Mapping flows Switzerland as operational landscape

MARC ANGÉLIL, CARY SIRESS

Angélil, M., & Siress, C. (2015). Mapping flows. Switzerland as operational landscape. Research In Urbanism Series, 3(1), 35-56. doi:10.7480/rius.3.831 mapping Switzerland; cartography; Swiss defence system; urban fabric; infrastructure network mapping Switzerland; cartography; Swiss defence elements, relations, and domains of reference that it assembles. Whereas the Whereas that it assembles. relations, and domains of reference elements, do territory, we of name the in done is what express to continue might map do. not yet know what territory itself can KEYWORDS fabric hardly adheres to an immaculate image, manifesting instead a disjunctive a instead manifesting image, immaculate an to adheres hardly fabric and rules own their to according operate that pieces and bits of amalgam we scale, planetary a on increasing entropy territorial such with And agendas. an as conditions these shapes actively map the extent what wonder to might actor in its own right rather than only neutrally reflecting them. In any case, the polymorphous is constituted through territory is never simply given, but enemy territory in an effort to rekindle patriotic identityput Baettig Dominique politician right-wing Conversely, army. an for need legitimise and the from regions of annexation map calling for the contentious equally an forth in the heart would create a new Swiss megacity that countries neighbouring urban contemporary Switzerland’s mapped, is it how of Regardless Europe. of of fiercely independent cantons into that unifiedmachine infrastructural an ‘Switzerland’, while underwriting as known space economic and legislative economy. as it is to the nation’s to Swiss self-esteem as central that remains two of way by come authority formative map’s the of examples recent More The Switzerland. of boundaries the redraw to 2010 in bids made unusual as Europe recast André Blattmann map by Armed Forces Chief controversial the world, whether or factual fictional, with very real repercussions eitherway Libyan leader Muammar by made The UN motion depicted. territory for the al-Gadaffi to wipe Switzerland off the map, for instance, Guillaume- relations. global in holds imaginary cartographic the sway much discloses just how re-territorialised a loose coalition century map Henri Dufour’s mid-nineteenth Abstract of maps in Switzerland, abuse) (and use the on episodes involving Drawing production in the cartography of agency geopolitical to the pertains essay this about discourses particular maintain and generate Maps territory. urban of

FLOWSCAPES - DESIGNING INFRASTRUCTURE AS LANDSCAPE 36 MAPPING FLOWS 37 ------en 1 /sec, a num 2 This passion for all 2 This threesome fuels an obsessive machine that runs at 3 PUTTING SWITZERLAND ON THE MAP ERASING SWITZERLAND OFF THE MAP OFF SWITZERLAND ERASING 2. A significant amount of effort goes into maps and their production. As An oil embargo was declared, billions were withdrawn from Swiss bank “Switzerland is a world mafia and not a state. It is formed of an Italian com 1. the to 2009 in al-Gaddafi Muammar leader Libyan by submitted motion A – is nearly constitutional law. In reality, map-making engenders territo reality, map-making engenders In constitutional law. – is nearly sources sources to produce an urban landscape that expands beyond the borders of the map itself. Since the 1970s, the rate of land consumption for new con struction in Switzerland is estimated to have reached nearly 1m ry, if not the nation itself, in the process triangulating scientific knowledge, politics, and space. full speed, at times threatening to overheat while consuming ever more re both within and beyond its national borders. To keep things in good order – order good in things keep To borders. national its beyond and within both état ticulously plotted to the nth degree with an exactitude that would even make Borges’s fabled guild of cartographers green with envy. things perfect is more than mere myth, it is the hallmark of Swiss identity a matter of fact, Switzerland has made a name for itself in the production of hyper-accurate maps. Its territory, itself a model of accuracy, has been me ography of ideology and space. brings to the forefront how politics and space are brought to interact on the very surface of the map. Whatever the intentions, whether justified or not, ge the both on traces their leave to tend they drawn, are maps whatever and drawn to illustrate Switzerland’s dissolution. Who would get the and Gotthard who would get the Matterhorn? But humour aside and notwithstanding Switzerland’s long-standing posture of neutrality, the short-lived episode Swiss businessmen arrested for alleged visa irregularities. Although such re taliatory measures were quite serious and yielded much diplomatic damage, maps countless with proposal, bizarre Gaddafi’s with heyday a had media the accounts, commercial flights between the two countries cancelled, and two munity that should return to Italy, another German community that should return to should return community that another German to Italy, should return munity that to France.” French community that should return Germany, and a third controversial controversial ban on the construction of minarets in the country. In a ram labelled Gaddafi year same the in Italy in held Summit G8 the at diatribe bling nation: Switzerland a rogue map and splitting its territories among neighbouring countries. His rather bold proposal – announced as an all-out Jihad or Holy War against the alpine state – came in response to the arrest of one of his sons in Geneva and the United Nations General Assembly made a plea for wiping Switzerland off the ------, and rbanise. (Gugerli, 1998) (figure 1). (Gugerli, 1998) (figure /sec as calculated by the Swiss Federal Federal Swiss the by calculated as /sec “the topographical designation Switzer 2 where knowledge, power, and space be ménage à trois ménage à “beyond all scientific doubt” with a precision The project set out to homogenise the heterogeneous and gained signif There is indeed a map that put Switzerland on the map. Not by coin ways, bridges, tunnels, and communication networks – likewise warranting the need to discipline, manage, and control territory. We encounter in this project an unexpected come entangled. It was little known at the time that to govern is to u suggesting that the armed forces had already become more scientific in their orientation. Given that the map was underwritten by military interests, an ything that either aided or obstructed the movement of troops was recorded in minute detail by squads of surveyors scaling mountainous terrain. Con versely, the map warranted the creation of new infrastructure – roads, rail in a military, political, economic, and geographic sense (Gugerli, 1998: 96). A “gigantic machinery of a new national recording system had come to fruition” with it Switzerland was invented (Gugerli, 1998: 97).When the federal state was founded in 1848, the Dufour Map was well underway, giving legitimacy to the fledgling nation. Dufour himself profitedfrom the enterprise, as he was elected General of the army just prior to the state’s formation, a move and legislative space on the table, one of the initial measures was to create a new map that would give contours to land” icance as part of a progressive-liberal movement aiming to unite the country lasted from 1832 to 1865 (Gugerli & Speich, 2002; Gugerli, 1999). Switzerland at the time was a loose coalition of independent cantons separated by a cap sular mentality that survives to this day. Efforts were made nevertheless to standardise anything from different currencies to disparate measuring sys tems in order to facilitate commerce and strengthen political cohesion while economic Swiss unified a of objective the With diversity. cultural maintaining cidence that landmark document is attributed to a military surveyor, Guil for with experience and engineer an as training whose Dufour, laume-Henri the charting for choice prime the him made military French the for tifications been yet not had that country a albeit country, the of map comprehensive first that task monumental a comprised undertaking The formed. constitutionally ber often cited in parliamentary debates and in the media, 0.86m of though figure precise more the slightly above Statistical Office; the plotting of territory and its dynamics through the ele 2013). für Statistik Schweiz, number (Bundesamt gance of

