Rabbit Salmon calcitonin- Calcitonin production to control calcium United Kingdom producing gene loss from bones Strawberry and potatoes AFP Increased cold tolerance United Kingdom, Canada AFP = anti-freeze protein gene (Arctic fl atfi sh). GH = growth hormone gene. Source: FAO website.

April-June 2006 15 Genetics & biodiversity

may lead to the use of fl uorescent fi sh trol siblings. Indian Council of Agricul- model. Effective use of transgenic as temperature indicators. tural Research (ICAR) Scientists have fi sh research offers the opportunity to recently initiated research on trans- improve the growth of fi sh production, Pleiotropic effects genic fi sh with an approach to increase pharmaceuticals and to support other growth rate and produce biosensors. functions such as surveillance of envi- When a desired gene is inserted with ronmental pollution. Thus, we feel that the aim of expressing a particular trait, Containment of transgenic research in transgenic fi sh is soon going that gene may also affect more that one fi sh to make a positive revolution in India trait. One gene affecting more than one in the near future. trait is known as pleiotropy. Pleiotropic It is important to keep the transgenic effects may be positive or negative. For fi sh isolated from the wild fi sh popu- Acknowledgment example, the increased growth rate of lation while a thorough evaluation is transgenic individuals could also be a conducted about their possible impacts Authors are thankful to Dr. S.C. result of increased food consumption, and obtaining proper legal acceptance. Mukherjee, Director, Central Institute feed conversion effi ciency or both. The following methods can be adopted of Fisheries Education, Mumbai for So it becomes important to evaluate to isolate transgenic fi sh populations: providing necessary facilities to work several commercially important traits • Sterility: Genetic introgression on this area and prepare this manu- in transgenic fi sh to see the additional of transgenes into the wild gene script. effects. pool can be controlled by inducing sterility with transgenic or non- References All-fi sh construct transgenic methods. Triploidy is the most common non-transgenic Bartley, 2005. Status of the world’s fi shery genetic It is now possible to produce constructs method to induce sterility. Mol- resources, http://www.fao.org/biotech/docs/bartley. that contain only fi sh-derived sequenc- ecules that antagonize a genetic pdf. es, employing coding sequences of fi sh function necessary for fertility are Beaumont, A. R. and Hoare, K. 2003. Biotechnology origin spliced to promoters such as expressed transgenetically (eg. use and Genetics in Fisheries and Aquaculture. Black- those from fi sh (eg. Carp b-actin, ocean of antisense genes). Containment by well Science: 158. pout antifreeze protein (AFP) or sock geographical isolation (isolated site Chen, T. T., Lu, J., Shamblott, M. J., Cheng, C. M., Lin, eye salmon metllothionein). Depend- for transgenic aquaculture). C., Burns, J. C., Reimschuessel, R., Chattakondi, ing on the purpose, all-fi sh constructs Thermal containment - warm water N. and Dunham, R. A., 1996. Transgenic Fish: Idea may be autotransgenic (introduction species can be kept in geothermally Models for Basic Research and Biotechnological of gene-construct made from the same isolated area, for example, surround- Applications. In: Molecular Zoology: Advances, species) or allotransgenic (introduction ed by cold water where they are Strategies, and Protocols. Eds: Ferraris, J. D. and of gene-construct made from different unable to survive if they escape. Palumbi, S. R., Wiley-Liss, Inc. pp. 401-430. species). The autotransgenic approach • Biological containment - genetically Delvin, R. H., Yesaki, T. Y., Biagi, C. A., Donaldson, E. promises comparatively less ethical isolation. M., Swanson, P. and Chan, W. K., 1994. Extraordi- problems and is supposed to increase • Physical containment, including nary Salmon growth. Nature. 371: 209-210. market demand of transgenic fi sh. screening, avoiding transport of Dunham, R. A. 2004. Aquaculture and Fisheries Bio- transgenic fi sh/egg/larvae by birds, technology. Genetic Approaches. CABI Publishing. Transgenic fi sh in India applying toxin if fi sh is escaped into UK. natural water body by fl ood or any Entis, E. 1997. Aquabiotech: a blue revolution? World Research on animal transgenesis was other means. Aquaculture, 28: 12-15. initiated by National Institute of Im- FAO State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000. munology (NII) in India. Thereafter, Conclusions http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_fi le=/ investigations have been made on rohu DOCREP/003/X8002E/X8002E00.htm. (Labeo rohita), zebra (Brachydanio Transgenic techniques can be used as Gong, Z. 2003. Glowing Fish to Be First Geneti- rerio), and catfi sh. Transgenic-fi sh an effective tool to express desired cally Changed Pet, CNN News (http://edition.cnn. research has started in different insti- traits in target fi sh to make them more com/2003/US/11/21/offbeat.glofi sh.reut/). tutes including the Madurai Kamaraj compatible for culture thereby ulti- Hackett, P. B. 1993. The Molecular Biology of Trans- University (MKU), Tamil Nadu, Centre mately increasing aquaculture produc- genic Fish. In: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology for Cellular and Molecular Biology tion. This approach is advantageous as of Fishes (Eds. Hochachka and Mommsen). 2: (CCMB), Hyderabad and the National compared to traditional methods viz. 207-240. Matha College, Kollam with constructs selective breeding, cross breeding, etc. Hennig, M. 2001. New Aquarium Trend? - Fish that borrowed from foreign scientists. The which take more time and offer less glow in the dark http://www.aquarticles.com. fi rst Indian transgenic fi sh was pro- precision. A shorter generation time, Hew, C. L. and Fletcher, G. L. 2001. The role of aquatic duced at MKU in 1991 using borrowed external fertilization and high fecundity biotechnology in aquaculture, Aquaculture, 197: constructs. Transgenic rohu produced are some of the advantages of using 191-204. from indigenous construct at Madurai fi sh for such studies. Certain fi sh spe- Hew, C. L., Fletcher, G. L. and Davies, P. L. 1995. Kamaraj University has shown eight cies (e.g. zebra and medaka) have ad- Transgenic Salmon: tailoring the genome for food times higher growth rate than its con- vantages over mammalian experimental production. Journal of Fish Biology. 47: 1-19.

