Status and conservation of Reprinted from Vermeer, K.; Briggs, K.T.; Morgan, K.H.; Siegel-Causey, D. (eds.). 1993. The status, ecology. and of the North Pacific conservation of marine of the North Pacific. Can. Wildl. Sen. Spec. Publ., Ottawa.

William T. Everett’ and Robert L. Pitman’

‘WesreniFoundarion of Zoolog).. 1100 Glendon Avenue, Los Angeies, CA 90024 ’Sowhwesr Fisheries Science Center,P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038

Abstract level of effort expended on pelagic studies of many , including shearwaters, has increased dramatically, yielding Of the shearwaters that breed in the North Pacific, many new facts on behaviour, habitat selection, migratory the in the most peril at present is Townsend’s routes and timing, feeding habits, and mortality. Pufinus ourtcuforis. Feral and pigs pose a In this paper we discuss the general biology and status threat on its breeding grounds. More information is needed of each of the shearwater species occurring in the North Pacific, on its current status, and that of the Black-vented Shearwater consider threats and hazards both on land and at sea, and offer P. opisthomefas,most of whose nesting colonies have well- recommendations for future study and conservation efforts. established feral populations. Efforts are being made to protect Newell’s Shearwater P. newelli in the Hawaiian Islands. 2. Species accounts The single greatest threat to migrant shearwaters in the North Pacific is drift gillnet fisheries, which kill hundreds of 2.1. leuromelas Streaked Shearwater thousands of birds annually. This species breeds in the far-western Pacific at many locations from the Ryukyu and Bonin islands north to Qingdao RhmC Island in the Yellow Sea, islands off northern Honshu, Japan (Melville 1984; Hasegawa 1984), and has nested on Kmamizin De tous les puffins qui se reproduisent dans le Pacifique Island in the former U.S.S.R.(Litvinenko 1976). Details on its Nord, le Puffin de Townsend auricularis est l’espke breeding biology at Soviet and Japanese colonies are provided la plus menacke. Les chats et les porcs retournis B l’ttat by Yoshida (1962, 1981). Okamoto (1972). Litvinenko (1976). sauvage dthisent ses lieux de nidification. 11 faut recueillir and Tan (1977). The breeding season extends from February to davantage d’information sur sa situation actuelle et sur celle du November, and most eggs are laid in May and June. The birds Puffin cul-noir P.opisrhomelas, dont la plupm des colonies nest in large, dense colonies in forested areas. After breeding, comptent egalement des populations bien Ctablies de chats the birds disperse south to the East and South China seas, the fbraux. On s’efforce actuellement de protiger le Puffin de Philippine Sea, and as far south as Borneo and New Guinea Newell P. newelli dans les iles Hawai’. La pkhe au filet (Shuntov 1972). A few are regularly seen in winter off the north maillant dCrivant provoque la mort de centaines de milliers and east coasts of (Blaken et at. 1984; Marchant and d’oiseaux chaque ann& et constitue la plus grande menace pur Higgens 1990). les puffins migrateurs qui st5journent dans les eaux du Pacifique Streaked Shearwaters are abundant within their range. Nord. The total population is perhaps 4-5 million individuals. Although there is no apparent cause for concern for the overall 1. Introduction well-being of the species, “large numbers” of birds have been incidentally caught in fishing nets off Taiwan (Blackshaw Eleven species of shearwaters (Calonectris Zeucomefns 1978) and near Hong Kong (Melville 1984). Eggs and chicks and 10 Puffinus species) regularly occur in the North Pacific have been sold in markets in Taipei (Blackshaw 1978) and Ocean, north of the equator. Of these, six species breed on Hong Kong (D.S.Melville, pen. commun.). We found no islands north of the equator, and the other five are trans- information on mortality in Japanese nearshore gillnet fisheries, equatorial migrants that breed in the southern hemisphere but some incidental take is likely. Mass accidental deaths have during the austral summer. Audubon’s Shearwater P. taken place in crawls off Honshu, Japan (Nakmura Ihenninieri, a tropical species with a small fringe population 1974). Increased habitation of remote breeding islands by breeding on the Bonin Islands, Japan (slightly north of the transient fishermen (Okamoto 1982) present potential threats Tropic of Cancer), will not be considered here. warranting increased vigilance. Despite their relative abundance, link is known about the biology of shearwaters in the North Pacific. Most of the 2.2. P uffinus creatopus Pink-footed Shearwater published information on life histories is anecdotal and often . This trans-equatorial migratoly species breeds on many decades