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Excerpt from Dufour Map, surveyed at the scales 1:25,000 and Excerpt from Dufour Map, surveyed at the scales 1:50,000 under General Guillaume-Henri Dufour, 1832-1865 1:50,000 under General Guillaume-Henri Dufour, Figure 1 The result is a completely managed landscape whose seamless flows and customers worldwide (Hermann, 2010). One such model, a replica of the Got the of replica a model, such One 2010). (Hermann, worldwide customers thard North Ramp, was even built behind closed doors, behind the Iron Cur aficio train model by DDR former the in War Cold the during exact, be to tain their sons re-enacting feats of civil engineering in their basements, by mod el train clubs attracting hordes of want-to-be surveyors, and by magazines countless highlighting the latest accessories for miniature Switzerlands to 2010). Not surprisingly, the conquest of nature by infrastructure and with it the taming of the Alps is celebrated in popular pastime activities by dads and operational efficiency are understandably the pride of the nation and inspires and nation the of pride the understandably are efficiency operational awe abroad. Well engrained in collective memory, Switzerland predicates the (Kreis, remember to places of collection consummate a as perfection of image - - - - -

Model Train Club Leipzig, DDR, 1969-89 Model Train of the Gotthard North Ramp (scale 1:120), Model Train of the Gotthard North Ramp (scale Figure 2 Without a doubt, the virtue of Swiss maps is their accuracy. Admittedly, cloaked in objectivity, are thoroughly ideological. They are vehicles for trans for vehicles are They ideological. thoroughly are objectivity, in cloaked lating values, motives, biases, beliefs, and desires into territory. Such trans lations require protocols based on norms that ensure their replication as a system, which in turn validates the values inscribed in them and the powers as a cartographer’s dream such accurateness can be blinding. Maps, though undertaken undertaken as an innocent leisurely pursuit eventually got the East German hobbyists in trouble with agents from the Ministry for State Security, more opera clandestine the of suspicious were who Stasi, the as known commonly harm deemed were used maps the as ending, happy a had story the But tion. deemed benign. and the co-opted image of Switzerland less by authorities nados who had never visited the actual site (figure 2). Though born of fantasy, fantasy, of born Though 2). (figure site actual the visited never had who nados the project required up-to-date maps that were smuggled in and used to plot an elaborate duplicate of the real setting, one replete with rock formations, nec other the all and chalets Swiss those forget to not and snow, lakes, trees, essary technical amenities for a picture-perfect, Heidi-esque set. What was

