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European Red List of Medicinal

Compiled by David Allen, Melanie Bilz, Danna J. Leaman, Rebecca M. Miller, Anastasiya Timoshyna and Jemma Window Published by the European Commission.

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or the European Union.

Citation: Allen, D., Bilz, M., Leaman, D.J., Miller, R.M., Timoshyna, A. and Window, J. 2014. European Red List of . Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Design and layout: Imre Sebestyén jr. / UNITgraphics.com Printed by: Rosseels Printing Picture credits on cover page: granatensis is endemic to the mountains of Sierra Nevada, southern . The is considered Endangered as a result of population decline and range contraction. ©José Quiles Hoyo / www.florasilvestre.es All photographs used in this publication remain the property of the original copyright holder (see individual captions for details). Photographs should not be reproduced or used in other contexts without written permission from the copyright holder. Available from: Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union http://bookshop.europa.eu IUCN EU Representative Office: [email protected] A catalogue of IUCN publications is available www.iucn.org/publications

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2014

ISBN 978-92-79-44513-2

DOI 10.2779/907382

© European Union, 2014

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The text of this book is printed on 130 gsm 100% recycled paper (CyclusPrint, FSC and EU Ecolabel certified) Table of contents

Foreword...... iv

Acknowledgements...... v

Executive summary...... viii

1. Background...... 1 1.1 The European context...... 1 1.2 European medicinal plants: diversity and endemism...... 2 1.3 threat status...... 4 1.4 Objectives of the assessment...... 5

2. Assessment methodology...... 10 2.1 Geographic scope...... 10 2.2 Global and regional assessments...... 10 2.3 Taxonomic scope...... 10 2.4 Assessment protocol...... 10 2.5 Methodology for spatial analyses...... 11 2.6 Review and evaluation of the assessments...... 11

3. The status and distribution of medicinal plants in ...... 14 3.1 Introduction...... 14 3.2 Species selection...... 14 3.3 Conservation status of European medicinal plants...... 15 3.4 Spatial distribution of species...... 17 3.4.1 Overall species richness...... 17 3.4.2 Distribution of threatened species...... 17 3.4.3 Distribution of endemic species...... 19 3.4.4 Distribution of Data Deficient species...... 19 3.5 Major threats to medicinal plants in Europe...... 20 3.6 Population trends of medicinal plants in Europe...... 22 3.7 End uses of the selected medicinal plants...... 22

4. Conservation measures...... 24 4.1 Protection of habitats and species: international framework...... 24 4.2 Protection of habitats and species within the pan Europe and the EU 27 regions...... 25 4.3 Conservation management of European medicinal plants...... 27 4.4 Red List extinction risk versus habitat conservation status...... 29 4.5 Red List status versus priorities for conservation action...... 30

5. Conclusion and recommendations...... 32 5.1 Recommendations for conservation measures...... 32 5.2 Application of project outputs...... 33 5.3 Future work...... 34

References...... 36

Appendix 1. The Red List status of selected European medicinal plants at the European and EU 27 level...... 42

Appendix 2. Example species summary and distribution map: Crataegus nigra...... 54

iii Foreword

Europe’s landscape has been As part of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, the shaped by centuries of diverse EU is supporting the development of assessments and farming and forestry traditions. indicators to improve the knowledge and evidence base This has resulted in a wide range on the services provided by nature to society. of agricultural and woodland landscapes and significantly The European Red List of Medicinal Plants is providing contributed to the continent’s for the first time factual information on the status of biodiversity. In addition, the EU's medicinal plants in Europe. This assessment includes Outermost Regions and Europe's 400 vascular plants from ninety families, including large Overseas Countries and Territories are situated in five , aquatic plants and epiphytes, and occupying a wide biodiversity hotspots, including areas that host over 20% range of habitats. of the world's coral reefs and lagoons, and 70% of the EU’s biodiversity. The good news is that this new assessment shows that only 2.4% (nine plants) of medicinal plants are Biodiversity loss is an enormous challenge in the EU, with threatened (it is important to note however that there Europe's species richness currently highly threatened by was insufficient information available for 25 species human activities. Progress has been made on a number of and as a result the proportion of threatened species lies fronts: certain populations and distributions of wildlife between 2.3% and 8.5%). The collection of plants from species are showing positive trends, with some species the wild was identified as the prime threat and highlights that were once at risk of extinction now stabilising or the need to engage in monitoring of harvest and trade of even increasing. The Birds and Habitats Directives, the these highly utilised species. Impacts from agriculture cornerstone of the EU’s nature policies, have clearly (livestock farming, annual and perennial non-timber helped bird species and some large carnivore species to crops, and plantation forestry) were identified as another recover in Europe, which is encouraging. important threat.

However, many of Europe’s ecosystems are now so heavily The value of natural capital to our economies and degraded that their ability to deliver valuable ecosystem societies, and the interdependencies of nature with other services has been drastically reduced. The EU Biodiversity societal objectives, are often not reflected in private and Strategy adopted in 2011 is part of a 2050 vision aiming public decisions, indicators and accounting systems to protect, value and restore biodiversity and the services in the same way as economic and human capital. By it provides – its natural capital. This is important not improving our knowledge, we want to contribute to the only to protect nature’s intrinsic value, but also for its protection of nature and ensure that far-reaching actions essential contribution to human wellbeing and economic are taken to bring huge benefits not only to nature and prosperity, and to avert catastrophic changes caused by the countryside, but also to our long-term well-being. the loss of biodiversity. In recent years, the vital role of goods and services provided by nature to sustaining our well-being and future socio-economic developments, Pia Bucella has gained increased political attention. For instance, Director naturally occurring substances from plant species form Directorate B: Natural Capital the basis of more than 50% of prescription . European Commission

iv Acknowledgements

All of IUCN’s Red List assessment projects rely on the of BGCI, who in addition to reviewing assessments, willingness of scientists who are often, but not always, provided guidance and made BGCI resources available members of the IUCN Species Survival Commission to the project. Helen Chadburn, Eglantine Chappuis, (SSC), to pool and contribute their collective knowledge to and Fabian Schweizer undertook the majority of the make the most reliable estimates of a species conservation assessments in the final year of the project. We would status. Without their enthusiastic commitment to species also like to thank Helen Chadburn for the species case conservation, this kind of assessment project would not studies that illustrate this report. be possible. These experts are either contributors to the IUCN Red List species assessments that have been A very large number of people have provided invaluable completed through this project and earlier projects, assistance to this project throughout its duration, as well or provided their time and expertise to review species as to assessments included in here that were compiled assessments. under other projects, and we would like to express our sincere thanks to all who have contributed as assessment Botanic Conservation International (BGCI) Assessors, Reviewers and Contributors, and our apologies played a key role in the project, and we would like to if they are omitted here in error. Those experts who express our thanks to Sonia Khela who undertook the contributed to this work through assessing, compiling or majority of the assessments in the first and second years reviewing the species assessments included in this report of the project, and to Sara Oldfield, Secretary General are as follows;

Robert Adams Lothar Frese Sophie Neale Antun Alegro Ewan Gage Joanna Osborne Alessandro Alessandrini Zeineb Gammar-Ghrabi Özge Özden Fuller Badarau Alexandru Nieves García Alan Paton José Antonio Algarra Ávila Pablo García Murillo Annette Patzelt Jose Alberto Castillo Almagro Martin Gardner Simonetta Peccenini Jana Ambrožič-Dolinšek Domenico Gargano María Dolores Peraza Zurita Marios Andreou Guillaume Gigot Danka Petrović Tomás Martín Arévalo Llorenç Sáez Gonyalons Josefa Prados Åsmund Asdal Martina Grdiša Filippo Prosser Michael Avishai Patrick Grillas Hassan Rankou Steven Bachman Leonardo Gutiérrez Carretero Valerijus Rašomavičius Giuseppina Barberis Andreas Gygax Laila Rhazi Ioannis Bazos Ralf Hand Mouhssine Rhazi Alexandra Bell Serene Hargreaves Miquel Riba Rovira Imtinen Ben Haj Jilani J. Esteban Hernández-Bermejo Gabriele Rinaldi Semia Ben Saad Andrew Hipp Antonio Rivas Rangel Erwin Bergmeier Iva Hodálová Diego Rivera Karl-Georg Bernhardt Laetitia Hugot Francisco Rodríguez Vicarío Alessio Bertolli Marilena Idzojtic Llorenç Sáez Goñalons Gabriel Blanca Irina Illarionova Pedro Sánchez Gómez Mauro Bovio Nejc Jogan Demetrio Sánchez Morenilla Zofia Bulińska Nicolas Juillet Annalisa Santangelo Stephane Buord Costas Kadis José Maria Herranz Sanz Francisco Barreto Caldas Zdenek Kaplan Elsa Sattout Robert Cantley Salih Kavak Uwe Schippmann

v Helen Chadburn Shelagh Kell Fabian Schweizer Eglantine Chappuis Chris Kik Serdar Gökhan Şenol Charalambos S. Christodoulou Gergely Király Kirsty Shaw Charles M. Clark Michael Kleih Alexey Shipunov Margarita Clemente Sabina Georgina Knees Avi Shmida Leah Collett Helena Korpelainen Karen Siu Ting Pilar Contreras Angelos Kyratzis Tamara Smekalova Manuel B. Crespo Juozas Labokas Marjorie Sorensen Amina Daoud-Bouattour Richard V. Lansdown Chrissie Stanley Gerard de Bélair Cesare Lasen Vladimir Stevanović Bertrand de Montmollin Semia Limam-Ben Saad Darrin Stevens Bartha Dénes Jennifer Love Silvia Strajeru Martyn Denney Pascual Luque Moreno Maria do Carmo Tavares Panayotis Dimopoulos Joanna Magos Brehm Philip Thomas Branco Djurić Federico Mangili Dana Turonova Domizia Donnini Stefano Marsili Katya Uzundzhalieva Alena Dostalova María José Martínez Lirola Benito Valdés David Draper Nigel Maxsted Klaus van de Weyer Maria Cristina Duarte Viktor Melnyk Errol Vela Pavol Eliáš Pavol Mereďa Gema Villa Stefan Ericsson Kovács Miklós Rudolf Vögel Ove Eriksson Bozena Mitić Gabor Vörösváry Andrzej Falniowski Anna Evgenyevna Mitroshenkova Murphy Westwood Aljos Farjon Chiara Montagnani Thomas Wilhalm Mike Fay Jose Marti Montserrat Lindsay Williams Hafawa Ferchichi Juan Carlos Moreno Saiz Rainer Woschée Di Flanagan Serge Muller Robert Zintl Bruno Foggi Zuzana Münzbergová

Product processing at a FairWild certified operator in . © Anastasiya Timoshyna / Traffic International

vi Spring Pasque Pulsatilla vernalis is common in most Alpine areas of Europe, as well as at lower altitudes in central Europe and in southern Scandinavia. © Apollonio Tottoli / Flickr Creative Commons Licence

A number of IUCN SSC Specialist Groups have assisted in mapping and assessment review in a voluntary capacity; the compilation and review of assessments. These include: Lindsay Davidson, Richard Douglas, Kate Saunders, and the Carnivorous Plant Specialist Group, the Andrew Ladle, with support from Ackbar Joolia, Adrian Specialist Group, the Crop Wild Relative Specialist Group, Hughes and Jemma Window from the IUCN Global the Freshwater Plant Specialist Group, the Global Species Programme; Jemma provided extensive assistance Specialist Group, the Macaronesian Island Plant Specialist with mapping and analyses. Group, the Mediterranean Plant Specialist Group, and the Orchid Specialist Group. We would like to especially We would like to thank IUCN colleagues in Cambridge thank Danna Leaman and Uwe Schippmann from the (Maureen Martindell and Amy Burden), Gland (Anna IUCN SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG), Rosenberg) and Brussels (Seifu Habtemichael) who who compiled the list of species for inclusion in the have worked tirelessly with all project reporting and project, provided invaluable assistance throughout, and financial issues. Angelika Pullen (Communications, made their own data available. Danna has also reviewed IUCN Brussels) provided invaluable assistance in the the great majority of the assessments undertaken through production of the final report. this project in her role as MPSG Red List Authority Coordinator. We are indebted to the European Commission who funded the European Medicinal Plant Assessment and this report We thank the Atlas Florae Europaeae (Alexander Sennikov) through Service Contracts (070307/2011/603880/ for making plant distribution data available for a significant SER/B.2, 070307/2012/632606/SER/B.2, and number of species included in this assessment. 070307/2013/661306/SER/B.2). We would like to thank Anne Teller for ensuring the smooth coordination Colleagues from the IUCN Global Species Programme between the project and the European Commission. Any (Barbara Goettsch, Diego Juffe Bignoli, Annabelle opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations Cuttelod, Maiko Lutz, Ana Nieto, Jean-Christophe expressed in this material are those of the authors and Vié) have provided assistance throughout the project, do not necessarily reflect the views of the European and Red List Unit staff (Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Commission, the International Union for Conservation Pollock, Janet Scott) provided training and support. of Nature (IUCN), or the IUCN Species Survival The following provided invaluable assistance with GIS Commission.

vii Executive summary

Aim SSC Specialist Groups, especially the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, and through email correspondence The European Red List is a review of the Red List with relevant experts. Assessments are available on the status of European species according to IUCN regional European Red List website and data portal: http:// Red Listing guidelines. It identifies those species that ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ are threatened with extinction at the regional level – redlist and http://www.iucnredlist.org/europe. in order that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status. This Red List publication Results summarises results for the selected European medicinal plants. This assessment includes 400 vascular plants from ninety families, including large trees, aquatic plants Scope and epiphytes, and occupying a wide range of habitats. The assessment found that 2.4% (nine plants) of extant In Europe, there are more than 30,000 medicinal plants included in the assessment for which taxa (Euro+Med 2006-2014), however, only a small sufficient data are available are threatened. Twenty five proportion of these have an identified medicinal use. A species were considered Data Deficient (i.e., for which wide range of sources were reviewed to identify medicinal there was insufficient information available to assess plants that are considered native or naturalised prior to against the Red List criteria) and as a result the precise AD 1500, a process that arrived at a final number of 400 proportion of threatened species is uncertain and could assessed taxa. lie between 2.3% (if all Data Deficient species are not threatened) and 8.5% (if all Data Deficient species are The term ‘medicinal plant’ has been understood here in threatened). a wider sense to include overlapping uses as teas, , , dietary supplements, and cosmetics. This The main current threats emerging from the analysis inclusive approach is widely accepted and avoids a narrow include, in descending order of importance: wild focus on plants with a modern pharmaceutical application. plant collection, livestock farming, general ecosystem modifications, agriculture (other than livestock), The geographical scope of the assessment was continent- silviculture, invasive alien species, transport wide, extending from Iceland in the west to the Urals in infrastructure, and energy production and mining. For the east, and from Franz Josef Land in the north to the the selected medicinal plants, 164 (41%) were assessed as in the south. Red List assessments were having a stable population trend, whilst 125 (31%) were made at two regional levels: for geographical Europe, and considered to be declining in population size in Europe. for the 27 Member States of the European Union (prior More than one quarter (101, 25%) have an unknown to the accession of the Republic of in 2013). population trend and a small part of the group (2.5%) have increasing populations. Status assessment Recommendations The status of all species was assessed using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN 2012a), which is Expand the state of knowledge of European medicinal the world’s most widely accepted system for measuring plants extinction risk. All assessments followed the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels •• Undertake further research on threatened and Near (IUCN 2012b). Assessments were compiled through an Threatened European species and ensure the adequate extensive literature review, and with contributions from identification and management of their critical a large network of experts from almost every country in habitats to inform conservation programmes and the region. The assessments were reviewed by relevant identify gaps in conservation actions.

viii •• Reassess threatened plants at least every five years •• Effective government regulations and policies can and when new information becomes available. It is create an enabling environment for the conservation, recommended that Data Deficient species should also sustainable use and trade in wild medicinal plants be reassessed every five years. in Europe. Tools such as the FairWild Standard •• Prioritise fieldwork and data collection for Data can be applied to improve existing wild harvesting Deficient species to determine whether they are in management practices and provide a framework for need of conservation action. such policies. •• Promote data access through the development of •• Prioritize conservation measures based on the findings national and regional data portals. of this assessment. •• Integrate the outcomes of this assessment and any •• Integrate medicinal plant conservation measures into follow-up research into the European Strategy for National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans Plant Conservation, and showcase in the Global (NBSAPs), and where relevant develop specific plant Strategy for Plant Conservation. conservation strategies at the national or sub-national level. Localise and apply the assessment results •• Cooperation between government ministries is important for the development and implementation of •• Promote awareness of medicinal plant conservation effective medicinal plant conservation and sustainable status and the drivers of population declines, as well use strategies. Such cooperation should extend across as the tools available to develop conservation actions all government sectors, including environmental through regional and national workshops and other protection, agriculture, forestry, economic and rural relevant awareness-raising activities. development, and health. •• Use the outcomes of assessment for further sub-regional •• Encourage the uptake of the FairWild Standard and assessments, to update national Red List assessments or certification scheme for sustainable wild-harvesting develop if not already in place, and to inform national- and equitable trade to prevent further population level conservation priority-setting and conservation decline of species impacted by wild collection. measures, including sustainable use. •• Engagement of multiple stakeholder groups, including •• Build capacity and resources at the national level to research institutions, NGOs, communities and private undertake national assessments. sector in the discussions of the assessment outcomes and the design of the follow-up measures is of critical Capacity-building and awareness importance to the successful implementation of the activities. •• Tools and resources for building the capacity of resource managers and relevant agencies should be developed and disseminated, including; undertaking Red List assessments at national scales; producing resource inventories; in the development of species and area management plans; and in population and habitat monitoring. •• Strengthen the network of European plant experts by providing training and improving communication, including the mobilisation of financial resources. •• Promote expert engagement in relevant SSC Specialist Groups, especially the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, in order to build expertise, share knowledge and develop links between national experts.

ix Common Poppy Papaver rhoeas is widespread and common across much of Europe. © Jörg Hempel / Creative Commons via Wikimedia Commons 1. Background

This study had two geographical foci; the 27 European and fauna. The biodiversity of pan Europe includes Union Member States (as of 2011 when the project more than 520 species of birds (Birdlife In prep.), 138 commenced) and continental Europe (termed here ‘pan species of Odonata (Kalkman et al. 2010), 260 species of Europe’), defined below (and see Figure 1). mammals (Temple and Terry 2007, 2009), 151 species of reptiles (Cox and Temple 2009), 85 species of amphibians 1.1 The European context (Temple and Cox 2009), 546 species of freshwater fishes (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007, Freyhof and Brooks 2011), Continental Europe is physically and geologically the 20-25,000 species of vascular plants (Euro+Med 2006- westernmost peninsula of Eurasia. Europe is bounded to 2011) and well over 100,000 species of invertebrates (de the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Jong 2013). The Mediterranean part of Europe, which Ocean, to the south by the , to the is especially rich in plant and animal species, has been east by the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, which recognised as a global biodiversity hotspot (Mittermeier separate Europe from , and to the southeast by the et al. 2004, Cuttelod et al. 2008). Black Sea and the Mountains (see Figure 1). It is the worlds’ second smallest continent in terms of area, Pan Europe has arguably the most highly disturbed covering approximately 10,400,000 km2 (or 2% of the and fragmented landscape of all continents, and only Earth’s surface). In terms of human population, Europe a small fraction of its land surface can be considered as is the third-largest continent (after Asia and ) with wilderness. For centuries, most of Europe’s land has been a population of some 740 million in 2010 (UN DESA used by humans to produce food, timber and fuel and 2012) – about 11% of the world’s population. Europe to provide living space. Currently in western Europe, has the most highly urbanised population and, together more than 80% of land is under some form of direct with Asia, is the most densely populated continent in the management (EEA 2007), although approximately world. twenty five percent of the EU 27 terrestrial land area is within the Natura 2000 protected areas network (EEA The European Union (EU), comprising 27 Member 2014). Consequently, European species are to a large States (prior to the accession of Croatia in 2013), is extent dependent upon semi-natural habitats created and Europe’s largest political and economic entity. It is the maintained by human activity, particularly traditional, world’s largest economic block with an estimated gross non-intensive forms of land management. These habitats domestic product (GDP) in 2013 of 13,025,473 million are under pressure from agricultural intensification, urban Euros for the EU 27 Member States (Eurostat 2014). sprawl, infrastructure development, tourism pressure, Per-capita GDP in many EU states is among the highest land abandonment, acidification, eutrophication and in the world, and rates of resource consumption and Seafennel Crithmum maritimum (LC), Akrotiri, . The plant is widespread in the waste production are correspondingly high – the EU 27’s European and Mediterranean regions, and has a range of medicinal applications ascribed “ecological footprint” has been estimated to exceed the to it. © G.N. Hadjikyriakou / Flora of Cyprus region’s biological capacity (the total area of cropland, pasture, , and fishing grounds available to produce food, fibre and timber, and absorb waste) by 2.6 times (WWF 2007).