old. Remote, rugged, and inaccessible islands are Masatiem and Santa Clara islands in the Juan Fernandez group, the preferred breeding locales for many species. Consequently, Isla Mocha, and possibly a few other islands off southern population estimates, where available, are frequently based only (Johnson 1965). What little is known about its breeding biology on educated guesses. Within the last 20 years, however, the comes primarily from the notes of R.H. Beck (Bent 1922: 93 Murphy 1936) and D.S. Bullock (Murphy 1936: Johnson 1965). Marcus islands, Japan (breeds in “large numbers”; Haseeawa Birds return to the colonies in November and December, with 1984). In Australia it breeds at numerous sites along both the egs-laying commencing in December and January. Fledging west and east coasts, especially in the areas of Queensland and and departure from the islands apparenrly besin in March and New South Wales (see van Tets and Fullagar 1984). with major April. colonies at North West Island (724 560 birds; Domm and Birds disperse as far north as the Gulf of Alaska and Messersrnith 1990), Heron Island (16 OOO birds; Ogden 1979). southern Bering Sea (American Ornithologists’ Union 1983). Masthead Island (10 OWbirds: Jahnke 1977), However, Vermeer et al. (1987) suggest that the west coast of (“several hundred thousand birds”; Tarburton 1981). and Lord British Columbia represents the northern limit of where they Howe Island (60 000; Fullagar et al. 1974). Other known regularly occur. The species is essentially restricted to the breeding locations without estimates of numbers include eastern Pacific (Hanison 1983; Pitman 1986). Peak numbers Pitcairn, Gambier, Marquesas, Australs, Tonga and Niue, occur in the North Pacific from July to October. Fiji, and New Caledonia (see Garnen 1984). Wedge-tailed There are no population estimates, but the species is said Shearwaters are also present on Jarvis and Howland islands in to occur in “large numbers” on the breeding grounds (Schlatter small numbers (Kirkpatrick and Rauzon 1986). 1984). and is certainly fairly common in migration. On the Juan Breeding occurs mainly on low islands, where the Femandez Islands the species is reportedly declining due to the species is primarily a burrow nester. Northern subtropical destructive activities of coatimundis Nosuu narica, feral cats, populations breed from April to November and southern rabbits, and goats. No significant fishery-related mortality has subtropical populations breed from October to May (King been reported for Pink-footed Shearwaters. 1974). Little is known about migratory movements. Rogers (1975) showed that birds departed waters off southeast 2.3. P ufinus curneipes Flesh-footed Shearwater Australia during the austral winter and returned in the spring Breeding colonies are found on islands off the south to breed. Many banded birds from this population have been coast of western Australia, on (van Tets and recovered in the Philippines, indicating that some individuals Fullagar 1984), and on islands off the coast of New Zealand’s migrate to other areas. Pitman (1986) recorded large numbers North Island (Robertson and Bell 1984). In addition, 20-30 of white morph Wedge-tailed Shearwaters in the far-eastern pairs breed on Saint Paul Island in the south-central Indian Pacific that presumably originated from central Pacific colonies. Ocean (Segonzac 1970). The only colony in the eastern Pacific (San Benedicto Island, Information on the biology of the species is provided by see above) is small and comprises predominantly dark morphs Warham (1958) and Serventy et al. (1971). Birds return to the (Jehl and Parkes 1982). colonies in late September, eggs are laid in November and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters occupy relatively productive December, and fledging occurs in April and May. This species tropical waters, where they are often dominant in mixed-species is also a trans-equatorial migrant, with most of the popularion flocks associated with foraging tunas and dolphins (Murphy and believed to winter in the western Pacific Ocean or Indian Ikehara 1955; King 1970; Au and Pitman 1986). Ocean. The migratory route is poorly known, but some buds Although Wedge-tailed Shearwaters continue to be move along.the west coast of the (Murphy 1936; widespread and abundant in the tropics, it is likely that gillnet American Ornithologists’ Union 1983; Pitman 1986). The size fisheries will result in some mortality. There have been some of the western Australia population is unknown but is estimated localized threats to individual breeding colonies where habitats to be greater than 650 OOO birds occupying at least 33 islands have been altered or predators introduced (e.g., Johnston Atoll, (Blakers et al. 1984). Another 