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Map presented to the Swiss Parliamentary Security Council by Chief of the Armed Forces André Blattmann, 2010 Figure 3 WALLING SWITZERLAND WALLING In reality the map is a carefully fabricated and precisely targeted docu 3. Case in point, a simple map can make a mountain out of a molehill. A ment motivated by multiple agendas, some more clear than others. Its au Europe is a scary place (figure 3). is a scary place (figure Europe destruction, tanks symbolize regions torn by armed conflict, and perhaps no less menacing, the dollar sign represents nations with unstable economies. from political, ethnic, and religious clashes, red starbursts denote post-9/11 un social of areas identify starbursts black soil, European on attacks terrorist rest, nuclear missiles indicate neighbouring countries with weapons of mass game-board-relief of accentuated national borders rendered as deep ravines separating countries, with Switzerland cast as fortress. The map’s legend is quite telling: orange starbursts stand for those states posing a threat arising nent. By contrast, the centre, marked by the little white cross on a red back ground – by now a brand of anything Swiss –, poised fragile to peace. defend In the place land’s of natural terrain, the map’s geography is drawn in hostile territory. Europe is portrayed as a battleground with threatening star threatening with battleground a as portrayed is Europe territory. hostile burst symbols, tanks, nuclear missiles, and dollar signs spotting the conti media event in early March 2010 unleashed country a again long firestormknown for its inunderstated political Switzerland,neutrality. The Swiss a press released a military map positioning the small nation in the middle of conflict, however absurd the grounds might seem. grounds might the however absurd conflict, behind them. Therefore, any change in ideology will inevitably leave its mark mark its leave inevitably will ideology in change any Therefore, them. behind on the land. But such agents for ideology never stand alone. They are often met with other competing objectives, a clash which translates into territorial ------7 To make To 8 . Indeed, ac Yet another part of 4 need an army! 5 does Ultimately, the fallout led to the 6 raison d’être as raison d’état raisonas raison d’être This seems to be the very question that prompted military leaders to Reactions to this episode – which unfolded on the heels of the equal the space required for military exercises and related installations. Clearly this Clearly installations. related and exercises military for required space the prestige new winning of issue central more the cloud to effort concerted a was and thereby justifying the military’s cording to the Chief, the state of Switzerland immense portfolio of property assets belonging to the armed forces, at the time of the interview valued at approximately 25 billion US dollars. the argument more palatable, he cited in his pitch the decrepit of barracks and significant conditions maintenance costs for their upkeep. The message had they why asked when Yet, army. the for needed is money more clear: was not resorted to selling portions of the land holdings, he called attention to construct the map in the first place. Faced with budget cuts, a plan was con ter And army. of the existential necessity life into the new cocted to breathe ritory played no small part in the case made. Blattmann actually framed his argument in a newspaper interview from the vantage of real estate and the ly sensitive Minaret Initiative that had angered Gaddafi – was broad, cutting leaders local expected, be can As alike. borders national and lines party across throughout the country scrambled to soften the blow of political incorrect ness, the liberal Swiss Social Party (SP/PS) moved to take advantage of Blatt mann’s faux pas, and Greece was outraged. does Switzerland need an army? heated question: of all nations, why Greece as a convenient example of an already destabilised financial system on system financial destabilised already an of example convenient a as Greece to brazenly on went he enough, not was this if As bankruptcy. of doorstep the warn citizens about the danger of Taliban-launched nuclear assaults on the to the fire. nation’s power grid just to add fuel spin, with tourist sites now depicted as the source of flows of people unwanted threatening to invadeConfederate Helvetic migratory space. In fact, an official message delivered to the public by the military commander himself: “[o]ne can imagine situations in which the army has to protect our infrastructure, for large migration streams might require troop deployment.” his argument showcased imminent economic risks, using EU-member state a beat to put it in the larger political context and thus highlight the ulterior framed television local story, the into entry ease To campaign. the of motives the incident in such a way as to reach the largest audience possible, thereby capitalising on the scandalous ramifications of vilifying neighbours. Popu lar vacation destinations across the continent offered the perfect foil for the thor, thor, Chief of the Armed Forces André Blattmann, maintaining presented the integrity his of Switzerland case in for a routine military report to the Parliamentary Security Council. The transparencies trans used but anything frankness, authoritarian his despite by were, point his make Blattmann to miss not did who press the to way its made subsequently material The parent.

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réduit or redoubt, the Swiss-con the redoubt, or , November 19, 1887 réduit, Der Nebelspalter Caricature entitled ‘After the Gotthard, the Matterhorn’, Figure 4 published in the satirical weekly While of vital significance during World War II, the There is a precedent to this protectionist impulse that remains deeply A state of emergency had to be induced and a palpable sense of angst Alps conceived as weapon (figure 4 & 5). Alps conceived as weapon (figure link between north and south. A caricature published at the that of ramifications the shows ironically time Matterhorn’ the Gotthard, the entitled ‘After the early 19th century and later gained importance in coinci no connection was this And 2003). (Stamm, 1882 in built with tunnel railroad Gotthard the dence as the Gotthard Pass lies at the heart of the country and forms the key morale and remind citizens of the country’s critical situation amidst hostile (Mooser, 2000). Blattmann plays on this very sentiment. neighbours comprised of a series of fortifications strategically situated across the country the across situated strategically fortifications of series a of comprised to defend prominent points and deter enemy attack. On the other hand, figures it asthe core of ‘spiritual national defence’ invoked to raise collective ceived alpine stronghold denotes a place of refuge during times of war. The term has both a physical and psychological dimension. On the one hand, it is military and its industry. the as Known mentality. Swiss in engrained ing conjecture as fact, he purposely plays the trump card of patriotic identity versus the evil other. Switzerland is interiorised, walled, not physically but dogmatically and ideologically, and all in order to secure more funds for the map had to be deployed as tactical weapon. A difficult geography emerges in Blattmann’s doomsday scenario as impending terror is invoked to re-con struct territory, thus further institutionalising national security. By present manufactured manufactured to prop up the call for protecting the homeland, played with as space an agent in a blatant politics of fear. With this agenda, a threat- - - - -

Via Tremola, Old St. Gotthard Road, as the last bulwark of territorial resistance (Kreis, resistance territorial of bulwark last the as south side of the St. Gotthard Pass, 1928 Figure 5 réduit Thoroughly excavated by caverns and encrusted with roads and cannons, and roads with encrusted and caverns by excavated Thoroughly mythical power of the of power mythical 6). 2010: 182) (figure ranean installations were built during the war alone (Kurz, 1965: 77). Whereas Whereas 77). 1965: (Kurz, alone war the during built were installations ranean the majority of these structures form extensive hidden networks, they most quo as camouflaged chalets, fake yet idyllic, as landscape the in surface often tidian domestic architecture (Schwager, 2004). The Alps have been literal ly hollowed to become an infrastructural armature for national defence. The the increased cheese, Swiss unlike not range, mountain perforated a of image Henri Guisan, General of the armed the forces war during and no doubt a role model for Blattmann, reanimated the national call for resistance in the spirit of the réduit (Kurz, 1965). He declared in July 1940 that in above case infrastructure its and Alps of high the defend would attack Swiss the forces, Axis by get a sense of the scale of the operation, 40 000 fortresses and subter all. To the mountain becomes a technological object. During World War II, defence in build made investments with considerable escalated further construction today. army the by used still are degree some to which fortifications, more ing

