Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide

Introduction showing the development of maps The Lessons since 900 B.C. Poster Side 2 Exploring Maps is an inter- provides literary excerpts, also in the Location disciplinary set of materials on form of a timeline, with which a mapping for grades 7-12. Students class can work. The writings can be Activities will learn basic mapmaking and photocopied and distributed to the map-reading skills and will see how class to stimulate writing Tools of the Ancients (making maps can answer fundamental assignments and discussions or to instruments and measuring latitude geographic questions: "Where am I?" use with the activities. and longitude) "What else is here?" "Where am I going?" References listed in the bibliography A Place in Time (documenting are recommended further reading; changing characteristics using maps) The map images and activities in this many of these books helped shape packet can be used in various the content of the posters and Notes courses, including geography, activities. history, math, art, English, and the This lesson explores the methods of sciences. The images on the enclosed The lessons are organized around characterizing places, from the five poster and the educational activities themes: location, navigation, senses to sophisticated tools of have been selected both to enrich our information and exploration. A measurement. Every place has knowledge of mapping itself and to lesson has an introductory text and important characteristics and a present maps as representations of two main activities; the format is unique location relative to other reality. designed for easy photocopying so places. Latitude and longitude that every student will have a copy. measurements indicate a place's Contents of this packet Most activities can be completed absolute location on the globe. within 2 hours, but some could • Two posters illustrating the become major projects. With each Tools of the Ancients has students development of mapping on the activity is a list of needed materials, make a sundial and an instrument front; map-related texts and a do- the estimated time for completion, similar to a sextant. The students it-yourself time line on the step-by-step instructions, and translate observations from these reverse. recommended readings and instruments into latitude and additional activities. Lists of longitude. • Teaching Guide. important terms are included in most activities, but definitions are to be A Place in Time has students • Four activity sheets, each with collected by students to make a document the history of a place. several suggested activities. glossary. Important notes about each Students do research, organize lesson, definitions of glossary words, information, and make maps and a • Evaluation sheet. and answers to questions are timeline for a place of their choice. included below. Glossary How to use this packet dead reckoning: The estimation of a The online poster provides the same ship's position from the distance information and graphics as the according to the ship's log and the printed poster. Poster Side 1 course steered by the compass, with provides timeline information corrections for currents and other

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 1 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide factors, but without astronomical planetable: A device for plotting measured instrumentally and the observations. survey data directly from field sides are derived by computation observation. Consists of a drawing from selected sides or bases, the Greenwich time: Mean solar time of board on a tripod with a sighting lengths of which are obtained by the meridian of Greenwich, England, instrument to measure and plot direct measurement on the ground or used by most navigators and adopted angles. by computation from other triangles. as the basis of standard time throughout the world. planisphere: A projection or Answers to questions— representation of the whole or part of landmark: Any prominent object on a sphere on a plane. Tools of the Ancients; Columbus . . . land that can be used in determining a location or direction. portolan chart: A type of sea chart Extension 1. Students will observe common in the Middle Ages that was slightly different values; this is latitude: Angular distance measured used for navigation at sea. normal. The range of values will in degrees, minutes, and seconds Characterized by rhumb lines, or vary. The "best" value is probably an north and south to the geographic lines of constant compass heading, average (the sum of observations poles from the equator. and the names of ports. From the divided by the number of Italian, portolano, a collection of observations). longitude: Angular distance sailing directions. measured in degrees, minutes, and Extension 3. Columbus might not seconds 180 degrees east and west remote sensing: The process of have decided to sail west, since the from the Prime Meridian, the detecting or monitoring the trip to the Orient would have been so imaginary north-south line through properties of an object without long. Spain's monarchs, Ferdinand Greenwich, England. physically contacting the object. and Isabella might not have sponsored a trip that risky. magnetic compass: an instrument sextant: An astronomical instrument having a magnetic needle to indicate for measuring angles, primarily Extension 4. The analemma shows magnetic north. altitudes of celestial bodies, to two kinds of information (1) how determine latitude. high the Sun is in the sky on each mappa mundi: From two Latin day of the year at noon local time on words meaning tablecloth and world, surveying: The techniques used to the meridian on which the analemma a graphic or verbal representation of make measurements in space to is centered; and (2) the difference the world as understood in the determine the relative positions of between solar noon time and Middle Ages in Europe. map features. standard noon according to the clock. The analemma can be placed marine chronometer: A portable theodolite: A precise surveying on any meridian. Apparent changes timekeeper with a special mechanism instrument having a telescopic sight in the height of the Sun in the sky for ensuring and adjusting its for measuring horizontal and vertical result from the tilt of the Earth's axis accuracy, for use in determining angles. of rotation. The tilt is constant, but at longitude at sea. different positions in the Earth's orbit triangulation: A method of around the Sun, the changing effect photogrammetry: The techniques surveying in which the stations are causes the seasons. Variation in day used to obtain reliable measurements points on the ground at the vertices lengths is the combined effect of from photographs. of a chain or network of triangles. three factors. The speed of the Earth The angles of the triangles are in its elliptical orbit varies. This

