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Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A Bi-Annual Refereed Journal) Vol V Issue 1, June 2019 ISSN (P) : 2395-7352 eISSN : 2581-6780 The Jatrapala Theatrical Tradition of West : An Analytic Study on its Origin and Development

Silpi Maitra*

Abstract

The was originally associated with the religious rituals, although certain forms of debates or speculations exist about the meaning of the root word ‘jatra’. Having ritualistic connotation, ‘jatra’, was believed to be a musical procession where the deity was carried from one place to another; hence it is connected with the word journey or the state of a journey in Bengali. Scholars however believe that it had originated from some hymns of . P. Guha Thakurta in his book on Bengali quotes the German Indologist C.P.Horrwitz as being of the opinion that ‘even the vedic age knew Jatra, a venerable heirloom of Aryan antiquity’ ( Guha Thakurta). However Prof. A. B. Keith disagrees with the above mentioned viewpoint and opines that ‘even the Vedic age knew Jatra which was a well known aspect in Bengal while the refined sacred vedic drama passed away without a direct descendant’. Some scholars trace the religious rituals of Jatra with the indigenous culture of certain tribes which inhabited the borderlands of Bengal. The combination of dramatic elements in the composition of Jatrapala was previously suggested in the religious texts of Geeta Govinda or Sri . The Sri krishna Kirtan became famous with the spread of . It gained popularity with the rise of Vaisnavism where the compositions mainly comprised of the amorous relationship between Radha and Krishna. The love life of Radha and Krishna were expressed in certain jatras like Krishna Jatra, Ras Jatra, Jhulan Jatra etc. Sri Chaitanya, the saint and preacher of the great cult of Vaisnavism preached about this religious faith which seems to be as old as the . This particular paper, apart from highlighting on the origin and development of the theatrical tradition of will meticulously present Jatra as a medium of instruction and expression for the rural masses.

Key words: Folk drama, , and Bengali Culture According to Merriam and Webster, character or to tell a story through action a drama is defined as, “A composition in and dialogue and designed for theatrical verse or prose intended to portray life or performance’ (Merriam et al 1969: 252).

* Research Scholar, Department of Cultural and Creative Studies, NEHU, Shillong. 165 Silpi Maitra

The eminent critic Vatsayan while giving fluenced by the Indian classical theatre his valuable insight regarding the sub- follows a simplistic methodology which stance of folk and traditional performanc- initiates an active membership on the part es, says that, the word ‘folk’ implies a of the receivers. The input of the drama is community which is integrally related to finely processed in the form of output tribe, region or a rural group. The expres- which is enjoyed thoroughly by the rural sions of a group performance are far more people. The folk arts that are performed spontaneous in nature than the contem- by the rural artists become a manifesta- porary theatre. His definition includes folk tion of the life of the people. Apart from as being ‘the literary compositions giving philosophical and moral lessons, which are designed for theatrical perfor- these folk presentations also preached mances popular among communities, es- about the socio-cultural and political is- pecially rural’ (Vatsayan 1980: 2). Inter- sues. Certain popular dramatic modes be- esting enough, the concept of ‘folk dra- came secular to cater to the taste of the ma’ provides relative emphasis on the dis- people in general. The Indian folk dramas tinct flavours of folk arts pertinent to dif- include a colourful medley ‘of dance, ferent sects and communities. What makes song, dialogue, jesting, mime and acro- the folk unique are its vari- batics’ (ibid) (Vatsayan 1980: 2) ety of content, crafts and musical modes. The socio-cultural aspect of a spe- Although folk dramas have their dis- cific folk performance varies from one to tinct individual regional flavour, yet the another. Recent studies relating to this authentic source of these stories are tak- rural performance claims it to be a form en from , , of dynamic medium which tries to estab- , legends, folktales etc. It might lish a proper communication channel be- also include certain forms of foreign ro- tween the actors and the spectators. The mances which can delight the mindsets communication model specifies it to be a of the viewers. The consistent theme that kind of active model that corresponds with pertains in most of the folk/rural presen- the input of the audience. The vibrant tra- tation is the triumph of good over evil. ditions of which have been preva- Certain mythological dimensions are also lent from time immemorial have been re- added which help in understanding the constructed and reconstituted through the cultural specificities of a regional group. patterns of different presentations. The Other significant aspects include ‘ele- indigenous nature of these performances mental colour, , dance and mu- makes it more appealing to the rural mass- sic. The initial aim of the folk theatre, es that are unable to comprehend the eru- was to give the first impact with sound dite and aristocratic presentation of the and sight and then slowly open the audi- contemporary or modern theatre. This sty- ence’s mental eye for a message on mo- lised form of drama which has been in- rality’ (Shankar 1978: 38)