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Section of World War II bunker camouflaged as Swiss chalet, 1944 (courtesy of the Swiss Army) Figure 6 Whether in the past or now, this intricate coupling of private sector The effort to arm national space continued after the war, with command with war, the after continued space national arm to effort The are laid with seeming indifference to rugged terrain – all built with first-rate cement produced by prosperous domestic industries. The heroics of such ef forts were pointedly captured in an early documentary by Jean-Luc Godard has mastered the disciplining of topography by deploying civil engineering to engineering civil deploying by topography of disciplining the mastered has turn an otherwise picturesque setting into strategic advantage: tunnels bore through miles of solid rock; bridges span treacherous valleys; and highways infrastructure infrastructure turning country into machine. Known for its daunting natu ral landscape, which challenges the enterprise of grand designs, Switzerland business with a publicly funded army drives the very production of territory. This joint venture fuels a political economy that churns out state-of-the-art additional 10 billion was invested for the same purpose until the end of the Cold War, providing in the interim a welcome boost to the building industry (Stamm, 2003: 77). rest of Europe had more or less ceased building fortresses, Switzerland kept dol US billion a approximately While underground. protection its for looking lars had been swallowed up for fortifying the nation during World War II, an ers of the army still stubbornly committed to the idea of the ------The message seemed obvious, everyone would everyone obvious, seemed message The 10 released in 1958 – before Godard became the famed down to the smallest, most filigree scale to form a decentralised Opération Béton Opération réduit GREATER SWITZERLAND GREATER Simply put, the appeal amounted to a coup as it concerned the annexa 9 4. If Blattmann’s map seems outrageous, it was outdone by an even more To To top off theoverall operation, post-war legislation in 1963, fuelledby low taxes. Polls taken in those respective territories showed an affirmative populations. local by reaction love to be Swiss. al Council to investigate the legislative steps required to achieve this objec tive. tion of regions from neighbouring countries. Said takeover would seize parts of France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, thereby altering the familiar political geography of Europe. The arguments in favour of participating in Swiss wel fare are hard to resist: a direct democracy, an affluent market economy, and pansionist course for the country. In place of a military cause, here diplomatic here cause, military a of place In country. the for course pansionist negotiation was enlisted – a Swiss asset if there ever was one. A motion was Dominique member Senate by 2010 18, March on Parliament the to submitted Baettig and co-signed by 28 of his fellow party affiliates. The plan was driven Nation Swiss the commissioned and Switzerland’ ‘Greater a for desire the by outlandish map published a few weeks later. Whereas the protectionist bid by bid protectionist the Whereas later. weeks few a published map outlandish proposed initiative subsequent a Switzerland, of walling a foresaw Blattmann by the right-wing Swiss People’s Party (SVP/UDC) envisioned instead an ex countries, the map serves the battle cry for ever more infrastructure that, of course, enables Switzerland to function like a fine-tuned clockwork nation should. implemented in the history of the country, this venture takes the of the concept network of capsular space. Moreover, ‘fortress Switzerland’ as project works to merge civilian and military purpose to secure national protection. Moti just is map Blattmann’s that clear becomes it mentality, insular this by vated a cog in the wheel of a more complex machine. By demonising surrounding prevalent prevalent Cold War fears of a nuclear offensive on home soil, even dictates that all buildings must be equipped with a subterranean concrete shelter for every Swiss man and woman (Fuhrer & Wild, 2010; Aeberhard, 1983; Bach mann & Grosjean, 1969). Constituting one of the biggest building projects entitled entitled ‘Godard’ – that celebrates the construction of La Grande Dixence, a massive hydraulic dam built into the rocky landscape of the Alps. His voiceover ex presses excitement about conquering topography and a sense of urgency as cause. with this national sociated