20 oo(1-40 OOO pairs breed on Amerson and Shelton 1976; Jarvis Island, Rauzon 1985; Lord Howe Island (Fullagar and Disney 1981). The New Howland Island, Kirkpamck and Rauzon 1986; Midway Island, Zealand colonies contain 50 OOO-100 000 pairs (Robertson and Woodby 1988; Mariana Islands, Reichel 1991). Studies at Bell 1984). Heron Island, Australia (Hill and Rosier 1989), suggest that There is some concern over the destruction of lowland well-managed development can, in some cases, be compatible forests on Lord Howe Island, and the resultant reduction of with breeding colonies. However, it seems unlikely that can breeding habitat (Robertson and Bell 1984). Introduced be kept off human-occupied islands indefinitely. predators are also a problem on some islands, but some remedial efforts are under way (van Tets and Fullagar 1984). 2.5. Puffinus bulleri Buller’s (New Zealand) Shearwater This species is a deep diver (Murphy 1936: Serventy et al. This subtropical, trans-equatorial migratory species is 1971) and as such is more vulnerable to fishing operations known to breed only on the Poor Knights Islands, off North (Robertson and Bell 1984). In addition, some birds may still be Island, New Zealand. The total population is estimated at taken from burrows for food. At present, none of these factors 2.5 million birds (Harper 1983). According to Harper (1983). seems to present a serious or substantial threat to the species. birds arrive at the nesting islands in mid-September, refurbish burrows, and then leave for a 3Oday pre-laying “honeymoon” 2.4. Pufinuspucifcus Wedge-tailedShearwater at the end of October. They return IO lay eggs at the end of This species is by far the most abundant and widespread November. The egg is incubated for approximately 5 1 days. breeding shearwater in the tropical Pacific and Indian oceans Hatching occurs in mid-January and most fledglings leave the (Marchant and Higgens 1990; Warham 1990). Specific colony islands in early May. The majority of nests are in excavated locations include Isla San Benedicto in Los Islas Revillagigedo, burrows or in caverns under rocks. Mexico (at most a few thousand pairs; Pitman, unpubl. data), By June, most of the birds have left New Zealand waters the Hawaiian Islands (ca. 575 000 pairs; Fefer et al. 1984; and travelled north to summer in the North Pacific (Jenkins Harrison et al. 1984), Johnston Atoll (3000 buds; Amerson and 1988). Northward migration appears to be mainly through the Shelton 1976). Christmas Island (6000 birds; King 1974), western Pacific, as only small numbers have been observed Phoenix Islands (10 000 birds; King 1974), Taongi, Marshall migrating through the tropics in the centraI Pacific (Gould Islands (12 Ooot birds; King 1974). the Bonin Islands, Iwo and 1971; Cheshire 1974; Jenkins 1986). Only stragglers occur in

94 the eastern Pacific (Pitman 1986). Mipnts travel quickly Considerably less is known, however, about the status, or even through the tropics. but will temporarily join feeding flocks distribution, of colonies off southern Chile. they encounter along the way (Gould 197 I: Pitman. unpubl. The major hazard for birds at sea in the North Pacific at data). this writing is probably incidental take by gillnet fishing. Significant numbers of Buller’s Shearwaters arrive in Relatively few Sooty Shearwaters were killed by drift gill nets the North Pacific in June. During July and August they move in the high-seas Japanese salmon mothership fishery during increasingly northwards and eastwards as far as the Gulf of 1981-1984, presumably because the fishery operated north of Alaska (Wahl 1985). By September most of the breeding birds the main migratory route for this species (Jones and DeGange have once again departed for New Zealand. A large build-up off 1988). DeGange et al. (1985) estimated that Sooty Shearwaters the North American west coast during September and October constituted only 0.3% of the total incidental kill in that probably comprises mainly lingering prebreeders taking fishery between 1981 and 1984. However, the preliminary advantage of abundant food resources (Wahl 1985; Briggs et al. information on the North Pacific drift gillnet fishery for , 1987). By November most of these have moved south also, and which operates at a lower latitude, suggests Sooty Shearwaters only occasional stragglers are reported in the North Pacific may currently sustain losses of up to 400 000 individuals during the winter. annually (Gjernes et al. 1990). There is also very little specific Buller’s Shearwaters have increased dramatically since information available on incidental shearwater mortality in the turn of the century after introduced pigs were eliminated gillnet fisheries off California (Hemck and Hanan 1988), where from one