16 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

Future Fish: Issues in Science and Regulation of Trans- some and gene manipulations in fi sh; Curr. Sci. 76 genic Fish, http://pewagbiotech.org/research/fi sh/, 369–386. 2003. http://fl mnh.ufl .edu/fi sh/InNews/transfi sh2004.html, http://www.tifac.org.in/offer/tlbo/rep/TMS170.htm, 2004. Scientists Develop Transgenic Fish Species. 2003. Transgenic Animal Models. http://www.nus.edu.sg/corporate/research/gallery/re- search12.htm, Zebra Fish as Pollution Indicators. Maclean, N. & Laight, R. J., 2000. Transgenic fi sh: an evaluation of benefi ts and risks. Fish and Fisheries, Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of 1: 146-172. Matty A. J. 1985. Fish Endocrinology. Croom Helm, Nuwakot, Nepal Timber Press: 267. Pandian, T. J. and Marian, L. H. 1994. Problems and Tek Bahadur Gurung, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Krishna Prasad Lamsal Prospects of Transgenic Fish Production. Current Science, 66: 635-649. Rocha, A., Ruiz, S., Esepa, A., and Coll, J. M. 2004. Nepal is a predominantly mountainous Trout farming in terraces Application of Inducible and Targeted Gene Strate- country with most of its area covered gies to Produce Transgenic Fish: A Review. Mar. by hills and highlands. Recently the Cultivation of trout utilizing spring- Biotechnol. 6: 118 – 127. population of Nepal has reached about water in the highland terraces, which Anderson, E. D, Mourich D. V., Fahrenkrug, S., Lapatra, 27.67 million and the ever-increasing are generally unsuitable for other high S., Shepherd, J., Leong, J.C., 1996. Genetic Immu- population is one of the factors con- value crops, is referred to here as trout nization of rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) tributing to overwhelming poverty. To farming in terraces. From the beginning against infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus. Mol a great extent poverty reduction in the of modern aquaculture development in Mar Biol Biotech 5: 114-122. country will depend on how effi ciently Nepal, the Himalayas have been visual- Entis, E. 1998. Taste testing at a top Canadian restaurant. and effectively hill terraces and moun- ized as an area offering great potential Aqua Bounty Farms Update 1 (4): 1-4. tain ecosystems can be utilized in a for trout cultivation, as the abundant Rahman, M. A. and Maclean, N. 1999. Growth perform- sustainable manner. The Nepalese hills supply of cold, well-oxygenated water ance of transgenic tilapia containing an exogenous and mountains function as huge water and local environmental conditions piscine growth hormone gene. Aquaculture 173: towers. There are altogether 6,000 riv- are well suited to the requirements of 333-346. ers originating from Nepalese hills and these fi sh (Gurung and Basnet 2003; Fletcher, G. L., Shears, M. A., King, M. J., Davies, P. mountains, which ultimately drain into Rai et al. 2004). Rainbow trout were L. and Hew, C. L. , 1988. Evidence for antifreeze the Ganges River System. These water- introduced in 1988, and are now one protein gene transfer in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo ways are a signifi cant natural resource of the most successfully cultivated of salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic that can contribute to the economic the introduced fi shes in Nepal. To date, Sciences. 45: 352-357. development of Nepal. no detrimental environmental impacts Davies, P. L., Hew, C. L., Shears, M. A. and Fletcher, The development of sustainable have been reported as a result of trout G. L. 1989b. Antifreeze protein expression in agricultural technologies for making introduction in Nepal. transgenic salmon. Journal of Cellular Biology Sup- use of steeply sloping hills and moun- Trout farming in terraces has been plement. 13B, 169. tains is indeed challenging. Nuwakot established as part of a decade-long Shears, M. A., Fletcher, G. L., Hew, C. L., Gauthier, S. District is located about 72 km north- participatory research program under- and Davies, P. L., 1991. Transfer, expression and west of Kathmandu, the capital of taken by the Trishuli Fisheries Station, stable inheritance of antifreeze protein genes in Nepal, and covers an extreme range Nuwakot (Basnet et al. 2002). Initially, Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar). Molecular Marine of elevation from 457 to 5,144 meters farmers with suitable farming sites Biology and Biotechnology. 1, 58-63. above sea level. Here, we describe an including adequate cold water sources Scientists Develop Transgenic Fish Species, 2004. http:// approach adopted by farmers in hill were selected and provided with www.fl mnh.ufl .edu/fi sh/InNews/transfi sh2004.html. terrace of Nuwakot for cultivation of knowledge and training on feeding, Winn, R. N., 2001. Transgenic fi sh as models in environ- rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) as water management and the impor- mental toxicology. Institute for Laboratory Animal a part of their family income utiliz- tance of hygiene for successful trout Research (ILAR) Journal. 42 (4):322-328. ing land unsuitable for other purposes cultivation. They were also provided Venugopal T, Pandian T J and Mathavan S 1998 Growth and nearby to cold water streams or with trout fi ngerlings for rearing into hormone precursor mRNA complete coding springs originating from local hills. raceway ponds, with the construction sequence of Labeo rohita; Genbank submission Fish farming in terraces has been used cost of raceways subsidized on a loan AF134200. by farmers as a means of controlling basis from fi nancial institutions. At the Venugopal T, Anathy V, Pandian T J, Gong G Z and soil erosion. Fresh, smoked and fried initial stage pellet feed for trout were Mathavan S 2002 Molecular cloning of growth trout from their farm serve both local supplied from the Trishuli farm as the hormone encoding cDNA of an Indian major carp, and international tourists, generating cost of pellet machine was prohibitive Labeo rohita and its expression in E. coli and Ze- income for the farmers. to poor farmers. Later, with the fi nan- brafi sh; Gen. Comp. Endocrino. 125: 236-247. cial benefi ts obtained from selling trout, Pandian T J, Venugopal T and Koteeswaran R 1999 many farmers have come to possess Problems and prospects of hormones, chromo- their own locally assembled pellet mill.

April-June 2006 17 Research & farming techniques

There are presently about 12 such farm- need to develop sustainable and more and economic well being of the people ers engaged in trout farming in terraces. reliable mechanisms of trout seed and in the high hill and mountain regions. The farmers that have had the most feed production, supply, distribution success tend to be those that are located and more effi cient marketing chan- Acknowledgement closer to the roadside, and who have a nels. Presently, seed availability is one regular and abundant cold water supply of the bottlenecks for the expansion We are grateful to all farmers and staff (<21°C) for rearing higher densities of of the trout farming in the country. At that are associated with and that have trout throughout the year. present there is only one trout hatchery been instrumental in making trout The characteristics features of the producing about 200,000 fi ngerlings farming a success in hills of Nuwakot, raceways in Nuwakot are their loop- per annum. The number of fi ngerlings Nepal. Thanks are also due to JICA (Ja- ing (rather than traditional straight) produced by this hatchery could be in- pan International Cooperation Agency) structure constructed to suit the turning creased but there are some issues with and Embassy of Japan for providing of the landscape. The length of these siltation of the hatchery water supply KR-2 funds for fi sheries research, and raceways varies from 4-6 m depending that are constraining production. Thus, to the Ministry of Agriculture and on the location. These modifi ed terrace establishment of another trout hatchery Cooperatives for its kind support. Other raceways incorporate a water sup- in more feasible location for trout seed funds and facilities for this study were ply and discharge system, with depth production has been recommended. If provided by the Nepal Agricultural typically maintained at 30-40cm and additional hatcheries facilities can be Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal. a width of around 1m. Despite their established and seed becomes more This article was prepared during Ful- unconventional design, farmers have widely available more private farmers bright Scholarship to one of the author not found any problems with fi sh pro- can be expected to commence trout (TBG) during his term in University of duction in terrace raceways. At present cultivation in the hill and mountain Missouri-Columbia. the trout productivity in private sector regions. At present the local production farms ranges from 12-18 kg.m2 of race- cost of trout is high, however, greater References way area (Basnet et al. 2003). production will allow economies of scale that will lead to cost reductions. Basnet SR and KP Lamsal (2002). Artifi cial breeding, Marketing of trout There is an approximately 800 kilom- hatchability, alevin, rearing of cold water fi sh rain- eter-wide belt of the Himalayan range bow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal. A paper At present farmers do not have any that would offer suitable environmental presented in workshop organized by Society of problems selling their produce. There is conditions for trout culture in Nepal. Agricultural Scientist (SAS) in Kathmandu. Nepal an ever-ready market in both Nuwa- Basnet SR, KP Lamsal, A Nepal, PL Joshi, AK Rai, TB kot or nearby Kathmandu, or in other Conclusions and Gurung (2003). Cold water mountain aquaculture: locations such as Pokhara, Jomsom and recommendation technology adoption and livelihood in Nepal. A Namche Bazar. There is some potential paper presented in the meeting of National Animal to export trout to nearby countries in The potential for successful trout Science Association held in Lalitpur Kathmandu, the region that do not cultivate their culture in the hill and mountain areas Nepal. own. However, the cost of feed is an of Nepal has been successfully dem- Gurung TB and SR Basnet (2003). Introduction of issue for the industry, as the approxi- onstrated through the establishment of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal: mate cost of producing pellets with the fi rst commercial farms. However, Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia. Oct- 30-34% of crude protein is estimated to the industry is still at a very early stage Dec. Vol. III No. 40. 2003. be nearly 60 Rs. (nearly 0.85 US$) per of development and further investment Rai AK, RC Bhujel, SR Basnet and KP Lamsal (2005). kg (depending on scale of production), is required to support its expansion. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in while the conversion ratio of pellet feed Key issues that need to be addressed, the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal, a success story. to trout is about 3:1. As a result, the including through private investment, Asia Pacifi c Association of Agricultural Research production cost is relatively high, but include: Institutions (APAARI), FAO regional offi ce for Asia this is currently supported by a high lo- i) Enhance hatchery and seed produc- and the Pacifi c Bangkok, Thailand. cal market price of 300-500 Rs (nearly tion facilities. 4.2 - 7.1 US$) per kg. ii) Increase commercial feed produc- tion capacity. Expansion of trout farming iii) Initiate a trout producers association. in hill terraces iv) Active promotion of trout produc- tion by extension agencies and At present, trout production in Nepal relevant NGOs. is low averaging about 20-30 metric We expect that the mountain regions tons per year. The local market still has of Nepal have the potential to be able substantial capacity to absorb addi- to produce suffi cient trout to bring new tional production. Large-scale adoption taste to the people in the region, con- of terrace farming of trout could be tribute to fulfi ll the anticipation of “fi sh a means of scaling up trout produc- for all”, and improve the productivity tion in the region. However, there is

18 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

Sugar industry by-products as plankton boosters and yield enhancers in carp culture systems

S. Felix1, T. Francis1, K. Mohan Naidu2, C. Senthil2 and P. Herald Robins1

1. Fisheries Biotechnology Centre, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tuticorin, India, E-mail: [email protected]; 2. Rajshree Sugars and Chemicals Ltd, Coimbatore, India.

