The Syrian Cultural Heritage Tragedy

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水陸横死大菩提 Journal of Disaster Mitigation for Historical Cities, Vol. 8 (July 2014) [report] ［南面］のがれやからにわか去年霜月四日五日の地震を遁ん為に小船に乗居し輩俄の洪浪湧か如くあまたくだおびただ木津川口邊の大小数船一時に川上に押寄橋を落し船を摧き漂没死人夥しもっともしずまことこうせい尤前日より海鳴潮の干満乱しを志ら寿して死に至る者寔憐むへし后世 The Syrian cultural heritage tragedy: cause, effect, and ［裏面（西面）］かんまんきざしいうのみ海鳴潮の干満みだれし時は早く津波の兆しと知りて難をのかれ玉ふへしと云爾 approaches to future protection きのと安政二乙卯秋建之［北面］梵語以外何も記載されていない. Youssef Kanjou ※石碑の台座には、石碑建立の発起人として小西八兵衛、世話人として31名の名前が刻まれている。2014年

春、大阪市教育委員会と四天王寺によって案内板が設置された。 National museum of ethnology (Minpaku) & Aleppo Museum, DGAM, Syria 謝辞 [email protected] 筆者の地震・津波研究の出発点は、大正橋の安政南海地震津波の碑、『大地震両川口津浪記』である。建

碑以来約160年にわたり津波の犠牲者を供養し、花を供え、毎年、碑文に墨を入れ、お世話を続けてこられた幸町の人々のおかげである。調査を始めて以来、愛知喜久雄氏、山本善三郎氏、安岡廣氏にはたいへんお abstract: 世話になりました。特に増井健蔵氏には所蔵される史料の閲覧をさせていただき、増井家の代にわたる石 5 In this paper I present the actual situation of Syrian culture heritage under the current situation from the beginning until 碑との関わりについてご教示を賜りました。四天王寺の碑文については、2012年秋の調査で全文が明らかと now, in particular I concentrate on Aleppo heritage which is consider one the most important in Syria. Also I speak なりました。和宗総本山四天王寺法務部法務課課長兼子鐵秀氏、NHK大阪放送局報道部記者宗像正勇氏、大 about the protection of cultural heritage by the government, archaeology authority, anti-government and the local 阪市教育委員会文化財保護担当主任学芸員櫻井久之氏、大阪市史編纂所大阪市史料調査会生駒孝臣氏、内海 community. After that I try to explain the cause of the disaster of Syrian cultural heritage and finally try to find the answer how we can protect the heritage before, during and after the war. 寧子氏の尽力によるものです。ただし、本稿の判読文については、筆者に全ての責任があります。この拙い研究について、発表の場を与えてくださった立命館大学歴史都市防災論文集編集委員会の諸先生方に深く感謝いたします。英文Abstractについては、Jeremy Larsen氏から援助を賜りました。お世話になりました皆様 Keywords : Illegal excavation, Old Aleppo, looting, DGAM. 方に深く御礼申し上げます。