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 2 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide

effect combined with the effects of Navigation Spain to San Salvador in the the tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation Caribbean; that is, from latitude and the counterclockwise direction Activities 37°N, longitude 7° W, to latitude 24° of rotation and revolution produces N, longitude 74°30'. From your the variations in local noon shown Make a Mercator Projection hometown, plot a route to any point on the horizontal axis of the (transforming the globe to a flat on the western coast of Africa. From analemma. sheet) Kuwait, plot an ocean route to Tokyo. You cannot plot polar Tools of the Ancients; Local Time . . . In the Wake of Lewis and Clark explorations because polar areas are (following a trail) not shown on this projection. Instruction 6. The sun is at its highest when the shadow is shortest. Notes Extension 1. To compare properties The clock time of this observation of projections, collect several maps differs to the east and west. As the This lesson explores how maps have and look on each for the name of the Earth rotates toward the east, local been used in navigation. Travelers projection, usually in the lower right noon time is earlier in the east. collected observations to keep track or left corner. Different publishers of their positions and plotted this may prefer different projections. Extension 1. The angular difference information on maps. Navigators and between geographic north and mapmakers devised maps for In the Wake of Lewis and Clark magnetic north is the difference different needs, translating the three- between the direction indicated by dimensional globe onto flat maps, Procedure 3. To estimate how far the sundial at local noon and the sometimes inventing projections students might be able to travel in a direction to north as indicated by a with special characteristics. week, they must decide on a type of compass needle. Geographic north is boat, estimate its speed and the the north end of the Earth's axis of Make a Mercator Projection has number of hours a day they will rotation. Magnetic north is the north students make a close approximation travel. Obstacles include dams, other end of the Earth's magnetic field. of the most common projection in structures, and river traffic. Supplies use today. can be purchased en route or cached Extension 2. To determine the ahead of time. Have students number of degrees in a time zone, In the Wake of Lewis and Clark has compare their lists of supplies with divide 360 degrees by 24 hours students trace the route of this the list from Lewis and Clark's (360/24=15). To calculate your expedition and plan a trip that journal. longitude knowing the time follows a part of this route. difference from Greenwich, multiply Responsibilities in the group might the number of hours difference by 15 Glossary—none include leading, navigating, handling degrees. For example, if the time in food, handling finances, keeping Greenwich is 6 hours ahead of the Answers to questions written records, taking photographs, time where you are, your conducting scientific investigations, approximate longitude is 6 x 15, or Make a Mercator Projection etc. Costs might be paid by travelers about 90 degrees west of Greenwich. themselves and their families or by a Procedure 14. The outlining of sponsoring organization that might continents need be only as detailed want to dictate part of the purpose of as required to use the map for the trip. Students might accomplish a plotting a few routes. Columbus' variety of goals: documenting route should go from south-western conditions along the route, following