Organic manures play a vital role in Table 1: Stocking density of carp seeds in trial ponds. plankton production and are widely Pond A Pond B used to increase production of carps Species and many other fi shes under culture. RSCL - MAT RSCL - GPOM Upon decomposition organic fertilizers Catla catla (Catla) 150 150 release nutrients that in turn stimulate Labeo rohita (Rohu) 50 50 phytoplankton growth. Aside from Cirrhinus mrigala (Mrigal) 50 50 organic manures, industrial by-products H. molitrix (Silver Carp) 75 75 also play a major role in increasing the S. idella (Grass carp) 25 25 fertility of ponds. Different forms of C. carpio (Common Carp) 25 25 these industrial products (liquid and Total no. stocked 375 375 solid manures used in these trials) infl u- enced phytoplankton and zooplankton Table 2: Estimated water quality parameters on daily basis in pond A productivity in farm ponds to help (RSCL - MAT). increase fi sh production. Date PH Temperature DO Transparency Methodology (°C, 9.30AM) (ml/lit) (cm) March 9.35 – 9.74 33 – 36 12.8 – 13.76 20 – 25 Two experimental cement ponds with April 9.05 – 9.5 31.5 – 35 12.1 – 13.37 20 – 24 the size of 0.03ha were stocked with May 8.39 – 9.12 30 – 34 12.2 – 13.76 15 – 25 carp seeds. The details of stocking are June 8.17 – 9.62 28 – 32 12.6 – 13.57 15 – 20 given in Table 1. In Pond A, the RSCL July 8.17 – 9.62 28 – 31 12.1 – 13.26 25 – 35 Mahasakthi Aqua Tonic (MAT) and in August 7.18 – 8.73 28 – 31 5.65 – 9.92 35 – 45 Pond B, the RSCL Green Plus Organic September 8.15 – 8.64 29 – 31 6.48 – 6.89 15 – 30 Manure (GPOM) were applied. October 8.15 – 8.37 27 – 31 6.53 – 7.14 20 – 40 Apart from the routine parameters to November 7.85 – 8.32 26 – 30 6.53 – 8.37 30 – 40 estimate the growth and population of December 6.83 – 8.21 27 – 31 6.15 – 7.27 20 – 40 fi shes, water quality parameters such as January 7.67 – 8.29 28 – 31 6.29 – 7.21 30 – 35 DO, pH, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and (RSCL - MAT) phosphate were analysed. Transparency was measured daily as an index of ferti- Table 3: Estimated water quality parameters on daily basis in pond B lisation. Further, the qualitative assess- (RSCL – GPOM). ment of plankton population produced pH Temperature DO (ml/lit) Transparency (cm) due to fertilization was also analysed at Date weekly intervals. (°C, 9.30AM) March 9.15 – 9.69 32°C – 34°C 12.8 – 13.44 32 – 35 Water quality parameters in trial April 8.91 – 9.25 32 – 34 12.8 – 13.76 25 – 30 ponds May 8.3 – 8.99 28 – 34 12.5 – 13.23 25 – 30 June 8.58 – 9.32 28 – 32 12.8 – 13.44 20 – 30 Water quality parameters viz. hardness, July 8.58 – 9.32 28 – 32 10.88 – 13.44 10 – 15 alkalinity, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and August 7.35 – 8.53 28 – 32 5.32 – 12.16 20 – 40 phosphate were analysed at regular September 8.37 – 8.81 29.5 – 32 6.43 – 6.87 20 – 25 intervals in the culture systems. High October 8.07 – 8.31 27 – 31 6.23 – 7.13 20 – 35 values of hardness were observed from November 7.15 – 8.97 26 – 29 6.68 – 7.31 25 – 30 ponds fertilized with MAT. Phenolp- December 7.67 – 8.31 28 – 31 6.73 – 7.34 20 – 30 thalein alkalinity was higher in GPOM January 7.64 – 8.17 28 – 31 6.71 – 7.19 20 – 25 fertilized ponds while total alkalinity (RSCL – GPOM) was higher in MAT fertilized ponds. Ammonia levels were observed to be

April-June 2006 19 Research & farming techniques

Limited water exchange growout pond with central drain Adding algal concentrate to raceways. facility.

Fish catch from treatment pond. Treatment pond.

within the permissible limits in GPOM during the initial period. However, and MAT ponds. However, an abrupt both NPP and GPP showed increased increase of ammonia level was noticed productivity in the subsequent two during February to April in MAT ap- months. Further, after every fertilizer plied ponds. This may be due to the application an increase in productivity excess release of nutrients by the Aqua- was also observed. tonic. Nitrite, nitrate and phosphate Initially, a greater number of plank- levels were relatively higher in GPOM ton species were recorded in the pond fertilized pond but within permissible fertilized with MAT (65%) to that of limits. the pond fertilized with GPOM (35%). However a steady increase in the Impact of RSCL products number of plankton species was found on plankton production in the GPOM fertilized pond. Finally a higher percentage (64%) of plankton Plankton production, an index of species was recorded in the GPOM - fertilization, was measured in terms of fertilized pond compared to the 36% of transparency in the treatment ponds. plankton recorded in the pond fertilized Though MAT and GPOM recorded with MAT. Dominant and desirable almost an equal performance in terms plankton species viz. Pediastrum sp., of plankton production during the fi rst Anabaena sp., Closterium sp., Volvox Aclimatisation of shrimp seed in three months of the crop, subsequently sp., Scenedesmus sp., Spirulina sp. and raceways. GPOM showed a relatively a bet- Mesocyclops sp. were found in larger ter performance. The results clearly numbers in GPOM fertilized pond to Fish yield in relationship demonstrated that the performance of that of MAT - fertilized pond. with fertilization GPOM was better than that of MAT with respect to plankton production in Mortimer (1954) was of the view that carp culture systems. fertilization will generally cause an Net primary productivity (NPP) increase in fi sh production. He reported and Gross primary productivity (GPP) that while unfertilized carp ponds in were lower in both the treatment ponds Germany yielded 20 – 50 Kg/ha/yr;

20 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

Table 4: Plankton species recorded in trial ponds.

Sampling period MAT GPOM Phytoplankton Zooplankton Phytoplankton Zooplankton Closterium sp. B. fulcatus Pediastrum sp. K. tropica Scenedesmus sp. B. havensis Anabaena sp. Cosmarium sp. Oscillatoria sp. Spirulina sp. Chlorella sp. Coelosphaerium sp. Closterium sp. Initial Synedra ormosa Spirulina sp. Asterionella sp. Micronella sp. Microcystis sp. Oscillatoria sp. Myxophyceae Closterium sp. Euchlanis dialata Scenedesmus sp. Euchlanis dialata Cosmarium sp. Philodina sp. Spirulina sp. Mesocyclops hyalinus Spirulina sp. Chlorella sp. Brachinus forfi cula Oscillatoria sp. Microcystis sp. Rotaria vulgaris Anabaena sp. Coelospharium sp. Final Chlorella sp. Oscillatoria sp. Pediastrum sp. Cladophora sp. Ulothrix sp. Cosmarium sp. Desmidium sp.

Table 5: Estimated growth parameters in trial ponds. fertilized carp ponds yielded 200 – 400 kg/ha. Tropical lakes produced 2,240 Species MAT* GPOM* kg/ha of fi sh, but fertilized ponds in Total Weight (kg) SGR Total Weight (kg) SGR tropical Africa yielded 5,135 – 9,000 Catla 29.112 0.015 30.1266 0.016 kg/ha of fi sh. Rohu 24.034 0.016 24.350 0.017 The economic implication of the Mrigal 28.328 0.016 34.920 0.017 relationship between fertilizer rate and Silver Carp 23.128 0.015 19.120 0.015 yield has been established. The fertiliz- Grass Carp 17.088 0.017 17.032 0.019 er cost per unit weight of crop increases Common Carp 13.035 0.017 15.420 0.018 with each successive unit of fertilizer Total 134.725 141.008 applied. Because of the diminishing re- MAT – Pond fertilized with Mahasakthi Aqua Tonic turns, a point is soon reached where the *GPOM – Pond fertilized with Green Plus Organic Manure cost of an additional unit of fertilizer is MAT: 134.725 kg/0.03 ha/yr = 4,466 kg/ha/yr greater than the value of the incremen- GPOM: 141.008 kg/0.03 ha/yr = 4700.26 kg/ha/yr tal increase in productivity. This study Control (Pond with cow dung as fertilizer) = 4,000 kg/ha/yr confi rms that sugarcane byproducts Duration of culture: 365 days have the potential to be a cheap and effective source of fertilizer for the aquaculture sector. Hence, the sugar industry’s byproducts tested through farm trials can be utilized effectively Table 6: Signifi cant growth rate in MAT fertilized pond against the as fertilizers in carp ponds to boost control. primary and secondary production. The treatment ponds recorded fi sh ANOVA At 5% level (P<0.05) yields at the rate of 4,466 kg/ha/yr and Source of Variation SS DF MS F P-value 4,700 kg/ha/year for MAT and GPOM Between species 370145.7 5 74029.13 230.3726 6.64E-06 treatments respectively. The fi sh yield Against control 7739.888 1 7739.888 24.0859 0.004444 from conventional fertilization will Error 1606.726 5 321.3452 be around 4,000 kg/ha (as per our Institute’s farm data). Therefore we Total 379492.3 11 conclude that both the ponds ferti-