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Understanding Krishna Cult: and other regional languages. The ‘Narayanam Namaskritya’ (I bow be- major form of Krishna Kavya is consid- fore thee O Lord Krishna with deep rev- ered to be ’s Gita Govinda1. The erence) is written as a form of invocation significant episode of ‘Rasa Pan- in the great Indian epic Mahabharata in chadhyayi’ of Bhagavata Purana de- its opening lines. Lord Krishna becomes scribes the amorous relationship of Krish- the central deity on whom the entire epic na with different Gopis. These episodes is based. It is in Mahabharata, that an have inspired many poets to write lyrics elaborate account of Krishna cult is pre- describing the diverse forms of love of sented for the first time. Historians have Krishna. Vidyapati, the famous Maithili claimed that the divinity of Lord Krishna poet of 14th C, presented different padas is as old as the Indus Valley Civilization. on the love theme of Radha Krishna. Ben- Krishna Leela as a form of religious sub- gali poet Chandidasa also followed the ject has not only been significant form of divine love theme in his works. Krishna study in Bhagavat Puranas but also in theme became an important subject for different forms of folk (Varada- many folk poets in different parts of In- pande 1982: 23). The colourful lores, leg- dia. Marathi folk poets composed Lavani ends and myths of Krishna have been songs, in it was the 15th C poet manifested in several Buddhist, Jain and Narasi Mehata who explored this theme Brahmanical texts. Krishna becomes the in his compositions. Mahaprabhu of West perfect incarnation of honesty, love, beau- Bengal was known to be much influenced ty, virtue and justice in many folk narra- by the thoughts and philosophies of Krish- tions all over India. Being influenced from na. The Krishna cult had immense impact quite a few mythologies, the Krishna cult on his life that spread the message of love has diverse impact on Raas Leela, Krish- and virtue. The eternal relationship of love na Leela as well as to the Jatrapala tradi- between Radha and Krishna became a tion of West Bengal. It is significant to commonly explored theme in Indian Arts note that Krishna’s life and philosophy and Paintings which included different have been elaborated not only in Mahab- schools including Rajasthani, Gujarati, harata but also in Puranas, specifically Basauli, Kangra, Mughal etc. (Varada- in Vishnu, Harivamsha, Bhagavata and pande 1982:9). Brahmavaivada while later became a part In several forms of festivities, the of Krishna cult (Chakravarty 1975: 55). Leelas of Radha Krishna are enacted The Prodigious impact of the Krish- through the medium of dance, drama and na cult can be found in several religious music. An important story has been passed literatures, Indian arts and culture. Histo- down through the generations which fo- rians have documented that since 12th C cus on the significance of theatrical events many Krishna Kavyas started emerging in that are related to the Krishna cult. In the

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‘Jaiminiyashvamedha parva’ of Bhagav- nu Purana. A person who attends dramatic ata Purana, the emergence of this cult is performances will attend the trivargas- described. Krishna who was adorned with dharma, artha and Kama’ (Bharatmuni the epithet ‘Natavar’, or actor enhanced 1978:80). ’ are known for their the performance of the Leelas. According enthusiasm and involvement in the cul- to Bharata’s Natyashastra, “Vishnu- tural activities in . It was Krishna is associated with the origin of during the 12th C, the court poet of Lak- four styles of dramatic representations shaman Sena, Jayadeva wrote Gita Govin- known as vrittis. These vrittis are known da. It was through , that the as Bharati, Arabhati, Sattvati and Kaishi- Bengali community became interested in ki- originated in the killing of the demons the rhythmic abilities of the performing Madhu and Kaitabha, hence they are arts. However, it was not until the 15th C called ‘Devo Leela Samubhav’ “ (Bharat- that the Bengalis could situate themselves muni 1978:29). This tradition of Krishna in the wide range of performances. In 15th clearly makes him an embodiment of In- C, the eminent religious leader Chaitanya dian Theatre. In the epic Mahabharata, it Mahaprabhu tried to propagate the Krish- is claimed that Lord Krishna received spe- na cult or Vaishnav cult through his out- cial training on dramatic arts at the her- standing performances which included mitage of Guru Sandipani. Therefore it music, dance and dramatic associations becomes an obvious matter that the deity which were later termed as Jatra ( Ahuja who himself is well trained in performing 2012: 89). It was during that time that the arts will enhance his cult with beautiful traditional folk forms of music, dance and forms of artistic abilities. Therefore Krish- theatre impressed the mindsets of the peo- na cult became a major form of influence ple which restrained the impact of the for- and gave impetus to different performing eign culture in the minds. The evolving arts. It became a means by which the folk cultures added new dimensions in the Krishna faith was propagated. Certain re- performative skill across different regions ligious beliefs were entrusted in the minds of India. The traditional performances of the audiences by the preachers. It was were closely associated with certain reli- believed that witnessing the plays or dra- gious beliefs and rituals. ‘Rooted to the matic emancipation of Krishna Leela soil, traditional theatre in different parts of India has, down the ages been vital and would lead to pure form of bliss or mok- vigorous enough to defy temporal or cul- sha. tural conquests. For material they drew Bharata says that ‘he who witnesses upon the inexhaustible storehouse of sto- the dramatic performance will attain the ries and legends, history and philosophy, same goal as masters of the Vedic path, religion and myths, hagiology and demon- performers of sacrifices or givers of gifts. ology provided by the two great epics, the Trivarga Sadhanam Natyam says the Vish- Ramayana and the Mahabharata and by