The EU’s Member States stretch from the Arctic Circle in the north to the Mediterranean in the south, and from the Atlantic coast in the west to the Pannonian Basin in the east. Continental Europe (‘pan Europe’) extends to the Ural Mountains, and includes non-EU Member States such as – an area containing a great diversity of landscapes and habitats and a wealth of flora

1 Figure 1. Regional assessments were made for two areas – continental Europe and the EU 27 Member States.

desertification. Many species, especially utilised plants and soil stability and composition (Hamilton and such as those used for medicinal purposes, are directly Hamilton 2006). People have relied on plants for affected by overexploitation, persecution and impacts of thousands of years for food, shelter, fuel, fibre, clothing, invasive alien species, as well as climate change which is for medicinal purposes and for their ornamental and set to become an increasingly serious threat in the future. cultural value. Although considerable efforts have been made to protect and conserve European habitats and species, biodiversity The market for medicinal plant products, such as these herbal teas, is large. © Anastasiya Timoshyna / TRAFFIC International decline and the associated loss of vital ecosystem services (such as water purification, crop pollination and carbon sequestration) continues to be a major concern in the region.

1.2 European medicinal plants: diversity and endemism

Plants are a fundamental part of ecosystems, forming their physical structure, and are of essential importance to the functioning of the planet’s atmosphere. The majority of plants conduct photosynthesis, a process that by using sunlight energy, converts carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds (such as ), Within Continental Europe, 25 Centres for Plant water and most importantly into oxygen. Plant species Diversity (CPDs) have been identified (Heywood and provide habitat, enable the life of animal species and Davis 1994, UNEP-WCMC 2013; Figure 2). All are in are primary producers for the food web. Plant cover the southern parts of the European region; the Alps (nine significantly influences the climate, water resources sites), the Baetic and Sub-Baetic Mountains (southern

2 and eastern Spain), the Balkan and Rhodope Massifs (phytotherapy) is among the major “complementary” (three sites), Crete (single site), Macaronesia (Azores, treatments in current use by doctors and other therapists Canary Islands, and Madeira), the Mountains of Aragon throughout Europe (Fisher and Ward 1994). (single site), Mountains of southern and central (single site), the (four sites), the Sierra de The Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants (GCL- Gredos and Sierra de Guadarrama (single site), and the MP; U. Schippmann pers. comm. 2014) recorded South Crimean Mountains and Novorossia (single site). 21,524 taxa globally in 2010 (Biodiversity Indicators The primary natural vegetation was mixed forest across Partnership 2010), a number that constantly increases large areas of continental Europe, however agricultural as further research records novel uses and additional expansion, human settlement, and other anthropogenic species. It has been suggested that one in six species impacts have reduced the forest cover to 30% in Europe of higher plants (around 50,000 taxa) have been used (Sharrock and Jones 2009). medicinally (Schippmann et al. 2006), although the majority of these have been used in folk , Plants have long been used by humans for a very wide range with fewer used in formal systems of purposes (Lange 1983), with medicinal and associated (e.g., or traditional Chinese medicine). There applications recorded in Europe from the Hittite period were 119 drugs derived from plants identified on the of (c.1900-1200 BC) and extensively in early market in 1990 (Farnsworth 1990) and an additional Greek cultures (Lange 1983, Petrovska 2012). Plant use 16 new pharmaceutical compounds were available by has formed the basis of European Traditional Medicine 2002 (Newman et al. 2003). Miller (2011) proposes since at least the Middle Ages (fifth to fifteenth centuries that these studies conservatively estimate the current AD) (Firenzuoli and Gori 2007), with more specialised reliance of commercial drugs on plant sources since they use of plants, such as and the extraction exclude semi-synthetic and synthetic medicines based of alkaloids, emerging from the nineteenth Century on naturally occurring compounds and estimates the onwards (Lange 1983, Petrovska 2012). future potential for 540 to 23,490 new drugs discovered

Figure 2. The pan Europe region encompasses 25 Centres for Plant Diversity, all within the southern part of the region.

3 from the world’s flora, based on the current rate of drug a more balanced evaluation of whole groups of taxa or discovery and development from plants and given the regional floras. range of estimates of global plant species diversity. 1.3 Species threat status Many plant species used in medicine are also used for other purposes. In compiling the GCL-MP and the The Red List status of taxa is one of the most widely used species list used in this European assessment, the term indicators for assessing the condition of ecosystems and ‘medicinal plant’ has been understood in a wide sense their biodiversity. It also provides an important tool in to include overlapping uses as herbal teas, spices, food, establishing priorities for species conservation. At the dietary supplements, and cosmetics, and it is this wider global scale, the primary source of information on the definition that is used in this report. conservation status of plants and animals is The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM (www.iucnredlist. Contemporary European use and trade in medicinal and org) (hereafter referred to as the IUCN Red List), aromatic plants (MAPs) is extensive, with eight countries whilst numerous national Red List initiatives within the in the pan Europe region (Germany, Spain, , European region include many more plant species and , , United Kingdom, Russian Federation often contain a wealth of additional information. The (not disaggregated by -in-Europe), and ) IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are designed to amongst the top twenty global importers by volume of determine a taxon’s relative risk of extinction, with the MAPs (MAP material classified as pharmaceutical plants, main purpose of cataloguing and highlighting those taxa in 2013), and six of the top twenty exporters (Germany, that are facing a higher risk of extinction. The IUCN Red Poland, Spain, , , France) (Lange (2006), List provides taxonomic, distribution, ecological, threat updated from UN (2014); UN COMTRADE Database, and conservation status information on taxa that have commodity group HS 1211). Lange (2006) observed been evaluated using the IUCN Red List Categories and that: Criteria (IUCN 2012a). The IUCN Red List Categories •• The majority of internationally traded MAPs are raw (Figure 3) are based on a set of quantitative criteria linked or semi-processed and of wild origin to population trends, population size and structure, and •• Source countries export mainly raw plant material, geographic range. There are nine categories, ranging often of wild origin from Not Evaluated (NE), where a species has not been •• Processing (value-added) primarily occurs in evaluated against the Red List Criteria, Least Concern consumer countries and trade centres (LC), for species that are not threatened, and to Extinct (EX), for species that have disappeared from the planet1. Just three percent of the world’s well-documented Species classified as Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN) medicinal flora has been evaluated for global conservation and Critically Endangered (CR) are classed as ‘threatened’. status by 2010, and the proportion of medicinal plants ‘Near Threatened’ (NT) species are considered to be close flora considered to be threatened appeared to have to meeting the threshold for a threatened category, and remained relatively stable (c.40% to 45%) between 1997 they may be considered ‘conservation dependent’, reliant and 2008 (Biodiversity Indicators Partnership 2010). on specific conservation actions to maintain, for example, This high level of threat (in contrast to the low level of sub-populations. threat found in this assessment) and apparent stability may however be an artefact of a number of variables, When conducting regional or national assessments, not least that prior to 2008 (Temple and Terry 2007, applying the Red List Regional Guidelines (IUCN with the majority of assessments published on the Red 2012b) two additional categories are used: Regionally List the following year), the taxa assessed for the IUCN Extinct (extinct within the geographical region of the Red List were biased towards known-to-be-threatened assessment), and Not Applicable (NA), for non-native species, whereas current global and regional assessments species or omitted for other predefined reasons. For undertaken by IUCN and Red List partners are providing further information on the application of the global and regional criteria see section 2.1: Assessment methodology.

1 For a description of each of the global IUCN Red List Categories go to: http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria/2001- categories-criteria#categories

4 Figure 3. The IUCN Red List Categories at the regional scale (IUCN 2012b).

Extinct (EX)

Extinct in the Wild (EW) Regionally Extinct (RE)

Threatened categories

Critically Endangered (CR) Extinction Adequate data risk Endangered (EN)

Vulnerable (VU) Evaluated

Eligible for Regional Near Threatened (NT) Assessment Least Concern (LC)

All species Data Deficient (DD)

Not Applicable (NA)

Not Evaluated (NE)

The extinction risk of a taxon may be assessed at any scale •• To strengthen the network of experts focused on from global, to regional, national or even sub-national conservation of medicinal plants in Europe so that level. A taxon can have a different category in the global the assessment information can be kept current IUCN Red List than in a regional Red List. For example, and expertise can be targeted to address the highest a taxon that is common worldwide and assessed as Least conservation priorities. Concern (LC) in the Global Red List could face a high level of threat and meet the threshold for the Endangered The assessment provides three main outputs: (EN) category in a particular region (see Figure 1 for the •• This summary report on the status and distribution of IUCN categories). In order to avoid an over- or under- selected European medicinal plants; their main threats estimation of the regional extinction risk of a taxon, the and recommendations for conservation measures, as Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at well as a poster on their status. Regional and National Levels (IUCN 2012b) should be •• A freely available database holding the baseline applied. Logically, a taxon that is endemic to a particular data for monitoring the status and distribution of sub-global region should have the same category at European medicinal plants. regional and at global level, as it is not present in any •• A website and data portal showcasing these data in other part of the world. the form of species factsheets for all European plants that were assessed, along with background and 1.4 Objectives of the assessment other interpretative material. (http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/nature/conservation/species/redlist and This European regional assessment had five main http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/europe). objectives: •• To contribute to regional conservation planning The data presented in this report provide a snapshot based through the provision of a baseline dataset reporting on the knowledge available at the time of writing the the status of selected European medicinal plants. report and the compilation of the individual assessments. •• To identify those geographic areas and habitats All assessments included in this project are available needing to be conserved to prevent extinctions and through the above portals. IUCN will ensure wide to ensure that European medicinal plants reach and dissemination of this data to relevant decision makers, maintain a Favourable Conservation Status. NGOs and scientists to inform the implementation of •• To identify the major threats and to propose mitigating conservation actions on the ground. measures and conservation actions to address them. •• To support efforts to conserve plant diversity through illustrating the value of plants to people.

5 Hierba de la sangre Sideritis glacialis (LC) is restricted to higher altitudes (1,500 to 3,250 m) in southern and eastern Spain. It is not considered threatened at present, however it could be vulnerable to disturbance and further research should be undertaken. © Peter M. Greenwood

6 Gypsophila perfoliata

Within the EU 27 The species occurs in three Natura 2000 sites in Bulgaria region this perennial (Pomerie, Besaparski Vazvishenia and Aheloy-Ravda- is considered Nesebar; EUNIS 2010). Most of its localities in Bulgaria native to Bulgaria are in protected areas, such as the Kaliakra Strict Nature and near Reserve, Atanasovsko Ezero Strict Nature Reserve, the Black Sea coast Pomoriiski Solnitsi and Poda Protected Sites (Petrova and is an example of 2014). It is also listed as a species of the Danube Delta a species which is at Biosphere Reserve in Romania. Photograph by kind permission the edge of its range of A. Lyubchenko in Europe. Its range Conservation measures recommended include extends eastwards into the Russian Federation (Sea enforcement of regulations for protected areas of Azov, lower Don and lower Volga and trans-Volga and prevention of wild collecting and also raising areas) providing connectivity to a range which extends awareness of the threatened status of this species with further eastwards into temperate Asia (Marhold 2011, flower traders and developers (Petrova 2014). USDA 2012). It is considered to be Near Threatened in the EU27 and At present in Romania, it is considered to be Vulnerable Europe as a whole. The records of this species, when (Doroftei et al. 2011) and it is a protected species in mapped, give an extent of occurrence which exceeds Bulgaria where it is considered to be Endangered the values needed for a threatened category. However, it (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Sub-populations are is suspected that the area of occupancy is less than or said to be small at several sites, but sub-populations in approaches the threshold for a threatened category, for the area of Varnensko Lake and south of Zelenka Cape example in Bulgaria it is thought to be less than 10 km2. are more numerous (more than 500 individuals). This Sub-populations occur mainly in a narrow coastal area plant contains chemical compounds such as saponins, along the Black Sea, but they are suspected not to be alkaloids, phenol carboxylic acids and flavonoids severely fragmented, particularly as this species is noted (Rahman 2002, Healing 2007). Powder derived to be able to colonise railway lines which may provide from the is used for wound healing. Formulations connectivity between areas. However, populations from the stems, and are reported to have may still decline as these could be considered edge of a bactericidal effect (Healing Herbs 2007). The impact range satellite populations and subject to demographic of collection for medicinal use is unknown for the stochasticity (Hanski 1982) and threats leading to a European population of this plant. decline in the extent and quality of habitat are noted. Further surveys are needed to confirm the current area Threats to this species in Bulgaria include infrastructure of occupancy and monitoring is necessary to detect and and tourist developments and hydrological changes. enumerate declines or indeed any extension of range, Flowers are also picked for sale in the Varna town if the spread of this species is enabled by man made area (Petrova 2014). Tourist development is a threat communication corridors in the form of railway line to its sandy coastal habitat in the Crimean Peninsula habitat. (Drescher et al. 2007). In the up to 88% of the steppe has been converted for agricultural use (Goriup 1998), which may have caused a loss of habitat, although this species is sometimes known to occur in arable areas.

7

This woody, evergreen, perennial herb or low acid and also contains and an essential is found in coniferous , often on sandy or clay oil that are used as an astringent and tonic widely soils, and occasionally in woods. The species promoted in the Russian Federation and elsewhere reproduces both by and clonally by creeping for a range of medicinal uses, including in herbal and subterranean . Although it is noted to occur homeopathic preparations. Although the scale and in many European countries and its distribution is impact of collection from the wild, for medicinal use, circumpolar (extending from Scandinavia, central and is unknown, it is not thought to be the main cause of Eastern Europe eastwards in a narrowing belt to , decline within much of Europe. and throughout much of (GRIN 2014)) it is an example of a species which has suffered Recruitment studies (Johansson and Eriksson 2013) significant population declines in Europe. suggest that the species is ‘microsite limited’, i.e. there is a lack of suitable sites for it to establish into. A study This species is considered to be Endangered in many (Johansson et al. 2014 cited in Lundell 2014) of a countries within its range, for example, , similar species () found that 82.5% Hungary and Ukraine. In Germany it is reported of the were dispersed within one metre from the to have suffered very strong declines and has been source, and 95.7% were dispersed within five metres found growing at only a few sites and even there tends making re-colonisation of fragmented forest areas less to be highly at risk (Ahlmer 2010). It is considered likely. The seeds are very small and have very little critically threatened in the where at : culture is therefore very difficult (Moser least 90% of the populations recorded have become 1999), and may require bare soil for germination extinct and those that are extant are declining (Grulich (Ericson et al. 1997). In addition ongoing studies (V. 2012). The species is considered extirpated from France Johansson submitted manuscript) suggest that the (IUCN France, FCBN and MNHN 2012) and in species, in contrast to most other species in the tribe Switzerland was last recorded in the wild in the 1980s Pyroleae, is fully autotrophic as an adult (the others and a reintroduction attempt was unsuccessful (Moser are mixotrophic, i.e. partly utilise fungi as carbon 1999, Moser et al. 2002, NERI 2007, M. Jutzi pers. source), suggesting that the species may be unusually comm. 2014). In the number of mature sensitive to shade and to competition from other individuals is estimated to be 15,000 (10,000 to ground-layer plants (Vaccinium spp., grasses, Picea 30,000) but with a rate of decline amounting to 50 abies (Salmia 2011)). Based on the examination of (30-60)% in the last 80 years (ArtDatabanken 2010) local, still existing, sub-populations of the species in and it is listed as Endangered. The population has Sweden many, perhaps most, sub-populations are declined sharply in Norway and is absent from many ‘remnant’ populations, no longer reproducing due former areas, and remaining populations are often to environmental conditions such as dense shade small (Artsdatabanken 2010) and it is considered (Lundell 2014). Endangered on the basis of decline in area of occupancy (Kålås et al. 2010). It changed categories from Least A major problem for this species is not just that historic Concern to Near Threatened in Finland between ‘primary’ forest cover has declined greatly or disappeared, 2000 and 2010 (Kalliovirta et al. 2010) and it is also but also that forest management regimes have changed, considered Near Threatened in Denmark. leading to less favourable site conditions. Previously (i.e. until the early-mid 20th century) were kept semi- This plant contains chemicals which have a pronounced open by selective cutting, grazing, and other management disinfectant effect within the urinary tract. It contains practices. During the last 50-100 years, forestry compounds such as arbutin, sitosterol and ursolic management has both changed and declined (with

8 management ceasing in many woodlands and forests or dense plantations favoured), creating even-aged and much more shady forests. At one former site in Switzerland, dense shading from spruce reforestation is believed to be the cause of extinction (Moser 1999, Moser et al. 2002). In addition, due to eutrophication, the ground-layer may become more productive leading to out-competing by other species. In parts of central Europe, widespread pollution by nitrogen emissions from industry have been cited as a cause of decline (M. Scheuerer pers. comm. 2014).