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------classe politique Intervening in 11 What plainly func 12 “territorially-foreign “territorially-foreign species . In the context of the contentious Minaret contentious the of context the In . when provoking the Parliament to consider the economic agent provocateur agent This is a touchy issue with a sensitive history. The relationship between Responses to Baettig’s proposition varied from applause to dismay, both Known in his pastime as an avid hunter, Baettig made a name for himself himself for name a made Baettig hunter, avid an as pastime his in Known Basically, it gets its cake and eats it too. But this works two ways, insofar as adjoining countries have always enjoyed a safe haven of courteous hospitali ty coupled with gentlemanly discretion in financial matters. Maps of Europe past. Although proudly autonomous, Switzerland is nevertheless tied to Eu maintaining by worlds both of best the enjoys country Alpine small The rope. independence and cultivating select cross-border relations at the same time. Switzerland and Europe has been marked by ambiguity both now and in the gument made by Switzerland itself for not joining the EU. At stake is nothing less than the mobilization of sovereignty brought about by the annexation of territory. from the European Union. Viewed by the Swiss conservatives with disdain, EU government officials continue to be portrayed as an elite ar very the Brussels, in headquarters remote their from top-down operating been disenfranchised by their own governments. The case put forth was to appease these regions by assembling them as new cantons under the defection brella of Swiss and, in democracy effect, prompt their surreptitious um bordering regions. Situated on the periphery of their respective nations, this presumably dispirited constituency, according to Baettig and his party, has neighbours, neighbours, as those relations had already been tested by recent disclosures of foreign deposits in Swiss banks made to evade taxes at home. To counter from inhabitants by discontent widespread cited SVP/UDC the argument, this nationally and internationally. Domestically, at the highest echelons of pow of echelons highest the at Domestically, internationally. and nationally European with relations friendly disturbing against made was argument an er, tioned as propaganda ultimately served his later motion to gain a stronger foothold in Europe for the Helvetic Confederation through the appropriation states. of territory from neighbouring was caught on camera at this event by Swiss TV, a bout of media exposure that exposure media of bout a TV, Swiss by event this at camera on caught was only reinforced his position with supporters at home. cheering crowd of extremists in a country where the Muslim issue is already explosive. Clearly, the ulterior motive was to attack what he considered an icon not just of religious but also of political power in the Islamic world. He consequences consequences of uncontrolled immigration into Switzerland. that suggest to France in speech a in audacity the had even he abroad, politics minarets are phallic symbols of male potency. He received accolades from a self as agitator or agitator as self Initiative, for example, he equated migrants with of invasive insects” in politics as a staunch conservative. His background includes involvement in right-wing radical activities and associated journals. He likes to see him ------The century treatise th To facilitate the To movement of goods and money, 13 mentality behind Blattmann’s vision for a porcu réduit as key to defending Swiss independence might be reassuring even Contrary to the But these flows are not always visible as demonstrated by Switzerland’s réduit poration of the region into Greater Switzerland would yield a match made in considering heaven the parity of the work ethic between Swiss and Germans, a deeply engrained ethic founded on a prudent morality coupled with eco nomic thrift as addressed by Max Weber in his early 20 This is what Baettig’s scheme banked on, for there are significant benefits to his expansionist dream. Take the State of Baden-Württemberg for example. As one of the most prosperous regions targeted in the venture, it performs as a German Silicon Valley and functions literally as the country’s economic motor, with elite universities and blue-chip company headquarters such as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Bosch, and SAP located there. The proposed incor ‘network Switzerland’ was furthered in the process. ‘network Switzerland’ was furthered pine-like posture toward the outside, the move to extend political and eco territo regarding attitude another reveals arena larger a into tentacles nomic ry, one this time directed by circulation, movement, exchange, and so forth. when faced with the threat of invasion: industries supplied specialised prod ucts and financial institutions offered the liquidity essential to the war ef fort (Perrenoud, 2000: 28). things needed to be put in place and a complex apparatus was required, in and protocols logistical to procedures administrative from everything cluding infrastructural systems that stretched far beyond national borders. Project this very practice taints the image of the country’s neutrality. The so-called today viewed widely is unscathed conflict the of out coming of miracle’ ‘Swiss as a ‘Swiss malaise’ (Perrenoud, 2000: 26-27). It would seem that the busi authorities Government defence. national to crucial was take and give of ness and industrial leaders acted, it is argued, more pragmatically than heroically cy of great powers – a classic David versus Goliath standoff. While figuring the today, in reality accommodation, negotiation, and political savvy served as equally effective modes of keeping fascist aggression at bay. Yet, as advan tageous as it was at the time for Switzerland to play strategic relay for finan cial transactions, including loans and credit to Axis powers, the exposure of crucial component in the business of routing and re-routing flows. and re-routing of routing in the business crucial component part in World War II. Then, trade relations and territorial disposition, as we now know, went hand in hand with political diplomacy. The prevalent pic ture painted during and after the war was that of a small country at the mer most most often reveal this dual condition, with Switzerland depicted as either a blank hole or as privileged refuge. Whatever the case, to be situated in and politically both manoeuvring, for place opportune an be the to proves middle economically. This is certainly true for Switzerland in that it plays the role of strategic relay within a space of circulation. Here again, infrastructure is a

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, June 2010 Le Temps (Weber, 2011)). As a matter of fact, and ratified in 2012 that showed, for instance, the ‘La Grande Suisse’, foreseen expansion of Switzerland’s territory as proposed by the right-wing party, Figure 7 Surprisingly, Surprisingly, Baettig’s map was not far off the mark, for it seemed to 14 Were his motion to be approved by all involved parties, including those eign nations that are held in place by device of clearly drawn lines. eign nations that are held in place ritory. anticipate the next logical step of a process already underway, one that chal sover bounded of terms in mapped as Europe of make-up political the lenges Spatial Concept Switzerland flowing Basel of that Milan, of agglomeration the into spilling Ticino of region out into the Rhine Valley, and that of Geneva extending well into French ter mergers forming between city regions on its periphery (Schneider & Eisinger, Eisinger, & (Schneider periphery its on regions city between forming mergers 2003; Diener et al., 2004). This very perspective of seeing Swiss urbanization leak beyond national borders was taken up in a landmark document entitled borders. Conversely, research projects such as those by and Avenir Suisse have begun to ETH soften the edges of the Studio nation and consider Basel not a megacity in the centre of Europe. Whereas current domestic planning urban large a as Switzerland view to inclined are studies academic and efforts conglomeration, most still treat the country as fixed in terms of sacrosanct from France, Austria, and Italy, Switzerland would gain an additional 17 mil lion all citizensintents and and its territory would triple in size overnight. To purposes, this would give rise to a politically ratified metropolitan cluster, if remember, remember, Baden-Württemberg is only one piece of Baettig’s larger plan for 7). Switzerland (figure a Greater Protestant Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism the territories of both countries are already integrated at least infrastructur ally and commercially, forming a well-functioning transnational entity. But ------