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 3 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide the route and schedule of the original Students gather data, make maps, quantitative: related to quantity, explorers as closely as possible, and represent different points of value, or amount. checking the explorers' celestial view in a mock town meeting. observations using today's tools, etc. scale: the relationship of the size of Glossary a feature on a map to its size in reality. Information base map: a map showing certain fundamental information on which bar scale: scale shown by a line, Activities can be compiled additional, which is labeled to represent a specialized data. stated distance. On the Trail of Knowledge (plotting data on maps to see spatial compilation: production of a new representative fraction scale: relationships) map from existing maps, aerial scale indicated by a ratio of one photographs, and other sources. unit on the map to some number Maps With a Spin (making thematic of the same units on the ground, maps that convey a message) context: the interrelated conditions for example 1/24,000. in which something exists. Notes verbal scale: scale indicated by a distortion: the lack of proper phrase such as "one inch This lesson explores thematic maps: proportion; directions, shapes, represents one mile." maps that show information on distances, and sizes of areas may be single topics. Characteristics of shown inaccurately. large scale: good for showing thematic maps are scale, context, and detail in small areas. theme. The design of a thematic map generalization: the simplification of considers the purpose of the map. A data by eliminating unneeded small scale: good for showing a typical thematic map consists of a detailed data. general view of a large area. base map with selected spatial data plotted on it. A thematic map needs a grouping: the simplification of data spatial data: information pertaining descriptive title and an explanation. by sorting data into similar sets. to a place linked to coordinates or In plotting spatial data and making other positional information. thematic maps, students will come to isoline: a line through points of appreciate the diversity of equal value. thematic map: a map designed to information that can be shown on show information on a single topic. thematic maps. map design: the choices made in creating a map; decisions are Answers to questions On the Trail of Knowledge has generally based on the maps purpose, students plot spatial data on a base intended audience, and On the Trail of Knowledge map to see the information better. characteristics of the spatial data. The students evaluate the data, plot Instruction l. The lowest and points, and consider what the map orientation: alignment, usually in highest magnitude values are 4.0 and shows. reference to points on the compass. 6.0 respectively. Mid-Atlantic earthquakes would be considered Maps With a Spin has students use qualitative: related to quality or medium-magnitude. maps to present alternative proposals kind. for the location of a new airport.

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 4 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide

Instruction 2. Symbols for plotting and decisions secret from opposing Computerized data collection, data the data should be small, perhaps groups. base management, and data analysis points. Earthquakes of magnitude 4, have eliminated many time- 5, and 6 might be shown in different Instruction 5. Final copies of consuming mapping tasks and colors. materials for the town meeting expanded the capabilities of should be neat and lettering should cartographers. Mapping techniques Instruction 3. A descriptive title be large enough for presentation. are being used in new, might be "Earthquakes of the Mid- Groups should plan their nongeographic applications. Atlantic Ocean Floor, 1990." presentations: who will do what, Thematic maps generally include the when, where, and how. Mapping the Third Dimension has authors' names and the dates the map Arrangements for any special students make a stereoscope and use were made. A legend should include presentation plans (for example a stereoscopic aerial photographs to an example of each symbol used and slide presentation) should be see a three-dimensional image. an explanation of its meaning. coordinated with the moderator of Students make a map of the image the town meeting ahead of time. they see. Instruction 4. The data plotted on this map reveal an S-shaped spatial Instruction 6. Before the town The Landscape of a Novel has pattern. Variations in magnitude meeting, decide who will act as students map places described in a seem to have a random pattern. The moderator. As the meeting begins, story. Students organize and map the fact that two tsunami warning restate the time limits and the order data in categories (i.e., roads, centers monitor the Pacific Ocean, of presentation. After presentations buildings, streams, names) much as while none monitors the Atlantic, and rebuttals, vote to decide which digital map data are manipulated. indicates that magnitudes of plan the town should recommend to After mapping the geographic setting earthquakes in the Pacific are the voters. If time is left, evaluate the of the story, the class makes a expected to be much higher than role of maps in the presentations. concept map of the plot. those recorded in the Atlantic. (See the quotation from Magellan on the Glossary poster information.) Exploration concept map: a map-like illustration Maps With a Spin Activities that shows relationships between concepts. Instruction 1. County and Mapping the Third Dimension municipal governments may be good (making and using a stereoscope) digital mapping: the making of maps sources of data. using computerized data and The Landscape of a Novel (mapping procedures. Instruction 2. Sort the data into imaginary spaces) categories defined by the class, such electromagnetic spectrum: the range as economic data, transportation Notes of wavelengths or frequencies of data, or land use data. electromagnetic radiation including This lesson explores the use of gamma rays, visible light, and the Instruction 4. In evaluating data, stereoscopic techniques and concept longest radio waves. groups should look for data that mapping, two mapping developments relate to their interests—data that in this century. Photogrammetry and image: likeness of an object or view; may support their point of view. remote sensing have become the in remote sensing, a likeness Groups may want to keep their ideas foundation of modern mapping.