Global Forest Change Landsat analysis illustrates considerable losses of forest cover within the range of this species between 2000 and 2012 alone (Hansen et al. 2013). For example, in the Carpathian forests, where this species is considered Endangered, forest loss has resulted from intensive logging (especially with clear-cut forest practices), development of large ski resorts and tourist centres and motorways (Perzanowski and Jerzy 2001). This species has also been found to have a very low resistance to disturbance such as trampling and burning Photograph by kind permission A. Lundell (Matthews 1994).

Extrapolating from the known population declines in Europe sufficient to meet the values needed for in some areas and the suspected habitat losses it is a threatened category under criterion A and it is inferred there has been an overall population reduction considered Vulnerable to extinction.

9 2. Assessment methodology

2.1 Geographic scope some cases. Expert opinion from botanists familiar with individual taxa informed some taxonomic decisions. The geographical scope of this assessment is continent- wide, extending from Iceland in the west to the Urals in the 2.4 Assessment protocol east (including European parts of the Russian Federation), and from Franz Josef Land (Russian Federation) in the Following production of the list of taxa for inclusion in north to the Mediterranean in the south (Figure 1). Parts the project, taxa were assigned to assessors. The majority of Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores) of the species assessed through this project were produced were included. In the southeast, the Caucasus region was by consultants (Sonia Khela, Helen Chadburn, Fabian excluded. Schweizer and Eglantine Chapuis), who were contracted to draft species assessments and produce distribution maps. A Red List assessments were made at two regional levels: number of taxa were assessed by IUCN staff or by individual 1) for continental Europe (‘pan Europe’; limits described experts with personal knowledge of the species (especially above); and 2) for the area of the 27 Member States of the in the case of narrow-range endemic taxa). Assessment European Union (EU 27). data were compiled using IUCN’s Species Information Service (SIS), a web-based database that compiles textual 2.2 Global and regional assessments and numerical data, and allows for the coding of threats, habitat and ecological requirements, and conservation and Taxa that were determined to be endemic (native and research actions, using established classification schemes restricted) to pan Europe, were assessed at the global scale (www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification- and their assessments submitted to the IUCN Red List. schemes). Taxa that did not have a native distribution restricted to pan Europe were assessed at the two scales described above Assessors compiled the following information for each (i.e., pan Europe and EU 27). taxon, using personal knowledge, herbaria records, and published and unpublished data: Taxa were included in the assessment if they are native •• Taxonomic classification or considered introduced prior to 1500, and therefore •• Geographic range (including distribution map) considered an archaeophyte following Preston et al. (2004). •• Medicinal and others uses of the plant •• Population data and overall population trend 2.3 Taxonomic scope •• Major threats •• Habitat preferences The aim of the project was to assess approximately four • Conservation measures hundred plants native (or naturalised prior to 1500) • Red List Category and Criteria to Europe with known medicinal applications. A small • Primary ecological requirements number of subspecies were assessed, but only one was • Other general information included in the analyses as the others were represented •• Key literature at the species level. The process for developing the list is outlined in section 3.2. A wide range of national floras were consulted, as well as internet based resources (e.g., Anthos (2014; Spain), The taxonomic validity of taxa proposed for inclusion was Association Tela Botanica (2014; France), and GBIF checked against the established taxonomic references for (2014; global scope). National Red Lists, where they exist, plants accepted by the IUCN Red List; the World Checklist were also consulted e.g., Sweden (ArtDatabanken 2010), of Selected Plant Families (WCSP 2014) was the primary Switzerland (Info Flora 1994-2012, Moser et al. 2002) and resource followed, with Euro+Med Plantbase (2006-2011) Norway (Kålås et al. 2010). and (2014) consulted and followed in

10 Pheasant’s Eye vernalis (LC) is widespread in southern, central and eastern Europe. It has a range of medicinal uses, however it is primarily collected from the wild and In the analysis of the spatial data, only distributions with inappropriate harvesting can harm populations. Pictured here from the Pálava Protected the following Presence, Seasonal and Origin codes were Landscape Area in the Czech Republic. © Dana Turoňová / Nature Conservation Agency used: of the Czech Republic •• Presence: Extant and Possibly Extant •• Origin: Native and Re-introduced •• Seasonality: Resident

Spatial data were analysed using a geodesic discrete global grid system, defined on an icosahedron and projected to the sphere using the inverse Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area (ISEA) Projection (S39). This corresponds to a hexagonal grid composed of individual units (cells) that retain their shape and area (865 km2) throughout the globe. These are more suitable for a range of ecological applications than the most commonly used rectangular grids (S40). The range of each species was converted to 2.5 Methodology for spatial analyses a hexagonal grid for analysis purposes. Coastal cells were clipped to the coastline. The pattern of overall species Digital distribution maps were created using distribution richness (Figure 5) was mapped by counting the number data collated from available literature, internet sources, of species in each cell (or cell section, for species with and the Atlas Flora Europaeae (Kurtto et al. 2013). The data a coastal distribution). Patterns of threatened species varied immensely in terms of quantity and quality. For richness (Figure 6) were mapped by counting the some countries (and for some species), including Spain, number of threatened species (categories CR, EN, VU at France, Bulgaria, Sweden and Switzerland, distributions the European regional level) in each cell or cell section. were available as either point location data (latitude/ The pattern of endemic species richness was mapped longitude) or in grid cell format and are therefore very by counting the number of species in each cell (or cell precise. Where point or grid data were available, data section for coastal species) that were flagged as being were projected in a Geographical Information System endemic to geographic Europe as defined in this study (GIS) (ESRI ArcMap) and polygons drawn manually, (Figure 7). Finally, the distribution of species assessed as clustering points where appropriate. For some countries Data Deficient is shown in Figure 8. it was only determined that the species is extant in that country and therefore the distribution was mapped to 2.6 Review and evaluation of the the whole country (e.g. Romania and, in other cases, assessments the countries of former Yugoslavia), whilst in some cases data were only available at the subnational level and a Given the relatively small number of species included in taxon was mapped to the appropriate administrative this assessment, the methodology differed slightly from unit (e.g. regions in Italy). Depending on information recent European Red List assessments (e.g., Bilz et al. availability, metadata coding was used to distinguish 2011) in not having an assessment review workshop. presence, origin, and seasonality across the spatial extent Instead, assessments were reviewed by relevant Species of a species’ distribution. These codes differentiate the Survival Commission (SSC) Specialist Groups. On species presence (species are recorded as extant, possibly receipt of the draft assessments from consultants, the extant or extinct); seasonal presence of the species in the data were edited and reviewed by IUCN staff, with location (the default setting of ‘resident’ was assigned); any questions resolved through communications with and the origin of the species (native, introduced, the assessors. Additional review and contributions were reintroduced or uncertain). The coding information can sought in many cases from individual botanists and be found in the Red List digital distribution metadata from Specialist Groups (the Medicinal Plant Specialist guidance (IUCN 2014). Group (MPSG), the Carnivorous Plant Specialist Group, the Conifer Specialist Group, the Crop Wild Relative Specialist Group, the Freshwater Plant Specialist Group,

11 the Global Tree Specialist Group, the Macaronesian (RLA) for medicinal plants. Following RLA review, Island Plant Specialist Group, the Mediterranean Plant assessments were submitted to the Red List Unit and Specialist Group, and the Orchid Specialist Group). published over the period 2012-2014. Finally, consistency in the application of the global and regional IUCN Criteria and Guidelines was checked by The resulting IUCN Red List assessments are a product IUCN staff from the IUCN Red List Unit, and all global of scientific consensus concerning species status and are assessments and the majority of regional assessments backed by relevant literature and data sources. were then reviewed by the MPSG, the Red List Authority

Arnica montana is considered endemic to Europe, where it is relatively widespread. It is a very commonly used medicinal plant and in some countries it is protected or appears on national Red Lists, and it is protected by European legislation. Pictured here from the Šumava National Park in the Czech Republic. © Dana Turoňová / Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic

12

This is a perennial found in meadows, grassland, coastal cliffs, on mountain rocks and screes, on both acid substrates and limestone from 0 to 3,000 m asl. It has a thick almost tuberous rootstock. In Europe it is found in Iceland, Scandinavia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, through central Europe into the Russian Federation and the Balkan Peninsula and also in France and Spain (Royal Botanical Edinburgh 1998, Marhold 2011, GRIN 2014). Although not considered threatened at present this is a species in which medicinal use is increasing with impacts on wild populations. The , roots and stems can all be eaten raw or cooked and when dried Photograph: Peter A. Mansfeld / Flickr Creative have a scent. The species has been used in folk Commons Licence medicine for washing the hair with its pleasant scent and supposed conditioning properties (Galambosi and Herzegovina (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). 2006). It has been used in traditional medicine as a In Bulgaria, it is included in the Law of Biodiversity tonic and to enhance endurance. Recent research has and its collection is forbidden. In the Bulgarian Red shown that it increases the body’s resistance to stress List it is assessed as Critically Endangered due to by regulating hormonal responses. It has a protective population reduction from actual or potential levels effect on neurotransmitters such as serotonin and of exploitation and a decline in the area of occupancy, dopamine. Studies have shown that use of this herb number of locations or sub-populations (Petrova can increase brain serotonin by up to 30% (Plants for and Vladimirov 2009). It is not assessed in the a Future 2014). There are other suggested medicinal Scandinavian countries but commercial quantities uses, such as in treatments for depression, some are collected in Norway for the manufacture of heart disorders and high cholesterol levels. Some new products, and Norwegian scientists working consider it may be useful for treating a range of other with this species have received requests to facilitate disorders from cancer, tuberculosis, and diabetes to deliveries of several tons of the harvested from cold prevention, enhancing immunity and treating natural populations. It is under less threat from liver damage and even improving hearing (WebMD collection in some mountain areas of Europe as the 2014). The chemical composition of the plant has difficulties of collection in such terrain make it less been intensively investigated and many secondary economic (Galambosi 2006). metabolites have been identified within the chemical group of phenols. Cinnamic glycosides, such as rosin, Cultivation could reduce collection pressure on rosavin, and rosarin, are considered the major group wild populations, although this has been found responsible for most of the pharmacological activities difficult outside mountain areas further south (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). Its medicinal use because of climatic differences. However, it has been has increased worldwide (Galambosi 2006). successfully introduced as a commercial crop in the Rhodopes Mountains in Bulgaria, propagated by The growing demand and the high price paid for cuttings (Platikanova and Evstatieva 2008). plant material is increasing pressure on this species. Further research is needed since cultivation seems As a result it has become a threatened plant in the to be the only hope of producing raw material in Russian Federation, the Czech Republic (Grulich sufficient quantities for the industrial scale production 2012), Slovakia (Ferakova et al. 2001) and Bosnia demanded (Galambosi 2006).

13 3. The status and distribution of medicinal plants in Europe

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Species selection

The vascular plants (phylum: Tracheophyta) selected for The requirement for this project was to assess the IUCN inclusion in this assessment represent 89 families in 46 Red List status of plants with documented medicinal use orders from the following classes; that are native to continental Europe. Many plant species used in medicine are also used for other purposes. In Equisetopsida Magnoliopsida compiling the GCL-MP and the European checklist, the Gnetopsida Pinopsida term ‘medicinal plant’ has been understood in a wider Liliopsida Polypodiopsida sense to include overlapping uses as herbal teas, spices, Lycopodiopsida Psilotopsida food, dietary supplements, and cosmetics.

The plants occupy a wide range of habitat types, For this project, selection for assessment within the representing a wide range of growth forms, including large regional sub-set identified prioritized species from the trees (e.g., Betula pubescens, Castanea sativa, and Quercus following resources; frainetto), aquatic plants (Oenanthe aquatica, Trapa natans) •• Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants (GCL-MP) and epiphytes (Viscum album, Chrysosplenium alternifolium). •• WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants (WHO 1999, 2007a,b, 2009, 2010) The plants identified for this assessment include more than •• FairWild Standard certification applications2 50 taxa that are listed under European or international •• International trade review (Lange 1998) policy instruments (see Bilz et al. 2011); •• Traditional Health Products Directive (EMA 1995- •• EU Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/ 2014) EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural •• European Pharmacopoeia (EDQM 2007) habitats and of wild fauna and flora) •• EU Convention on the Conservation of European The draft list compiled through the above process (1,088 Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) plants) was then filtered according to Tutin et al. (1964- •• Convention on International Trade in Endangered 1980) to identify species present in Europe (469 plants), Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and then reviewed to remove non-native species. The •• EU Wildlife Trade Regulation (Council Regulation resulting list of priority taxa was then reviewed against (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the a range of references including Schippmann (2013), protection of species of wild fauna and flora by Euro+Med (2006-2011), The Plant List (2014), and regulating trade therein) WCSP (2014) for , use and distribution. The final list contained 407 European medicinal plant taxa. An example of how inclusion in legislation and in Red Of these, 80 taxa had recently (2010-12) been assessed Lists is can drive conservation action is Manzilla de Sierra through the European Red List of Vascular Plants project Nevada Artemisia granatensis (EN), which has attracted (Bilz et al. 2011), which applied the same geographical EU LIFE funding and has a species recovery plan in place focus and methodology as this assessment. Two species (Heywood 2014). The plant occurs within the protected (Quercus infectoria and Rheum ) were included area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, a Category V in the list of taxa to be assessed but their assessments IUCN protected area, where a recovery programme could not be finalized as consensus could not be reached has been established, and in vitro cultivation has been regarding their identity. Five subspecies (Centaurium developed (Hernández-Bermejo et al. 2013). erythraea subsp. suffruticosum, Erodium foetidum subsp. foetidum, Origanum vulgare subsp. virens, officinalis

2 FairWild Foundation (www.FairWild.org); D. Leaman pers. comm. 2012.

14 subsp. lavandulifolia and eriocephalum subsp. in Greece and the central Balkan Peninsula; it has been almeriense) were assessed but were included in the analyses impacted across its natural and introduced range by the at the species level. These exclusions resulted in 400 taxa invasive Horse Chestnut -miner Cameraria being included in the analyses shown in subsequent ochridella. chapters. The Horse Chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum is considered Near Threatened as a result of the Horse Chestnut Leaf-miner moth Cameraria ohridella. © Scott Nelson 3.3 Conservation status of selected European medicinal plants

Of the 400 medicinal plants for which regional assessments were undertaken, one was considered Not Applicable (NA) at the EU 27 regional scale (Cypripedium guttatum) as its range extends eastwards from European parts of Russia (with unconfirmed records from and Ukraine). The status of the remaining taxa were assessed at two regional scales (Table 2, Figure 1): pan Europe (400 species) and for the EU 27 (399 species). None of the assessed plants were considered Extinct (EX) or Regionally Extinct (RE). At the pan Europe level, nine plants (2.4% of extant species for which sufficient data are available) were assessed as threatened. Twenty five species were assessed as Data Deficient (DD), and IUCN guidelines on reporting the proportion of threatened species (IUCN 2011) suggest approaches to presenting the uncertainty introduced by DD species; it is important to note however, that 25 species were considered Data Deficient (i.e., that there was insufficient information available to assess against the Spotted Lady’s Slipper Cypripedium guttatum (LC) in the Komi Republic, Russia. This is the only plant included in the project that is not found in the EU 27 region. © UNDP Red List Criteria) and as a result the precise proportion of threatened species is uncertain and could lie between 2.3% (if all DD species are not threatened) and 8.5% (if all DD species are threatened).

% threat Lower bound 2.3 (CR+EN+VU) / (assessed – EX) Mid-point 2.4 (CR+EN+VU) / (assessed – EX – DD) Upper bound 8.5 (CR+EN+VU+DD) / (assessed – EX)

The mid-point figure rises very slightly to 2.5% for the EU 27 region, where ten plants were found to be threatened.

A further 18 taxa (4.5%) at the pan Europe level (20 species (5.0%) at the EU 27 level) are considered Near Threatened; most of these are plants whose populations are declining across Europe and may be considered threatened at the national level, but whose population decline does not yet meet the criteria for a threatened category. One example is the Horse Chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum which has a wide introduced range in Europe but with a more restricted natural distribution

15 Table 1. Summary of numbers of selected medicinal plants within each Category of threat. No. of species Europe No. of species EU 27 IUCN Red List Category (No. of endemic species) (No. of endemic species) Extinct (EX) 0 0 Extinct in the Wild (EW) 0 0 Regionally Extinct (RE) 0 0 Critically Endangered (CR) 0 0 Endangered (EN) 6 (3) 7 (2) Vulnerable (VU) 3 (0) 3 (0) Near Threatened (NT) 18 (6) 20 (2) Least Concern (LC) 348 (49) 346 (9) Data Deficient (DD) 25 (7) 23 (1) Total number of species assessed 400 (65) 399 (14)

The highlighted rows (CR, EN, and VU) are the Threatened Red List Categories

Figure 1. The number of assessed medicinal plants in each Red List category at (a) the EU 27 Member State scale, and (b) the pan Europe scale. (a) (b) 400 400

350 350

300 300

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 EX CR EN VU NT LC DD EX CR EN VU NT LC DD

The threatened species of medicinal plants assessed though this project are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Threatened medicinal plants at the pan Europe and EU 27 level. IUCN Red IUCN Red List Endemic Endemic Family Taxon List Category Category (EU to Europe to EU 27 (Europe) 27) Compositae Artemisia granatensis EN EN YES YES Cupressaceae Tetraclinis articulata EN EN NO NO Labiatae Sideritis reverchonii EN EN YES YES Himantoglossum comperianum EN EN NO NO Rosaceae Crataegus nigra EN EN YES NO baetica EN EN NO NO maxima LC EN NO NO Chimaphila umbellata VU VU NO NO spuria VU VU NO NO Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza iberica VU VU NO NO

16 Giant plantain Plantago maxima. Photograph © Le.Loup.Gris. Giant plantain Plantago maxima is an interesting species Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution in that it is considered Least Concern at the pan Europe scale, however it has been assessed as Endangered at the EU 27 scale as it is only recorded from three EU Member States in southeastern Europe; populations have declined in Bulgaria and Hungary and it is considered to be possibly extinct in Romania.

Five subspecies were assessed and published on the Red List but are not included in the above table as they are not represented at the species level. Of these, three are restricted to the and are considered Near Threatened as a result of their restricted range (Table 3).