Anamorphic map of Swiss agglomerations registering (courtesy of Jacques Lévy, Chôros Laboratory, EPFL) Figure 8 different population densities of communities in the country, 2000 ENTROPIC SWITZERLAND ENTROPIC By now a well-known phenomenon and one that has plagued scores of 5. Looking back at two figments of cartographic imagination, Switzerland late image, whether idealised on a map or rationalised in the mind. Quite the contrary, although clean and efficient, this urbanised country manifests an own their to according operating each pieces, and bits disjunctive of amalgam 8). rules and agendas (figure phological modelling, empirical data are crunched into what has effectively become our contemporary version of landscape painting, all diagramming urbanity without pause. With due respect, such labour faces the Sisyphean task of trying to contain cities and their metropolitan regions. As composed immacu an to yields longer no fabric urban Switzerland’s appear, might it as order. scientists, geographers, engineers, planners, and politicians alike, entropy, or the tendency of a system toward spontaneous change, has spawned ever new tools to get a handle on a condition that by From GIS definition technology and anamorphic mapping to spatial statistics and mor resists control. tually work in tandem to produce territory by taming space. Each plan relies on the provision of infrastructural networks to secure optimal channels for unexpect they order, for aims ideology each while However, order. managing edly contribute to an entropic territorial condition. Against better judgment and counterintuitive to the will to discipline, more control creates more dis seems to be faced with the incommensurable options of isolation or expan coun the notwithstanding, Fantasy Baettig. against pitted is Blattmann sion: try is in fact pursuing both routes. What seems like opposing ideologies ac

FLOWSCAPES - DESIGNING INFRASTRUCTURE AS LANDSCAPE 50 MAPPING FLOWS 51 ------(Foucoult, 2007: 56) And, these are only a few examples of the regulatory frenzy that bom “Discipline, of course, analyses and breaks down; it breaks down individuals, Switzerland’s federalist model of governance exacerbates this condi Though Though maps tend to homogenise whatever they address, the physical places, time, movements, actions, and operations” bards territory at all scales. Disciplining space is the name of the game; dis cipline normalises. cy in facilitating circulation. You never have to stop while driving around in 9). circles (figure that has altered the face of domestic transit, with thousands and thousands of thousands and thousands with transit, domestic of face the altered has that traffic circles introduced as if overnight. Darling of engineers, thesebeloved efficien their cite that manuals countless of subject the are objects technical referendum involving a constitutional amendment to give the green light to a new freeway system that by now stretches over 1800 km throughout tiny nation (Heller & Volk, 1999). Add to this the recent trend of roundabouts the and federal levels is also at play, inevitably leading to conflict with communal with conflict to leading inevitably play, at also is levels federal and ambitions. One example dates from 1958 when a bill was passed in a national municipal officials who are more often than not overwhelmed by the task of controlling development. But this account is only from the bottom up. Top- down management of territory involving regional planning at both cantonal maps are the instrument of choice for translating normality into a geographic a into normality translating for choice of instrument the are maps order, the resulting proliferation of regulation gives way to spatial cacoph ony. This in turn requires even more elaborate administrative protocols for zoning regulations that specify land-use in the spirit of the Charter of Ath ens’s separation of functions, producing a spatial pixilation of sorts whereby Though infinitum. ad codes normalising with peppered is landscape urban the representation. Everybody has a say. The distribution of power to localities is own its devises instance, for community, Each land. the into directly stamped to manage the operation of capitalising territory. to manage the operation tion, with over 2 700 constituent communities enjoying direct democratic political and economic interests. What results is a fractured space that never that space fractured a is results What interests. economic and political theless functions as if by its own momentum, a diffuse arrangement not just needed else anything and customs, standards, regulations, of also but stuff, of ture, loose ture, agglomerations lined with industrial and commercial strips, areas of little or no activity, land set aside for agriculture, restricted military com pounds, and plenty of nature to go around, all shaped by the mechanics of constitution constitution of the territory at issue is comprised by a heterogeneous mix ture of dense urban networks connected by endless conduits of infrastruc - - - -

state of things 15 laissez-faire or laissez-aller Thun, 2005 (photograph by Deane Simpson) Thun, 2005 (photograph Swiss military map at army training facility depicting German territory, Swiss military map at army Figure 9 With no option except competition within a milieu of free movement of Yet it seems that discipline cannot help but generate its opposite, a anisms at work in the financial sector align with those ofurban production. just are holdings land For of. disposed is not, if goes, and profitable Anything scraps their with market, the to open commodity, other any as dispensable as scattered across the map. So what is referred to as ‘open city’ in academia is to more affordable regions. This exodus is compounded by immigration from nearby countries by foreigners wanting to avoid paying home while looking higher for a higher quality of life – an added flow of taxes people that back only sets off more territorial entropy. virtually everything, space as much as place is bought and sold. The mech estate value of property, leading to an uneven distribution of wealth and so cial rank that again leaves its traces in patches throughout the nation. At its post-box a than more no have Switzerland in listed companies extreme, most presence here in order to profit from tax incentives. For locals unable to pay ever rising rents, this often results in domestic migration from high-priced (Foucault, 2007: 41). While banking on entropy might well serve the finan cial sector, it also reconfigures contemporary city regions. One critical case in point are the variously adjusted tax codes at the cantonal and communal levels, which act as a precisely designed lure to attract both businesses and affluent citizensto settle in specific jurisdictions – triggering a veritable tax competition between communities. The lower the taxes, the higher the real let-be-attitude toward a state of things, when multiplied ad absurdum. As side effect ofhyper-discipline, this In development. urban of engine key the economy, the in equivalent its finds market free the of feature integral an is course’ their take things ‘letting deed