168 The Jatrapala Theatrical Tradition of West Bengal: An Analytic Study on its Origin and Development the Puranas. Since these epics and However with the onset of the Eigh- Puranas have shaped and sustained the teenth century, the socio-political and re- Hindu way of life, traditional theatre re- ligious Bengal suffered a huge change. lying on them for subjects and themes has With this change, the diversion from never lacked popular support’ (Raha 1978: Vaishnav cult was taking place. Cultural- 86). ly it had varied impacts on the mindsets of the people. The thematic preoccupation An eminent aspect of these specifici- regarding the easy form of Krishna Jatra ties of Jatrapala had been Krishna Jatra changed from the amorous relationship of which began during the medieval ages Krishna and Radha to secular and unor- where this form of folk drama was known thodox topics. Rural drama or folk drama as ‘Nata Gita’ which meant dance accom- was mainly based on the episodes of the panied by music. Those themes were ba- daily episodes of the daily life of the peo- sically based on Mahabharata and Ra- ple. Interesting enough for the common mayana. Interesting enough, less dramat- folk, the common themes related to their ic elements were used including dialogues. lives fascinated them other than the Pu- It was through music and dance that the ranic episodes and other historical heroes. subject was contextualised. The doctrines Although certain themes were always told of Krishna faith and Krishna conscious- from a religious perspective and included ness that were preached by Chaitanya in- stories from Mangal Kavyas which fluenced the life style and thought process preached different cults of Gods and God- of the entire Bengali community. Previ- desses. Such forms of Jatrapalas were ously as a folk drama, it mainly concen- noted for its maintenance of standard tra- trated on the love events of Radha and dition of the culture specific attributes of Krishna. Chaitanya himself being the cus- the Bengali community. The new form of todian of this Movement played the drama that emerged during the 19th C in role of (the devoted wife of Sri Bengal was known as ‘Nala-Dmayanti Krishna) which later became the primary Jatra’ which was based on certain inci- embodiment of Jatra. This became the first dents and episodes of Mahabharata and instance of the performance of a folk dra- was absolutely attached from the theme ma in Bengal where the associates of Sri of Krishna Jatra. Another form of Jatra that Chaitanya also played different roles. This gained popularity during that time period was known as ‘Vidyasundar Jatra’ that specific form of Jatra was known as Krish- dealt with secular themes with the new na Jatra as it was enveloped with the life evolvement of the thematic ideas, the mass events of this great deity. With the evolu- of spectators gathered strength. People tion of different forms of Jatrapalas, this across different regions and communities Krishna Jatra as a traditional art main- started enjoying this form of drama which tained its beauty and authenticity (Bhat- were later categorised as a rural form of tacharya 1978: 30). entertainment.