参考文献 1）長尾武：『大地震両川口津浪記』にみる大阪の津波とその教訓京都歴史災害研究13, pp.17-26, 2012 INTRODUCTION: 2）長尾武：安政南海地震津波（1854 年）の犠牲者供養石碑―四天王寺（大阪市）の無縁墓地調査より―地震第 2 輯第巻第号 The conflict began in Syria on 15-3-2011 by peaceful protests but soon took another form of armed conflict 63 4 ,pp. 251-253, 2011. which continues until now. Meanwhile, Syria floating on a sea of archeological sits with more than 10,000 ）長尾武：大阪・四天王寺安政南海地震津波碑文の判読歴史地震 3 pp.27, 77-84, 2012. archaeological site dating back to different periods of world civilization, from prehistoric times up to the 4）長尾武：水都大阪を襲った津波―石碑は次の南海地震を警告している―長尾武 2012. present, (period over the bronze age, Iron age and classic ages), which included cultures as Achulian, mustrian, 5）宮負貞雄編：地震道中記（東京大学地震研究所編新収日本地震史料第 5 巻別巻 5-1, 日本電気協会 pp.287-298, Neolithic, Halaf, Sumerian, Acadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite, Aramaic, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, 1) 1986.） Islamic and Ottoman . 6）今枝直方編：江府京駿雑志（東京大学地震研究所編新収日本地震史料第巻別巻日本電気協会PP.66-70, In Syria, the cultural heritages are concentrated in three areas, Mesopotamia area, North-west Syria which 1983） is the Dead City (Byzantine Roman period), and South Syria. The three major areas are famous for 2) 7）編者不明：大地震大津浪末代噺迺種（武者金吉編日本地震史料明石書店 pp.426-432, 1995 復刻, 毎日新聞社 1951 concentrated cultural heritage and are at the same time areas of very severe conflicts now . 初版） . . Syria has 36 museums, between them 12 archaeological museum (first degree). Syria also has 6 sites on the 8）編者不明：地震海溢考,（東京大学地震研究所編, 新収日本地震史料, 第5巻別巻5-2,日本電気協会, PP.1512-1517, World Heritage list (Old Aleppo, Old Damascus, Krak des chevaliers, Palmyra, Bosra, Dead Cities) have all 1987 ） been placed recently on the heritage list in danger by UNESCO3). ）大阪市参事会：大阪市史下清文堂出版復刻大阪市役所初版 9 4 , 1965 1913 The current situation affected the status of sites and archaeological museums of Syria where there are no 10）大阪市浪速区幸町三丁目西振興町会・大地震両川口津浪記念碑保存運営委員会編：『大地震両川口津浪記』記念誌 longer any kind of attention or supporting ( security or economic ); and in addition often have the sites and 大阪市浪速区幸町三丁目西振興町会・大地震両川口津浪記念碑保存運営委員会 2007 museums within the circle of armed conflict as in city’s Homs, Aleppo and Deir ez-Zor. Heritage sits has 11）長尾武：1854年安政南海地震津波大阪への伝播時間と津波遡上高歴史地震 23, pp.63-79,2008 suffered as the rest of Syria, whether social or economic of more than one hand, illegal excavation active 12）長尾武：宝永地震（1707年）による大坂市中での津波遡上高歴史地震 26, pp.15-18,2011. 13）大阪地盤沈下総合対策協議会：大阪における地盤沈下の概況1983 14）大阪府土木部河川室・西大阪治水事務所編：西大阪の高潮対策大阪府土木部河川室・西大阪治水事務所, 2004

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Map 1: the Damage distribution on cultural heritage in Syria until June 2013 (map by DGAM). throughout Syria, the archeological sits been as military base, the modern buildings, and finally the stolen directly or indirectly way4). This overall lack of awareness by the importance and the role of heritage in society, and not respected by the combatant parties, and the inability of the community to contribute to the protection of monuments due to lack of resources and lack of awareness(Map 1). Very sad that the current conflict continues, threatening further damage that may affect the places and sites remain still safe until now, as increasing severity to all museums and archaeological sites than it is now.

THE ACTUAL SITUATION: The Syrian Antiquities now day in risk and destruction in different ways and loss of an important part of world heritage, The damage can be classified in three type:

(1) Destruction and Vandalism in the Archaeological and Historical Building and Cities: Daily clashes which including planes, bombs, shots, missiles and tanks which destroying historical buildings as in many historical city as in the old city of Aleppo, old Homos, Palmyra, Apamea and DER elzour….etc. The damage included all archaeological areas in Syria, without exception, there are all kinds of violations as we can see in the old of Aleppo City for example. The Archaeological surveys have shown that the history of Aleppo city dates back to the 7th Millennium B.C., while archaeological discoveries showed significant discovered dating back to the third millennium B.C. and the second and first…..until now. The city contains Archeological building belong to different periods (Storm God temple (bronze age), Roman, Byzantine, Hellenic, Islamic-Ottoman, Castle and mosque, Doors, ancient buildings). The markets of Aleppo, the most important the city, which is belong to the fourth century BC where the shops on both sides of the straight Street between the Castle and the Bab Antakya currently market took its current form beginning of Ottoman period5).

The most affected sites in Syria is the old city of Aleppo, There was a very hard military conflict inside the city. Then the damage was very huge in both the old Market, Umayyad mosque and other buildings in addition to the migration of a large section of the population. And now the official reports indicate the 123 building had damaged6) (until 29-8-2013), and the damage were concentrated in the commercial markets near the Omayyad Mosque, more than other parts, the Old markets were affected by destroyed 24 from 36 market (Photo 1 &2). But the major damage was the destruction of the Minaret of the Umayyad mosque in Aleppo, which is one of the important Islamic monuments of architecture and burn all sections in the Mosque. The Aleppo Castel damaged, where several shells at the main entrance and the North Tower.

