DOCSLIB.ORG

By Atri Hatef Naiemi B

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
By Atri Hatef Naiemi B A Dialogue between Friends and Foes: Transcultural Interactions in Ilkhanid Capital Cities (1256-1335 AD) by Atri Hatef Naiemi B.A., University of Qazvin, Iran, 2006 M.A., University of Tehran, Iran, 2010 M.A., University of Victoria, 2014 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Art History and Visual Studies © Atri Hatef Naiemi, 2019 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This Dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Supervisory Committee A Dialogue between Friends and Foes: Transcultural Interactions in Ilkhanid Capital Cities (1256-1335 AD) by Atri Hatef Naiemi B.A., University of Qazvin, Iran, 2006 M.A., University of Tehran, Iran, 2010 M.A., University of Victoria, 2014 Supervisory Committee Dr. Marcus Milwright, (Department of Art History and Visual Studies) Supervisor Dr. Evanthia Baboula, (Department of Art History and Visual Studies) Departmental Member Dr. Tsung-Cheng Lin, (Department of Pacific and Asian Studies) Outside Member Dr. Brendan Burke, (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Outside Member ii Abstract The period following the Mongol conquest of vast areas of Eurasia in the thirteenth century, the so-called Pax Mongolica, witnessed the emergence of a new visual language in Persian art and architecture. Various Islamic and non-Islamic visual traditions that permeated the whole body of the arts of thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Iran played a pivotal role in the formation of the hybrid style characterizing the art and architecture of the Ilkhanid period (1256-1335 AD). Along with the reconstruction of the cities that had been extensively destroyed during the Mongol attack on Iran, the Ilkhans (Mongol rulers) founded a number of new settlements. Both literary and archaeological evidence testifies that the foundation and development of urban centers was one of the primary objectives of the Ilkhans throughout their rule over Iran. Putting emphasis on Ilkhanid urban architecture, this project focuses on two major cities in the northwest of Iran (Ghazaniyya and Sultaniyya) in order to show how the architectural and urban features of the cities were determined through the complex interaction of local and global forces. Challenging the stereotypes that looked at the steppe people as destroyers of civilizations in earlier scholarship, this study argues that the Ilkhanid city as a physical entity manifests the dialogue between Perso-Islamic sedentary concepts and Mongolian nomadic traditions. iii Table of Contents Supervisory Committee............................................................................................................. ii Abstract...................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents....................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures............................................................................................................................ vi Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... x Dedication.................................................................................................................................. xi Notes on Transliteration and Dating......................................................................................... xii Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1 Sources.......................................................................................................................... 6 Methods and theories.................................................................................................... 15 Chapter outline.............................................................................................................. 21 Chapter One: The Foundation of Urban Centers under the Ilkhanids....................................... 25 The socio-religious transformation of the medieval Islamic city................................. 29 The architectural and urban transformation of the medieval Islamic city..................... 31 The transformation of patterns of patronage in the medieval Islamic city.................... 37 Major construction activities in pre-Mongol Iran.......................................................... 40 Ilkhanid urban foundations: A brief overview................................................................ 51 Capitals and summer/winter camps............................................................................... 62 Chapter Two: The Ilkhanid City of Ghazaniyya........................................................................ 85 A general description of Ghazaniyya............................................................................. 87 The location of Ghazaniyya........................................................................................... 92 The abwāb al-birr of Shanb-i Ghazan............................................................................101 The religious eclecticism of the Mongols.......................................................................104 Ghazan Khan: A Mongol Ilkhan or a Muslim sultan?....................................................107 The encounter between Persian/Islamic and Mongol traditions in Shanb-i Ghazan........110 Chapter Three: The Grand Capital of the Ilkhans at Sultaniyya....................................................119 Sultaniyya, the imperial capital.................................................................................... 121 The citadel of Sultaniyya............................................................................................... 126 iv The outer city of Sultaniyya...........................................................................................134 Sultaniyya: A Persian/Islamic capital city or a Mongol camp?......................................150 Chapter Four: Political Agents and their Role in the Transcultural Interactions under the Ilkhanids.........................................................................................................154 Rashid al-Din: A Persian patron.................................................................................... 158 Bolad Aqa: A Mongol intermediary................................................................................171 Liu Ping-chung: A Chinese counselor...............................................................................179 Concluding note: The facilitators of the dialogue...........................................................183 Chapter Five: Urban Foundations under Yuan Patronage......................................................... 191 A brief overview of Mongolian urban settlements/cities.............................................. 195 Major activities of the Mongols in urbanism..................................................................199 Daidu: The pinnacle of Mongolian urbanism.................................................................210 Concluding notes.............................................................................................................215 Chapter Six: Theorizing Intercultural Contact in Ilkhanid Architecture and Urban Planning........................................................................................................................ 219 Intercultural contact and the complexity of the terminology........................................ 223 Postcolonial theories..........................................................................................................227 Theory of translation..........................................................................................................229. Authorship of Mongol histories by Persian historians...................................................235 Active and passive agents of transportation........................................................................239 Dialogues.............................................................................................................................241 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................265 Bibliography......................................................................................................................................272 Appendix....................................................................................................................................291 Figures................................................................................................................................................298 v List of Figures Figure 1-1: The structure of Seljuq Isfahan. Figure 1-2: The main structural elements of Seljuq Nishapur. Figure 1-3: The approximate locations of the Metropolitan Museum excavations within the outline of medieval Nishapur. Figure 1-4: Nishapur and environs. Figure 1-5: The location of camps and cities of the Ilkhans. Figure 1-6: The observatory of Maragha and the temple of Rasad-daghi. Figure 1-7: One of the cells of the temple of Rasad-daghi. Figure 1-8: The Ilkhanid palatial complex in Takht-i Sulayman. Figure 1-9: Takht-i Sulayman;
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Muhammad Uljaytu's Conversion to Islam Key Terms
    Muhammad Uljaytu’s Conversion to Islam Seyyedeh Samira Behzadi1 After the Mongols’ invasion of Iran, no one could ever imagine that the grand children of Genghis Khan would pave the context for the growth and dissemination of Islam in later periods. