PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077

WORKPLACE BULLYING AS A PREDICTOR OF TURNOVER INTENTION AMONG TEACHERS: ROLE OF JOB EMBEDDEDNESS 1Samrah Jamshaid, 2Dr Najma Iqbal Malik ,3Shahida Perveen

1PhD Candidate, Northeast Normal University Jilin, China 2Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha, Pakistan 3PhD Candidate, Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha, Pakistan

ABSTRACT The current research aimed to investigate workplace bullying, turnover intention and job embeddedness among teachers of colleges and universities of Sargodha, Pakistan. The purposive sampling technique was used for the collection of data. Negative Act Questionnaire (Einarsen, 2001), Turnover Intention Scale (Mitchell, 2001) and Job Embeddedness Scale (Crossley et al, 2007) scales were used to measure the constructs of study. Correlation analysis discovered that workplace bullying has a positive relationship with turnover intentions, which distingue that teachers who faced bullying in the organization have more intention to quit their job. Linear Regression analysis showed a significant impact of bullying on the turnover intention. Hierarchal Regression analysis showed that job embeddedness has significant moderating role between bullying and turnover intention. The current study have some recommendations and conclusion for coming researchers who will be interested to explore the level of teacher’s embeddedness who were facing bullying. Keywords: Workplace bullying; Turnover intention; Job embeddedness. Article Received: 18 October 2020, Revised: 3 November 2020, Accepted: 24 December 2020

Introduction Long et al., 2016; Abid & Butt, 2017; Parasız et al., 2017; Labrague et al., 2018), depending on the The educational institute aimed to provide a level of the work left unoccupied, overall healthy educational environment for students. employee turnover costs will cost employers more They along with parents, being major socialization than 100 per cent of the annual compensation or agents played significant roles in the psycho- salary of a single employee (Upadhayay & Vrat, social development of students. In this whole 2016). Exposure to workplace bullying is one of process of socialization, the teacher served as a the factors that can intensify the turnover purpose vital agent to impart sound development in of valued employees (Dyk, 2016). students. However, the role played by teacher Moreover, being a part of an educational institute, heavily depends upon his/her commitment, teachers’ embeddedness with their institutes dedication, and embeddedness with the mainly is based upon the good environment as educational institute. The presence of a conducive well as the level of bullying, as if they face work environment and absence of organizational bullying they will consequently develop intentions politics or negative stressors in educational to leave institutes. Likewise, a bullying-free institutes are of prime importance to sustain environment will also buffer the job teachers’ dedication for his/her job (Yildiz, 2018). embeddedness among teachers but if not so they A negative work environment such as bullying will ultimately develop turnover intentions for can affect teachers teaching patterns that will their job. Similarly, higher bullying that results in ultimately affect student’s performance. high job turnover in any institute will not only Staff turnover is necessary to know because high damages the conducive learning environment but turnover can, directly and indirectly, impact also impart great financial loss to educational organization, due to the increased cost of institutes i.e., if the teacher left institutes and go recruiting and training, loss of productive for another organization (brain drain), it will be a opportunities, reduced income, and generally loss of teaching sectors and to recruits, new reduced morale of employees (Hayward, Bungay, employees will not only be costly yet Wolff, & MacDonald, 2016; Lu & Gursoy, 2016; 5111 www.psychologyandeducation.net

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077 administration will also not be assured about command upon a given task that buffer the later getting good and trained employees again (Dos group commitment and citizenship behaviour Santos, 2020). Moreover, training a teacher takes towards their jobs (Saraih et al., 2017). time and it’s not an easy task to be achieved Workplace bullying or insulting tends to mean is overnight. Furthermore, it also negatively impacts neglecting and disturbing individual work institutional reputation that will consequently assignments adversely. Bullying is a tormenting affect the new employees' intake and commitment process in which the individual is confronted by development ((Bhatti, Bhatti, Akram, Bilal, & the mocking acts in which his/her ego is injured Akram, 2016). Furthermore, the study has because of orderly harmful social acts (Einarsen & explored that in industrial organizations of Jordan Mikkelsen, 2003). In several cases, the purpose of level of person-related bullying is medium but the turnover can occur either voluntarily where the work-related bullying is high, however, workplace employee decides willingly to leave the company bullying causes 6.7 % of employees to leave the or unintentionally, replacing an employee for a organization and to develop turnover intentions particular job, mostly without the employee's prior (Al-Jawazneh & Smadi, 2017). willingness (Williams, & Owusu -Acheampong, The intention of employee turnover provides an 2016). alternative to existing employee turnover. How to Job embeddedness is referred to as how an manage the changing job environment is one of individual is connected to an organization. In the challenging problems faced by universities terms of three dimensions, researchers calculate as today. According to Tandung (2016), the aim of fit, links, and sacrifice (Choi & Kim, 2015). turnover describes the relative strength of the Embeddedness relates to fit in the organization as objective or intent of a person to voluntarily an individual. If an employee is embedded in a job withdraw from an organization permanently. It is then he/she is fit with the organization by having a motive or goal that causes an employee to good complementary, extra development abilities abandon his or her current workplace. Turnover is and also will show a good connection with other the ratio of the total number of workers leaving an employees. Though a significant positive organization at a given time, according to Akhtar, relationship between embeddedness and social Ghufran, and Fatima (2017), it refers to the capital was evident, however, a slight decline in average number of employees remaining at the this relationship was also evident over time (Ng & same time in that organization. It is a behaviour Feldman, 2010). Empirical evidence also that defines the process of leaving an organization examined job embeddedness construct as a or replacing workers. The intention of turnover is response towards the turnover model which linked to elements of an employee; the thinking or further explored on the job and off job feeling of leaving the work, the intention of embeddedness factors that concludes the reasons seeking another job, and the intention of quitting why employee like to stay in an organization. the job (Lee et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2017). Results showed that one of the reasons is the Turnover is based on two categories among which work-life quality that has a significant positive one is voluntary turnover and the other is effect on job embeddedness (Moses, 2013). involuntary turnover. Here voluntary turnover is However, burnout has a significant negative decided by the individuals of the organization but relationship with employees’ turnover intention the organization itself has no role in it. (Scanlan & Still, 2019). Involuntary turnover is opposite to voluntary Literature Review because as in this turnover, the organization Organizations these days faced many issues forced an employee to make the intention to leave among which one prominent is workplace the organization. This can happen in days or years bullying also been found as the leading cause of depending upon the organizational situations employee's intentions for leaving an organization faced by an individual. Mostly unskilled and to find another good alternative work younger employees have high intention to leave environment. HR consultants, policymakers, and the organization than older and experienced organizational psychologists found various ways employees; may the reason is maturity and to deal with workplace bullying yet bullying is not patience with time or can be the high sense of easy to deal with phenomena. Previous literature 5112 www.psychologyandeducation.net

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077 suggests that bullying applied to individuals found to be evident among highly qualified significantly and positively predicts turnover. teachers of Pakistani universities and colleges Compared to teachers who have never been (Anjum & Muazzam, 2018; Jamshaid & Malik, subject to abuse, bullied teachers have more 2018; Israa & Sunnel, 2018). However, meta- intention of turnover (Anjum, & Muazzam, 2018). analysis literature also postulated the positive role Such serious individual consequences, in turn, of job embeddedness in the relationship of have severe organizational results, according to bullying and turnover intentions of employees as Bernstein and Trimm (2016), as employees job embeddedness strongly predicts actual subjected to workplace bullying experience turnover, intention to leave, job satisfaction, and decreased job satisfaction and increased turnover organizational commitment (Treuren & Fein, intention, which is a form of exclusion from work. 2018). Therefore, previous research indicated that Keeping in view the significance of the construct exposure to workplace bullying is related to under study present research is unique to explore turnover intention (e.g., Bahjat, & Ziad, 2017; the phenomena mainly among teachers of higher Coetzee & Oosthuizen, 2017; Coetzee & van Dyk, educational institutes. Previously the variables 2018; Rosario-Hernández, & Millán, 2018). have been studied in the organizational culture of Previous literature examined various factors Pakistan (Kousar, 2018; Riasat, & Nisar, 2016; leading to turnover intention, such as the attitude Ahmad, Khattak, & Ahmad, 2016; Ali, Asad, & of the employee, job satisfaction, workplace Yousaf, 2019; Najam, Ishaque, Shoukat, Hayat bullying, management, self-assessment, Awan, & Ansari, 2018) but the uniqueness of compensation, commitment, and judgment on present study lies into explores these variables in decisions (Laureano et al., 2018). Reduced teaching institutes. employee turnover can benefit an organization financially and can have a positive social benefit Objectives. The present research aimed to explore for the community in turn (Skelton, (2017). the relationship of workplace bullying with Previous studies argue that the experience of turnover intention and to explore the role of bullying is likely to make some tender-hearted workplace bullying on turnover intention. Another workers more vulnerable because the perceived objective was to find out the role of breach of psychological contract plays a great role embeddedness in the relationship between in explaining their turnover intentions, and they workplace bullying and turnover intention among feel a deeper connection between exposure to teachers. workplace bullying and turnover intentions Hypotheses. It hypothesized that workplace (Salin's & Notelaers, 2017). bullying would be the positive predictor of On the other hand, related job outcomes of teacher’s turnover intention. It was also bullying in the workplace consist of job hypothesized that job embeddedness would have a dissatisfaction, absenteeism, organizational significant moderating role in the relationship of engagement, actual turnover, and turnover bullying with turnover intention among teachers. intention (Suifan, 2015). Charilaos et al. (2015) also investigated Australian teachers and founded Methods that workplace bullying is positively related to Sample. A purposive sample of 223 teachers was turnover intention. collected from different private and public Moreover, high workplace bullying also restricts colleges and universities of Sargodha, Pakistan. ones’ connectedness towards his or her job, Inclusion criteria were set as only those teachers satisfaction with job or organization (Paul, & Kee, with the educational level of post-graduation and 2020); bullied employee feels deceived by the Doctorate, with at least more than two years of job higher authorities as the perception of experience were made part of the study. They all psychological contract violation is high in case of were teaching graduate and postgraduate classes being bullied at the workplace (Coetzee & Dyk, and were actively involved in research activities. 2018). Ultimately this damages his vigour, Both male 47% and female 53% of teachers were dedication, and job commitment and results in part of the study. Sample age range was 26 to 58 higher turnover intentions even this trend was 5113 www.psychologyandeducation.net

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077 years (M = 31.45, SD = 5.65) and the experience fit α = 0.72, organization fit α = 0.85, community was from 3 to 26 years (M = 16.25, SD = 4.35). links α = 0.72, organization links α = 0.88, Only regular/permanent job holders were made community sacrifice α = 0.61, and organization part of the study and those who were visiting, sacrifice α = 0.85. contractual or had less than two years of job Procedure experiences were excluded from the study. The research was carried out by the formal approval Assessment measures of departmental ethical research committee followed Demographic data form was designed according by formal approval of the Board of Studies in to the purpose of study which contains questions Psychology, University of Sargodha, Pakistan. related to the respondent’s gender, age, marital Current study strictly adhered ethical protocol of status, professional affiliation, qualification, job scientific research and proper permission from experience, and monthly salary. authors to use scales followed by permission of data Negative Acts Questionnaire is constructed by collection from concerned colleges and universities Einarsen (2001) was used to measure bullying faced were sought. A purposive sample of teachers was by employees in the organization. As per scale contacted at their workplace and was elucidated criteria, employees who were facing bullying from about the objective and purpose of the study. Formal six months were the part of the study. The scale has informed consent for voluntary participation was obtained and confidentiality about collected data was 22 items with 5 points Likert type response format ranges from (1 = never to, 5 = daily). Cronbach’s assured. Furthermore, they were provided proper alpha in the current study is found as 0.66. instructions about scales and were requested to provide data with honest responses by leaving no Turnover Intention Scale developed by Mitchell, question unanswered. Total 247 questionnaire (2001) was used to measure employee’s turnover booklets were distributed and after data cleaning only intentions. The scale has only 3 items with 5 points 223 questionnaire booklets were finalized for data Likert type response format here 1 stand for analysis as rest were discarded due to incompleteness "Strongly disagree" to 5 which stand for "Strongly or random response problems. The data collection agree". The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in the period was from December 2019 to May 2020. After present study was 0.96. data, cleaning processes finished questionnaires were Job Embeddedness Scale developed Crossley et al. in secure and unprocessed data was recorded and 2007. This scale consisted of 40 items divided into transported to an SPSS data set. six sub-scales i.e., community fit, organization fit Results community links, organization links, community Collected data of sample (N=223) was analyzed sacrifice and organization sacrifice. Response format rd of this scale was 5 point Likert type ranging from 1 = by SPSS 23 version. Descriptive statistics, "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly agree". Pearson correlation, multiple and hierarchal Reliabilities for this measure in the present research regression analyses were computed to test are i.e. job embeddedness scale α= 0.91, community hypotheses. Table 1. Mean, standard deviation, Alpha reliability and Correlation analysis of workplace bullying with turnover intention (N=223)