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Photo 1 : one of the old Market in the Old city of Aleppo, Photo 2: the distraction the building and market in Old Aleppo city. before the conflict and after.

Map 1: the Damage distribution on cultural heritage in Syria until June 2013 (map by DGAM). Also another archaeological city very important, as in the case of Palmyra, the damage was in many tombs by illegal excavation, in Temple Baal by army conflict, and also there are some damage in museum (Photo 3).

The Syrian archaeological castles returned again to the same function for which it was built, but it was not throughout Syria, the archeological sits been as military base, the modern buildings, and finally the stolen designed to modern destructive weapons, for this reason all suffer big destruction as San –Simon, Jaabar, directly or indirectly way4). This overall lack of awareness by the importance and the role of heritage in society, Aleppo, Krak des chevaliers which is world heritage site and disaster suffered in it (Photo 4) and not respected by the combatant parties, and the inability of the community to contribute to the protection of monuments due to lack of resources and lack of awareness(Map 1). Very sad that the current conflict continues, threatening further damage that may affect the places and sites remain still safe until now, as increasing severity to all museums and archaeological sites than it is now.

THE ACTUAL SITUATION: The Syrian Antiquities now day in risk and destruction in different ways and loss of an important part of world heritage, The damage can be classified in three type:

Photos 3: the archaeological city of Palmyra, the damage on Photo 4: the destruction at the Crack de Chaviler Castel, (1) Destruction and Vandalism in the Archaeological and Historical Building and Cities: the column and building, (the column photos by DGAM) near Homos in the central Syria (Photos by DGAM).

Daily clashes which including planes, bombs, shots, missiles and tanks which destroying historical buildings as in many historical city as in the old city of Aleppo, old Homos, Palmyra, Apamea and DER elzour….etc. The damage included all archaeological areas in Syria, without exception, there are all kinds of violations as The situation of Archaeological Museums also are too bad, in particular the damage is in the we can see in the old of Aleppo City for example. infrastructure, like destroying the window, the showcases, like Aleppo National Museum, Deir Ezzor Museum, Homs Museum, Maraa Museum, and Palmyra Museum. Except the collection at Aleppo national The Archaeological surveys have shown that the history of Aleppo city dates back to the 7th Millennium museum and Damascus museum still until now save, as the DGAM staff did very hard job to protect its. B.C., while archaeological discoveries showed significant discovered dating back to the third millennium B.C. Sometimes museums or sites are used as military bases, as Maraa Museum one the most important and the second and first…..until now. The city contains Archeological building belong to different periods archaeological museum in Syria. (Storm God temple (bronze age), Roman, Byzantine, Hellenic, Islamic-Ottoman, Castle and mosque, Doors, ancient buildings). The markets of Aleppo, the most important the city, which is belong to the fourth century BC where the shops on both sides of the straight Street between the Castle and the Bab Antakya currently (2) Illegal Excavation: 5) market took its current form beginning of Ottoman period . Secret excavation active in places where there is no government or antigovernment control in this areas or in places fare from the any authority or the eyes of the people, it is made by unknown armed groups leading to The most affected sites in Syria is the old city of Aleppo, There was a very hard military conflict inside the the destruction of the archaeological layers in the area where they excavated and ribbed the discoveries as in city. Then the damage was very huge in both the old Market, Umayyad mosque and other buildings in addition Mari, Ebla, Doura Erupos………. to the migration of a large section of the population. And now the official reports indicate the 123 building had The bad thing is that the damage is bigger when the site is very important. The big and famous sites damaged 6) damaged (until 29-8-2013), and the damage were concentrated in the commercial markets near the Omayyad more than others as in the Euphrates regions and Dead Cities, in both areas are the most important monuments Mosque, more than other parts, the Old markets were affected by destroyed 24 from 36 market (Photo 1 &2). of Syria at all (Photo 5). But the major damage was the destruction of the Minaret of the Umayyad mosque in Aleppo, which is one of the important Islamic monuments of architecture and burn all sections in the Mosque. The Aleppo Castel The typical example of how a site is affected by illegal excavation is the site of Apamea which is very damaged, where several shells at the main entrance and the North Tower. important city in Hellenistic- Roman -byzantine period, we can see very clear by the photo take by google

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−273− earth before the conflict and one year after that which shows the illegal excavation complete destroyed the city (Photo 6). We consider now that the secret excavation covered 80% of the archaeological sites in Syria and this is the result of the loss of security control and the absence of any power to prevent or limit the existence of organized and armed groups which came from inside and outside Syria formed for this purpose and work until the moment almost daily and night. The damage by secret excavation increased by use the modern instruments and equipment such as metal detectors and bulldozer which led to the destruction of vast areas of archaeological.