April-June 2006 21 Research & farming techniques

Table 7: Signifi cant growth rate of MAT fertilized pond against the conditions of this trial. There was an in- control. crease of 12 to 17.5% in fi sh production with use of these products respect to the ANOVA At 5% level (P<0.05) control pond. This clearly established Source of variation SS DF MS F P-value the positive effect of these by-products Between species 515057.5 5 103011.5 11.80214 0.0085 on fi sh yield. The results of growth rate Against control 59327.58 1 59327.58 6.797226 0.047834 in both treatments (fertilized ponds) Error 43641.02 5 8728.205 were signifi cantly higher (P<0.05) than the control (Table 6 and 7) indicating Total 618026.1 11 that the RSCL products have better infl uence on plankton productivity and fi sh yield. lized with sugar industry byproducts Conclusion showed signifi cantly better growth rate Acknowledgement (P<0.005) against the control. A yield The water quality parameters were enhancement of 12% and 17.5% were found to be within the desirable limits The research grant support provided by recorded for MAT and GPOM treat- in both treatment ponds fertilized with M/s. Rajshree Sugars and Chemicals ments respectively. Among the two Mahaskthi Aqua Tonic (MAT) and Limited, Coimbatore, India for this products tested, the carp pond fertilized Green Plus Organic Manure (GPOM) institute – industry project is gratefully with GPOM recorded a better yield respectively. The plankton species acknowledged. than the MAT fertilized pond. diversity demonstrated the effect of these products on the culture system. Reference Both products favoured plankton pro- duction within optimum water quality Mortimer, C.H., 1954. Fertilizers in Fish Ponds. Her parameters and did not cause excessive majesty’s stationery offi ce, London, Fisheries Publi- plankton blooms under the dosage and cation No. 5, 155 pp.

A note on the growth and production of Penaeus monodon in low saline culture systems of Kerala

G. Prasad

Lecturer in Aquaculture, Department of Zoology and Aquaculture, St. Albert’s College, Kochi, Kerala 682018, India.

The tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon accepted that P. monodon can grow as salinity typically ranging from 2-7 ppt. is universally recognised as one of well in freshwater conditions (ASEAN Some enthusiastic farmers in this area the most important cultured species, 1978). A high rate of survival and good are engaged in monoculture of P. mono- particularly in the Asian countries. It growth for this species in freshwater don with varying degrees of manage- is a fast growing, euryhaline, omnivo- lakes has been reported from the Philip- ment practices in small culture ponds. rous and hardy species well known for pines (Pantastico 1979). Monoculture A preliminary study was undertaken its delicious fl esh and high commer- of P. monodon in rivers, irrigation to assess the growth and production of cial value. Hence it contributes to the channels and ground water has been P. monodon in these low saline ponds major share of shrimp production from successfully accomplished in Thailand under two different stocking densities. farming. Different ranges of salinity (Raghunath et al. 1997). Athithan et al. have been reported to support the sur- (2001) reported the production of P. Approach vival and better growth of this shrimp. monodon in hard water systems. Muthu (1980) and Karthikeyan (1994) The traditional brackish water The study was undertaken in two recommended a salinity range of 1-35 shrimp culture is an age-old practice in adjacent low saline ponds in Vayalar ppt, while Rajyalakshmi (1980) and Kerala, the southern most state of India. in Alleppey District of Kerala. Culture Chanratchakool et al. (1994) recom- More than 1,000 ha of low-lying water practices following in both ponds were mended a salinity range of 15-20 ppt area in the northern part of Alleppey similar and included drying on pond and 10-30 ppt respectively for rearing District adjacent to Vembanad Lake bottom, tilling and liming at the rate of this species. Chen (1984) reported that in this tiny state. This area receives a 500 kg/ha, fi lling the ponds with tidal a salinity range of 15-22 ppt is optimal low tidal infl uence from January to the water to a depth of 60cm and applica- for culturing P. monodon in coastal middle of May, and hence a low saline tion of mahua oil cake at the rate of 200 areas. However, it has been generally condition prevails in this season with ppm to kill predators and weed fi shes.

22 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

P. monodon broodstock.

The ponds were stocked with 20 day biomass were estimated following the culture was higher in the low-density old post larvae (PL 20) of P. monodon, approach of Dash and Patanaik (1994) pond (28.0g) compared with that of the average weight 0.02g obtained from a and New (1976) respectively. Water high-density pond (18.5g). The specifi c local hatchery. Stocking was carried out quality parameters such as pH, dis- growth rate also showed the same at two densities, 4 and 15 individuals/ solved oxygen and salinity were moni- patter, being higher in the low-den- m2. Factory produced dry pelleted feed tored with an electronic water quality sity pond. However, the total biomass containing 30% protein was applied checking apparatus and transparency increase was greater in the high-density as the supplementary feed. The initial was determined with a Sechi disk once pond (12.5 kg/ha/day) than in the low- feeding rate was 20% of the body per week. density pond (5.42 kg/ha/day). This weight, which was gradually reduced difference in biomass increase between to 2% as the culture progresses. Daily Outcomes the ponds is a function of the stock- feed quantity was adjusted based on ing density of the culture ponds. In the estimation of biomass, monitoring The ponds are closely situated and present study the average growth in the check trays and feeding behaviour of the source of water is the same, hence low-density pond is 28.0 g in 120 days the animals particularly during molt- there were no signifi cant differences of rearing which is a higher value than ing periods. 20-25% of the water was in the water quality parameters of the the earlier reports for similar types of exchanged every day with tidal water ponds except transparency. The salinity systems (Guru et al. 1993, Saha et al. and an average water depth of 80T was values ranged from 3.6 to 6.4 ppt. The 1999, Athithan et al. 2001). The high maintained in the rearing period. pH was alkaline throughout the culture growth rate obtained in the present On the 30th day and thereafter every period, ranging from 7.4 to 8.2. Mean study may be because of the better uti- 15th day average body weight of the dissolved oxygen values ranged from lization of pelleted feed as well as the animals was estimated by considering 480 to 6.86 ppm. Secchi disk transpar- natural food available in the system. 250 shrimps collected by cast net from ency was high in the less stocked pond The growth is comparatively low in different parts of the ponds. Harvest- (35-44 cm) than the high stocked pond the high-density pond. The low weight ing was carried out by netting and hand (26.5-32.4 cm). The results of the ob- and comparatively low survival rate picking after 120 days. Survival was servations are presented in table 1. in this pond could be due to the high estimated from the number of shrimps The average body weight of P. stocking density of the animals, which harvested and specifi c growth rate and monodon at harvest after 120 days of may have resulted in overcrowding.

April-June 2006 23 Research & farming techniques

Table 1: Results of the farming of P. monodon in low saline conditions.

Pond Area of pond Stocking density Survival rate Size at harvest SGR FCR Increase in biomass Yield (ha) (No. / m2) (%) (g) (%) (kg/ha/day) (kg/ha) 1 0.2 15 54.2 18.5 15.5 1.85 12.5 1500 2 0.2 4 58.1 28.0 23.3 1.71 5.42 650