Variables α M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 WB .66 58.92 20.49 - .26* -.01 .01 -.14 .06 .00 -.06 -.00 2 TOI .96 9.66 2.20 - -.16 .11 -.17 -.07 -.21* -.08 -.12 3 JE .91 141.89 16.15 - .19 .22* .71** .84** .71** .87** 4 CL .72 17.94 1.58 - .32** .05 .08 .06 .03 5 OL .88 21.51 1.63 - .02 .05 .13 .09 6 CF .72 18.94 3.45 - .53** .46** .49** 7 OF .85 34.90 6.01 - .50** .61** 8 CS .61 11.58 2.29 - .57** 9 OS .85 37.01 7.22 - 5114 www.psychologyandeducation.net

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077

Note. WB= workplace bullying; TOI=turnover intention; JE= job embeddedness; CL= community link; OL= organization link; CF= community fit; OF= organization fit; CS= community sacrifice; OS= organization sacrifice. *p>.05, **p>.01. The table shows mean, standard deviation, alpha bullying has a positive relationship with turnover reliability and correlation among study variables. intention. Results also indicate that turnover Alpha reliability for all variables ranges from .61 intention has a significant negative relationship to .96 which indicates good internal consistency in with organization fit (r = -.21, p<.05) scales. Furthermore, the result shows that Table 2. Simple linear Regression Analysis for workplace bullying is significantly positively workplace bullying predicting turnover intention correlated with turnover intention (r= .26, p<.05) among Teachers (N = 223) hence, it might be inferred that workplace Predictor β R2 F(Model)

Workplace bullying .26* .07 6.66 *p>.05. bullying is founded to be a significant predictor Regression analysis shows workplace bullying for turnover intention. like predictor for turnover intention. The value of Table 3. The moderating role of embeddedness R2 (.07) indicated that 7% independent variable with the relationship between bullying and variance can be accounted, through the predictor Turnover Intention (N = 223) [F (1,222) = 6.66]. The finding indicates that *p>.05. Models ∆ R2 β F Model 1 .07 .26* 6.66 (WB) Model 2 .98 .26* 4.73 (WB) (JE) -.17

Model 3 .12 .31* 3.78 (WB) (JE) -.13 (WB)x(JE) -.15 2 Total R 1.07 Table 3 demonstrates the moderating role of Job embeddedness is causative 98% variance in embeddedness (JE) in relationship with workplace turnover intention (R2 = .98, .002, β = .26). bullying (WB) and turnover intention. Model 1 However, model 3 founded to be non-significant founded to be significant {∆ R2 = .07, f (1,222) = {∆ R2=.12, f (1,220) = 3.78, p >.05} interface of 6.66, p<.01} like workplace bullying is causative workplace bullying and job embeddedness are 7% variance in turnover intention (R2 = .07 .002, β causative 12% variance in turnover intention (R2 = = .26). Model 2 also founded to be a significant .12 .06, β = .31). {∆ R2 =.98, f (1,221) = 4.73, p<.01} and job

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PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(1): 5111-5119 ISSN: 00333077

Figure 1: Moderating role of job embeddedness in perceptions of work- and person-related bullying relationship between workplace bullying and were linked to low levels of vigour and dedication turnover intention. which in turn were associated with high turnover Discussions intention. Moreover, the relationship between This study attempted to examine the relationship exposure to bullying and turnover intention is also of workplace bullying with turnover intention. partially explainable by the concept of employee’s One of the other main objectives was to explore perceived psychological contract violation. the moderating role of job embeddedness with Previous studies demonstrated that Job stress is bullying and turnover intention. Generally, tests of also mediating the relationship between turnover all hypotheses yield significant insights keen on intention and workplace ostracism (Riasat, & the relative value of different background of Nisar, 2016). bullying and turnover. The study hypothesis that This study also hypothesizes that job workplace bullying would be the positive embeddedness would have a significant predictor of teacher’s turnover intention was moderating role in the relationship of bullying accepted as significant results revealed that with turnover intention among teachers. The bullying has a strong significant and negaitive results determined the non-significant moderating impact on turnover intention. Findings are also role, which showed that job embeddedness has no consistent with the study of Anjum and Muazzam moderating role in the relationship between (2018) who found that bullying positively and bullying and turnover intention. Previous studies significantly predicted turnover intention among demonstrated that Job satisfaction negatively teachers and bullied teachers showed significantly linked to turnover intentions, and when off-the-job high intentions to leave their jobs as compared to embeddedness increased, this negative link was teachers who never faced bullying. On a similar greater (vs. low). Job stress was linked positively note, empirical evidence concluded that bullying to turnover intentions, but this relationship was increases the risk of losing talented and qualified buffered by high (vs. low) off-the-job employees as due to consistent pressures of embeddedness. Conversely, the association negative work environment pushed far behind between work stress and turnover intentions was other and ultimately decides to quit their job much stronger when on-the-job embeddedness (Paul, & Kee, 2020) or leave a job over and over was higher (vs. low) (Fasbender, Van der Heijden, again. Findings of the current study also & Grimshaw, 2019). confirmed the earlier findings of Salin and Berthelsen (2011) in the study has postulated that Notelaers (2017), that highly benevolent employees who faced bullying at times still like or employees are more affected by exposure to continue to work in that organization due to bullying behaviour, although the effects were multiple reasons e.g., non-availability of other equally detrimental, irrespective of benevolent jobs or incentives they are getting in the current behaviour when employees were exposed to very organization is more as compared to other options high levels of bullying. Furthermore, in research or maybe they are in dire need of this current job. by Coetzee and Dyk (2018), it was concluded that 5 www.psychologyandeducation.net