Photo 5: the illegal excavation at Dead City near Adleb Photo 6: Illegal excavation at Apamea showed by (Photos by DGAM). google earth (Photo By Professor Ignacio Archi)

(3) Robbery: The looting in Syria doesn’t happen only in heritages sits, but also in Museums and Mission houses. The robberies occurred mainly from archaeological missions working in archaeological sites and to a lesser degree from museums, but the illegal excavations is the primary source of Syrian artifacts currently. Syrian museums have been several robberies since the beginning of the conflict, according to official reports, the first Museum was Hama Museum where an important artifact stolen (is one of the gods made of gold and date back to the second millennium BC); Marra Museum steal a number of its contents, ( 30 pieces). And Raqaa museum stole several boxes with hundred objects. And also Apamea Museum was stolen one piece. And the Archaeological Museum of Jaabar stole 17 artifact.also the archaeological missions storages has stolen, including the Japanese mission storages, such as Tell Barak, Tell Bazi, Tell Al-Karkh, Tell Sheikh Hamad, Apamea, Andrin and Tel Saka….etc. The Syrian authorities have confiscated stolen parts and intended for smuggling in several areas inside Syria since the beginning the conflicts so far, a total of 4,000 pieces of Antiquities dating back to different period (untill 20012 )7), and opposition forces also seized several artifacts and still keep and there are no statistics for these numbers (photo 7).

Photo 7: Syrian Archaeology Object stolen from Palmyra and later captured by police (photos by Walid Assad)

−274− earth before the conflict and one year after that which shows the illegal excavation complete destroyed the city THE REASONS THAT LED TO THE DESTRUCTION OF SYRIAN HERITAGE (Photo 6). Syria is one of the oldest areas settled by humans and there are huge amount of archaeological sites and the cultural property is not belong to one time but to different period1); at the same time, the protection of We consider now that the secret excavation covered 80% of the archaeological sites in Syria and this is the monuments of Syria were not in good condition and it is mistake if we believed that the violation on the result of the loss of security control and the absence of any power to prevent or limit the existence of organized Syrian heritage is just due to the effects of the current crisis or began with it; the damage continuous from and armed groups which came from inside and outside Syria formed for this purpose and work until the long time where the sites and monuments being damaged and invasion in various forms almost similar to the moment almost daily and night. The damage by secret excavation increased by use the modern instruments current situation except destruction by military way, for example the illegal excavation was spread night at and equipment such as metal detectors and bulldozer which led to the destruction of vast areas of some sites while the destruction of the historical buildings were by different methods and multiple reasons, archaeological. sometimes with the agreement of the authorities which were often unable to do their missions return to the political and social influence by some people (such as the case in the building no 688 in Aleppo city ); now by the actual situation, some people or organization try to destroyed the historical building and rebuild new as in el case the Saddiak Mosque in Aleppo (Photo 8 & 9). Now day, since the current crisis the second loser after humans is Syrian heritage which brutally destroyed or stolen, and from all sides (government or aniti-government) in various ways and still everyone regardless of the destruction of both combatant parties inside Syria or the international community. It can be said that the damage on the heritage sites in Syria come from military factor and civil factor, in the same level, and sometimes more damaging come from civil activity as we think. The first factor: the damage on heritage site happens because the nature of the military action as headquarters of the military, battles within the archaeological zone, trenches and looting; that led to the complete destruction of buildings and archaeological layers while the second factor as the illegal excavation, modern buildings inside the archaeological sites and robbery; from this action resulted the looting of a large number of artifacts and archaeological layers damage and alteration of the monuments image (Photo 9 & 10). The direct cause, without doubt, for the heritage tragedy is the war in Syria, where security and community Photo 5: the illegal excavation at Dead City near Adleb Photo 6: Illegal excavation at Apamea showed by protection absent wherever they have other goals more important than the protection of monuments which (Photos by DGAM). google earth (Photo By Professor Ignacio Archi) led to insecurity, where became impossible to be guard or the police inside the archaeological zone.