The gross production after 120 days of References Challenges to Development Projects, 9-10 Sep- culture was 1500 kg/ha in the high-den- tember 1994, American Society of Civil Engineers, sity pond and 650 kg/ha in the low- ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) 1978. Culcutta, India. density pond. The results obtained in Manual on pond culture of penaeid shrimp. ASEAN Manik, R.; Khan, R. And Tiensogrusmee, B. (1978). The the present study for the high stocking National coordinating Agency of the Philippines culture of shrimp Penaeus monodon in a low saline density are similar to the observations (ASEAN 77/SHR/CUL3) IV + 114pp. pond. Bull. Brackishwater Aquacu. Dev. Cent. 4 of Saha et al. (1999) for similar condi- Athithan, S.; Fancis, T.; Ramanathan, N. And Ramadhas, (1&2): 288-292. tions. Manik et al. (1978), Saha et al. V. (2001). A note on monoculture of Penaeus mono- Muthu, M.S. (1980). Site selection and type of farms (1990) and Athithan et al. (2001) have don in a hardwater seasonal pond. Naga, ICLARM for coastal aquaculture of prawns, in: Proceedings also reported that satisfactory growth Q. 24 (3&4): 14-15. of the First Mat. Symposium on Shrimp Farming. of P. monodon is possible in low saline Chanratchakool, P.; Turnbull, J.F. And Limsuwan, C. Marine Products Export Development Authority, water, thanks to the wide salinity toler- (1994). Health management in shrimp ponds. Aquat- India, 97-106. ance of this species. It can be conclud- ic Animal Health Research Institute, Department of New, M.B. (1976). A review of dietary studies with ed that the vast low saline low lying Fisheries, Kasetsart University , Bangkok. shrimp and prawns. Aquaculture 9: 101-144. uncultivable areas / paddy fi elds adjoin- Chen, H.C. (1984). Water quality criteria for farming of Pantastico, J.B. (1970). Research paper presented at the ing the Vembanad backwater system in shrimp, Penaeus monodon. In: Taki, Y.; Primavera, Technical Consultation on Available Aquaculture the Alleppey District of Kerala can be J.H. And Llobrera, J.A. (eds.) Proceedings of the technology in the Philippines. 8-10 February 1979. effectively utilized for the culture of First International conference on the culture of Aquaculture Development, SEAFDEC, Philippines, P. monodon in the summer months of penaeid prawns/shrimps. Southeast Asian Fisheries 5pp. the year. In the rest of the period either Development Centre, Iloilo City, Philippines. Raghunath, B., Shivappa and Hambreg, J.B. (1997). paddy or fresh water fi shes and prawns Dash, M.C. And Patnaik, P.N. (1994). Brackishwater Tiger shrimp culture in freshwater. Infofi sh Interna- can be cultured so that the farmers can prawn culture. Palani Paramount Publications, tional, 4: 22-26. raise income throughout the whole Palani, India. 223pp. Rajyalakshmi, T. (1980). Manual on brackish water year. Guru, B.C.; Mohapatra, V.C.; Pal, S. And Mohanty aquaculture. Bull. Cent. Inland Fish. Res. Inst. India A.K. (1993). Observations in the growht of Penaeus 31: 26p. monodon on a low saline culture pond. Indian J. Saha, S. B.; Bhattacharya, B. and Choudhary, A. (1999). Fish. 40 (4): 262-263. Preliminary observation on culture of P. monodon in Karthikeyan, J. (1994). Aquaculture (shrimp farming) low saline water. Naga, ICLARM Q. 22 (1): 30-33. - its infl uence on environment. Technical paper submitted to the seminar on Our Environment, its

24 Aquaculture Asia Magazine People in aquaculture

Peter Edwards is Emeritus Professor at Poor households raise prawns for the Asian Institute of Technology where he founded the aquaculture program. export He has nearly 30 years experience in aquaculture in the Asian region. Email: [email protected].

for household consumption and/or income”. We were criticized for such a narrow view of rural aquaculture during the discussion of the role of aquaculture in rural development at the ASEAN- SEAFDEC Conference on Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security in the New Millennium in 2001 (see my column in Aquaculture Asia Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 14- 15) which was re-enforced in my mind visiting GNAEP. The overall goal of GNAEP is to improve the lives of poor fi sh farm- ers by raising income from improved and sustainable aquaculture practices. The project originally focused mainly on carp polyculture in the small ponds available to most households but it was found that even improved culture Prawns harvested from a community-level pond. of carps did not signifi cantly increase household income. Therefore GNAEP In March I had an opportunity to is now promoting culture of high-value visit the Greater Noakhali Aquacul- ture Extension Project (GNAEP) in Bangladesh, a Danida-funded project in which my former colleague at AIT, Harvey Demaine, is currently Exten- sion & Training Advisor. Harvey and I literally passed each other in the air as he was on leave in Bangkok during my visit to Bangladesh but Reshad Alam, Programme Manager, was a most ef- fective guide during my 3 day visit to Noakhali. I confess to being amazed at what I saw: the intensive farming by poor and sometimes women-headed households of a crustacean and for export. Readers may recall that Harvey (I shouldn’t “let him off the hook”) and I defi ned rural aquaculture about 10 years ago as “the farming of aquatic organisms by small- scale farming households using mainly A typical seasonal ditch in a rice fi eld used to nurse PLs to juveniles during extensive and semi-intensive husbandry the rainy season.

April-June 2006 25 People in aquaculture

giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) for export and this has lifted some farming households out of poverty within two years. In doing so the project has switched its attention towards the so-called “hard-core” poor, most of them located in new settlement areas on the charlands in the southern part of the project area. A char is land that has emerged from the river over the past few decades through siltation. GNAEP is targeting women-headed households as at least 16% of the households in the char area settlement villages are headed by extremely poor women. These households have either a small pond or ditch constructed to raise the level of their homestead or a ditch in the ricefi eld. Such shallow water A wife and her husband with prawns harvested from a household-level bodies are not suitable for either carp pond. or prawn grow-out as they are seasonal, retaining water for only a few months, but can be used for nursing. Prawn post larvae (PLs) are stocked and nursed for 2 months to juveniles and are then sold to better-off farmers and groups of households managing community ponds. Two prawn nursery cycles give a huge average net return of Tk. 8,000 (US$1 = Tk. 70 approximately) for the two crops even though the level of feeding is quite small, only a total cost of Tk 2,000-3,000 per crop. Several households used the money earned in the fi rst year of nursing to get back their land from money lenders with whom they were forced to mortgage the land as a result of household emergen- cies. Subsequently, they have invested in other enterprises such as vegetables and small-scale livestock, which have Women members of a CBE, some with their prawn farming registration further improved their livelihoods. documents. The GNAEP is also promoting prawn grow-out in polyculture with credit-in-kind. It is remarkable the size Although the actual membership of carps in community ponds in formal the prawns had attained during my visit the CBEs is 3,500, they served up to settlement villages in the charlands. after stocking for 8-9 months. 8,000 prawn farmer clients in 2005. Thanarhat cluster village was visited, The GNAEP has developed an This is an alternative extension strategy with 2 ponds each of 4,000 m2 with extension strategy involving the estab- to the usual one in Bangladesh involv- 30 households farming each pond as lishment of community-based organiza- ing NGOs, which is not sustainable well as Ashrayan cluster village with 9 tions (CBOs) (or more appropriately in the long term as they rely on fi nite ponds, the one visited managed by 50 named community-based enterprises, donor funding and sometimes create households. Harvested prawns at a size CBEs) and partnership with various a dependency relationship with their of 3-4 pieces/kg were worth TK. 730/ private entrepreneurs. The project has farmer clients. kg, an incredible 12-14 times higher now organized 3,500 farmers in 85 Input supply (seed and feed) is than the price for carps. Although for- CBEs to create what should eventually carried out through the farmer man- mulated feed is being provided to the be a sustainable extension service for aged CBEs. The CBEs determine the community ponds, the level of feeding the farmers with the participation of demand for PLs from the farmers in is again quite small, Tk 5,000-8,000 the private sector, which is involved their area. The hatcheries produced 7.9 per pond, and is mainly obtained as primarily to promote its own business. million in 2005, of which 5.5 million

26 Aquaculture Asia Magazine People in aquaculture

ent for the pelleted feed. In return the 80 boats involving 800 households in 2006 get a fair price for their fi sh as they are now able to by-pass exploitive middlemen. Noakhali Gold Agro Feeds has bought 350 tonnes of dried fi sh in the 2005-2006 season for inclusion in prawn feed. Partnerships have been established with two private hatcheries with a com- bined capacity of about 14 million PLs annually. GNAEP is providing techni- cal assistance to the hatcheries to pro- duce PLs without the use of antibiotics. The hatcheries sell PLs at Tk. 1.25 per piece, half the price previously charged by the hatcheries of the large NGO BRAC, thus making them affordable to poor farming households. Prawn farmers with prawn farming records and certifi cates. The third major private sector investment is an HACCP approved processing plant of 10 tonnes/day capacity, Noakhali Gold Foods Ltd., the construction of which has been facili- tated by the Royal Danish Embassy Pri- vate Sector Development Programme, recently renamed B2B which stands for Business to Business. The plant is currently processing white fi sh but has agreed to center its local market- ing strategy on collection of prawns through the CBEs for export to the EU, Japan and the USA. The Noakhali Gold Prawn Industries Association comprising the various pri- vate sector partners has recently been established to ensure overall quality control in the system as well as with a view to eventually taking over from the GNAEP technical assistance. As there The Upakul Freshwater Prawn Hatchery in Noakhali. is traceability of inputs (pesticide-free fi sh powder and antibiotic-free PLs), were sold through the CBEs. This year provide a supply of pesticide-free sun- as well as in prawn grow-out, market- the demand is clearly more and produc- dried small marine fi sh which is ground ing and processing, attempts are being tion of PLs is underway. By the end of at the Noakhali Gold Agro Feeds feed made to secure formal certifi cation to April, 4.6 million had been distributed mill in Noakhali to produce “fi sh meal” gain a premium price. It is hoped that of which 4.2 million went out through (actually fi sh powder) as an ingredi- discussions on small farm clustering for the CBEs. They also determine the certifi cation to be held in Bangkok in demand for feed. Last year the pel- June, under the auspices of the Global leting factory sold 800 tonnes of feed Aquaculture Alliance, will facilitate to GNAEP farmers and the predicted this effort. demand is for 2,000 tonnes this year based on CBE reports. The private sec- tor also provides a commission on sales to the CBEs as an incentive that should ensure their sustainability as well as credit-in-kind to hardcore poor farmers. The GNAEP has established a partnership with poor inshore coastal The Noakhali Gold Foods Ltd. fi shers on the island of Hatiya to Processing Plant in Noakhali.

