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Gekas, Sakis. "From the Nation to Emancipation: Greek Women Warriors from the Revolution (1820S) to the Civil War (1940S).&

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Gekas, Sakis. Gekas, Sakis. "From the Nation to Emancipation: Greek Women Warriors from the Revolution (1820s) to the Civil War (1940s)." Women Warriors and National Heroes: Global Histories. .. London,: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020. 113–128. Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 27 Sep. 2021. <http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350140301.ch-007>. Downloaded from Bloomsbury Collections, www.bloomsburycollections.com, 27 September 2021, 03:58 UTC. Copyright © Boyd Cothran, Joan Judge, Adrian Shubert and contributors 2020. You may share this work for non-commercial purposes only, provided you give attribution to the copyright holder and the publisher, and provide a link to the Creative Commons licence. 6 From the Nation to Emancipation: Greek Women Warriors from the Revolution (1820s) to the Civil War (1940s) Sakis Gekas Modern Greece does not have an official pantheon of heroes, but it does have a rich tradition of celebrating heroines.1 This chapter examines historical representations of women warriors in photography, film, and monuments to understand how the image of heroic women fighters has changed during two key moments of Greece’s history. This approach differs from European case studies that have looked at individual examples of heroes/heroines or have studied representations of European women warriors in a comparative framework.2 In the Greek case, representations of women warriors were neither monolithic nor static, but rather changed according to changing social perceptions within Greece about the role of nation, the legacy and meaning of its wars, the state of class conflict, and debates over the policing of gender boundaries and the place of women in Greek society, especially during the Greek Civil War (1946–49) and during times of political liberalization such as in the post-1974 period following the fall of the 1967–74 dictatorship. Greece emerged as an independent state in 1830 following its War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire in the 1820s. During the Second World War, Greece experienced four years of occupation by the Italians and the Germans, as well as a resistance struggle against the occupiers. Following the German withdrawal in October 1944, a coalition government succumbed to British pressure and insisted that King George II return along with his government in exile. The coalition government failed to elicit the support of the Communist party and other resistance forces in a postwar democratic government. In protest, the Communist party abstained from the elections of March 1946 and the country plunged into a brutal Civil War that lasted for three years. The crushing defeat of the Communist Democratic Army led to the post-Civil War exclusion and persecution of everyone suspected of being a communist sympathizer. The military dictatorship of 1967–74 saw a revival of the “glory” of the 1821 revolution and a proliferation of visual representations of women warriors and heroines; after 1974 the history of heroes and heroines became of secondary importance for historians focusing on the social and economic history of the country.3 But in the 1980s, parliament formally acknowledged the role of the national resistance as well as the history of 114 Women Warriors and National Heroes the Civil War. As a result, a number of statues and busts in public places signify the commemoration of heroines of the war of independence and fighters in the resistance even in the form of the ‘unknown warrior’.4 In this chapter, I will argue that the Greek War of Independence (1821–30), the German and Italian occupation during the Second World War (1940–44), and the subsequent Civil War (1946–49) were each specific periods during which women warriors emerged, physically and allegorically, as national heroes; but the visual register and symbolic meaning of these representations of women warriorhood changed over time. In the nineteenth century, they were presented as heroic champions, usually because they fought for the nation in a similar fashion as men did. From the 1940s onward, however, the figure of the woman warrior took on new meaning, especially as Greek women fought, not just against the enemy, but also for gender equality and against patriarchal social norms, as well as national and democratic ideals. While in the nineteenth century some Greek women warriors were celebrated as heroines but also hailed as martyrs, this image changed in the 1940s when political photography depicted women as gallant fighters and used their images for propaganda purposes. The Communist movement and the press sought to establish continuities between the heroes of the Greek War of Independence and the narrative of resistance that developed after the 1940s. The history of representations of women warriors in Greece therefore has been contingent on the prevailing national ideology and the changing political milieu. Women Warriors in the National Narrative of the Greek Revolution Beginning in the 1930s, the