Table 3. Taxa assessed at both the species and the subspecies level but included in analyses at the species level. Subspecies Red List Category Assessment scope Centaurium erythraea subsp. suffruticosum DD Regional assessment Erodium foetidum subsp. foetidum NT Global assessment: Endemic to Spain Origanum vulgare subsp. virens LC Regional assessment Salvia officinalissubsp . lavandulifolia LC Global assessment: Endemic to Spain Teucrium eriocephalum subsp. almeriense NT Global assessment: Endemic to Spain

3.4 Spatial distribution of species Figure 3) some similarities with, but also contrasts to, the overall richness shown in Figure 2. 3.4.1 Overall species richness Caution is required in interpreting this map as it is based Figure 2 highlights areas of particularly high on a very small sample size, however it does indicate concentrations of species. Not surprisingly, the highest some interesting trends. The Danube floodplain numbers of species are found in the Mediterranean region of Hungary contains three threatened species region, and mountain areas such as the Alps and (Chimaphila umbellata (VU), Crataegus nigra (EN), Pyrenees, the Massif Central in France, and the Balkan and Iris spuria (VU)). The Hungarian Hawthorn Peninsula, with further areas of high richness in the Crataegus nigra and the Blue Iris Iris spuria are both Crimean Peninsula and the Carpathian Mountains (in associated with floodplains and alluvial meadows and Romania and western Ukraine). have been highly impacted by drainage, agricultural conversion and intensification, urbanisation, and (in 3.4.2 Distribution of threatened species the case of the iris), by collection of wild plants.

The distribution of the nine threatened taxa (those assessed as Endangered or Vulnerable) shows (see

17 Figure 2. Species richness of selected European medicinal plants.

Figure 3. Threatened species richness of selected European medicinal plants.

18 Iris spuria has been assessed as Vulnerable in Europe as a result of population declines due altitudes. Artemisia granatensis (EN; altitude range: 2,500 to habitat loss and degradation. © David Delon to 3,300 m) and Sideritis reverchonii (EN; altitude range: 100 to 1,000 m) are both endemic to the EU 27, whilst (EN; altitude range: 900 to 1,800 m) is non-endemic to the pan Europe region, with a distribution that extends to northern .

3.4.3 Distribution of endemic species

Sixty five species were found to have distributions restricted to pan Europe, with 25 considered endemic to the EU 27 region (see Appendix 1). This information is presented visually in Figure 4. In common with the results of several other European Red Lists (e.g., vascular plants (Bilz et al. 2011)), some of the highest levels of endemism In the Crimea, Chimaphila umbellata is again are found in the main mountain chains (Alps, Pyrenees, present, together with Dactylorhiza iberica (VU) and and through the Balkan Peninsula). In addition, higher Himantoglossum comperianum (EN). The plants here are levels of endemism are found in the Sierra Nevada in impacted by a range of threats including collection from southern Spain, and in the Danube drainage in Hungary. the wild, urbanisation, and habitat loss and degradation primarily from agriculture. 3.4.4 Distribution of Data Deficient species

A third concentration of threatened plants is found in the Patterns of Data Deficient (DD) species follow those for mountains of the southern Iberian Peninsula in Spain, the overall species richness, i.e., through mountain areas, and in contrast to some of the other more widespread the Balkan Peninsula, and the northern and southern threatened species, have more restricted ranges at higher Iberian Peninsula. Twenty five taxa were identified as Figure 4. Endemic species richness of selected European medicinal plants.

19 Figure 5. Data Deficient species richness of selected European medicinal plants.

DD at both the pan Europe and EU 27 scales, although 30% respectively of all species). Much of this collection only two were identified as endemic to the EU 27 region is driven by their medicinal value; however collection for (Brassica oleracea and Galeopsis segetum). Several are the ornamental plant trade and horticulture is significant widespread within the pan Europe region (e.g., Galeopsis for some species such as Anemone halleri (LC). segetum and Glechoma hirsuta), however for many of these plants, population declines have been observed in some Impacts from agriculture (livestock farming, annual and countries within their range and there are inadequate perennial non-timber crops, and plantation forestry) data for other parts of their ranges to assign any category were identified as an important threat to both threatened other than DD. and Near Threatened (NT, VU, and EN; 67%) and non- threatened (18%) plants, which is consistent with the 3.5 Major threats to medicinal plants in findings of Bilz et al. (2011) for other vascular plants. Europe Such agricultural impacts, together with other threats leading to the landscape changes overall may negatively The major threats to each species were recorded using the affect the resilience of both plant populations and IUCN Threats Classification Scheme. A summary of the habitats, including the resilience to climate change shocks occurrence of the primary threats identified is shown in and to wild-harvesting. Chapter 4 discusses a range of Figure 6. measures undertaken in the European region towards the protection of habitats and species. The collection of plants from the wild and loss of habitat through residential and commercial development Following the political and economic changes of (including urbanisation, industrialisation, and tourism the 1980-90s, and the collapse of centrally planned developments) were identified as the most significant economies in central and southeastern Europe (including threats, both affecting nearly half (48%) of plants assessed the change in the provision of collection and purchasing as threatened or Near Threatened (impacting 26% and points for wild-collected medicinal plants), coupled with

20 further urbanisation, the level of wild-collection dropped in Romania, , Greece, Bulgaria, ; to a certain extent in the majority of countries that were EIONET 2014), and assessed as Least Concern on the most significant source of wild-collected ingredients European level is Great Yellow Gentian Gentiana lutea. (Rodina and Timoshyna 2011). However, over 2,000 wild With regard to addressing the threat of unsustainable plant species are estimated to be traded commercially in wild plant collection, a number of measures, including Europe, of which 60-70% are native to central Europe, legislative and market-based interventions (discussed in and over 90% of these species are still collected from Chapter 4) are being employed in Europe, remaining the the wild (Lange 2004). There is a continuing challenge priority for conservation action. to ensure that wild-harvesting and trade are sustainable Hallers Kuhschelle (Haller’s anemone) Anemone halleri (LC) is widespread in sub-alpine and equitable. It has also been observed, consistent with and alpine regions of Europe. © Der Messer / Flickr Creative Commons Licence wild-harvesting activities in other parts of the world, that both the number of collectors and the level of wild plant collection for use and trade, increases in times of economic downturn.

Of the assessed medicinal plant species, 41 are listed in CITES Appendix II, including eight threatened (VU or EN) or Near Threatened species. Pheasant’s eye Adonis vernalis has been assessed at the regional level as Least Concern, while the international trade in it is regulated. At the same time there is circumstantial evidence of the increased trade in several species of Ironwort or Mountain tea (including Sideritis scardica and Sideritis syriaca), in southeastern Europe, and additional research into the wild-harvesting and trade of these species is needed. An example of species protected under the EU Habitats Directive as having Unfavourable-Inadequate conservation status in a number of EU habitats (including

Figure 6. Significant threats identified impacting the selected medicinal plants.

21 3.6 Population trends of medicinal plants 3.7 End uses of the selected medicinal in Europe plants

For the selected medicinal plants, 164 (41.0%) were In compiling the species list used in this European assessed as having a stable population trend, whilst 125 assessment, the term ‘medicinal plant’ has been (31%) were considered to be declining in population size understood in a wide sense to include overlapping uses in Europe. More than one quarter (101; 25%) have an as herbal teas, spices, food, dietary supplements, and unknown population trend and a small part of the group cosmetics. 350 plants were determined to have a direct (3%) have increasing populations (Figure 7). As has been application in human or veterinary medicine (Figure stated above, the paucity of data on population trends of 8), however, all had uses within the above definition, taxa across the European region (but especially true for including 150 that were found to be utilised as food for eastern and southeastern parts) has resulted in a number people. Establishing ex situ cultivation was also found to of species being assigned to either the Near Threatened or be a frequent end use, for both medicinal uses as well as to the Data Deficient categories. for horticulture and ornamental use.

Figure 7. Population trends of the selected European medicinal plants.

Figure 8. Primary uses identified for the selected medicinal plants

22 Veratrum album

This is a long-lived robust perennial that grows to a height of 1.5 m and has a sturdy rhizome. It has a large branched spike of numerous flowers which produce nectar and have a strong smell and which are noted to be visited by . It grows in alpine and sub-alpine herb communities, in scrub, forests, pastures and hay meadows with a preference for moist conditions. In Europe this plant is found from Turkey through southeastern, east and central Europe to Spain and Portugal in the south. It is also found in northestern Finland and northern Norway (Govaerts 2014, GRIN 2014). It is at the edge of its range here and only known from one locality in Finland. It has a wide altitudinal range but in central Europe is generally found above 800 m (Schaffner et al. 2001).

This is an example of a medicinal plant where populations are generally not considered under threat and may even be increasing. Although little numerical data are available for this species it is noted to be quite common and sometimes abundant in many areas (NatureGate 2014). It is even considered an Photograph: Nicholas Turland / Flickr Creative important weed on some grazed mountain grasslands, Commons Licence where preferential grazing of more palatable species veterinary medicine. Although very poisonous it also may favour its dominance. Farmers may resort to has traditional medicinal uses, for example, the roots control measures to reduce populations in pastures and rhizomes were used to make medicine to treat and hay meadows. It can reach densities of ten plants epilepsy. The plant contains specific alkaloids which per square metre and attains pest status in grasslands have been used in modern medicine for medication to above 500 m asl in France, Italy, Germany, and lower but its importance has declined Switzerland. It is inferred that the population is very because of poisonous side-effects. If collected, it is large. Changes in montane grassland management, mostly from the wild, but it has been locally cultivated such as nitrogen inputs and altered grazing and in central Europe and parts of Croatia. mowing regimes, together with the time and cost involved in , have all acted to favour No significant threats to this species have been this species, and the population is suspected to be identified. The survival rate of established plants is very increasing (Schaffner et al. 2001). high and it can tolerate repeated disturbance and even the removal of all above ground tissue (Schaffner et al. This species is cultivated as a garden plant. The 2001). It is considered to be of Least Concern. pulverised rootstock has been used as an insecticide on currants and gooseberries in Europe and occasionally as an ointment to treat skin diseases such as scabies or to kill lice (Grieve 1931, Keller 2001, Kathe 2003). Grieve (1931) suggests its principal use is in

23 4. Conservation measures

There are extensive conservation efforts focused on plants outcomes, in particular, support the delivery against the and their habitats at all scales from the international to following Aichi Targets; the national, and increasingly, market tools are being developed to promote the sustainable use of medicinal Target 12: By 2020 the extinction of known threatened plants, with the over-exploitation of wild resources species has been prevented and their conservation identified here as the primary threat to medicinal plants status, particularly of those most in decline, has in Europe, followed by the agricultural impacts and land- been improved and sustained. use changes affecting habitats and populations Target 13: By 2020, the loss of genetic diversity of cultivated 4.1 Protection of habitats and species: plants and farmed and domesticated animals international framework and of wild relatives, including other socio- economically as well as culturally valuable species On the international level, the Convention on Biological is maintained and strategies have been developed Diversity (CBD) promotes biodiversity conservation, and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion sustainable use of its components and the equitable sharing and safeguarding their genetic diversity. of the benefits arising from the use of biodiversity. In relation to plants, the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation The CBD is developing an area of work relevant to (GSPC) was adopted by the CBD at the 2002 Conference medicinal plant conservation, around biodiversity and of the Parties and updated at the tenth Conference of the human health, supporting the delivery of primarily Aichi Parties (CBD 2010a). The updated GSPC sets targets Target 14; and objectives for the period 2011-2020 which are of direct relevance to utilised species such as these medicinal Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential plants (CBD 2010a). For example, Target 2 calls for “… services, including services related to water, an assessment of the conservation status of all known plant and contribute to health, livelihoods and well- species, as far as possible, to guide conservation action”. being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into The assessments published in the course of this project account the needs of women, indigenous and contribute to Target 2, and will contribute to Target 5 local communities and the poor and vulnerable. (the identification of Important Plant Areas), Targets 7 and 8 which deal with in situ and ex situ conservation A further outcome of the tenth CBD Conference of the of threatened species, and contributes to the longer-term Parties (CBD CoP) was the Nagoya Protocol on Access to delivery against Target 12, which focuses on sustainable use Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of of wild-plant products. Sharrock et al. (2014) undertook Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on a mid-term review of progress towards meeting the 2020 Biological Diversity (in brief, Access and Benefit-sharing, GSPC targets. They reported that, at a global scale, ABS) (CBD 2011). The Nagoya Protocol came into force progress towards Targets 2, 8 and 12 has been inadequate in October 2014, during the eleventh CBD CoP. The to meet the 2020 timescale, and there has been no progress objective of the Nagoya Protocol is to set an internationally towards Target 7 because the overall continuing loss of accepted, legally binding framework to promote the natural habitat means that the in situ conservation status transparent and effective implementation of the ABS of many species is getting worse, whilst many species that concept at the regional, national and local level (Greiber occur within protected areas are not effectively conserved et al. 2012). ABS acknowledges the benefits that accrue to and are affected by factors such as invasive species, climate a range of sectors and actors from genetic resources (Table change and unregulated harvesting (Sharrock et al. 2014). 4) with the potential to be of benefit for wider social and economic development, whilst acknowledging that open The CBD Strategic Plan agreed in Nagoya, Japan (CBD access to these genetic resources can lead to exploitation, 2010b) established a further 20 target actions (the Aichi over-utilisation, and/or monopolisation of resources and Biodiversity Targets). The current assessment and its traditional knowledge.

24 Table 4. Market sectors and the importance of genetic resources. Sector Size of total market in 2006 Importance of genetic resources •• Pharmaceutical US$ 640 billion 20–25% derived from genetic resources •• Biotechnology US$ 70 billion from public Many products derived from genetic companies alone resources (enzymes, micro-organisms) •• Agricultural seeds US$ 30 billion All derived from genetic resources •• Personal care, botanical, and US$ 22 billion for herbal Some products derived from genetic food and beverage industries supplements resources: represents ‘natural’ US$ 12 billion for personal care component of the market US$ 31 billion for food products

Source: from ten Brink 2011.

The ABS principles regulate access to genetic resources and 4.2 Protection of habitats and species equitable benefit sharing from their utilization through within the pan Europe and the the requirement for prior and informed consent of the EU 27 regions country of origin of the resource, or of the indigenous peoples through mutually agreed terms. In Europe, the European countries and EU Member States are Nagoya Protocol is implemented through regulation signatories to a number of regional conventions and 511/2014 which came into force on 12 October 2014 Directives targeted at conserving species and their (to coincide with the Nagoya Protocol itself). habitats, including vascular plants. These include: •• EU Convention on the Conservation of European Another multi-lateral environmental agreement that Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention) provides a framework for ensuring the sustainability and •• EU Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/ legality of trade in medicinal plants is the Convention EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora habitats and of wild fauna and flora) and Fauna (CITES). Over 65 plants (41 included in this •• EU Wildlife Trade Regulation (Council Regulation current assessment) traded as medicinal and aromatic are (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the listed in CITES Appendix II with their trade regulated. protection of species of wild fauna and flora by Useful tools developed to support the implementation regulating trade therein) of CITES provisions include the voluntary guidance on non-detriment findings for perennial plants (Leaman The Bern Convention is a binding international legal and Oldfield 2014) to which the present assessment will instrument that aims to conserve wild flora and fauna provide a useful contribution. and their natural habitats and to promote European cooperation towards that objective. It covers all European The World Health Organization in its Traditional countries and some African states. Medicine Strategy (WHO 2013), prioritizes the finalisation of the update of the Guidelines on Also at the pan European level, pan European countries Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO et al. 1993), endorsed the pan-European 2020 Strategy for Biodiversity which will provide an important guidance to WHO (UNEP 2011), which refocuses efforts to prevent members on the conservation and sustainable use of further loss of biodiversity in the pan-European region medicinal plants. and provides a European mechanism for supporting the implementation of the global Strategic Plan for Biodiversity.

EU nature conservation policy is based on two main pieces of legislation - the 1979 Birds and the 1992 Habitats Directives. The main aim of the nature directives is to

25 ensure the favourable conservation status of the habitats contain over 700 of the most threatened species in Europe and species found in the EU. One of the main tools to and millions of hectares of the most threatened habitats. enhance and maintain this status is the Natura 2000 At least 1,770 IPAs have been identified in 16 European network of protected areas, which currently contains countries (Anderson and Radford 2010). over 27,000 terrestrial and marine sites, covering almost a fifth of the EU land areas as well as substantial parts of At the national level, countries have developed legislation the surrounding seas. to implement international and regional commitments, as well as focussing conservation efforts on of habitats In addition the EU has committed to a long-term (2050) and threatened plants. Examples of relevant legislation vision and mid-term headline target for biodiversity, which include the identification of protected or endangered is ‘To halt the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of flora, national Red Books or Red Lists, and by 2007, ecosystem services in the EU by 2020 and restore them in almost all European countries had initiated national Red so far as possible, while stepping up the EU contribution Lists (de Iongh and Bal 2007). Countries in the region to averting global biodiversity loss’. have also developed National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans, in response to the CBD national delivery The establishment of these policy instruments indicates the accompanied by the periodic national reports against the high political commitment to biodiversity conservation implementation. In some cases, specific national response and the need to monitor the status of biodiversity so as to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (e.g. United to assess progress towards meeting conservation objectives Kingdom, France, Austria; see Plants 2020 (2014)). A and targets. number of protected areas within the European region are established on different levels, including sub-national, Many individual European region countries have national- national, and transboundary, which contribute to plant scale conservation legislation that encompasses vascular habitat and population conservation efforts. plants, and there are a number of geographically-specific conventions (e.g, The Alpine Convention (www.alpconv.org) In terms of addressing the threats to medicinal plants, and Carpathian Convention (Framework Convention on the their conservation, and encouraging sustainable resource Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians; management and use, strategies specific to sustainable www.carpathianconvention.org). wild-collection of plants have been developed in a few European countries (e.g., some Balkan states; Nedeljković In order to coordinate the implementation of the GSPC et al. 2010), but such efforts remain scarce. One example of at the regional level, the European Strategy for Plant such regulation is from the Republika Srpska (Bosnia and Conservation (ESPC) was adopted. The first European Herzegovina) Rulebook of Conditions for Utilization and the Strategy was developed in 2001 by Planta Europa and Methods of Collection of Other Forest Products (Republika the Council of Europe (2001) and was valid until 2007. Srpska 2010) and its 2014 amendment, based on the Law At the fifth Planta Europa Conference, the Strategy was of Forests (Republika Srpska 2008). In common with other renewed and targets were set for the period 2008-2014 areas of biodiversity conservation, the level of cooperation (Planta Europa 2008) which are aligned to the GSPC. between sectorial Ministries (which might need to involve, GSPC Target 2 is also of major relevance as it calls for for example, Ministries responsible for environmental “A preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all protection, agriculture, forestry, economic development, known plant species at national, regional and international and health) at the national or sub-national level may be levels”. The corresponding ESPC sub-target 2.1 calls for a limited, which potentially prevents the development of European Red List of vascular plants. better medicinal plant conservation strategies.