April-June 2006 27 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

AAsia-Pacifisia-Pacifi c MarineMarine FinfiFinfi sshh AAquaculturequaculture NNetworketwork MMagazineagazine

Marine fi sh marketing systems in coastal Bangladesh: Potential for development

Nesar Ahmed1 and Helen T. Sturrock2

1. Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh; E-mail: [email protected]; 2. Department of Marketing, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK; E-mail: [email protected]

Bangladesh’s coastal waters contain diverse fi sheries resources, with 475 recorded species of fi nfi sh including the cartilaginous fi shes - sharks, skates and rays (Mazid, 2005). However, only 90 fi sh species are commercially important. These fall under the com- mon groups of hilsa (herring), pomfret, marine catfi sh, tuna, coral fi sh, marine eel, jawfi sh, ribbonfi sh, bombay duck and shark (Fisheries Sector Review, 2003). The majority of the commer- cially targeted stocks are reported to be over-exploited and there were signifi - cant declines in catches after around 1997 (Kleih et al., 2002). The marine fi sheries sector has been recognized as an important part of the economy. Marine fi sheries produc- tion has marginally increased over the Typical fi shing boats in the Patuakhali coast, Bangladesh. last 10 years but its relative share in fi sheries production has declined from Bangladesh is large. The fi sh market- continuing preference for fi sh in the 31% in 1991 to 22% in 2004. The total ing system is traditional, complex, and diet. Fish play an important role for the fi sh production in Bangladesh was 2.1 less competitive but plays a vital role in population of Bangladesh as indicated million tons in 2004 of which 43% was connecting the fi shermen and consum- by the proverb ‘mache bhate Bangali’ from freshwater aquaculture, 35% from ers, thus contributing signifi cantly (fi sh and rice make a Bengali). How- inland fi sheries and 22% from marine in the ‘value adding’ process which ever, fi sh consumption appears to have sources (DOF, 2005). otherwise would have been unused fallen marginally because fi sh prices In terms of volume, value and or underused and consequently in the have been increasing faster than prices employment, the marine fi sh market in earnings of the fi sherfolk (Chowdhury, 2004). In Bangladesh, the market for fi sh is associated with strong demand, driven by continued increases in rural and urban populations, real term growth in income amongst key con- suming sectors, and a traditional and

28 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Magazine An electronic magazine of the Asia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network Auctioning fi sh by an aratdar.

Contact of other commodities (Fisheries Sector ness, Opportunities and Threats). Fifty Asia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi sh Review, 2003). questionnaire interviews were carried Aquaculture Network Fish prices have increased due to out, which included 20 assemblers, 10 PO Box 1040 the middlemen in the marketing sector, wholesalers and 20 retailers. This paper Kasetsart Post Offi ce as they have established a new market- provides information on commercially Bangkok 10903, Thailand ing chain based on the exploitation important marine fi sh distribution and Tel +66-2 561 1728 (ext 120) of the fi shing communities by setting marketing systems, marketing costs, Fax +66-2 561 1727 up an artifi cial pricing chain through prices of fi sh, marketing margins Email [email protected] intermediaries at different levels and profi ts, incomes of traders, and Website http://www.enaca.org/ (Kleih et al., 2001). The most serious constraints of fi sh marketing. It also marinefi sh marketing diffi culties seem to occur provides some recommendations for in remote fi shing communities, which further development of marine fi sh Editors lack regular supplies of ice, have poor marketing systems in coastal Bangla- Koji Yamamoto transport facilities and where the fi sher- desh. Asia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi sh men are in a weak position in relation Aquaculture Network to intermediaries (Kleih et al., 2003). In Catch composition of c/o NACA such locations, many fi sh are processed marine fi sh [email protected] into lower valued cured products and the process of curing often involves A large number of people, many of Dr Michael J. Phillips considerable losses due to spoilage. whom live below the poverty line, fi nd Environmental Specialist & Post-harvest losses also occur in all fi sh employment in the coastal fi sh market- Manager of R&D, NACA distribution and marketing systems. ing chain as fi shermen, assemblers, [email protected] Due to the growing gap between fi sh processors, traders, intermediaries, supply and demand it is important to transporters and day labourers, in- Simon Wilkinson reduce losses as much as possible for cluding women and children. Coastal Communications Manager the benefi t of poor marketing people fi shing in Bangladesh is highly sea- [email protected] and consumers. sonal, with the main hilsa (Tenualosa This study sought to broadly un- ilisha – the national fi sh of Bangladesh) Dr Mike Rimmer derstand marine fi sh distribution and season taking place between June and Principal Fisheries Biologist marketing systems in the Patuakhali September, and other fi shing during (Mariculture & Stock area of southern Bangladesh. Primary the calm weather from October to May. Enhancement) data were collected for six months from Hilsa is the main species caught in the DPIF, Northern Fisheries Centre July to December 2005 through a fi eld Bay of Bengal. A breakdown of the PO Box 5396 survey employing questionnaire inter- catch of commercially important ma- Cairns QLD 4870 views, rapid market assessment, cross- rine fi sh is presented in Figure 1. Australia check interviews with key informants, Fishermen work on their own boat [email protected] and participatory rural appraisal tools or other people’s (locally known as such as focus group discussion and mahajans) boats. Fishermen who SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weak- work on mahajans’ boats tend to have

April-June 2006 29 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

market, the aratdar takes care of land- ing, handling, sorting and auctioning by species and size-groups. Normally, the auction sale is made by heaps. In general, aratdars follow the incremental price system. It is the most competitive form of auctioning and ensures better prices for fi shermen. Auctioneers call out the bid by the bidders loudly in the presence of the buyers. Aratdars get commission at different rates of the sale proceeds, normally 2 to 5% of the auc- tion price, for their services and costs involved. In the present fi sh marketing system, the auctioneers and baperies (local or non-local traders) play a crucial role in determining prices for marine fi sh at the landing centre. Communication be- Icing of fi sh at the landing center. tween the aratdars and baperies is gen- erally good and takes place by mobile an arrangement with the boat owner passes mainly primary, secondary and phones. Baperies are a form of inter- regarding the share of the catch. Usu- retail markets, involving sales agents, mediary traders who supply fi sh from ally the owner of the boat retains about suppliers, wholesalers and retailers primary market to wholesale market. 50-60% of the catch and the fi sherman (Figure 2). Fishermen are the primary In general, baperies are tied to a limited keeps the remainder. The boat owner, producers in the fi sh marketing chain. number of aratdars. A few labourers who may not necessarily join the fi sh- With a few exceptions, fi shermen never work with the aratdars and baperies. ing at sea, sells the entire catch himself directly communicate with wholesal- They perform post-harvest tasks that and keeps the sales proceedings. The ers, retailers and consumers. Fishermen include cleaning, sorting, grading, icing owners have got full control over the tend to sell their catch at the landing and transportation. Baperies commonly fi shermen as they have extended credit centers (primary markets) to suppliers use boats, trawlers, micro-buses, buses for the purchase of their nets and other (locally known as baperies or paikers) and trains to transport fi sh from coastal fi shing equipment. Fishermen often with the help of commission-based areas to the wholesalers at urban fi sh feel exploited by the mahajans – be- sales agents (aratdars). Aratdars play a markets who then sell to retailers. lieving that the prices they receive for leading role in the fi sh marketing sys- Two main categories of fi sh retailers their catch do not adequately refl ect the tems at primary markets. As soon as the have been encountered: market-based prices paid for fi sh in the wholesale or fi shermen land the fi sh in the primary retailers and itinerant retailers (fi sh retail markets where they are subse- quently sold. Figure 1: Catch composition of marine fi sh in the Patuakhali area According to the survey, 88% of (Source: survey data, 2005). the marine catch in the study area is marketed internally for domestic con- sumption while the remaining (12%) is exported to the international market. Bangladesh exports frozen fi sh prima- rily for overseas ethnic markets. There is a demand for fi sh by Bangladeshis living outside the country (e.g. UK, USA, Middle East, etc). They demand good quality hilsa, pomfret and other fi sh. Export of hilsa also takes place to India (Kleih et al., 2003).