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However, another recent study investigated the 1. Abid, G., & Butt, T. (2017). Expressed role of job embeddedness and concluded that it turnover intention: Alternate method for decreases the level of work and life conflict which knowing turnover intention and lead them to leave the organization (Treuren & eradicating common method bias. Fein, 2018). International Letters of Social and Conclusion Humanistic Sciences, 78. 2. Ahmad, W., Khattak, A. J., & Ahmad, G. The present study concluded that workplace (2016). Impact of abusive supervision on bullying was a strong and positive predictor of job satisfaction and turnover intention: turnover intention among teachers. This study also Role of power distance as a moderator. concluded that there was no moderating role of City University Research Journal, 6(1), job embeddedness in the relationship between 122-136. workplace bullying and turnover intention of 3. Akhtar, M. W., Ghufran, H., & Fatima, T. teachers. (2017). The effect of emotional Limitations and Future Studies intelligence on turnover intentions; The role of employee well-being, engagement Like every other social science research current and perceived organisational support. study also had some limitations. The first Jinnah Business Review, 5(2), 69-80. limitation was the use of a purposive sample that 4. Ali, H. G., Asad, M., & Yousaf, M. may cause a non-homogeneous factor in sampling (2019). Supervisor Incivility and Turnover so it is better to use a random sampling technique Intentions with the Mediating Role of Job to make data skewed. Another limitation was the Burnout and Moderation of Job collection of data from only one city of Pakistan Performance. NUML International Journal which limited the generalizability of results to the of Business & Management, 14(1), 89-101. overall population of Pakistan so future 5. Aljawazneh, B., & Ziad, S. (2017). researchers should collect data from multiple Workplace bullying as a predictor of cities of Pakistan. Moreover, the use of self- intention to leave among workers at the explanatory questionnaires and data collection industrial organizations in Jordan. from designated workplaces might be served as a International Research in Economics and limitation as this may restrict them to respond Management Sciences, 6(1), 15-39. freely and cause the faking good response 6. Anjum, A., & Muazzam, A. (2018). incidences. Therefore, it is recommended that Workplace bullying and turnover intention future research may opt qualitative measures to among university teachers. Journal of Arts get an in-depth understanding of the phenomena and Social Sciences, 2, 51-62. and data must also be collected on other than their 7. Bernstein, C., & Trimm, L. (2016). The workplaces to ensure true responses. impact of workplace bullying on Practical Implications individual wellbeing: The moderating role of coping. SA Journal of Human Resource This study might be helpful for the administration Management, 14(1), 12. of higher education institutes to focus on the job 8. Berthelsen, M., Skogstad, A., Lau, B., & embeddedness of their employees and safe them Einarsen, S. (2011). Do they stay or do from bullying to decrease the level of turnover they go? A longitudinal study of intentions intention from their organization. However, it can to leave and exclusion from working life also be helpful to facilitate the employees to among targets of workplace increase their level of embeddedness toward their bullying. International Journal of job. Furthermore, findings of this study could also Manpower, 32 (2), 178-193 be useful in Human resource management, 9. Bhatti, M. H., Bhatti, M. H., Akram, U., organizational psychology and social psychology. Bilal, M., & Akram, Z. (2016). Impact of References organization commitment on turnover intention: Mediating role of job

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