Plant habitat conservation efforts have in part been focused through the identification of Important Plant Areas (IPAs); IPAs are internationally significant sites for wild plants and threatened habitats. Identified at a national level, they provide a framework for implementing Target 5 of the CBD GSPC, as well as a tool for targeting conservation actions on wild plants and in situ habitat protection). IPAs

26 4.3 Conservation management of as the FairWild Standard developed by the FairWild European medicinal plants Foundation in partnership with IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, TRAFFIC, WWF and others, and its Work initiated by TRAFFIC, IUCN and WWF on adoption by industry, governments and communities understanding the trade of medicinal plants to Europe is recommended (See Box ‘The FairWild Standard (Lange 1998), was followed by a review of the conservation and medicinal plant certification’). Wild-harvesting of medicinal plants from selected countries of southeastern can be sustainable if appropriate management systems Europe (Kathe et al. 2006). Over-collection from the wild are implemented, and can benefit both the health and was identified as the primary threatening factor for the livelihoods of collectors and communities. In this context, assessed medicinal plants, with several species identified as CITES (and in the EU context the EU Wildlife Trade threatened (and subsequently listed in respective national regulation) also provides the framework for regulating Red Lists or Protected Species Lists), for example in the trade in species threatened by international trade, Arnica montana, Arctostaphylos including medicinal plants. In its Traditional Medicine uva-ursi and Gentiana lutea, which are all assessed as Least Strategy (WHO 2013), the World Health Organization Concern at the regional level. prioritises the finalisation of the update of theGuidelines on Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO et al. 1993), The problem of unsustainable wild-collection is recognised which will provide important guidance to WHO in the CBDs Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, and members on the conservation and sustainable use of a range of tools and certification schemes have been medicinal plants. developed to promote sustainable wild-harvesting, such

For some plants that are highly collected from the wild, such as Ramsons ursinum (LC), ongoing monitoring of exploited populations are recommended. Here, an Allium ursinum resource assessment is underway in the Vlasenica Region of Republica Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. © Sladjana Bundalo / TRAFFIC International

27 The FairWild Standard and medicinal plant certification www.fairwild.org

Version 2.0 of the FairWild Standard applies to wild plant collection operators who wish to demonstrate their commitment to sustainable collection, social responsibility, and fair trade principles. The purpose of the Standard is to ensure the continued use and long-term survival of wild plant species and populations in their habitats, while respecting the traditions and cultures, and supporting the livelihoods of all stakeholders; in particular collectors and workers. Adoption of the FairWild Standard helps to support efforts to ensure sustainable collection and maintenance of wild plant populations, as well as the sustainable social aspects of collection, and fair conditions of labour.

Beyond the certification process, the FairWild Standard principles can form the basis for the development of community resource management practices, sustainable resource management strategies and regulations. The FairWild Standard is recognised as the best-practice framework for sustainable wild collection and equitable trade in the implementation toolkit of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. The FairWild Standard provides guidance on best-practice harvesting and trading of wild-harvested plant (and similar) resources in eleven key areas (FairWild Foundation 2010):

1. Maintaining wild plant resources 2. Preventing negative environmental impacts 3. Complying with laws, regulations, and agreements 4. Respecting customary rights and benefit-sharing 5. Promoting fair contractual relationships between operators and collectors 6. Limiting participation of children in wild-collection activities 7. Ensuring benefits for collectors and their communities 8. Ensuring fair working conditions for all workers of FairWild collection operations 9. Applying responsible management practices 10. Applying responsible business practices 11. Promoting buyer commitment

As such, FairWild certification can also provide a value-adding option for producers in addition to conservation benefits, considering that the demand for FairWild certified products is growing. The European region is important

Common Nettle Urtica dioica (LC). © Brewbanks, Flickr Creative Commons Licence for sourcing the FairWild-certified ingredients for the manufacturing industry in Europe, and elsewhere. RUNO sp. z o.o. is an operator in Poland dealing with processing herbs and raw herbal material that holds FairWild certification for four wild plant species (Common Nettle Urtica dioica and Dandelion officinale). The wild medicinal plants are collected through their network of purchase centres in landscapes surrounding the Białowieża forest, one of the last and largest remaining parts of the primeval forest that once stretched across the European Plain. Collectors are benefiting from fair prices paid for their produce and through participation with the FairWild Premium Fund for community development priorities. Final products using Polish ingredients are manufactured in the USA, and are on sale in the USA, Canada, Japan and elsewhere.

28 Balsamic Sage Salvia tomentosa (LC) is found in southeastern Europe. It is used in herbal teas, to produce an with potential applications as an insecticide and bactericidal agent. © Errol Vela

In central and southeastern Europe, the number of Identification and protection of critical habitat has traditional wild-collectors of medicinal plants is declining been identified as a major factor contributing to due to continuing urbanisation of populations, putting at positive conservation outcomes for species identified as risk the survival of the tradition of wild-collection and use threatened (Favaro et al. 2014). However, Unfavourable of medicinal plants. This issue is being addressed through Conservation Status according to the EU Habitats separate initiatives, for example the Traditional and Wild Directive has a much broader definition, identified in project in Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovenia and Poland Article 1 of the Directive (see Box 1). No species meeting (Rodina et al. 2014), focussing on the promotion of the IUCN Red List Criteria for one of the threatened sustainable wild-harvesting, fair trade and revitalisation categories at a regional level can be considered to have of the tradition of wild collection. However, wider action a Favourable Conservation Status in the EU. To be is needed on the regional level, including with industry, classified as Vulnerable (the lowest of the three IUCN communities and relevant government agencies. threatened categories) a species must undergo a reduction in population size of at least 30% over ten years or three 4.4 Red List extinction risk versus generations (or have a very small or small and declining habitat conservation status population or geographic range). It is difficult to claim that a species experiencing a decline of this magnitude The IUCN Red List Criteria classify taxa on the basis is maintaining its population, that its range is stable, of their relative risk of extinction (IUCN 2012a). and that it remains a viable component of its habitat.

Selected provisions of the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC)

Article 1(i) defines the conservation status of a species as;

“the sum of the influences acting on the species concerned that may affect the long-term distribution and abundance of its populations in the European territory of the Member States”.

It states that a species’ conservation status will be taken as Favourable when:

Population dynamics data on the species concerned suggests that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitats; and

The natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the considerable future; and

There is, and probably will continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its populations on a long-term basis.

29 Crucially, however, this does not mean that the opposite 4.5 Red List status versus priorities for is true: species that are not threatened as defined by conservation action IUCN Red List Criteria do not necessarily have a Favourable Conservation Status (BirdLife International Assessment of extinction risk and setting conservation 2004). Guidelines issued by the European Commission priorities are two related but different processes. on the protection of species under the Habitats Directive Assessment of extinction risk, such as the assignment of reinforce this message that ‘the fact that a habitat or IUCN Red List Categories, generally precedes the setting species is not threatened (i.e. not faced by any direct of conservation priorities. The purpose of the Red List extinction risk) does not necessarily mean that it has a categorization is to produce a relative estimate of the Favourable Conservation Status’. likelihood of extinction of a taxon. Setting conservation priorities, on the other hand, normally includes the Of the 400 selected medicinal plants included in this assessment of extinction risk, but also takes into assessment, a relatively small proportion (2.4% at the account other factors such as ecological, phylogenetic, pan Europe scale, 2.5% within the EU 27 Member historical, economical, or cultural preferences for some States) of species were assigned a threatened category and taxa over others, as well as the probability of success of 31% were found to have a declining population trend. conservation actions, availability of funds or personnel, Collection from the wild, livestock farming, recreational cost-effectiveness, and legal frameworks for conservation activities, tourism and urban development, invasive alien of threatened taxa. In the context of regional risk species, natural system modification and pollution have assessments, a number of additional pieces of information been identified as the main causes of decline in medicinal are valuable for setting conservation priorities. For plants. Special emphasis needs to be placed on Data example, it is important to consider not only conditions Deficient species, especially as some are suspected to be within the region but also the status of the taxon from in a critical state of decline at the national level in some a global perspective and the proportion of the global parts of the EU and within pan Europe, but the lack of population that occurs within the region. A decision on information from across the whole range or part of the how these three variables, as well as other factors, are used range of these species meant that a threat category could for establishing conservation priorities is a matter for the not be assigned. These species should not be regarded as regional authorities to determine. having Favourable Conservation Status, and should be the focus of further research across the region.

Arnica des montagnes Arnica montana is found in alpine areas and grasslands. © Stephanie Klocke / Flickr Creative Commons Licence

30 Dianthus superbus

This herbaceous perennial with sweet scented flowers is a very popular garden plant with many and hybrids. It has long been used medicinally, particularly in , for a variety of purposes, often in combinations with other species. Its uses include treatments for constipation, urinary problems, fever, blood pressure, bacterial infections and as a contraceptive (Plants for a Future 2012). The leaves and stems can be boiled and eaten. Although not considered to fall within a threatened category within the EU 27 and Europe as a whole, it illustrates some of the threats to species of meadow and grassland habitats. It is found in much of Europe except parts Photograph: Teun Spaans / Creative Commons Licence of the northwest and southwest. However, it has an Populations of this species are known to be impacted uneven distribution, with higher sub-population by changes in meadow management. For example, densities in some areas than others. For example, replacement of meadows with forest, due to it is thought possibly extinct in the Netherlands successional processes following lack of management, (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013). In southern Sweden such as reduced grazing or mowing regimes. It has the species has declined and disappeared from many also suffered from replacement of meadows with locations (Anderberg 1998). It is noted to be still arable areas due to the intensification of agriculture. relatively frequent, on fairly stable sand dunes, in A study in western Poland found this species within eastern Finnmark, Norway (Ødegaard et al. 2014). Molinia meadows which are considered to be the most It is considered to be Critically Endangered in the endangered meadows in the region. Within the area Czech Republic, Endangered in Estonia, Latvia studied a general reduction in grasslands, in some and Lithuania, Vulnerable in Sweden and Poland, parts by up to 50-60% in the last 70 years, was noted Near Threatened in Hungary and rare in Denmark (Jermaczek-Sitak 2009). Wet meadows, a habitat for (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013, Tamm 2012). It is this species, belong to some of the most threatened protected in Finland south from the province of communities in Central Europe (Myśliwy and Oulu and a variant growing on serpentine in Kaavi is Bosiacka 2012). They are affected by abandonment, Critically Endangered (Lehmuskallio 2014). eutrophication, drainage, and habitat fragmentation (Tájek 2012). Agricultural improvement in Baltic It is found in a variety of grassland habitats. It occurs coastal meadows damaged the natural water regime in alpine meadows in acidic and nutrient poor soils, and balance and they dried or became overgrown with for example in Austria and Germany (Deitl and reed. A decline in grazing also caused these meadows Jorquera 2012), in moor grasslands and forest edges to become overgrown with high vegetation and scrub in Poland (Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt 2013) and open (Rannap et al. 2004). woods and meadows in the east of France (Tela Botanica 2012). It is found in Baltic coastal meadow In Estonia, of the managed coastal meadows only habitats in Denmark, Sweden, Estonia and Finland 9,500 ha remained in use by 1981 and by 2000 this (Estonian Environmental Board 2011). In Finland had decreased to 5,100 ha (Rannap et al. 2004). it is also noted to occur on sandy and gravelly river Restoration efforts have been undertaken here banks, dry commons and roadsides (Lehmuskallio and 2,400 seedlings, grown in , were 2014). In the south of its range, in Greece, it grows in transplanted to a site which is undergoing monitoring grassy clearings (Lafranchis and Sfikar 2009). to evaluate its success (Tamm 2012).

31 5. Conclusion and recommendations

Four hundred medicinal plants native to the European region This assessment is very clearly the first step in understanding were selected and their risk of extinction assessed according the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN Europe. 2012a) at two geographical scales (i) the 27 Member States of the European Union and (ii) pan Europe (continental 5.1 Recommendations for conservation Europe including European parts of the Russian Federation measures to the Ural mountains). The term ‘medicinal plant’ has been understood in a wider sense to include overlapping uses as Expand the state of knowledge of European herbal teas, spices, food, dietary supplements, and cosmetics. medicinal plants The Red List Category of each plant was assessed at each of the two regional scales (Table 2, Figure 1). At the pan Europe •• Undertake further research on threatened and Near level, nine plants (2.4% of extant species for which sufficient Threatened European species and ensure the adequate data are available) were found to be threatened (i.e., having identification and management of their critical a Red List Category of Vulnerable or Endangered; no plants habitats to inform conservation programmes and were considered Critically Endangered, Regionally Extinct, identify gaps in conservation actions. or Extinct). This figure rises very slightly to 2.5% for the •• Reassess threatened plants at least every five years EU 27 region. This represents a low level of threat compared and when new information becomes available. It is with other European regional assessments of vascular plants. recommended that Data Deficient species should also By comparison, of groups that have been comprehensively be reassessed every five years. assessed in Europe, 59% of freshwater molluscs, 40% of •• Prioritise fieldwork and data collection for Data freshwater fishes, 23% of amphibians, 20% of reptiles, Deficient species to determine whether they are in 17% of mammals, 16% of dragonflies, 13% of birds, need of conservation action. 9% of butterflies and 8% of aquatic plants are threatened •• Promote data access through the development of (IUCN 2011b, BirdLife International In prep.). Additional national and regional data portals. European Red Lists assessing only a selection of species •• Integrate the outcomes of this assessment and any showed that 22% of terrestrial molluscs, 16% of crop follow-up research into the European Strategy for wild relatives, 15% of saproxylic beetles, 2% of medicinal Plant Conservation, and showcase in the Global plants are also threatened (IUCN 2011b, Allen et al. 2014). Strategy for Plant Conservation. Medicinal plant species considered Near Threatened (pan Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi is a very widespread plant in Europe. Whilst it is Europe 4.5% / EU 27 5%) have populations declining across considered Least Concern at the European regional scale, the plant is considered Europe. Few plants were considered Data Deficient (6.3% threatened in numerous national Red Lists, and local conservation actions are required. DD at the pan Europe scale, 5.8% in the EU 27 Member © Terhi Ryttäri States), reflecting the generally good state of knowledge of plants across the European Union and the European region. The primary reason for a plant being assigned to the Data Deficient category was a lack of knowledge of population trends across its European range (reflected by the figure of just over 25% of plants for which the population trend could not be determined), and highlights a key research need for European medicinal plants, to better monitor demographic change and drivers of change. The low level of threatened species identified through this assessment should not allow complacency; further research is needed to enable DD species to be reassessed and assigned a different Red List Category, and there are indications that the collection and trade in medicinal plants in Europe is increasing.

32 Localise and apply the assessment results use strategies. Such cooperation should extend across all government sectors, including environmental •• Promote the awareness of medicinal plant conservation protection, agriculture, forestry, economic and rural status and the drivers of population declines, as well development, and health. as the tools available, through regional and national •• Encourage the uptake of the FairWild Standard and workshops and other relevant awareness-raising certification scheme for sustainable wild-harvesting activities. and equitable trade to prevent further population •• Use the outcomes of assessment for further sub- decline of species impacted by wild collection. regional assessments, to update national Red List •• Engagement of multiple stakeholder groups, including assessments or develop if not already in place, and research institutions, NGOs, communities, private to inform national-level conservation priority-setting sector in the discussions of the assessment outcomes and conservation measures, including sustainable use. and the design of the follow-up measures is of critical •• Build capacity and resources at the national level to importance to the successful implementation of the undertake national assessments. activities.

Capacity-building and awareness 5.2 Application of project outputs

•• Tools and resources for building the capacity of This European Red List of Medicinal Plants is part of resource managers and relevant agencies should be a wider project aimed at assessing a range of taxonomic developed and disseminated, including; undertaking groups, some comprehensively (i.e., including all Red List assessments at national scales; producing currently known species present within the pan Europe resource inventories; species and area management region, such as freshwater fishes and butterflies), whilst plans; and monitoring of populations and habitats. in others, such as this and the other vascular plant groups •• Strengthen the network of European plant experts by (Bilz et al. 2011), only selected species have been assessed. providing training and improving communication, In conjunction with the data on European birds published including the mobilisation of financial resources. by BirdLife International (BirdLife International 2004, •• Promote expert engagement in relevant SSC Specialist In prep.), the European Red Lists provide key resources Groups, especially the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group. for decision-makers, policymakers, resources managers, environmental planners and NGOs. It has brought Develop policy and encourage sustainable together large volumes of data on the population, business practices for conservation and ecology, habitats, threats and recommended conservation sustainable use of medicinal plants measures for each species assessed. These data are freely available on the IUCN Red List website (http://www. •• Effective government regulations and policies can iucnredlist.org), on the European Commission website create an enabling environment for the conservation, (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/ sustainable use and trade in wild medicinal plants species/redlist/), and through publications (see the list of in Europe. Tools such as the FairWild Standard European Red Lists published at the end of this report). can be applied to improve existing wild harvesting management practices and provide a framework for This European Red List is a dynamic tool that will evolve such policies. with time as species are reassessed according to new •• Prioritise conservation measures based on the findings information or change in species status. It is aimed at of this assessment. stimulating and supporting research, monitoring and •• Integrate medicinal plant conservation measures into conservation action at local, regional and international National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans levels, especially for threatened, Near Threatened and (NBSAPs), and where relevant develop specific plant Data Deficient species. conservation strategies at the national or sub-national level. Each species assessment lists the major threats affecting •• Cooperation between sectorial-based ministries is the specific plant as well as conservation measures already important for the development and implementation of in place or needed. This will be useful to inform the effective medicinal plant conservation and sustainable application of conservation measures for each species.