of the major nesting colonies. Harper (1983) stated the species numbers in the millions at times and is often the that the population at Aorangi Island increased from 100 pairs most abundant species present during the summer in 1938 to about 200 OOO pairs in 198 1. This increase is months (Briggs et al. 1987). A cooperative observer program apparently responsible for a widening distribution reported in operated by the National Marine Fisheries Service and recent years in New Zealand waters (Jenkins 1988) and the California Department of and Game began in spring 1990, North Pacific (Guzman and Myres 1983; Wahl 1985). Being and observers placed on gillnet boats have been collecting data less inclined to dive makes this species less vulnerable to gillnet on seabird mortality during fishing operations. entanglement than other species of shearwaters. 2.7. Pufinus tenuirostris Short-tailed Shearwater 2.6. Pufjinus griseus The Short-tailed Shearwater breeds only in Tasmania This species breeds in large numbers on both sides of and on islands off southeast Australia. Skira et al. (1985, and the South Pacific, with large colonies on islands around New references therein) estimated 11.4 million burrows from Zealand and off southern Chile. South American colonies in the 167 colonies in Tasmania, 1.45 million burrows in Victoria, Pacific include Chiloe Island (Marin 1984), Guafo Island (min. 1.5 5 0.5 million burrows in South Australia, 25 700 breeding 200 OOO birds; Clark et al. 1984a). Guamblin Island (Clark et al. pairs in New South Wales, and 250 burrows in Westem 1984b). and islands around Cape Horn (Murphy 1936; Johnson Australia. The total world population is roughly 23 million 1965). New Zealand hosts numerous large colonies (Robertson birds. and Bell 1984), including the immense Snares Islands According to Serventy (I 967), birds first amve on the population (2 750 OOO pairs; Warham and Wilson 1982). breeding islands the last week in September and for the next Nesting also occurs on Macquarie Island (1770 pairs; Brothers four weeks they prepare their burrows. After a two-week 1984). Relatively small numbers breed off Australia (Lane and pre-laying exodus, most egg-laying occurs in the last week of White 1983), the largest colony being loo0 pairs on Tasman November. Males and females share incubation duties in shifts Island, Tasmania (Brothers 1979). of 10-16 days. The single egg hatches in about 53 days and the The following phenology is from Warham et al. (1982) chicks depart from mid-April to the first week in May, after and pertains to breeding in New Zealand, but, as pointed out by spending about 94 days in the burrow (Skira et al. 1985). the authors, appears to apply with slight differences to all the The trans-equatorial migration of this species apparently known populations. Birds arrive at the colony in early takes it north through the far-westem Pacific past Japan to its September and eggs are laid in mid-November. After an main wintering (austral) grounds off the Aleutian Islands and in incubation period of 53 days, chicks hatch in mid-January. the Bering Sea. The return migration, in August and September, Adults raise the chicks until the third week of April and then is thought to take place primarily through the central Pacific depart. Most of the chicks depart between the last week of Apnl (Lindsey 1986 Pitman 1986; Warham 1990). and the first week in May. Populations at managed breeding colonies appear stable At the end of the breeding season birds migrate to despite the annual combined commercial and noncommercial northern oceans for the boreal summer. The majority of birds harvest of an estimated 700 OOO chicks (Skira et al. 1985; Skira that migrate to the North Pacific seem to make a clockwise 1987). Substantial numbers of Short-tailed Shearwaters perish circumnavigation, moving north past Japan in the spring, each year in high-seas drift gillnet fisheries in the North Pacific crossing south of the Aleutian Islands in summer, and then Ocean (King 1984; DeGange et al. 1985; Atkins and Heneman proceeding south along the west coast of the Americas during 1987; Jones and DeGange 1988; Gjemes et al. 1990). The the fall (Murphy 1936). However, much still remains to be incidental kill is in the hundreds of thousands of birds annually, learned about this species’ movement patterns (Briggs and Chu and undoubtedly millions have perished since the fisheries 1986). For example, flocks containing as many as 90 OOO birds began. Although the species is apparently still abundant, the have been observed along the west coast of British Columbia in combined effects of incidental kill, harvesting, and natural early May (Vermeer and Rankin 1984a). mortality could eventually decimate and jeopardize the species. ?here seems to be no immediate serious threat to birds at breeding colonies in New Zealand. Efforts are being made to 2.8. Pufinus nutivitatis Christmas (Island) Shearwater eliminate intrcduced predators from many of the important Confined to the Pacific Ocean, this little-known species seabird islands (Robertson and Bell 1984; Veitch 1985). breeds at Easter Island (Johnson et al. 1970). Oeno, Ducie, and