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 5 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide

produced without photography using information acquired from surveying Dickenson, G.C. Maps and Air an electronic spectral sensor. to measure elevations and distances Photographs. New York: John (i.e., scale). For making the Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1979. layer: in digital cartography, map topographic map from this image use data on a common theme the following dimensions: top of Greenhood, David. Mapping. manipulated separately from other peak A, altitude 5,600 feet; point B Chicago: University of Chicago types of data. on the river, altitude 2,700 feet; Press, 1964. horizontal distance from B to C, mosaic: a whole image or map made 1,000 feet. Hall, S.S. Mapping the Next from parts from more than one Millennium—The Discovery of source. The Landscape of a Novel New Geographies. New York: Random House, 1992. optics: the science that deals with Instruction 2. Clear plastic may be light and closely associated available from an art supply store. Hanson, T.P. Guide to Lunar Orbiter phenomena. Handling different kinds of Photographs. Washington, D.C.: information separately (i.e., as National Aeronautics and Space perspective: the appearance to the layers) mimics the methods of digital Administration, 1970. eye of objects in respect to their mapping and allows the cartographer relative distance and position; the to make various maps from the Holmes, Nigel. Pictorial Maps. New technique of representing the spatial information. In combining layers for York: Watson-Guptill relationship of objects as they might a frontispiece map, some or all layers Publications, 1991. appear to the eye. may be used. Makower, Joel. The Map Catalog. positional accuracy: the accuracy of Instruction 4. In concept mapping, New York: Vintage Books, the location of a point. there are no right or wrong 1992. connections. Concepts can appear in remote sensing: the process of more than one place or be connected Monmonier, Mark, and Schnell, detecting and monitoring physical to more than one other concept. G.A. Map Appreciation. characteristics of an area by Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey, measuring its reflected and emitted Prentice-Hall, 1988. radiation. Bibliography Muehrcke, P.C., and Muehrcke, J.O. stereoscope: a device used to view Map Use—Reading, Analysis, overlapping photographs to obtain Maps and Mapping and Interpretation. Madison, the mental impression of a three- Wisc.: J.P. Publications, 1992. dimensional image, or model. Clarke, K.C. Analytical and Computer Cartography. Robinson, A.H., and Sale, R.D. Answers to questions Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Elements of Cartography. New Prentice Hall, 1990. York: John Wiley and Sons, Mapping the Third Dimension 1969. Cuff, D.J., and Mattson, Mark T. Instruction 4. The stereopair of Thematic Maps—Their Design Slama, C.C., ed. Manual of photo-graphs shows a view of the and Production. New York: Photogrammetry, forth edition. Colorado River in the Grand Methuen, 1982. Falls Church, Va.: American Canyon. Cartographers would use