33 The outputs of this project can be applied to inform 5.3 Future work policy, to identify priority sites and species to include in research and monitoring programmes and to identify Through the process of compiling data on the distributions, internationally important areas for biodiversity. It also population trends, ecology and threats to this selected contributes to broaden the coverage of plants on the sub-set of medicinal plants for the European Red List, a global IUCN Red List as many species assessed during number of knowledge gaps have been identified. Across this project are endemic to the European region. Europe there are significant geographic, geopolitical •• The European Red List will be a key source of and taxonomic biases in the quality of data available information when undertaking the possible adaptation on the distribution and status of species, as well as their of the Annexes of European legislation in the future representation in protected areas. Whilst most, if not all, (e.g. EU nature directives, Bern Convention), as well as countries have national floras and some have national protected areas identification (e.g. Natura 2000 sites). Red Lists, accessing compiled plant data, especially on •• European Red List data is used to track progress distributions and population trends, is difficult. This towards meeting EU policy targets (e.g. EU 2020 project has made extensive use of regional and national- Biodiversity Baseline) scale online databases, especially for spatial data (e.g., •• Since the development of the European Red List, the the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), EU’s financial instrument for the environment, the Anthos (2014), SIVIM (Sistema de información de la LIFE+ programme, does also give priority funding Vegetación Iberica y Macaronésica; SIVIM 2014) and to those projects that aim actions towards conserving TÜBİVES (Bakis et al. 2014)), and we benefitted greatly threatened species according to the European Red List. from the spatial data made available to us by the Atlas Flora Europeaea (Kurtto et al. 2013). However, there are significant gaps in the geographical coverage of such glabra (LC) is widely cultivated and wild-collected in Europe for a open-source resources, and issues to overcome, including wide range of uses such as in medicines, herbal , and confectionary. Photographed taxonomic standards and data quality (especially accuracy here at a market Vic in Catalunya. © Ryan Opaz www.ryanopaz.com of georeferencing). There is a clear need for drawing together information from all data compilation initiatives under way or planned, and for a wider European medicinal plant conservation action plan to be explored, developed, and progressed, especially in newly acceded Member States, and the eastern parts of the pan Europe region, including European parts of Russia.

It is hoped that by presenting this assessment, both national and regional research will be stimulated to provide new data and to improve on the quality of that already given.

Key challenges for the future are to improve monitoring and data quality, and to further develop data openness and dissemination so that the information and analyses presented here and on the European Red List website can be updated and improved, and so conservation actions can be given as solid a scientific basis as possible.

34 Pistacia lentiscus

At present this dense evergreen shrub, or less commonly, small tree is not considered threatened in Europe and provides an example of how small scale cultivation aids sustainable use. In the European region, the species is considered native to the Canary Islands, most Mediterranean coastal countries and larger islands in Spain (including the Baleares), Portugal, France (including ), Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Albania, and Greece (and Crete) (GRIN 2014). It forms part of what is thought of as typical Mediterranean vegetation of thick-leaved evergreen Maquis. It is also found in more open steppe, on dry rocky slopes and is common near the sea, sometimes on sand dunes, and in open oak forest (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1993, Al-Saghir and Porter 2012). In the interior of the Iberian Peninsula it grows Photograph: enbodenumer / Flickr Creative Commons in low-altitude scrublands (Garrigas) and sheltered Licence areas, avoiding places with cold winters (Palacio 2005). The species is noted to be deep-rooted and long-lived and gum are natural antimicrobial agents and possibly (more than 100 years), relatively combustible, but have some anti-fungal properties (Lauk 1996). Anti- with a good ability to survive fire and also an ability ulcer (Al-Said et al.1986) and anti-tumour activity to tolerate some degree of -cutting. It is also has also been investigated and a possible future role in noted to be an unpalatable shrub which may confer cancer prevention suggested (Magkoutaa et al. 2009). protection from grazing (Grove and Rackham 2001). This species is cultivated for the extraction of on It may be locally threatened by urban expansion and the Greek island of Chios. The production of mastic in tourist developments and possibly by cultivation of 1997 was said to amount to 160–170 tonnes annually land under plastic, for example, in Spain. and to be important to the economy of the island, being the main source of income for about 20 villages This shrub produces an aromatic known in the south (Browicz 1987). It is thought that Chios is as mastic which has a long history of use; for example, the main source of mastic for commercial use. it is noted to have been used in ancient Egypt as part of the embalming process (Hanelt et al. 2001). No detailed population data are available. However, as It has also been used in the production of varnishes this shrub is a characteristic species of Maquis vegetation and adhesives, for chewing gum, in photography, and open rocky areas around most of the Mediterranean lithography and dentistry and it is used in and and its islands, the population is inferred to be very cordials (Polunin 1969). The mastic oil is also part of large. Palacio (2005), for example studied just one distinct , hair and skin lotions and the resin natural population of this shrub, located in north- is also used in a number of cakes, pastries, sweets and east Spain, which had more than 300 adults. It is desserts and is an important ingredient in Greek festival reported to be extremely common in Crete, common breads (Hagidimitrio 2013). The seeds contain about in Sardinia and along the coast of Italy (Fielding and 25% oil, which is used as oil, while the wood can Turland 2005, Delfino 2010, Pignatti 1982). Grove be used to produce charcoal, and the branches are used and Rackham (2001) suggest there may be some by basket makers (Hanelt et al. 2001). There has been recent expansion of this species within Mediterranean recent interest in its medicinal properties and the oil Europe.

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38 Kurtto, A., Sennikov, A.N. and Lampinen, R. (eds.) Magkoutaa, S., Stathopoulosa, G.T., Psallidasa, I., 2013. Atlas Florae Europaeae, Vol. 16. Helsinki: The Apapetropoulosb, A., Kolisisc, F.N., Roussosa, C. and Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Loutraria, H. 2009. Protective effects of mastic oil from Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo. Pistacia Lentiscus Variation chia against experimental Lafranchis, T. and Sfikas G. 2009. Flowers of Greece. Volume growth of Lewis lung carcinoma. Nutrition and 1. Paris: Diatheo. Cancer 61(5): 640-648. Lauk, L., Ragusa, S., Rapisarda, A., Franco, S. and Miller, J.S. 2011. The discovery of medicines from plants: Nicolosi, V.M. 1996. In-vitro antimicrobial activity of a current biological perspective. Economic Botany 65(4): Pistacia lentiscus L. extracts: preliminary report. Journal 396-407. of Chemotherapy 3: 207-209. Mittermeier, R.A., Robles Gil, P., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, Lange, D. 2004. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Trade, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. and Production, and Management of Botanical Resources. Fonseca, G.A.B. 2004. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s In: L.E. Cracker, J.E. Simon, A., Jatisatienr, and E. Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Lewinsohn, E. XXVI International Horticultural Ecoregions. Mexico City: CEMEX, Conservation Congress: The Future for Medicinal and Aromatic International and Agrupación Sierra Madre. Plants. Toronto, Canada: ISHS Acta Horticulturae 177- Moser, D. 1999. Chimaphila umbellata. Available 197. at: http://www.infoflora.ch/assets/content/documents/ Lange, D. 2006. International trade in medicinal and merkblaetter_artenschutz_de/chim_umbe_d.pdf aromatic plants. Actors, volumes and commodities. In: Moser, D., Gygax, A., Bäumler, B., Wyler, N., and R.J. Bogers, L.E. Craker and D. Lange (eds.). Medicinal Palese, R. 2002. Liste rouge des fougères et plantes à and Aromatic Plants. Netherlands: Springer. fleurs menacées de Suisse. Berne: Office fédéral de Lange, D. 2008. Europe’s medicinal and aromatic plants: l’environnement, des forêts et du paysage, Chambésy: Their use, trade, and conservation. Cambridge, UK: Centre du réseau suisse de floristique, and the TRAFFIC International. Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Leaman, D.J and Oldfield, T.E.E. 2014. CITES Non- Genève. detriment Findings. Guidance for Perennial Plants. A Myśliwy, M. and Bosiacka, B. 2009. Disappearance of nine-step process to support CITES Scientific Authorities Molinio-Arrhenatheretea Meadows diagnostic species making science-based non-detriment findings (NDFs) in the Upper Płonia River Valley (NW Poland). Polish for species listed in CITES Appendix II. Version 1.0. Journal of Environmental Studies 18(3): 513-519. Bonn: German Ministry of Environment, Nature NatureGate. 2014. False helleborine Veratrum album. Helsinki: Conservation and Nuclear Safety. NatureGate – LuontoPortti. Available at: http://www. Lehmuskallio, E. 2014. Naturegate. Helsinki: Finnish luontoportti.com/suomi/en/kukkakasvit/false-helleborine plant, bird, butterfly and fish data. Available at: http:// Nedeljković, J., Nonić, D., Keča, L. and Ranković, N. www.luontoportti.com/suomi/en/kasvit/ 2010. Legal framework of non-wood forest products Lundell, A. 2014. Population structure and distribution in Western Balkan countries. First Serbian Forestry of the declining endangered forest plant Chimaphila Congress: Future with Forests. 11.-13. November umbellata. Unpublished dissertation. The Department 2010. Belgrade, . of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Newman, D. J. ,Cragg, G.M. and Snader, K. M. 2003. Stockholm University. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the Marhold, K. 2011a. . In: Euro+Med period 1981–2002. Journal of Natural Products Plantbase - the information resource for Euro- 66:1022–1037. Mediterranean plant diversity. Berlin. Available at: Nieto, A. and Alexander, K.N.A. 2010. European Red List http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/ of Saproxylic Beetles. Luxembourg: Publications Office Marhold, K. 2011b. . In: Euro+Med Plantbase of the European Union. - the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean Nikolic, T. and Topic, J. (eds). 2007. Red Book of Vascular plant diversity. Berlin Available at: http://ww2.bgbm. Flora of Croatia [in Croatian]. Zagreb: Ministry of org/EuroPlusMed/ Culture, State Institution for Nature Protection.

39 Ødegaard, F. Brandrud, T.E. and Pedderson, O. 2014. Republica Srpska. 2013. O Uslovima Korišćenja Ostalih Sandy Areas. Environmental conditions and impacts for Šumskih Proizvoda i Načinu Sakupljanja Njihovih Red List species. Trondheim: Norwegian Biodiversity Nadoknada. [Regulations on amendments to the Information Centre. www.biodiversity.no rules of the terms of use of other forest products and Palacio, S., Milla, R. and Montserrat-Martı, G. 2005. their compensation method of collection]. Banja A phenological hypothesis on the thermophilous Luka: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water distribution of Pistacia lentiscus L. Flora 200: 527-534. Management. Perzanowski, K. and Jerzy, D. 2001. Carpathian montane Rodina, K. and Timoshyna, A. 2011. Workshop report. forests (PA0504). Washington, DC Available at: http:// Enabling sustainable management of non-wood forest www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/ Products in South East Europe – special focus on Medicinal pa/pa0504_full.html and aromatic plants. German Federal Agency for Petrova, A. and Vladimirov, V. (eds). 2009. Red List of Nature Conservation (BfN), Food and Agriculture Bulgarian Vascular Plants. Phytologia Balcanica 15(1): Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and TRAFFIC 63-94. International. Available at: http://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/ Petrova, A. 2014. Gypsophila trichotoma. Available at: MDB/documents/ina/vortraege/2011/2011-Medicinal- http://e-ecodb.bas.bg/rdb/en/vol1/Gyptrich.html Aromatic-Plants-Workshop_Report.pdf Petrovska, B.J. 2012. Historical review of medicinal plants’ Rodina, K., Timoshyna, A., Smolej, A., Krpan, D., usage. Pharmacognosy Reviews 6(11):1-5. Zupanc, E., Németh, E., Ruzickova, G., Gáspár, G., Planta Europa. 2008. A Sustainable Future for Europe; the Szántai, J., Draganik, M., Radácsi, P., Novák S. and European Strategy for Plant Conservation 2008–2014. Szegedi, S. 2014. Revitalizing traditions of sustainable Salisbury, UK: Plantlife International, and Strasbourg, wild plant harvesting in Central Europe. Budapest: France: the Council of Europe,. TRAFFIC and WWF Hungary. Pignatti, S. 1982. Flora d’Italia. Bologna, Italy: Edagricole. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. 1998. Flora Europaea. Plants 2020. 2014. A toolkit to support national and Edinburgh: Extract PANDORA taxonomic database. regional implementation of the Global Strategy for Available at: http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html Plant Conservation. National plant conservation Salmia, A. 2011. Uhanalainen sarjatalvikki kirjallisuudessa strategies: Examples and case studies. http://www. ja Tammelan Kaukolanharjulla. Lutukka 27(4): 116- plants2020.net/national-casestudies 122. Plants for a Future. 2014. Species database. Available Schaffner, U., Kleijn, D., Brown, V. and Muller-Scharer, at: www.pfaf.org H. 2001. Veratrum album in montane grasslands: a Platikanov, S. and Evstatieva, L. 2008. Introduction of wild model system for implementing biological control golden root (Rhodiola rosea L.) as a potential economic in land management practices for high biodiversity crop in Bulgaria. Economic Botany 64(4): 621–627. habitats. Biocontrol News and Information 22(1): 19-28. Polunin, O. 1969. A field guide to the flowers of Europe. Schippmann, U., Leaman, D. and Cunningham, A.B. London, UK: Oxford University Press. 2006. A comparison of cultivation and wild collection Preston, C.D., Pearman, D.A., and Hall, A.R. 2004. of medicinal and aromatic plants under sustainability Archaeophytes in Britain. Botanical Journal of the aspects. In: R.J. Bogers, L.E. Craker and D. Lange, (ed.) Linnean Society 145: 257-294. Medicinal and aromatic plants. Agricultural, commercial, Rahman, A. 2002. Bioactive Natural Products Volume ecological, legal, pharmacological and social aspects. pp. 27 (Part H). Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. 75-95, Springer, Dordrecht (Wageningen UR Frontis Amsterdam: Elsevier. Series 17). Retrieved from http://library.wur.nl/frontis/ Rannap, R., Briggs, L., Lotman, K., Lepik, I. and Rannap, medicinal_aromatic_plants/06_schippmann.pdf V. 2004. Coastal Meadow Management. Estonia: Schippmann, U. 2013. Unpublished factsheets from Ministry of the Environment. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Resources of the World Republika Srpska. 2008. Zakon o šumama. Službeni (MAPROW) database. glasnik Republika Srpska. No. 75/08. [Forests Act. Sharrock, S. and Jones, M. 2009. Conserving Europe’s Official Gazette of the Republika Srpska]. Banja threatened plants: Progress towards Target 8 of the Global Luka: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Strategy for Plant Conservation. Botanic Gardens Management. Conservation International, Richmond, UK.

40 Sharrock, S., Oldfield, S. and Wilson, O. 2014. Plant UN. 2014. International Merchandise Trade Statistics. UN Conservation Report 2014: A review of progress in COMTRADE Database. http://comtrade.un.org implementation of the Global Strategy for Plant UN DESA. 2012. World Population Prospects: The 2012 Conservation 2011-2020. Technical Series No. 81. Revision. United Nations, Department of Economic Montréal, Canada: Secretariat of the Convention on and Social Affairs. Accessed online on 15 August 2014: Biological Diversity, and Richmond, UK: Botanic http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population. Gardens Conservation International. htm SIVIM. 2014. Sistema de información de la Vegetación UNEP. 2011. Pan-European 2020 Strategy For Biodiversity. Iberica y Macaronésica. Online data portal http://www. With a focus on: Cooperation for the conservation and sivim.info/sivi/ sustainable use of Pan-European biodiversity and the Tájek, P. 2012. Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands- coordinated national implementation of biodiversity- site 2075. Springs and Mires of the Slavkov Forest related Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). (Pramenne vyvery a raaeliniate Slavkovskeho lesa). Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. Gland, Switzerland: Ramsar Secretariat. UNEP-WCMC. 2013. Centres of Plant Diversity. Version Tamm, H. 2012. Restoration of communities of the 1.0 (digital reproduction of Heywood, V.H. and Davis, endangered species Dianthus superbus in Estonia. In: S.D. 1994. Centres of Plant Diversity. Gland: WWF and Botanic Gardens in the Baltic Sea Region. The fifth IUCN). Cambridge, UK: UNEP World Conservation international conference in Latvia and Lithuania 27 – Monitoring Centre. 30 September 2012. Latvia and Lithuania: Network of USDA. 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network Botanical Gardens in the Baltic Sea Region. (GRIN). USA: Beltsville, Maryland. Available at: www. Temple, H.J. and Terry, A. 2007. The Status and ars-grin.gov Distribution of European Mammals. Luxembourg: Office WebMD. 2014. Rhodiola. Available at: www.webmd.com for Official Publications of the European Communities. WCSP. 2014. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Temple, H.J. and Cox, N.A. 2009. European Red List London: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: of Amphibians. Luxembourg: Office for Official http://apps.kew.org/wcsp WHO/IUCN/WWF. 1993. Publications of the European Communities. Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Temple, H.J. and Terry, A. 2009. European Mammals: Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Available from: www.wwf. Status, trends and conservation priorities. Folia org.uk Zoologica 58(3): 248. WHO. 1999. WHO monographs on selected medicinal The Plant List. 2014. The Plant List. Version 1.1. Available plants. Vol. 1. Geneva: World Health Organisation. at: http://www.theplantlist.org/. WHO. 2007a. WHO monographs on selected medicinal ten Brink, P. (ed.). 2011. The Economics of Ecosystems and plants. Vol. 2. Geneva: World Health Organisation. Biodiversity in National and International Policy Making. WHO. 2007b. WHO monographs on selected medicinal Abingdon, UK: Routledge. plants. Vol. 3. Geneva: World Health Organisation. Tutin, T.G., Heywood, V.H., Burges, N.A., Valentine, WHO. 2009. WHO monographs on selected medicinal D.H., Walters, S.M. and Webb, D.A. (eds). 1964- plants. Vol. 4. Geneva: World Health Organisation. 1980. Flora Europaea. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge WHO. 2010. WHO monographs on medicinal plants University Press. commonly used in the Newly Independent States (NIS). Van Swaay, C., Cuttelod, A., Collins, S., Maes, D., López Geneva: World Health Organisation. Munguira, M., Šašić, M., Settele, J., Verovnik, R., WWF. 2007. Europe 2007: Gross Domestic Product and Verstrael, T., Warren, M., Wiemers, M. and Wynhof, Ecological Footprint. Brussels: World Wide Fund for I. 2010. European Red List of Butterfies. Luxembourg: Nature (WWF). Publications Office of the European Union. WHO. 2013. WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014- UICN France, FCBN and MNHN. 2012. La Liste rouge 2023. Geneva: World Health Organisation. des espèces menacées en France - Chapitre Flore vasculaire de France métropolitaine: premiers résultats pour 1 000 espèces, sous-espèces et variétés. Paris, France: Comité français de l’UICN, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (MNHN/SPN), Fédération des conservatoires botaniques nationaux (FCBN).