FLOWSCAPES - DESIGNING INFRASTRUCTURE AS LANDSCAPE 52 MAPPING FLOWS 53 - - - - - At work here are modes of urban production that are not exclusive to raw material awaiting development. But this may require a change of di rection, if not a flight of imagination that goes against the flow and counter of capital. clockwise to taken-for-granted cycles to territory itself, as vital resource and source of cultural identity, just and not at the negotiating table. Then, the map could no longer master territory, nor would territory be scattered around as passive victim by the whims of special interests. Rather, territory would be re-territorialised on interests inherent network of actors in and of itself. This would mean that territory could take the take could territory that mean would This itself. of and in actors of network lead and act to redirect political economy toward a more constructive mind- set, where the physical milieu is empowered and viewed as an equal delegate prescribed course if necessary. This might require a modified political econ omy that alters its view of territory as a neutral backdrop left submissive to dynamic a as active, as viewed be can territory Instead, it. upon act that forces another frame of mind than those that bank on discipline alone. We need to enter the clockwork itself, operating from the middle-out and reversing its row an expression of Michel Foucault, that is formed by a nexus where profit de-territo of pace the Yet, 108).[16] 2007: (Foucault, space trump power and demands costs all at development unhindered for appetite the and rialisation Switzerland, Switzerland, as this itinerant economic geography knows no borders. With to rise gives territory of urbanisation the principle, core its as circulation free a transnational mentality of governance, a form of ‘governmentality’ to bor derings, freedom of circulation rules as a technology of power in our current economy. political not necessarily an ideal setting for coexistence, for it is most often embraced al. et (Christiaanse goes anything for pretext a as investors and developers by ren pretty in manifested often so as thinking hopeful above and Over 2009).

, - - - Tag Tages-An (Zurich: Orell (Zurich: , ‘The Precession of , June 10, 2010. , October 18, 2009. July 22, 2010. Le Temps also known as the Bergier Report, also known NZZ am Sonntag (1975), London: Penguin Books, pp London: Penguin (1975), February 25, 2010. February Historia universal de la infamia ‘Etceteras’ Historia universal de la infamia Die Weltwoche, Simulacres et Simulation , December 10, 2009. , March 15, 2010. , Zurich: Limmat Verlag, written on the occasion the on Limmat Verlag, written , Zurich: New Statesman, Tages-Anzeiger A Universal History of Infamy Die Wochenzeitung (WOZ) Aufruhr im Paradies: Die Neue Zuwanderung Spaltet die Schweiz Aufruhr im Paradies: Die Neue Zuwanderung Spaltet , trans. Paul Foss, Paul Patton, and Philip Beitchman, New York: Semiotexte, New Beitchman, Philip and Patton, Foss, Paul trans. Paul , , March 10, 2010. published by the Swiss Confederation (Berne: Schweizerischer Bundesrat, (Berne: Schweizerischer by the Swiss Confederation published Schweiz ohne Armee? Ein Palaver ohne Armee? Schweiz Simulations , March 10, 2010. Tages-Anzeiger Die Schweiz, der Nationalsozialismus und der Zweite Weltkrieg, March 17, 2010. For more on the uneven distribution of wealth in Switzerland see Philipp Löpfe and Werner Vontobel, see Philipp Switzerland For more of wealth in on the uneven distribution Ghetto’, in ‘Die Reichen ins Füssli Verlag, 2011), 40-59. Foucault defines the term as follows: “By ‘governmentality’ I understand the ensemble formed by institutions, procedures, analyses and reflections, calculations, and tactics that allow the exercise of this very specific, albeit very complex, power that has the population as its target, political economy as its major form of knowledge, and apparatuses of security as its essential technical instrument.” Hans Stutz, “Es ist mir eine Ehre”, – Second World War Commission of Experts Switzerland See also the report by the Independent (2002) Zurich: Pendo Verlag. Raumkonzept Schweiz, 2012). See Max Frisch (1989) (1989) Max Frisch See peace of politics a comprehensive support Army and the Swiss to abolish referendum national the of proposition. in 1989 – with 35,6% of the voters in favor of the Op. cit., Aoste ou la Savoie”, Yves Petignat, “Boutefeu, l’UDC est prête à accueillir beitreten”, “Umfrage: Nachbarregionen wollen der Schweiz mit Insekten”, Heidi Gmür, “SVP-Nationalrat vergleicht Ausländer p. 2. André Blattmann interviewed by Patrick Feuz and Daniel Foppa, “Denkbar wäre ein Pikett-WK”, es-Anzeiger Schweiz”, der in Nuklearangriff vor warnt Armeechef A-Bombe! eine “Achtung, Feuz, Patrick zeiger, “Armee Chef Blattmanns kuriose Karte”, 28-29. the precedes that map the is it Henceforth, it. survives nor map, the precedes longer no territory “The to were we if and territory the engenders that map the is it – SIMULACRA OF PRECESSION territory – rotting across the map. It is shreds are slowly be the territory whose would revive the fable today, it are no longer the deserts which there, in here and vestiges subsist map, whose not the the real, and (1981) Baudrillard Jean own.” our but Empire, the of those in: Simulacra’, perfectly coincided with the Empire itself. But succeeding generations, with diminished interest in interest generations, with diminished But succeeding with the Empire itself. perfectly coincided they impiously, and not use, no immense map was of this that believed of cartography, the study In the deserts of the west ruined inclemency of the sun and numerous winters. it to the abandoned and beggars; in all the country there is no other by animals inhabited fragments of the map survive, (1935) Borges Luis Jorge disciplines.” geographical the of relic de Giovanni, trans. Norman Thomas ENDNOTES Excerpt of Gaddafi’s speech at the 35th G8 Summit in Abruzzo, Italy that took place in July 2009, see “mad dog”?’, Gaddafi: Shackle, ‘Colonel Samira “In that Empire, the cartographer’s art achieved such a degree of perfection that the map of a sin time, these In province. entire an Empire, the map of the and city, entire an occupied province gle vast maps were no longer sufficient. The guild of cartographers created a map of the Empire, which