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey — 6 — Exploring Maps — Teaching Guide

Society of Photogrammetry, History of Cartography York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1980. 1980. Bagrow, Leo. History of Snyder, J.P. An Album of Map Cartography. Chicago: Thrower, N.J.W. Maps and Man. Projections. U.S. Geological Precedent Publishing, Inc., 1966. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Survey Professional Paper 1453, Hall, Inc., 1972. 1989. Brown, L.A. The Story of Maps. New York: Dover Publications, Tooley, R.V. Maps and Mapmakers. Snyder, J.P. Map Projections—A Inc., 1979. New York: Crown Publishers, Working Manual. U.S. Inc., 1978. Geological Survey Professional Harley, J.B., and Woodward, David. Paper 1395, 1987. The History of Cartography, vol. Wilford, J.N. The Mapmakers. New 1—Cartography in Prehistoric, York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981. Southworth, Michael, and Ancient, and Medieval Europe Southworth, Susan. Maps—A and the Mediterranean. Chicago: Science Visual Survey and Design Guide. University of Chicago Press, Boston: Little Brown and 1987. Abruscato, Joe, and Hassard, Jack. Company, 1982 The Whole Cosmos Catalog of Harley, J.B., and Woodward, David. Science Activities. Glenview, Ill.: Stevenson, E.L., ed. Claudius The History of Cartography, Scott Foresman and Company, Ptolemy, the Geography. New vol., Book 2—Cartography in the 1991. York: Dover Publications, Inc. Traditional Islamic and South 1991. Asian Societies. Chicago: Hawking, S.W. A Brief History of University of Chicago Press, Time. Toronto: Bantam Books, Strain, Priscilla and Engle, 1992. 1988. Frederick. Looking at Earth. Atlanta: Turner Publishing, Inc., Map of the Conterminous United Morrison, Philip and Morrison, 1992. States Showing Routes of the Phylis. The Ring of Truth. New Principal Explorers from 1501 York: Random House, 1987. Thompson, M.M. Maps for America. to 1844.... U.S. Geological U.S. Geological Survey Special Survey United States map, 1983. Explorers Book, 1988. Maps of an Emerging Nation—The Biddle, Nicholas, ed. The Journals of Tufte, E.R. The Visual Display of United States of America, 1775- the Expedition under the Quantitative Information. 1987. U.S. Geological Survey Command of Capts. Lewis and Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, National Atlas Map, 1987. Clark. New York: The Heritage 1983. Press, 2 vol., 1962. Nebenzahl, Kenneth. Atlas of Wood, Denis. The Power of Maps. Columbus and the Great Boorstin, D.J. The Discoverers. New London: The Guilford Press, Discoveries. Chicago: Rand York: Random House, 1983. 1992. McNally, 1990. Map of Conterminous United States U.S. Geological Survey. Map Schwartz, S.I., and Ehrenberg, R.E. Showing Routes of the Principal Projections Poster. 1992. The Mapping of America. New Explorers from 1501 to 1844....

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U.S. Geological Survey United Information States map, 1983. For information on this subject and Nunn, George E. The Geographical other USGS products and services, Connections of Columbus—A call 1-888-ASK-USGS, use the Critical Consideration of Four Ask.USGS fax service, which is Problems. New York: The available 24 hours a day at American Geographical Society, 703-648-4888, or visit the 1992. ask.usgs.gov Web site. More information is available on the Ralling, Christoper. Shackleton. general interest publications Web London: British Broadcasting site on mapping, geography, and Corporation, 1983. related topics located at mac.usgs.gov/mac/isb/pubs/pubslists Shackleton, E.H. The Heart of the /index.html. Antarctic. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 2 vol., Please visit the USGS home page at 1909. www.usgs.gov/.

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