95 likely Henderson islands. the Pitcairn group (Williams 1960: Black-vented Shearwaters primarily inhabit coastal Schubel and Steadman 1989), Gambier (Thibault 1973). the waters, up to 25 krn offshore. During the breeding season they Tuamotus and Austral group (Holyoak 1973). Taongi Atoll in are uncommon in areas other than the Pacific coast of Baja the Marshall Islands (Amerson 1969). the Marquesas (King California. When breeding is concluded many disperse to the 1967). Johnston Atoll, and the Hawaiian Islands (Hanison et al. north and south. Typically, birds that head north move into the 1984); it apparently formerly bred on Wake, Marcus. and the Southern California Bight, from Point Conception to Islas Los Bonin islands (King 1967). Coronados. During some years they are found as far north as Information on population sizes is scant. Ashmole and Monterey Bay. Stragglers have been recorded as far north as Ashmole (1967) reported the Christmas Island population to be British Columbia (Campbell et ai. 1990). South of Cab0 San 7000 birds, making it the largest known colony. Hanison and Lucas there are few data, and the situation is complicated Jehl (1988) estimated 2500 pairs nesting at Sala y Gomez, because of the Occurrence of mixed flocks of P. opisrhomelasf Chile. Fefer et al. (1984) reported a total of 2960 pairs nesting auricularis (Jehl 1974, 1982). in the northwest Hawaiian Islands, and Amerson and Shelton The estimate of population size is speculative, based (1976) estimated 30 individuals on Johnston Atoll. The Easter primarily on observations and counts of birds staging at dusk Island population consisted of 80-100 pairs in 1968 (Johnson et near the breeding islands. The number of pairs is likely in the al. 1970). Comprehensive accurate data are lacking, but a world following range: Isla Guadalupe 500-2500, Islas San Benito population on the order of a few tens of thousands seems likely. 250-500, Isla Natividad 2500-5000. Feral cats are established Breeding is year-round on equatorial Christmas Island on most of the breeding islands, and all visitors to these (Schreiber and Ashmole 1970), but seasonal in the more colonies have reported widespread destruction. Huge flocks subtropical Hawaiian Islands, where adults return to colonies in such as those reported at the turn of the century (Anthony 1896; March and fledge most of their young by late September Grinnell 1897) are no longer seen. Gillnet fisheries have (Richardson 1957; Fefer et al. 1984). Nesting usually occurs in expanded off the west coast of Baja California in recent years, fairly open areas, in rock crevices or under vegetation but the impact of these operations (Atkins and Heneman 1987) (Shallenberger 1984). Unlike most other species of Pufinus, on the Black-vented Shearwater population is completely Christmas Shearwaters do not nest in burrows. unknown. Open Ocean waters are preferred by this species, and it is uncommon but regular throughout the eastern and central 2.10. Pufinus auricularis Townsend's Shewater tropical Pacific (King 1967; Pitman 1986). Although there is no Isla Socorro and Isla Clarion in Las Islas Revillagigedo, published information to suggest that populations undergo any off the west coast of Mexico, are the only known recent nesting regular migrations within the tropics, moderate numbers are locales for this species, which also formerly bred on Isla San usually present off the coasts of central and southern Mexico Benedicto in the same group (Jehl 1982; Everett and Anderson and Central America (Pitman, unpubl. data), more than 1991). Jehl(l982) most recently summarized the scant 4500 km from the nearest known nesting colony, suggesting available information on the biology of this endangered species. regular movements to that area. The birds apparently return to the islands beginning in There appear to be no major threats to this species at mid-November. Laying probably begins in January, as large sea Breeding colonies in Hawaii were adversely affected by young have been found in late April. introduced rabbits, but seemed to recover when the rabbits The pelagic range of this species is among the smallest were eliminated (Hanison et al. 1984). The Johnston Atoll of any seabird, extending in a narrow band of subtropical water population declined from 400 to 30 birds after the island was between 11 and 23"N. from