41

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * Bern Bern Convention * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive * CITES Appendices *

* * EU Policy Policy species L. L. L. L. ex Spreng. Gawl. (L.) Ker Scop. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Roth Ehrh. Tausch L. L. L. L. L. L. Lour. Taxon Authority Taxon L. L. Allium schoenoprasum Allium ursinum Allium Leucojum vernum poeticus Narcissus lutea Sternbergia lentiscus Pistacia oleander minor Vinca aquifolium Ilex helix Hedera officinalis Asparagus Asplenium trichomanes vulgaris Berberis pendula Betula pubescens Betula tinctoria Alkanna officinalis officinalis Pulmonaria officinale Symphytum sempervirens Buxus lupulus Humulus ebulus Sambucus nigra Sambucus Taxon Viburnum opulus Viburnum Dianthus superbus ALLIACEAE ALLIACEAE AMARYLLIDACEAE AMARYLLIDACEAE AMARYLLIDACEAE ANACARDIACEAE ANACARDIACEAE APOCYNACEAE AQUIFOLIACEAE ARALIACEAE ASPARAGACEAE ASPLENIACEAE BERBERIDACEAE BETULACEAE BETULACEAE BORAGINACEAE BORAGINACEAE BORAGINACEAE BORAGINACEAE BUXACEAE CANNABACEAE CAPRIFOLIACEAE CAPRIFOLIACEAE FAMILY CAPRIFOLIACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE Appendix 1. medicinal The Red List status of selected European and EU 27 levels plants at the European Regulation Trade Wildlife or the EU Convention, the Bern CITES Appendices, Annexes, Directive to species found in Habitat *Refers

42

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

A2ad IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT NT NT DD DD DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

A2ad IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT NT DD DD DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * * Bern Bern Convention * * * * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* * * * EU Policy Policy species L. L. (L.) Vill. L. & Kit. Waldst. Taxon Authority Taxon L. L. (L.) Fourr. Lam. L. L. (L.) All. L. L. & Kit. Waldst. L. L. (L.) Lag. L. (L.) Moench G.Don (Roth) (L.) Moench L. L. Hill L. L. L. Turra L. Boiss. (L.) Gaertn. (L.) Gaertn. Colm. ex Cass. L. Gypsophila perfoliata Gypsophila officinalis Saponaria media Stellaria vulgaris Beta Colchicum arenarium Taxon Cichorium intybus Cichorium Cnicus benedictus Chiliadenus glutinosus Artemisia umbelliformisArtemisia vulgaris Artemisia Aster amellus Chamaemelum nobile Artemisia santonicum Artemisia Colchicum autumnale crithmifolia Achillea ptarmica Achillea pyrethrum Anacyclus Cynara cardunculus Cynara arenarium Helichrysum italicum Helichrysum stoechas Helichrysum helenium Inula Lactuca virosa Cyanus segetum Cyanus Arctium lappa Arctium montana Arnica absinthium Artemisia alba Artemisia campestris Artemisia granatensis Artemisia Antennaria dioica Antennaria Petasites Leontopodium alpinum chamomilla Matricaria CARYOPHYLLACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE COLCHICACEAE FAMILY COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COLCHICACEAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE

43

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT NT NT DD DD DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT NT NT DD DD DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * * Bern Bern Convention Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* * EU Policy Policy species L. (J.C. Thell. Mayer) (L.) Medik. L. (L.) Scop. L. L. L. L. Mast. (Vahl) R. Br. (L.) Gaertn. L. Sch.Bip. (Trevir.) (L.) Sch.Bip. F.H.Wigg. L. L. Druce (Mill.) L. L. Griseb. L. & Kit.) Baumg. (Waldst. Boiss. (L.) G.Gaertn., B.Mey. & (L.) G.Gaertn., B.Mey. Scherb. Lam. Taxon Authority Taxon (L.) Caddick & Wilkin (L.) Caddick & Huds. Hayne L. (L.) A.Nelson Desf. Host officinalis Lepidium cartilagineum Capsella bursa-pastoris Capsella Brassica oleracea Brassica Sisymbrium officinale Sisymbrium communis Juniperus oxycedrus Juniperus sabina Juniperus thurifera Juniperus articulata Tetraclinis Nasturtium officinale Nasturtium Silybum marianum Silybum Solidago virgaurea cinerariifolium Tanacetum officinale Taraxacum farfara majalis Convallaria odoratum Polygonatum Rhodiola rosea acre marmoreum Sempervivum tectorum macrocarpa Armoracia oblongifolia Santolina Petasites Taxon communis Dioscorea Drosera anglica Drosera Drosera intermedia Drosera Drosera rotundifolia Drosera Elaeagnus rhamnoides Elaeagnus Ephedra fragilis Ephedra Ephedra major Ephedra CRUCIFERAE CRUCIFERAE CRUCIFERAE CRUCIFERAE CRUCIFERAE CUPRESSACEAE CUPRESSACEAE CUPRESSACEAE CUPRESSACEAE CUPRESSACEAE CRUCIFERAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE CONVALLARIACEAE CONVALLARIACEAE CRASSULACEAE CRASSULACEAE CRASSULACEAE CRASSULACEAE CRUCIFERAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE COMPOSITAE FAMILY DROSERACEAE DROSERACEAE DROSERACEAE EPHEDRACEAE EPHEDRACEAE

44

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

A2ac IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC VU NT IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

A2ac IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC VU NT IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* * EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation Bern Bern Convention * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* * EU Policy Policy species

L. L. ex Willd. Stephan L. L. L. (L.) Rchb. (L.) L’Hér. L. Mill. Ten. Liebl. (Matt.) L. Rafn L. L. L. L. Scop. L. L. L. L. Harmaja L. L. L. L. Ehrh. Weber Schleich. ex F. Taxon Authority Taxon L. (L.) Spreng. (L.) Hull Barton (L.) W.P.C. & D. Mohr Globularia cordifolia Globularia Ribes nigrum elegans Hypericum Globularia alypum Globularia sanguineum Geranium Ramonda myconi Erodium foetidum Erodium Vaccinium myrtillus Vaccinium sativa Castanea frainetto Quercus petraea Quercus robur Quercus erythraea Centaurium acaulis Gentiana asclepiadea Gentiana cruciata Gentiana lutea Gentiana pannonica Gentiana punctata Gentiana purpurea Gentiana ferrugineumRhododendron hirsutum Rhododendron tomentosum Rhododendron pneumonanthe Gentiana Erica cinerea Erica Equisetum arvenseEquisetum hyemale Equisetum telmateia Equisetum variegatum Equisetum Taxon Arbutus unedo Arbutus uva-ursi Arctostaphylos vulgaris Calluna Chimaphila umbellata GLOBULARIACEAE GROSSULARIACEAE GUTTIFERAE GUTTIFERAE GLOBULARIACEAE GESNERIACEAE GERANIACEAE ERICACEAE FAGACEAE FAGACEAE FAGACEAE FAGACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE GENTIANACEAE ERICACEAE ERICACEAE ERICACEAE GENTIANACEAE ERICACEAE EQUISETACEAE EQUISETACEAE EQUISETACEAE EQUISETACEAE FAMILY ERICACEAE ERICACEAE ERICACEAE ERICACEAE

45

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

A2ce IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC VU NT NT NT NT NT DD DD DD DD DD DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

A2ce IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC VU NT NT NT NT NT DD DD DD DD DD DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * Bern Bern Convention * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* EU Policy Policy species L. L. L. L. L. Lam. L. L. L. Stearn Taxon Authority Taxon (L.) Bräuchler L. L. (L.) Kuntze L. L. & Kit. Waldst. L. Neck., Hist. & Commentat. Hist. Neck., L. L. L. L. L. L. Medik. Mill. L. L. Cav. L. L. Mill. L. L.

Iris xiphium Iris Aesculus hippocastanum Aesculus Scilla bifolia glabra Herniaria aphylla Iris lutescens Iris pseudacorus Iris pumila Iris Taxon ssp. fruticosum Iris spuria Iris nigra Ballota Clinopodium alpinum Clinopodium serpyllifolium Iris sibirica Iris Glechoma hederacea Glechoma hirsuta Glechoma officinalis Hyssopus Galeopsis segetum Galeopsis officinalis Melissa pulegium cataria Nepeta dictamnus Origanum latifolia Lavandula Lavandula album Origanum vulgare Origanum crinita Phlomis vulgaris officinalis fruticosaSalvia officinalis Salvia Origanum onites Origanum IRIDACEAE HIPPOCASTANACEAE HYACINTHACEAE ILLECEBRACEAE IRIDACEAE IRIDACEAE IRIDACEAE IRIDACEAE HYACINTHACEAE FAMILY IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE

46

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red B2ab(i,ii,iii)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

LC LC LC IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe) B2ab(i,ii,iii)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation Bern Bern Convention Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

EU Policy Policy species L. (L.) Cav. Boiss. ex Lacaita Lange (L.) L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. (L.) Lam. L. L. L. L. Willk. (L.) Trevis. L. L. L. Willk. L. Cav. Griseb. L. L. Mill. Ten. L. ex Benth. Salzm. Boiss. Taxon Authority Taxon Teucrium scorodonia Teucrium capitata Thymbra baeticus Thymus hyemalis Thymus mastichina Thymus serpyllum Thymus vulgaris Thymus zygis glycyphyllos Astragalus siliqua Ceratonia officinalis Galega glabra Glycyrrhiza sativa Medicago officinalis Melilotus spinosa Ononis sativum Pisum alpinum Trifolium Teucrium montanum Teucrium Sideritis reverchonii Sideritis officinalis Stachys palustris Stachys botrys Teucrium chamaedrys Teucrium eriocephalum Teucrium Sideritis hyssopifolia Sideritis leucantha Sideritis scardica Sideritis syriaca Sideritis Salvia sclarea Salvia tomentosa Salvia cuneifolia hortensis Satureja arborescens Sideritis glacialis Sideritis Taxon LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE LABIATAE FAMILY

47

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red B2ab(iii) B2ab(iii,v)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NA VU NT NT NT DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red B2ab(iii) (Europe) B2ab(iii,v)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN VU NT NT NT DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* * * EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation Bern Bern Convention * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive * * * * * * * * * * * CITES Appendices

* * * * * * * * * * * * * EU Policy Policy species

L. L. L. L. ex Schrank (L.) Bernh. Taxon Authority Taxon L. L. L. Wallr. L. L. L. L. (L.) SM. L. Vahl L. L. & Mart. & M.W.Chase Pridgeon (L.) Swartz (L.) R.M.Bateman, (L.) Roth. (Lam.) R.M.Bateman & (Lam.) R.M.Bateman & Chase Pridgeon (L.) R.M.Bateman, Pridgeon Pridgeon (L.) R.M.Bateman, & M.W.Chase (L.) Rich. Pridgeon (L.) R.M.Bateman, & M.W.Chase Sw. (M.Bieb. ex Willd.) Soó Willd.) ex (M.Bieb. (Sebast.) Soó (Sebast.) (L.) Crantz (L.) R.Br. in W.T.Aiton in (L.) R.Br. (Steven) P.Delforge (Steven) Trifolium pratense Trifolium vulgaris Pinguicula candidum martagon Lilium selago Huperzia Taxon Lycopodium clavatum Lycopodium salicaria Lythrum officinalis Althaea neglecta Malva sylvestris Malva album Veratrum trifoliata Menyanthes communis Myrtus lutea Nuphar alba Nymphaea angustifolia Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus europaea Olea lunaria coriophora Anacamptis Onoclea struthiopterisOnoclea Anacamptis laxiflora Anacamptis Anacamptis papilionacea Anacamptis Anacamptis pyramidalis Anacamptis sancta Anacamptis Cypripedium guttatum Cypripedium Dactylorhiza iberica Dactylorhiza Dactylorhiza romana Dactylorhiza Epipactis helleborine Epipactis Gymnadenia conopsea Gymnadenia Himantoglossum comperianum Himantoglossum LEGUMINOSAE LENTIBULARIACEAE LILIACEAE LILIACEAE LYCOPODIACEAE FAMILY LYCOPODIACEAE LYTHRACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE MELANTHIACEAE MENYANTHACEAE MYRTACEAE NYMPHAEACEAE NYMPHAEACEAE OLEACEAE OLEACEAE OLEACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ONOCLEACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE

48

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC NT IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC NT IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * Bern Bern Convention Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * CITES Appendices

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * EU Policy Policy species (Loisel.) P.Delforge Taxon Authority Taxon (Desf.) Stearn (Desf.) (Scop.) R.M.Bateman, R.M.Bateman, (Scop.) & M.W.Chase Pridgeon Link Desf. (F.W.Schmidt) Moench (F.W.Schmidt) Link Cav. Spruner ex Fleischm. Spruner Cav. Link Willd. Desf. Boiss. (L.) All. Poir. L. L. Balb. Huds. Lam. Saut. Saut. ex W.D.J.Koch (Custer) Rchb. Rchb. (Custer) & in J.C.Mössler H.G.L.Reichenbach (Burm.f.) Briq. (Burm.f.) (L.) Rchb. L. (L.) Mill. L. Mill. L. L. Crantz L. Himantoglossum robertianum Himantoglossum Taxon Neotinea maculata Neotinea Neotinea tridentata Neotinea Ophrys bombyliflora Ophrys ferrum-equinum Ophrys fuciflora Ophrys fusca Ophrys lutea Ophrys reinholdii Ophrys scolopax Ophrys speculum Ophrys tenthredinifera Ophrys umbilicata Orchis anatolica Orchis Orchis anthropophora Orchis Orchis italica Orchis Orchis militaris Orchis Orchis pallens Orchis Orchis provincialis Orchis purpurea Orchis Orchis simia Orchis Orchis spitzelii Orchis Platanthera chlorantha Platanthera Serapias vomeracea Serapias Traunsteinera globosa Traunsteinera Osmunda regalis Osmunda mascula Paeonia officinalis Paeonia peregrina Paeonia Chelidonium majus officinalis Fumaria flavum Glaucium rhoeas Papaver ORCHIDACEAE FAMILY ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE OSMUNDACEAE PAEONIACEAE PAEONIACEAE PAEONIACEAE PAPAVERACEAE PAPAVERACEAE PAPAVERACEAE PAPAVERACEAE

49

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red +2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

NO IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

* EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * Bern Bern Convention Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive * CITES Appendices

* * EU Policy Policy species L. L. Mill. Mill. Turra Aiton L. L. & Kit. Waldst. L. L. ex Jacq. Juss. Taxon Authority Taxon Forssk. F.W.Schultz Jacq. (L.) Samp. L. L. L. L. L. Aiton Mill. (L.) Hill L. L. L. L. (Nyár.) W.Seitz (Nyár.) L. L. All. Baumg. L. Huds. Papaver palustris Parnassia alba Abies Larix decidua mugo Pinus pinaster Pinus sylvestris Pinus afra Plantago arenaria Plantago lanceolata Plantago maxima Plantago Taxon Plantago ovata Plantago Polygala calcarea Polygala Polygala major Polygala Persicaria bistorta Persicaria Polygonum aviculare Polygonum acetosella Rumex Rumex alpinus Rumex Rumex Polypodium vulgare Polypodium Cyclamen hederifolium Cyclamen Cyclamen purpurascens Cyclamen Primula elatior Primula Primula farinosa Primula Primula veris Primula Adiantum capillus-veneris Adiantum lycoctonum Aconitum Aconitum napellus Aconitum Actaea spicata Actaea Adonis vernalis Adonis Anemone halleri Anemone Aquilegia nigricans Aquilegia Delphinium staphisagria Delphinium verna Ficaria PAPAVERACEAE PARNASSIACEAE PINACEAE PINACEAE PINACEAE PINACEAE PINACEAE PLANTAGINACEAE PLANTAGINACEAE PLANTAGINACEAE PLANTAGINACEAE PLANTAGINACEAE FAMILY PLANTAGINACEAE POLYGALACEAE POLYGONACEAE POLYGONACEAE POLYGONACEAE POLYGONACEAE POLYPODIACEAE PRIMULACEAE PRIMULACEAE PRIMULACEAE PRIMULACEAE PRIMULACEAE PTERIDACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE

50

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Europe? Endemic

,iv,v) IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red (i,ii,iii,iv,v) +2ab(i,ii,iii A2ac; B1ab

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT NT DD DD DD DD DD DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe) A2ac; B1ab (i,ii,iii,iv,v)+ 2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN NT DD DD DD DD DD DD DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation Bern Bern Convention * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* EU Policy Policy species Waldst. & Kit. Waldst. L. Opiz Buser Mill. L. & Kit. Waldst. Mill. (L.) Mill. Mill. Taxon Authority Taxon L. L. Desv. Wallr. (L.) Maxim. Moench L. L. (L.) Mill. (L.) Raeusch. L. Savi L. L. (Buser) Rothm. (Buser) L. Sm. Rothm. L. L. DC. (Poir.) Jacq. & Kit. Waldst. Crataegus pentagyna Crataegus Agrimonia eupatoria Agrimonia acutiloba Alchemilla crinita Alchemilla Frangula Helleborus foetidus Helleborus purpurascens Helleborus nobilis Hepatica vernalis Pulsatilla vulgaris Pulsatilla Taxon Rosa pendulina Rosa rubiginosaRosa stylosa Rosa Rosa marginata Rosa Filipendula vulgaris Filipendula vesca Fragaria urbanum Geum sylvestris Malus erecta spinosa Prunus agrestis Rosa canina Rosa gallica Rosa Alchemilla mollis Alchemilla Rosa villosa Rosa Rosa tomentosa Rosa Alchemilla xanthochlora Alchemilla arvensis Aphanes azarolus Crataegus laevigata Crataegus nigra Crataegus ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE RANUNCULACEAE FAMILY ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE

51

to No NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red B2ab(iii,iv); D

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe) B2ab(iii,iv); D

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC EN DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * * Bern Bern Convention * * * Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* * * EU Policy Policy species L. L. L. L. L. (L.) Scop. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Vill. L. L. L. Luizet Taxon Authority Taxon L. Ehrh. L. Hayne L. L. Bertol. L. L. L. L. Willk. Mill. Jacq. L. (L.) Dunal L. Rubus caesius Rubus fruticosus Rubus idaeus Rubus officinalis Sanguisorba aparine Galium verum Galium aculeatus Ruscus hypoglossum Ruscus Dictamnus albus graveolens alba Populus alba Salix daphnoides Salix fragilis Salix purpurea Salix Chrysosplenium alternifolium vayredana Taxon Physalis alkekengi Physalis Digitalis lanata Digitalis purpurea rostkoviana Euphrasia officinalis Gratiola nodosa Scrophularia densiflorum Verbascum phlomoides Verbascum thapsus Verbascum officinalis Veronica aspera baetica Atropa Digitalis grandiflora Scopolia carniolica dulcamara Withania somnifera Withania Daphne SOLANACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE ROSACEAE RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE RUSCACEAE RUSCACEAE RUTACEAE RUTACEAE SALICACEAE SALICACEAE SALICACEAE SALICACEAE SALICACEAE SAXIFRAGACEAE FAMILY SOLANACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SOLANACEAE SCROPHULARIACEAE SOLANACEAE SOLANACEAE THYMELAEACEAE

52

to No NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES EU27? Endemic

to NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES Europe? Endemic

IUCN (EU27) Criteria Criteria Red List Red

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC NT DD DD IUCN (EU27) Red List Red Category

IUCN Criteria Criteria Red List Red (Europe)

LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC NT DD DD IUCN Red List Red (Europe) Category

EU Trade Trade Wildlife Wildlife Regulation * Bern Bern Convention Habitat Habitat Annexes Directive Directive CITES Appendices

* EU Policy Policy species L. L. L. Rogow. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Murray L. L. (L.) Lam. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Mill. (L.) Poir. L. L. Mill. Scop. Moench L. Taxon Authority Taxon Peucedanum officinale Peucedanum europaea dioica Urtica kioviensis Urtica urens Urtica officinalis Valeriana officinalis agnus-castus Vitex Viola canina Viola odorata Viola tricolor Viola album Viscum vinifera Vitis terrestris Tribulus Viola arvensisViola Oenanthe crocata Oenanthe Ammi majus Ammi visnaga Ammi archangelica Angelica graveolens Apium falcatum Bupleurum Carum carvi virosa Cicuta maritimum Crithmum carota Daucus maritimum Eryngium planum vulgare Foeniculum aquatica Oenanthe Paris quadrifolia Paris Daphne mezereum Daphne cordata Tilia platyphyllos Tilia tomentosa Tilia natans Trapa Taxon UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE URTICACEAE URTICACEAE URTICACEAE VALERIANACEAE VERBENACEAE VERBENACEAE VIOLACEAE VIOLACEAE VIOLACEAE VISCACEAE VITACEAE ZYGOPHYLLACEAE VIOLACEAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE UMBELLIFERAE TRILLIACEAE THYMELAEACEAE TILIACEAE TILIACEAE TILIACEAE TRAPACEAE FAMILY

53 Appendix 2. Example species summary and distribution map: Crataegus nigra

54 Crataegus nigra

Crataegus nigra - Waldst. & Kit.