Fish marketing systems

In the study area, fi sh marketing is almost entirely managed, fi nanced and controlled by a group of power- ful intermediaries. The market chain from fi shermen to consumers encom-

30 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

According to the survey, the percent- ages of fi sh product forms were 35% fresh, 45% iced, 12% frozen, and 8% dried. As there is a large gap between supply and demand, fi sh marketing, or selling of fi sh, is very easy in primary, secondary and retail markets. The demand for fi sh is high in markets but supply is limited, and a strong network has developed with intermediaries and traders intervening between fi shermen at one end and the consumers at the other end.

Marketing costs

Fish marketing costs include expenses such as rental of the market place, ice, electricity, transport, and labour etc. A registered worker at primary market. The costs of fi sh marketing depend on the species, volume of fi sh, market vendors, hawkers, etc). Retail sales are between primary markets and retail for distance, market infrastructure, mode made at stalls in fi sh markets and to urban markets is usually less than 12 of transportation, form of marketed fi sh door-to-door to household customers. hours. People in Bangladesh generally (i.e. fresh or iced), and labour required. Fish are traded whole, ungutted, and prefer fresh fi sh without icing. The next The average marketing costs for marine fresh without processing apart from preference is for iced fi sh (Chowdhury, fi sh in different markets are shown in sorting and icing. More than 75% of 2004). Fish is iced with consideration Table 1. The highest average marketing the total marine catch is actually con- of transportation, space and time. If cost per kilogram of fi sh was found in sumed in distant places, so it requires the transportation time is less than six the secondary market (Tk 5.10 or US$ processing, icing and transportation. A hours from primary market to retail 0.07 per kg) followed by the primary large number of day labourers includ- point the fi sh is not iced, or if iced, it is (Tk 3.90 or US$ 0.05 per kg) and con- ing women and children are involved not done properly. Other forms of fi sh sumer markets (Tk 3.10 or US$ 0.04 in the process. The travel duration products are frozen, salted and dried. per kg).

Figure 2: Marine fi sh marketing channels from fi shermen to consumers (based on survey).

Primary Market Secondary Market

Mahajans Baperies (Boat owners) (Suppliers) 30% 90%

70% 10% Coastal Aratdars Wholesalers Fishermen (Commission agents)

Consumers Retailers

Retail Market

April-June 2006 31 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Table 1: Average marketing costs (Tk/kg) incurred for marine fi sh in different markets.

Marketing cost component Primary market Secondary market Retail market Icing 0.20 0.40 0.30 Transportation, loading and unloading 0.30 0.50 0.20 Rent of market place 0.30 0.40 0.60 Electricity 0.40 0.30 0.60 Weight loss/damage 0.20 0.50 0.40 Wage and salaries of workers 0.60 0.90 0.60 Commission for auctioneers 1.60 1.80 --- Others (market toll, water for washing fi sh, etc.) 0.30 0.30 0.40 Total 3.90 (US$0.07) 5.10 (US$ 0.05) 3.10 (US$ 0.04) Source: Survey data (2005)

Table 2: The average sale prices of commercially important marine fi sh in different markets.

Fish Primary market Secondary market Retail market Tk/kg US$/kg Tk/kg US$/kg Tk/kg US$/kg 1. Hilsa 70 1.02 95 1.39 110 1.61 2. Pomfret 120 1.76 150 2.20 175 2.57 3. Marine catfi sh 40 0.58 55 0.80 65 0.95 4. Tuna 75 1.10 105 1.54 120 1.76 5. Coral fi sh 70 1.02 95 1.39 105 1.54 6. Marine eel 35 0.51 50 0.73 60 0.88 7. Jawfi sh 50 0.73 60 0.88 70 1.02 8. Ribbonfi sh 40 0.58 55 0.80 65 0.95 9. Bombay duck 25 0.36 40 0.58 50 0.73 Source: Survey data (2005)

Table 3: Percentage shares of total value to marketing people for commercially important marine fi sh.

Fish Fishermen share Baperis (Suppliers) Share Wholesalers Share Retailers Share Total 1. Hilsa 55% 9% 22% 14% 100% 2. Pomfret 57% 10% 19% 14% 100% 3. Marine catfi sh 46% 16% 14% 15% 100% 4. Tuna 54% 9% 25% 15% 100% 5. Coral fi sh 57% 10% 23% 10% 100% 6. Marine eel 42% 16% 25% 17% 100% 7. Jawfi sh 57% 14% 15% 14% 100% 8. Ribbonfi sh 49% 13% 23% 15% 100% 9. Bombay duck 40% 10% 30% 20% 100% Source: Survey data (2005)

The price of fi sh depends on species, In the study area, prices are generally price depends closely on the size of quality, size and weight, season, market lower between August and December, the fi sh, with larger fi sh fetching sig- structure, supply and demand, and rising during the following four to nifi cantly higher prices per kilogram. consumption behaviour of consumers fi ve months. Table 2 shows the aver- The present study found that higher (i.e. taste). Fish prices are known to fol- age prices of commercially important value fi sh such as hilsa, pomfret, tuna low a seasonal pattern. When supplies marine fi sh from landing site to retail and coral fi sh can only be afforded are scarce fi sh prices increase. Demand level. Over the last ten years, fi sh prices by wealthier consumers. On the other behaviour may also contribute to inter- have increased dramatically, at a rate hand, lower income groups depend on seasonal price fl uctuations. There are of 2.3% annually (Fisheries Sector cheaper fi sh such as bombay duck, ma- many factors affecting the price of fi sh Review, 2003). rine eel, jawfi sh, and marine catfi sh etc. through demand and supply. On the Prices also vary from market to supply side, fi sh prices are affected market. Prices in town markets tend to Marketing margins and by the seasonality of production, and be higher than in coastal markets due profi ts weather conditions which cause the to a larger concentration of consumers seasonality of the market supply, i.e. and superior family incomes. Moreo- There exists a wide variation in the the quantity of the product available ver, market prices differ according to price received by fi shermen for various on the market (Briones et al., 2004). species and size. For the same species, marine fi shes in different marketing

32 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Fish landing site in Kolapara, Patuakhali. Child labour in fi sh market. channels over distance and time. The marketing margin per kilogram of fi sh Income of traders and factors infl uencing such variation was found in secondary markets (Tk associated groups include marketing costs, marketing 25 or US$ 0.36 per kg) followed by margins, numbers of intermediaries in retail (Tk 15 or US$ 0.22 per kg) and Fish trading is a profi table business and the marketing channel, distances be- primary markets (Tk 10 or US$ 0.14 almost all traders reported that they tween the landing points and consum- per kg). Similarly, the highest average had made profi ts and increased income. ers’ locations and prices. The margins marketing profi t was found in second- According to the survey, the average received by intermediaries involved ary markets (Tk 19.90 or US$ 0.29 per daily income of a fi sh trader (retailer) in the process of marine fi sh trade kg) followed by retail (Tk 11.90 or US$ was calculated at Tk 190 (US$ 2.79) signifi cantly discriminate against the 0.17 per kg) and primary markets (Tk which is higher than fi shermen and day fi shermen on price in the Patuakhali 6.10 or US$ 0.08 per kg). labourers, but lower than wholesalers, area. Table 3 shows the percentage of It is calculated that fi shermen re- aratdars and baperies (Table 5). Survey value accruing to fi shermen, suppliers, ceive 55% of the fi nal retail price. The results showed that a wholesaler makes wholesalers and retailers. In almost all total marketing margin is 45%, which an average net profi t of Tk 310 (US$ cases, fi shermen received the majority is sub-divided into: 1) primary market: 4.55) per day. The average net profi t share of the market value (40-57%). In 9%, 2) secondary market: 22%, and 3) of wholesalers was higher than any the cases of hilsa, pomfret, tuna, coral retail market: 14% (Table 4). It should other marketing people due to access to fi sh and jawfi sh, fi shermen received be mentioned that in this case the capital, higher education levels, greater over 50% of total value. However, fi sh- marketing margin is relatively high due experience of fi sh trading, and control ermen received less than 50% of total to the long distance between Patuakhali of fi sh marketing systems (i.e. powerful value for marine catfi sh, marine eel, and Dhaka, which involves several intermediaries). Fishermen stated that ribbonfi sh and bombay duck. Amongst transport stages and trader categories. their average daily income was Tk 150 the intermediaries, the highest margins Compared to the above fi gure, Kleih et or US$ 2.20, and varies with fi shing were received by wholesalers. These al. (2003) identifi ed a fi sherman share rate, weather conditions and the market margins ranged from a low of 14% of 60-65% and a middleman share of price of fi sh. Increasing population for marine catfi sh to a high of 30% for 25-40% for hilsa sold in Chittagong pressures may aggravate the problem of bombay duck. and Cox’s Bazaar markets. meager incomes of fi shermen. Marketing margins and profi ts vary for different groups of fi sh. Table 4 Marketing constraints provides an overview of hilsa (na- tional fi sh which accounts 61% of total In general, facilities at fi sh markets market share) traded between Patu- are minimal, with poor hygiene and akhali and Dhaka. The highest average sanitation. There are currently no stand-

April-June 2006 33 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Table 4: Calculation of marketing margin and profi t for hilsa in different markets.