the Mexican mainland IO about 400 occupied by the military and a paved airstrip was installed nautical miles southwest of Isla Clarion (Pitman 1986). (Amerson and Shelton 1976). There is concern for the small There has been no census on either breeding island, but Midway Island population (25-50 pairs; Fefer et al. 1984). Jehl estimated IO00 pairs on Isla Socorro in 1981. The which is currently threatened by introduced black rats Raftus population on Isla Clarion in 1986 was thought to be at best ruffus(Woodby 1988). slightly less (Everett, unpubl. data). A massive volcanic eruption in 1952 eliminated the colony on Isla San Benedicto, 2.9. Pufinus opisfhomelas Black-vented Shearwater and the other breeding islands are suffering the effects of The only documented breeding locales of this species introduced predators and herbivores. Pigs and rabbits were are at Isla Guadalupe, Isla Natividad, and Islas San Benito, all introduced to Ciarion in 1979 (Everett 1988b). and feral cats off the west coast of Baja California, Mexico (Everett 1988a). have long been observed on Socorro (which is much larger than On Isla Natividad, the shearwaters burrow in the sandy soil Clarion) from sea level to the summit of this rugged volcanic covering most of the southeast portion of the island. The only island. A11 visitors (including Pitman in 1988) report mass known active colonies at Isla Guadalupe are on two offshore destruction of shearwaters, feathers in scat, and similar signs of islets. Isolote Negro and Isolote Afuera. Anthony (I 900) decline. A visit to Clarion in May 1990 (Santaella and Sada, in reponed breeding on the main island of Guadalupe, but exact press) raised the disturbing possibility that the species has now locations have never been determined. The introduction of cats been extirpated from the island. to the island may have resulted in abandonment of these There is a modest program under way to rid Socorro of breeding grounds. At Islas San Benito, nests have been found cats, but this will be a difficult and perhaps impossible task on dl three islands, but nowhere in any large concentration. At given the large size of the island and the mostly hostile terrain both Guadalupe and the San Benitos, birds occupy natural holes (see Veitch 1985). Preserving the species on Clarion may be in the or crevices, or they burrow under large boulders. more feasible, if remedial steps are undertaken soon (see Based on the limited available information, breeding recommendations below). Based on observations in May 1990 colonies are occupied by mid-January and the peak of laying is of birds flying inland at dusk (Santaella and Sada, in press), it is in early April. By June many burrows have a chick, and possible the species may be recolonizing Isla San Benedicto. fledging occurs from late June through August (Everett 1988a). 2.1 I. Pirffimis iicwelli Newell’s Shearwater Oil spills also clearly present a threat to shearwaters, Once common on several of the Hawaiian Islands, especially those inhabiting regions where shipping or extraction Newell‘s Shearwater is now known to breed only on the island activities are high. After the E.~xoriVakde: spill in Alaskan of Kauai. Recent observations suggest that small colonies may waters in March 1989, many thousands of dead shearwaters still exist on other main Hawaiian Islands (Harrison 1990). were recovered, although the number of mortalities directly Although the species was thought to be extinct for many years, related to the spill is not clearly known (Piatt et al. 1990). a documented record was obtained in 1954 (Richardson 1955). Ingestion of plastics at sea is a concern for many species and by 1967 the nesting grounds were rediscovered (Sincock of seabirds (Fumess and Monaghan 1987), wixh both northern and Swedberg 1969). King and Gould (1967) summarized and southern hemisphere procellariiforms being heavily historic information on the biology of the species. The breeding contaminated. The primary difficulty with plastics ingestion season extends from April to November (Hamson 1990), after seems to be a reduction of gizzard and stomach capacity, with which at least some of the population disperses to the north and possible resultant malnutrition or starvation (Conners and Smith southeast (Pitman 1986). 