Nonetheless there are another reasons may be it is the cause most important and not the war per se, these (3) Robbery: causes in its totality due to severe lack of knowledge of the importance of national and world heritage and The looting in Syria doesn’t happen only in heritages sits, but also in Museums and Mission houses. The complete ignorance to the significances for community and the world, that’s caused by the lack contribute the robberies occurred mainly from archaeological missions working in archaeological sites and to a lesser degree awareness before from responsible authorities (national or international) a local community about the from museums, but the illegal excavations is the primary source of Syrian artifacts currently. importance of heritage; While the strategy was spread the awareness and link it to the government or public Syrian museums have been several robberies since the beginning of the conflict, according to official reports, institutions without community participation, the wrong way led to respond in opposite manner where the the first Museum was Hama Museum where an important artifact stolen (is one of the gods made of gold and majority of the community consider that heritage is belong to the Government, when the government loss the date back to the second millennium BC); Marra Museum steal a number of its contents, ( 30 pieces). And control on heritage sits, the people attack to it in various ways, In the same method, the strategy followed by Raqaa museum stole several boxes with hundred objects. And also Apamea Museum was stolen one piece. the Syrian Government which suggest that it all is belong to it and its not to the community including museums, And the Archaeological Museum of Jaabar stole 17 artifact.also the archaeological missions storages has archaeological sites and contained, this idea generated by the contrary reaction when the community responded stolen, including the Japanese mission storages, such as Tell Barak, Tell Bazi, Tell Al-Karkh, Tell Sheikh to the absent State institutions, that gave the opportunity for the community to take vengeance from the ….etc. Hamad, Apamea, Andrin and Tel Saka Government even indirectly way through violation of the heritage sits as the heritage for the State then must The Syrian authorities have confiscated stolen parts and intended for smuggling in several areas inside Syria to be destroyed and stolen, there is no doubt that this idea is wrong and everything can be belong to State since the beginning the conflicts so far, a total of 4,000 pieces of Antiquities dating back to different period except the heritage which is the product of a cultural historical process. (untill 20012 )7), and opposition forces also seized several artifacts and still keep and there are no statistics for these numbers (photo 7). In the same idea, the awareness always come through instructions which always gave the opposite reaction, as in the case with the Syrian Antiquities Law, it is the legally protected the heritage site in good manner, but at the same time, there is no guidance to explain the reasons behind the laws. Similarly, the sites protection method already depend on the force use and violence to prevent violations without regard to the local community interests, and the law application without awareness for the community, or for the application of the law by the police or municipal or heritage staff. In general, the local community did not equally share in any activity relating to heritage sites. another reason which is the high value of Syrian archaeological objects that mad a flourishing trade for Syrian Antiquities, in particular near the Syrian border areas; generally there are some individuals and groups specializing in each area, also armed groups do it as a kind of work that gives money to get weapons. Photo 7: Syrian Archaeology Object stolen from Palmyra and later captured by police (photos by Walid Assad)

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−275− As a final point, the awareness of the importance of heritage protection were almost completely absent, where museums and archaeological sites visiting are not considered a priority for the community and the visiting not to known about the archaeological site and its importance but only enjoyable visits. There is also a significant absence of explanation about the sites and museums are almost non-existent in museums, for example, School visits are limited to routine visits to museums without any explanations usually comes a large number of students without any coordination with the Museum, and the same situation applies to visit castles and archaeological sites; finally the Media attention is not big and not contributing to awareness but usually superficial information only.

Photo 8: the destruction by Bulldozer in San Simon castle Photo 9: Vandalism and the illegal excavation at Shash west Aleppo to mad new houses (Photo by H. Alahmad). Hamdan tomb, east Aleppo ( photo by A. Mohmed).