PLANTAE - TRACHEOPHYTA - MAGNOLIOPSIDA - - ROSACEAE - Crataegus - nigra

Common Names: Hungarian Thorn (English), Crni glog (Croatian), Fekete galagonya (Hungarian), Pannonian Black Hawthorn (English) Synonyms: Mespilus nigra (Waldst. & Kit.) Willd.

Red List Status EN - Endangered, A2ac; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) (IUCN version 3.1)

Red List Assessment

Assessment Information

Reviewed? Date of Review: Status: Reasons for Rejection: Improvements Needed: true 2014-05-28 Passed - -

Assessor(s): Bartha, D.

Reviewer(s): Allen, D.J., Idzojtic, M. & Leaman, D.J.

Contributor(s): Khela, S., Király, G., Turonova, D. & Idzojtic, M.

Assessment Rationale

The species is endemic to central-eastern Europe (Carpathian Basin) and the northern ; confirmed historical native records of the species are from Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Romania, and Serbia, however it appears that the species range has greatly diminished in recent years, with confirmed current records only known from the Danube floodplain in Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers com 2014) and Serbia, with no recent records of the species from other former parts of its range, and it is considered possibly extinct in Slovakia and Romania.

In Hungary, the forest habitat area has been reduced due to industrialization. It is also impacted by a range of threats including forest clearance, forest management methods, development of plantations, declining groundwater levels, and grazing by wild animals (primarily deer). Based on available recent records of the species from Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014), the extent of occurrence of the species is estimated at 3,188 km2 and the area of occupancy at 128 km2 (the latter is assumed to be an under-estimate).

This species is given a precautionary assessment of Endangered (A2ac; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) in both Europe (and thus globally) and the EU 27, as it is threatened or has disappeared across a significant portion of its range over the past several decades, and continues to decline. Although the population decline can't be accurately estimated with the data available, it is thought to approach or exceed 50% in the past three generations, with causative declines in AOO, EOO, and habitat quality and extent.

More information on the current population size, trends and the overall rate of decline is needed, and confirmation of the species presence and distribution in all parts of its former range. This species' habitat should be protected, unfavourable forest management methods improved, and alien species controlled to protect declining populations.

Distribution

Geographic Range

The species is endemic to central-eastern Europe (the Carpathian Basin) and the northern Balkans (Kurtto 2009, USDA 2013). Confirmed records of the species are from Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Romania and Serbia (G. Király pers. comm. 2013), however it appears that the species' range has greatly diminished in recent years, with current confirmed records known only from the Danube floodplain in Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014).

In the northern Balkans, the species was known from the Danube basin, but is considered possibly extinct from here, with no recent records (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014). Records from the Suva Planina Mountains in southeast Serbia (Papp and Erzberger 2009) require confirmation as they may be a misidentification of Crataegus pentagyna, as may records from (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014).

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Hungary 26 recent populations known, ten populations disappeared in the last 50 years, with recent records of the species restricted to along the Danube from Csepel Island to the Hungarian border.

Slovakia Possibly extinct; previously recorded from Bratislava (old data); currently only known in cultivation (Marhold and Hindák 2014).

Croatia The species is present south from the Hungary-Croatia border along the Danube, in the Baranja and Eastern Slavonia regions; the southeastern population is near Ilok.

Serbia Previously known from nine sites along the Danube, but considered likely to have been lost from some; there are recent records from the Begečka Jama wetlands (Danube Virtual Museum 2014), the Gornje Podunavlje Ramsar wetland (Stojnić 2007) and the Karapandža natural park (Márkus and Ŝakić undated); records of the species from the Suva Planina Mountains require confirmation.

Romania Five sites were known along the Danube; possibly extinct, the eastern occurrence of the species was from Turnu Severin, with the last record from 1955.

Considered introduced (cultivated) in the Czech Republic (Danihelka et al. 2012). The species has in the past been misidentified as Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., but this species lives in xerotherm forests, while C. nigra is found in alluvial forests (Bartha and Kerényi- Nagy 2010).

Based on available recent records of the species from Hungary and Croatia (D. Bartha pers. comm. 2014), the extent of occurrence of the species is estimated at 3,188 km2 and the area of occupancy at 128 km2 (the latter is assumed to be an under-estimate).

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): 80

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): 100

Map Status

Map Status Data Sensitive? Justification Geographic range this applies to: Date restriction imposed: Done - - - -

Biogeographic Realms

Biogeographic Realm: Palearctic

Occurrence

Countries of Occurrence

Country Presence Origin Formerly Bred Seasonality Croatia Extant Native - Resident Czech Republic Extant Introduced - Resident Hungary Extant Native - Resident Romania Possibly Extinct Native - Resident Serbia Extant Native - Resident Serbia -> Serbia Extant Native - Resident Slovakia Possibly Extinct Native - Resident

Population

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The total population size is unknown, but this species is uncommon across its remaining range; it is rare in Hungary and Croatia (M. Idzojtic pers. comm. 2014), and possibly extinct in the wild in Serbia, Romania, and Slovakia (Kurtto 2009, G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

In Slovakia its threat status is unclear according to Čeřovský et al. (1999); Marhold and Hindák (2014) list it as occurring only in cultivation in Slovakia. Although it is rare and fairly unknown in Croatia, it is naturally widespread along the Danube River in Baranja and Eastern Slavonia. The population is considered endangered and declining in Hungary, where a majority of the subpopulations are found (Baričevič et al. 2004, Király 2007, G. Király pers. comm. 2013).

In Croatia, the number of known sub-populations has declined by nearly 50% (from 57 to 29 sub-populations; D. Bartha, pers. comm. 2014).

Population Information

Continuing decline in mature individuals? Qualifier Justification Yes Observed -

Habitats and Ecology

A deciduous tree or shrub found in found in alluvial forests (Bartha and Kerényi-Nagy 2010), forest edges and shrubland. It occurs sporadically in closed forest stands, though it does not thrive there. It differs from other European species of Crataegus in that it is found in flooded alluvial habitats along major waterways and edges of poplar, ash and oak forests, where it usually forms small stands in the form of secondary hydrophilic bushy communities (Papp and Erzberger 2009, Čarni et al. 2004, Franjić et al. 2006). Many Crataegus species are long-lived, with some living for hundreds of years; the generation length for this species is estimated at 30-50 years.

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme

Major Habitat Season Suitability Importance? 1.4. Forest -> Forest - Temperate resident Suitable No 3.8. Shrubland -> Shrubland - Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation resident Suitable Yes 5.2. Wetlands (inland) -> Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent/Irregular resident Suitable Yes Rivers/Streams/Creeks 6. Rocky areas (eg. inland cliffs, mountain peaks) resident Suitable No

Life History

Generation Data Justification Length Quality Likely to be more than 10 years, since many Crataegus species are long-lived, with some living for 30-50 unknown hundreds of years.

Breeding Strategy

Does the species lay eggs? Does the species give birth to live young Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis No No No

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? Does the species require water for breeding? No No

Systems

System: Terrestrial

Use and Trade

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General Use and Trade Information

This species is planted along water courses to repair embankments (Papp and Erzberger 2009, Čarni et al. 2004, Franjić et al. 2006). It is considered to be a medicinal and aromatic plant (Kathe et al. 2003) and is known for its (Baričevič et al. 2004).

Subsistence: Rationale: Local Commercial: Further detail including information on economic value if available: No - Yes -

National Commercial Value: Yes

International Commercial Value: No

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? Yes

Threats

In Hungary, the forest habitat area has been reduced due to industrialization (Baričevič et al. 2004). It is also threatened by forest clearance, rough forest management methods, forestation with alien species, overpopulated game-, introgressive hybridization, gene pool erosion and shrub clearance (Bartha and Nagy 2004, Bartha and Kerényi-Nagy 2013), as well as significant hybridization with Crataegus monogyna (Király 2007). Additional threats include declining groundwater levels, and grazing by wild animals (primarily deer).

Conservation

Assessed as Endangered in Hungary, where a major proportion of its subpopulations are found and it is strictly protected (Király 2007, G. Király pers. comm. 2013). It is listed as presumably extinct in Slovakia in the Euro+Med Plantbase (Kurtto 2009), though according to Čeřovský et al. (1999), its threat status is unclear. It does not appear in the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski et al. 2003), and is not listed in the Red Book of Vascular Flora of Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). The species occurs in several protected areas within its range including Béda-Karapancsa / Karapandža transboundary park, the Begečka Jama wetlands, and the Gornje Podunavlje Ramsar wetland.

More information is needed on the overall population size and trends. Where the species is threatened, its habitat should be protected, unfavourable forest management methods improved, and game-stock and alien species controlled to protect declining populations.

Bibliography

Baričevič, D., Bernáth, J., Maggioni, L. and Lipman, E., compilers. 2004. Report of a Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. First meeting, 12-14 September 2002, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.

Bartha, D. and Kerényi-Nagy, V. 2010. Fekete galagonya (Crataegus nigra Waldst. & Kit.). Tilia 15: 54-74.

Bartha, D. and Kerényi-Nagy, V. 2013. Crataegus nigra WALDST. et KIT., 1801. In: Roloff, A. Weisgerber, H., Lang, U.M., and Stimm, B. (eds), Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse. Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, Wiley-VCH Verlag,, Weinheim.

Bartha, D. and Nagy, A. 2004. Threatened tree and shrub species in Hungary. Folia Oecologica 31(2).

Danihelka, J., Chrtek Jr., J., Kaplan, Z. 2012. Checklist of vascular plants of the Czech Republic. Presalia 84: 647-811.

Danube Virtual Museum. 2014. Nature Park "Begečka Jama". Belgrade Available at: http://virtuelnimuzejdunava.rs/serbia/natural- heritage/nature-parks/begecka-jama.451.html. (Accessed: 26 June 2014).

Franjić, J., Škvorc, Z. and Čarni, A. 2006. Distribution of Crataegus nigra Waldst. et Kit. in Croatia and its Importance for Forest Edge Vegetation Formation. Šumarski list 130(1-2).

IUCN. 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed: 24 July 2014).

Kathe, W., Honnef, S. and Heym, A. 2003. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania. BfN Skripten 91.

Király, G. (ed.). 2007. Red List of the vascular flora of Hungary (Vörös Lista: A magyarországi edényes flóra veszélyeztetett fajai). pp. 73. Saját kiadás, Sopron.

Kurtto, A. 2009. Rosaceae (pro parte majore). In: Euro+Med Plantbase – the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity. Berlin. Available at: http://www.emplantbase.org/home.html.

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Marhold, K. and Hindák, F. 2014. Checklist of Non-Vascular and Vascular Plants of Slovakia [Zoznam nižších a vyšších rastlín Slovenska]. Version 1.1. Available at: http://ibot.sav.sk/checklist/index.php?lang=en. (Accessed: 20 February 2014).

Márkus, A. and Ŝakić, R. undated. Trans-Boundary Managment Concept for the Karapancsa (HU) / Karapandža (SRB). Danube-Drava National Park Directorate, Pécs.

Nikolić, T. and Topić, J. 2005. Red Book of Vascular Flora of Croatia. Ministry of Culture, State Institute for Nature Protection, Republic of Croatia, Zagreb.

Papp, B. and Erzberger, P. 2009. Contributions to the Bryophyte flora of southeastern Serbia: Suvu Planina Mts and its surroundings. Studia bot. hung. 40: 125-142.

Stojnić, N. 2007. Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS): Gornje Podunavlje. Novi Beograd Available at: http://sites.wetlands.org/reports/ris/3RS007RIS2007.pdf. (Accessed: 26 June 2014).

USDA. 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. Beltsville, Maryland Available at: http://www.ars- grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2415. (Accessed: 15/1/2013).

Witkowski, Z.J., Król, W. and Solarz, W. (eds). 2003. Carpathian List of Endangered Species. pp. 68. WWF and Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Vienna-Krakow.

Čarni, A., Franjić, J., and Škvorc, Ž. 2004. Crataegus nigra Waldst. et Kit. dominated community in the flooded Danube river area in Croatia. Hacquetia 3(2): 81-90.

Čeřovský, J., Feráková, V., Holub, J., Maglocký, Š. and Procházka, F. 1999. Červená kniha ohrozených a vzácnych druhov rastlín a živočíchov SR a ČR 5. Vyššie rastliny (Red Book of Endangered and Rare Species of Flora and Fauna of the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic. 5. Higher plants.). Príroda, Bratislava.

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59 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessments

Europe

The Status and Distribution of European Mammals. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Andrew Terry, 2007

European Red List of Reptiles. Compiled by Neil Cox and Helen J. Temple, 2009

European Red List of Amphibians. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Neil Cox, 2009

European Red List of Dragonflies. Compiled by Vincent J. Kalkman, Jean-Pierre Boudot, R. Bernard, Klaus-Jurgen Conze, Geert De Knijf, Elena Dyatlova, Sonia Ferreira, Miloš Jović, Jurgen Ott, Elisa Riservato and Goran Sahlen, 2010

European Red List of Saproxylic Beetles. Compiled by Ana Nieto and Keith Alexander, 2010

European Red List of Butterflies. Compiled by Chris van Swaay, Sue Collins, Annabelle Cuttelod, Dirk Maes, Miguel Lopez Munguira, Martina Šašić, Josef Settele, Theo Verstrael, Rudi Verovnik, Martin Warren, Martin Wiemers and Irma Wynhoff, 2010

European Red List of Non-marine Molluscs. Annabelle Cuttelod, Eike Neubert and Mary Seddon, 2011

European Red List of Freshwater Fishes. Jorg Freyhof and Emma Brooks, 2011

European Red List of Vascular Plants. Melanie Bilz, Shelagh P. Kell, Nigel Maxted and Richard V. Lansdown, 2011

European Red List of Bees. Ana Nieto, Stuart P.M. Roberts, James Kemp, Pierre Rasmont, Michael Kuhlmann, Mariana García Criado, Jacobus C. Biesmeijer, Petr Bogusch, Holger H. Dathe, Pilar De la Rúa, Thibaut De Meulemeester, Manuel Dehon, Alexandre Dewulf, Francisco Javier Ortiz-Sánchez, Patrick Lhomme, Alain Pauly, Simon G. Potts, Christophe Praz, Marino Quaranta, Vladimir G. Radchenko, Erwin Scheuchl, Jan Smit, Jakub Straka, Michael Terzo, Bogdan Tomozii, Jemma Window and Denis Michez. 2014

Mediterranean

The Status and Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians of the . Compiled by Neil Cox, Janice Chanson and Simon Stuart, 2006

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Kevin G. Smith and William R.T. Darwall, 2006

Overview of the Conservation Status of Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea. Compiled by Rachel D. Cavanagh and Claudine Gibson, 2007

The Status and Distribution of Dragonflies of the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Elisa Riservato, Jean-Pierre Boudot, Sonia Ferreira, Miloš Jović, Vincent J. Kalkman, Wolfgang Schneider, Boudjema Samraoui and Annabelle Cuttelod, 2009

60 The Status and Distribution of Mediterranean Mammals. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Annabelle Cuttelod, 2009

Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea. Compiled by Dania Abdul Malak, Suzanne R. Livingstone, David Pollard, Beth A. Polidoro, Annabelle Cuttelod, Michel Bariche, Murat Bilecenoglu, Kent E. Carpenter, Bruce B. Collette, Patrice Francour, Menachem Goren, Mohamed Hichem Kara, Enric Massutí, Costas Papaconstantinou and Leonardo Tunesi, 2011

Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. María del Mar Otero and Michela Conigliaro, 2012

Freshwater Africa

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith, Thomas Lowe, Jean-Christophe Vié, 2005

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith, Denis Tweddle and Paul Skelton, 2009

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Western Africa. Compiled by Kevin Smith, Mame D. Diop and Mamadou Niane, 2009

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa. Compiled by Nieves Garcia, Annabelle Cuttelod and Dania Abdul Malak, 2010

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Central Africa. Compiled by Emma G.E. Brooks, David Allen and William R.T. Darwall, 2011

The diversity of life in African freshwaters; Underwater, under threat. An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwaterspecies throughout mainland Africa. Edited by William Darwall, Kevin Smith, David Allen, Robert Holland, Ian Harrison and Emma Brooks, 2011

Freshwater Asia

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya. Compiled by David Allen, Sanjay Molur and B.A. Daniel, 2010

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Western Ghats, . Sanjay Molur, Kevin G. Smith, B.A. Daniel and William Darwall, 2011

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Indo-Burma. David Allen, Kevin G. Smith, and William Darwall, 2012

61

The European Red List is a review of the conservation status of European species according to IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the regional level – in order that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status.

This publication summarises results for a selection of Europe’s native species of medicinal plants. KH-07-14-079-EN-N 2.4% of the 400 extant species for which sufficient data are available are threatened with extinction at the European level as a result of threats that include collection of plants from the wild and agriculture (livestock farming, annual and perennial non-timber crops, and plantation forestry). Although the level of threat is currently low, data for many of the species is lacking and monitoring of harvest and trade is recommended.

The European Red List was compiled by IUCN’s Global Species Programme and the European Union Representative Office and is the product of a service contract with the European Commission. It is available online at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/redlist and http://www.iucnredlist/initiatives/europe

DOI: 10.2779/907382