1982; Ryan 1988).This has not, however, been demonstrated in The most recent population estimate suggests that up to shearwaters, which apparently have the ability to regurgitate 6000 pairs inhabit Kauai (Harrison et al. 1984). The species’ undigestible items (e.g., squid beaks). At this time, plastic decline has been blamed on by pigs, cats, mongooses, ingestion does not appear to be a significant problem for rats, and Barn Owls Tyro alba. Fire has also destroyed some shearwaters. colonies. Another significant problem has been coastal street lights, which attract and disorient fledglings on their first flights 4. Hazards for shearwaters on land to the ocean. The problem, most serious on moonless nights, has been somewhat mitigated by shielding upward radiation of Many seabirds, including shearwaters, encounter light and by an intense salvage program to find and return problems resulting from habitat destruction and disturbance stranded birds to the sea. Over 20 000 birds have been assisted when they mum to land to breed (Vermeer and Rankin 1984b). in this manner (Reed et al. 1985; Tefleret al. 1987; Reed 1987; This can result directly from human activities or be a Harrison 1990). consequence of the introduction of alien . For species In addition, cross-fostering with Wedge-tailed under consideration here, direct human disturbance has Shearwaters has been attempted in order to encourage apparently been a factor in the declines of several tropical establishment of new colonies on offshore islets free from colonies. Occupation of remote islands by the military, terrestrial predation and light distraction (Byrd et al. 1984). especially where airstrips have been installed, has proven Results of this experiment, in terms of birds returning to the destructive to shearwaters (King 1973; Amerson and Shelton foster colonies to breed, are as yet unavailable. 1976 Rauzon 1985). Light attraction, discussed above, is a serious problem for Newell’s Shearwater. Remedial action 3. Hazards for shearwaters a! sea seems to be helping, and, fortunately, this problem is unlikely to affect most other shearwater species. The introduction of pigs At present, the most serious threat to shearwaters at sea and rabbits to Isla Clarion (Everett 1988b) has dramatically is undoubtedly incidental mortality in drift gillnet fisheries altered the island’s landscape. The soil destabilization and (King 19W, DeGange et al. 1985; Atkins and Heneman 1987). erosion caused by their activities may destroy the breeding The species suffering the greatest losses is apparently the grounds of Townsend’s Shearwater. Short-tailed Shearwater, whose high-latitude migration places it The most serious problem facing shearwaters on land is in regions heavily fished (Jones and DeGange 1988). Its predation by introduced animals. The general impacts are well pursuitdiving habits also enhance its susceptibility to documented (Moors and Atkinson 1984), and need not be entanglement. Other diving species (e.g., Wedge-tailed and reiterated here. Species at the highest risk are those with small Christmas shearwaters) are not as gregarious or occur in areas populations and few colonies. In addition, shearwaters breeding of lower fishing effort. Although the Japanese high-seas salmon on high, thickly vegetated islands stand a more substantial drifmet fishery has recently reduced its kill, concern is likelihood of depredation because predators are more likely to escalating regarding the incidental take in the North Pacific become established in lush areas with alternative food sources squid Ommustrephes barrrami fishery (King 1984). Preliminary available when shearwaters are absent. Many of the species results from a pilot observer program in this fishery are discussed here suffer from predation, but Townsend’s alarming, suggesting mortality in the hundreds of thousands for Shearwater, Newell’s Shearwater, and possibly Black-vented Sooty and Short-tailed shearwaters (Gjemes et al. 1990). At this Shearwater seem to be experiencing serious population declines writing. an expanded observer program is under way, and a call as a result. for a ban on all drift gillnet fishing has been made by the United Nations. The Japanese have agreed to cease their drifmet 5. Recommendations fisheries, but other nations such as Korea and Taiwan have yet to comply. Although the numbers of shearwaters killed in (1) Immediate action is required to rid Isla Clarion of pigs, fishery operations have been massive, there is no current then rabbits, in order to secure the island as a breeding evidence of population declines for the species involved. locale for Townsend’s Shearwater. Efforts are under However, shearwaters are notoriously difficult to census, so the way to remove feral cats from Isla Socorro, but that situation heightens the need for monitoring breeding colonies. island is large and the terrain extremely difficult. Although competition with commercial fisheries may Considering these problems it appears unlikely that the present problems for other groups of seabirds (Fumess and cat eradication program there will be successful in the Ainley 1984; Fumess and Monaghan 1987). we how of no near future. serious prey depletions adversely affecting shearwaters.