LOCAL COMMUNITY AND CULTURAL HERITAGE PROTECTION Cultural heritage represent the identity of a community, which comes from the past, it lives today and is transmitted to present and future generations. The protection of cultural heritage has mainly been focusing on the heritage itself and not to the people for whom it has meaning. Therefore, if the aim is to preserve the cultural heritage in the time of conflict, it is important not only to focus on the protection of the objects, but also to promote a community’s ownership of that cultural heritage. In this sense, heritage recognition constitutes a priority and a vehicle towards peace. That means the most important thing is not just the heritage, most importantly to look at the people, look at the community, which differs by the site, because now our problem is that many people they can’t understand what the sites are and why they are important. It is very important to make relations between the community and the heritage8). No doubt that is the heritage belong to the community, who is the main component of this heritage, without the society is not any sense of heritage; the heritage is a cumulative process of community cultural products over time, also its a key element of the identity, and it’s the connection tools between unit community and the land as that is often the main motive to peace.

Photo 10: the Illegal excavation in Mareaj Hill south Aleppo (Photo by Y. Kanjou).

−276− As a final point, the awareness of the importance of heritage protection were almost completely absent, where museums and archaeological sites visiting are not considered a priority for the community and the visiting not to known about the archaeological site and its importance but only enjoyable visits. There is also a significant Through research in the causes of the destruction of Syrian heritage found that the main reasons was the poor absence of explanation about the sites and museums are almost non-existent in museums, for example, School role of community which reflected negatively during the civil war; the conflict beginning was peaceful and visits are limited to routine visits to museums without any explanations usually comes a large number of after that change to armed conflict, which followed him the absence of any consideration to the protection of students without any coordination with the Museum, and the same situation applies to visit castles and heritage, in that time become urgent requirement for role from the community. However, due to lack of archaeological sites; finally the Media attention is not big and not contributing to awareness but usually awareness on the importance of heritage and the lack of knowledge in the community, on the other hand, armed superficial information only. conflict, the community's role was limited (Photo 11). As the intensification of the fighting in most of the sites which push local community to abandon its and left the area for armed groups, those haven’t any attention and awareness of the importance of archaeological sites; from the beginning the community made some initiatives for the protection of museums for example, but the fighting has intensified as the Marra Museum, which is first protect by local community and later became under the protection by the Free Syrian Army. At the same time, we note that the initiatives for the protection of the heritage was more active which came from individuals and associations more than those came from the official authorities, represented by the Directorate General of Antiquities, Ministry of culture, where the Directorate is very poor in terms of ideas and methods and in consequence did not offer many things, perhaps they relate primarily to the government on the one hand and, on the other hand, lack of experience, and the international organization don’t wish to cooperate with DGAM. Also we note several initiatives from individuals only through social networking9) or through work on the ground or through communication with local community and international organization. Photo 8: the destruction by Bulldozer in San Simon castle Photo 9: Vandalism and the illegal excavation at Shash Finally all societies have some principles, whether social, economic or religious, and work to stimulate the west Aleppo to mad new houses (Photo by H. Alahmad). Hamdan tomb, east Aleppo ( photo by A. Mohmed). society through the development of those principles to the protection of heritage and identity, being all together form links cannot be separated and are acceptable to the community at all the times.

Photo 11: the local community in the old Aleppo city try to protect some parts of Omayyad Mosque (Photos by Council of free Aleppo government).

REFERENCE:

1) Akkermans P. and G. M. Schwartz: The archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000-300 BC). Cambridge University Press 2003. 2) Syria: Cultural Heritage Sites at Risk, U.S. Department of State, HUMANITARIAN INFORMATION UNIT https://hiu.state.gov/Products/Syria_CulturalSites_20130411_HIU_U771.pdf 3) http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1038/ 4) ABDULKARIM Maamoun: The Archaeological Heritage in Syria During the Crisis 2011-2013. DGAM. Damascus. 2013. 5) Gonnella, J., W. Khayyata, K. Kohlmeyer: Die Zitadelle von Aleppo und der Tempel des Wettergottes - [The Citadel of Photo 10: the Illegal excavation in Mareaj Hill south Aleppo (Photo by Y. Kanjou). Aleppo and the Temple of Weather God. RHEME-Verlag 2005. 6) DGAM report to UNESCO 2013. 6 7

−277− 7) Interview with general director http://arabic.news.cn/culture/2013-03/12/c_132226157.htm 8) Lambert, S. and Rockwell, C. (Edt) Protecting Cultural Heritage in Times of Conflict. ICCROM. 2012. 9) The Syrian archaeological heritage under threat https://www.facebook.com/Archeologie.syrienne

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