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FLOWSCAPES - DESIGNING INFRASTRUCTURE AS LANDSCAPE 54 MAPPING FLOWS 55 ------. New Basel, . Zurich, nr. 23. Essen, Essen, nr. 23. . Lucerne, Edizioni Per Edizioni Lucerne, . Switzerland and the Sec Munich, Verlag C. H. Beck (origi Munich, WerkstattGeschichte Switzerland – An Urban Portrait. Switzerland – Bunker: Unloaded . Amsterdam, Sun Architecture . Amsterdam, Eidgenössische Justiz- und Polizeidepartement. Polizeidepartement. und Justiz- Eidgenössische , an Avenir Suisse publication. Basel, Birkhäuser Ver Solothurn, Verlag Vogt-Schild Verlag Solothurn, . London: Frank Cass, pp. 236-260 Zurich, Museum für Gestaltung Zurich, Limmat Verlag Baden, Verlag für Kultur und Geschichte Baden, Verlag für Kultur Inscribing Science: Scientific Texts and the Materiality of Communi of Materiality the and Texts Scientific Science: Inscribing . Zurich, Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung Kulturlandverlust zu Gunsten von Siedlung und Wald: Bodennutzung und Wald: Siedlung von Gunsten zu Kulturlandverlust Zivilverteidigung, Archive. . Zurich, Musterschmidt Verlag Zurich, Edition Patrick Frey Stadtland Schweiz Aufruhr im Paradies: Die Neue Zuwanderung Spaltet die Schweiz Aufruhr im Paradies: Die Neue Zuwanderung Spaltet . Bern, Peter Lang, pp 19-39 Topografien der Nation. Politik, kartografische Ordnung und Landschaft im 19. im Landschaft und Ordnung kartografische Politik, Nation. der Topografien östlicher Alle roten Pfeile kommen aus Osten – zu Recht? Das Bild und die Bedrohung der aus Osten – zu Alle roten Pfeile kommen (2000, revised 2013) (2000, revised Open City: Designing Coexistence Open City: Designing Die Schweizer Autobahn. Security, Territory, Population. Lectures at the de France Collège 1977-1978 Falsche Chalets. Vom Luftschutz zum Zivilschutz. zum Vom Luftschutz Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus. . London, Frank Cass General Henri Guisan Schweiz ohne Armee? Ein Palaver. Schweiz ohne Armee? Ein Schweizer Erinnerungsorte . Zurich, Chronos Verlag Switzerland and the Second World War Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press, pp 96-97 Stanford, CA, Stanford University REFERENCES nally published in 1905) lag iferia, p. 85 (originally published in 1998) Orell Füssli Verlag Kreis (ed.) ond World War Jahrhundert Helvetische Merkwürdigkeiten Schweiz 1945-1966 im Licht Schweiz 1945-1966 im Licht (ed.) T. Lenoir in: Representation’, and cation. Klartext Verlag, pp 53-73 Birkhäuser Verlag York, Palgrave Macmillan Aarau, Miles-Verlag pro Sekunde swandel in m2 Weber, M. (2011) Perrenoud, M (2000) ‘Foreign Trade and Swiss Politics, 1939-45’, in: G. Kreis (ed.) (2003) Eisinger A. & M. Schneider, Mooser, J. (2000) ‘Spiritual National Defence in the 1930s: Swiss Political Culture between the Wars’, in: G. Swiss Political Culture between 1930s: ‘Spiritual National Defence in the Mooser, J. (2000) Kreis, G. (2010) Kurz, H.R. (1965) (2011) Vontobel & W. Ph. Löpfe, Heller, M. & A. Volk (1999) im Privatgarten’, in: E. Bierende et al. (eds.) Bergidylle und Eisenbahn- ‘Schweizer Hermann, C. (2010) Gugerli, D. (1999) ‘Der Hirtenknabe, der General und die Karte’, in: (2002) Gugerli, D. & D. Speich Gugerli, D. (1998) ‘Politics on the Topographer’s Table: The Helvetic Triangulation of Cartography, Politics, on the Topographer’s Table: The Helvetic Triangulation ‘Politics Gugerli, D. (1998) Frisch, M. (1989) (2010) Wild M. Fuhrer, H.R. & Foucault, M. (2004/2007) Foucault, M. (2004/2007) Bundesamt für Statistik Schweiz (2013) Schweiz Statistik für Bundesamt K. et al. (2009) Christiaanse, Meuron & Ch. Schmid (2004) Herzog, M. Meili, P. de Diener, R., J. Aeberhard, R. (1983) R. (1983) Aeberhard, (1969) G. Grosjean A. & Bachmann, Schwager, Ch. (2004) in: walk’, long The Réduit: from the ‘Farewell (2003) Stamm, P. FLOWSCAPES - DESIGNING INFRASTRUCTURE AS LANDSCAPE 56