nationalist dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas sought to portray Greek history as a story of heroes, heroines, and sacrifice. As part of its campaign of collective memory manipulation, a prominent narrative emerged that celebrated the legendary feats of Greek women warriors during the Greek War of Independence, the nation’s foundational moment. For instance, Souliotes, men and women from Souli, a rugged, mountainous region close to today’s borders with Albania, came to occupy a central place in the Greek national narrative. Stories proliferated about how they fought fiercely for their relative autonomy against Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the Southwestern Balkans whose rule extended from present-day Albania to the Peloponnese. Ali’s de facto independence incurred the wrath of Sultan Mahmud II and led to a campaign against Ali Pasha in 1820 and his decapitation, literally, in January 1822, leading ultimately to the beginning of the Greek revolution in March 1821.5 One story, in particular, emerged during this time and came to form a key moment in the Greek national narrative and the popular imagination: the story of the “death dance” of Zaloggo. This story, which tells of how sixty-three women sacrificed themselves by committing suicide on December 16, 1803, when they jumped off a cliff together with their children rather than surrendering and facing death or humiliation because they would have been enslaved, became legendary. It was told over and over again until it secured a place for the women of Souli in the Greek national historical canon. The women of Souli were probably the first Greek women warriors in the modern era. This does not mean that women in other rural societies in Greek Women Warriors from Revolution to Civil War 115 the Greek peninsula, famous for their insubordinate defiance to centralized authority, such as Mani in southern Peloponnese, did not fight side by side with their men; it is just that Souliotisses were remembered for doing so. As well-remembered as the Souliotisses were, two individual women of the Greek revolution, Laskarina Bouboulina (1771–1825) and Manto Mavrogenous (1796– 1848), celebrated as naval commanders, have been lionized above all others in Greek national historical and popular imagination. French and British historians of the Greek War of Independence, in particular, noted the role of these two women in the 1820s war against the Ottoman Empire, often in romanticized ways. But the first book to discuss Manto Mavrogenous’s role in the war, published in Paris during the war, did not celebrate her for being a warrior per se but for her contribution to the war effort through her personal fortune.6 In contrast, Bouboulina, probably the most well-known woman warrior of the revolution, was a fighter. She married twice, first at seventeen to Demetrios Giannouzas and again at the age of thirty to Demetrios Bouboulis. Both husbands were from the island of Spetses, off the east coast of Peloponnese; both were captains and ship-owners;7 and both were killed by Algerian pirates. The tragic coincidence reveals the extent of fighting in the Mediterranean between traders and pirates, and merchant-captains from the Greek islands were renowned for switching between the two.8 Bouboulina’s deceased husbands left her a large fortune. Following the death of her second husband in 1820, Bouboulina constructed a large armed ship to defend her property. This was the official excuse she gave in requesting a license from the Ottoman administration, although, in reality, she was already preparing for the uprising that would come the following year. The ship, Agamemnon, was a corvette, carrying eighteen canons. Built on the eve of the Greek revolution, the ship cost 25,000 tallers and was the largest of three ships Bouboulina built and owned.9 The War of Independence did not change gender relations and the figure of the woman warrior-at-sea was exceptional. When the revolution broke out, Bouboulina had already formed her band of Spetsiotes, who she used to call “my brave lads.” She armed and fed the crew at her own expense and at a great cost. Indeed, it is estimated that by the end of the second year of the revolution, she had nearly exhausted her fortune. Bouboulina took part in the siege of Ottoman-held forts of Nafplio and Tripoli. Following the takeover of Nafplio on November 30, 1822, Bouboulina settled there. And, a few years later, in recognition of her service to the nation, the revolutionary government granted her a house. When Britain, France, and Russia, the protecting powers of the nascent Greek state, chose the sixteen-year-old Otto, the second son of the king of Bavaria, to become the first king of Greece in 1831, his father, King Ludwig I, sent the painter Peter Hess with him to Athens to gather materials for pictures of the war of liberation. And, of course, amongst the forty paintings Hess made depicting key figures and events of the Greek revolution up to the coronation of King Otto was a portrait of “Bouboulina.” The famous portrait has adorned school books and school classrooms in Greece for decades; it shows an image of a woman directing her ship and her soldiers in battle.
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