97 (2) All drift gillnet fisheries should be banned or closely Brothers. XP. 1984 Breeding. dirtributton 3nd slaluh of burrow-nerlin$ pelrcls monitored and regulated. In cases where large numbers at Macquarie Island Aust. Wildl. Re\. 1 I: 113-131. of shearwaters are being killed, fishing moratoriums Byrd, G.V.; Sincock, J.L.; Teller, T.C.; Jloriart.~,D.I.; Brady, B.G. 1984. A should be implemented until it can be determined that cross-fosterin%expenmenl wirh Newell’s race of Manx Shearwater. J. Wildl. serious seabird population declines are not resulting. Manase. 48:163-168. This cannot be accomplished without careful censuses at Campbell, R.W.; Dawe, N.K.; McTaggaart-Cowan, 1.: Cooper, 3.M.; Kaiser, breeding colonies over a period of several years at G.W.; McNall, M.C.E. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Vol. I. Royal minimum. British Columbia Museum 2nd Canadian Wildlife Service. Victoria, B.C. (3) The population status and vulnerability of Black-vented Cheshire, N.G. 1974. Sighringsof Buller‘s Shearwater in FlJian and Tongan Shearwater colonies should be determined, with waters. Notomis 2 I :182. implementation of appropriate remedial actions and Clark, G.S.; von Meyer,A.P.; Nelson, J.W.; Watt, J.N. 1984a. Noteson policies if necessary. Sooty Shearwaters and other avifauna of the Chilean offshore island of Guafo. Notomis 31:225-231. (4) The multi-faceted program to protect and preserve Newell’s Shearwater in Hawaii should be continued, Clark, CS.; Coodwin, AJ.; von Meyer, A.P. 1984b. Extension of the known including increased efforts to locate additional colonies. range of some seabirds on the coast of southern Chile. Notomis 31:32&324. (5) Predator removal programs currently in progress in New Comers, P.G.; Smith, K.G. 1982. Oceanic plastic panicle pollution: suspected Zealand, Australia, and the central Pacific should be effect on fat deposition in Red Phalaropes. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 13: 18-20. continued as long as required to achieve eradication. DeGange, AX.; Fwsell, DJ.; Jones, L.L. 1985. Monality of seabirds in the high-seas Japanese mothership fishery 1981-1984. Unpublished repon. US. Acknowledgements Fish and Wildlife Service. Anchorage. AK.

Domm,S.: Messenmith, J. 1990. Feral cat eradication on a Barrier Reef D. Melville kindly provided much information on island. Auslralia. A1011 Res. Bull. 338. shearwaters of the western Pacific. P. Gould contributed unpublished data on gillnet fisheries. J. Warham, I. Skira, Everett, W.T. 1988a. Nom from . Condor 90512-513. K. Morgan, and E. Chu reviewed and improved early drafts Everett, W.T. 1988b. Biology of the Black-vented Shearwater. West. Birds of rhe manuscript. 19:8%102.

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