Markets Items Tk/kg US$/kg Percentage Primary market Purchase price (PP) 60 0.88 55% Marketing costs (MC) 3.90 0.05 Sales price (SP) 70 1.02 Marketing margin (MM=SP-PP) 10 0.14 Marketing profi t (MP=MM-MC) 6.10 0.08

Secondary market Purchase price (PP) 70 1.02 64% Marketing costs (MC) 5.10 0.07 Sales price (SP) 95 1.39 Marketing margin (MM=SP-PP) 25 0.36 Marketing profi t (MP=MM-MC) 19.90 0.29

Retail market Purchase price (PP) 95 1.39 86% Marketing costs (MC) 3.10 0.04 Sales price (SP) 110 1.61 Marketing margin (MM=SP-PP) 15 0.22 Marketing profi t (MP=MM-MC) 11.90 0.17 Consumer purchase price 110 1.61 100% Source: Survey data (2005).

Table 5: The average daily income of fi sh marketing actors. Anyone can download this Market actors Daily Income magazine for free. Tk/day US$/day 1. Fishermen 150 2.20 2. Aratdars (commission agents) 220 3.23 But only from the NACA 3. Baperies (suppliers) 255 3.75 website! 4. Wholesalers 310 4.55 5. Retailers 190 2.79 6. Women traders 110 1.61 • www.enaca.org • 7. Day labourers 80 1.17 8. Children 50 0.73 Source: Survey data (2005).

Table 6: SWOT analysis for the development of marine fi sh marketing systems.

Strengths Weaknesses • Diversity of marine fi sheries resources • Poor market infrastructure • Almost all Bangladeshi people eat fi sh • Unhygienic conditions • Large number of people involved in fi sh marketing • Inadequate ice facilities • Traditional and less competitive marketing systems • Lack of concern from the government and NGOs • Strong network of marketing people • Weak fi shermen’s cooperative societies and traders’ • Environmentally friendly activities associations • Poor socio-economic conditions of traders & associated groups Opportunities Threats

• High demand for marine fi sh • Inadequate supply of fi sh • Employment opportunities • Controlled by powerful intermediaries • Export potential • Comparatively long marketing chain • Increase in fi sh price will increase incomes • Higher marketing costs • Improvement of socio-economic conditions of • Lower marketing profi ts marketing people • Almost total lack of credit facilities

34 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network ard practices for handling, washing, largely because of a shortage of Quality ies with regard to sanitary standards sorting, grading, cleaning and icing of Inspectors and the absence of emphasis and fi sh quality. It is also imperative fi sh. Most of the landing centers are set on quality control for domestic mar- that the fi sh markets are kept clean. up by fi sh traders’ associations or the kets. Proper management with regard fi shermen’s cooperative societies, thus to day-to-day maintenance of the most of the fi sh landing sites have a Development of marketing premises from a sanitary point of limited support infrastructure, and are systems view has to be ensured. Improve- perceived by some to be ill-managed ments to hygienic conditions of fi sh and unhygienic. There are no facilities SWOT analysis was carried out for the landing centers and markets are such as sheds in some landing centers development of marine fi sh marketing essential for producing good qual- for auctioning and preserving the fi sh. systems in coastal Bangladesh (Table ity products. Thus, training of fi sh At the primary market level, the main 6). A number of issues are important for market operators in areas of preser- constraints for fi shermen are a lack of the development and sustainability of vation, handling, icing and curing bargaining power and market informa- marine fi sh marketing, including: should be provided. tion. The marketing infrastructure, • Infrastructure: improvements of fi sh • Credit facilities: fi shermen, trad- including cold storage, ice and trans- landing, transport, handling, and ers and associated groups do not port facilities is generally inadequate, preservation facilities are essential have easy access to bank and NGO unhygienic and in disrepair. Political to supply quality products. credits due to too much offi cial disturbances (i.e. strikes, road blocks, • Supply of ice: insuffi cient supply paperwork and collateral arrange- etc.) also affect fi sh transportation as of ice in markets is one of the most ments. Therefore, assisting traders to well as marketing. During survey visits serious problems for fi sh preserva- obtain cheaper adequate bank credit in the study area, it was found that the tion. Ice is fundamental for good for market operating costs should be damage of fi sh occurs mainly in the quality fi sh storage and preserva- considered. process of transportation from the land- tion. Having ice readily available • Government policy: a positive ing centre to the retail points. Whole- on the premises would facilitate the policy at government level should sale markets have better facilities, but enhancement of appropriate fi sh be considered for sustainable marine in general conditions in primary and handling. It is therefore necessary to fi sh marketing systems. retail markets are far from satisfactory establish a suffi cient number of ice with regards to stalls, parking, spacing, factories for marketing of quality sanitation, drainage and management. fi sh. Quality control at landing, handling, • Hygiene and quality: there seems to distribution and marketing places is be very limited knowledge amongst only periodically carried out. This is fi shermen, traders and intermediar-

A baperi with a queen fi sh. Fish markets provide employment for young and old.

April-June 2006 35 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Fisheries Sector Review. 2003. The Future for Fisheries: Economic Performance. Commissioned with the association of the World Bank, DANIDA, USAID, FAO, DFID with the cooperation of the Bangladesh Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, and the Depart- ment of Fisheries, Dhaka. Kleih, U., Alam, K. Dastidar, R. Datta, U. Oudwater, N. & Ward, A. 2003. Livelihoods in coastal fi shing communities and the marine fi sh marketing systems of Bangladesh. Report of Project ‘Fish Distribution from Coastal Communities – Market and Credit Ac- cess Issues.’ Natural Resources Institute (NRI), NRI Report No. 2712. Kleih, U., Alam, K., Dastidar, R. Oudwater, N. & Ward, A. 2001. Poverty alleviation and livelihood security among the coastal fi shing communities – market and credit access issues. Report of Inception Workshop of Project ‘Fish Distribution from Coastal Commu- nities – Market and Credit Access Issues.’ Natural Day labourers are involved in unloading of fi sh from fi shing boats. Resources Institute (NRI), NRI Report No. 2613. Kleih, U., Greenhalga, P. & Oudwater, N. 2002. A Guide Conclusions (BFRF) for his guidance and encour- to the Analysis of Fish Marketing Systems using a agement. Combination of Sub-sector Analysis and the Sus- Marine fi sh marketing plays an impor- tainable Livelihoods Approach. Natural Resources tant role in the economy of Bangladesh, References Institute (NRI), Chatham, UK. contributing to increased food produc- Mazid, M.A. 2005. Manual on Culture of Small and tion, diversifi cation of the economy, in- Briones, M., Dey, M.M. & Ahmed, M. 2004. The future Threatened Indigenous Fish Species. Bangla- creased employment opportunities, and for fi sh in the food and livelihoods of the poor in desh Fisheries Research Institute, Department of maintained rural communities. How- Asia. NAGA, World Fish Center Quarterly 27(3&4): Fisheries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, and ever, concerns arise about the long-term 48-50. Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. sustainability of marine fi sh marketing Chowdhury, M.H. 2004. Fish market and marketing due to poor road and transport facili- issues in Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the Twelfth ties, poor supplies of ice, lack of money Biennial Conference of the International Institute of and credit facilities, poor institutional Fisheries Economics and Trade (eds. Y. Matsuda and support and inadequate extension T. Yamamoto), July 20-30, 2004, Tokyo, Japan. services. It is therefore necessary to DOF., 2005. National Fisheries Fortnight – 2005. De- provide institutional and organizational partment of Fisheries (DOF), Ministry of Fisheries support, government support, extension and Livestock, Dhaka. services, and more research and knowl- edge of fi sh marketing. In addition, the establishment of modern wholesale markets in large urban areas, and estab- lishment of well-functioning assembly markets at important fi sh landing sites may help sustainable fi sh marketing systems in coastal Bangladesh.

Acknowledgements

The study was funded through the UK Department for International Develop- ment (DFID) as part of their Aquacul- ture and Fish Genetics Research Pro- gramme (AFGRP). The authors wish to thank Professor James F. Muir of the Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, UK for his excellent research support. The authors are also thankful to Professor Dr M A Wahab, President, Net repair: Employment opportunities for the rural poor. Bangladesh Fisheries Research Forum

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