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Conclusion: marginalised form like it through the lens Detaching the themes from any reli- of performance. Although much neglect- gious sentiments encouraged the audience ed, the present study has tried to trace the to get involved and participate fully in the theatrical activities of the folk performanc- performance. In a folk theatrical perfor- es of West Bengal from a very grass root mance like Jatrapala, the communicative level. While reading and interpreting aspect becomes stronger when the spec- Jatrapala as a rural construct it can also tators started decoding the messages of the be emphasised how a systematic format performers. The two intrinsic levels of per- like this traditional approach can be thor- formance occur in a Jatrapala including oughly discussed or critically appreciated ‘transportation’ and ‘transformation’. through the medium of modern theatrics. Eminent performance theorist Richard Jatrapala has been a product of cultural Schechner had analysed the above men- hybridity2, as apart from religious and in- tioned context and explained it in relation stitutional practice, Jatrapala has taken the with the semantic model of the actor and shape of a secular representation manifest- the spectators. This enactment or the role ing the cults, ethos and beliefs of a partic- playing on the part of the actors helps them ular section of a society. Although it can- in integrating their identities. The folkloric not be denied that Jatrapala performances interpretation of a community like Ben- originated as a form of ‘ritual orientation’ gali not only becomes rich but also vast. process. The physical anthropology, musicology, myths and primitive psychology with the Jatrapala as a specialised form of folk performing arts have time and again made presentation is not an amateur activity as the concepts illuminating. The Primitive opined by the snobbish sections of West culture and Folk religion of a particular Bengal, on the very contrast, it tries to community often produces diverse genres highlight and ‘focus on mythology and of study for the scholars. The folk per- popular worship and the almost extinct forming arts become a manifestation of category of the female impersonators’ (Dutt 2008: 18). In all probabilities and the ritualistic endeavours of the rural mass possibilities re-reading the analysis of a whose life seems untouched and uncon- folk medium of entertainment for the taminated by the modern ways of the general mass of people becomes a diffi- world. The folk aspects reciprocates the cult task. The thought provoking aspects simple lifestyles and thought processes of of folk theatres that give different dimen- the people who resides in the rural sec- sions of study by not limiting oneself to tions of the society. the performance studies is highly ac- Discussing Jatrapala in an analytical claimed one. Scholars and performance way presents the readers and scholars a critics across the world have tried to read discursive study which re-reads a nearly the performative aspect of theatre from

170 The Jatrapala Theatrical Tradition of West Bengal: An Analytic Study on its Origin and Development an interdisciplinary origin. The interdis- proach or medium by which a folk per- ciplinary aspects however have led to an formance like Jatrapala is revised, re- overwhelming reaction on the part of read, re-interpreted and re-analysed readers, critics, performers and specta- through different theoretical terms and tors thereby providing an innovative ap- aspects.

References: Ahuja, Chaman. 2012. Contemporary : An Overview. New Delhi: National Book Trust. Bharatmuni, 1978. Natyasastra. New Delhi: South Asia Books. Bhattacharya, Asutosh.1978. Folklore of Bengal. New Delhi: National Book Trust. Chakravarti, Janardan. 1975. Bengal Vaisnavism and Sri Chaitanya. : The Asiatic Society. Dutt, Vishnupriya. 2008. “Jatra and the Marginalization of Mythological Themes”. In Ravi Chaturvedi (ed.). Theatre and Democracy. New Delhi: Rawat Publications. Merriam, Webster. 1969. Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Calcutta: Scientific Book Agency. Raha, Kironmoy. 1978. . New Delhi: National Book Trust. Shankar, Vijyalaxmy.1978. Folk Arts as Mass Media. New Delhi: The World Annual. No.15. 38-47. Varadapande, M.L. 1982. Krishna Theatre in Theatre. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. …..1992. History of Indian Theatre, Lokranga, Panorama of Indian Folk Theatre. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Vatsyayan, Kapila. 1980. Traditional Indian Theatre. New Delhi: National Book Trust. Chakrovorti, Bikas. 2010. Folk, Folklore and Folkloristics: Interpretation of Society and folklore. Kolkata: Mitram. Gargi, Balwant. 1966. Folk Theatre of India: Seattles. Washington: University of Washington. Lal, Ananda.2009.Theatres of India. A Concise Companion. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Mahapatra, Dr. P.K. The Folk Cults of Bengal. New Delhi: Rupa Publishers.

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Mathur, J.C.1964. Drama in Rural India. New Delhi: Indian Council for Cultural Relations. Schechner, Richard.1983.Performative Circumstances from The Avant garde to . Calcutta: Seagull Books. Upadhyaya, Dr. K.D (ed.). 1975. Some Aspects of Indian Folk-Culture. U.P: Lok Sanskriti Press.

Endnotes:

1 Gita Govinda is considered to be a religious text, which has been composed by the 2nd Century poet Jayadeva which essentially speaks about the life of Krishna and his relationship with the Gopinis in Vrindavan. 2 Although the approach of hybridity can be more related with the postcolonial concepts, yet the context of intermingling or interrelatedness between two different dimensions deserves special mention and along with it, the modification and re- modulation of all theatrical studies have enlisted them under the category of hybridity.

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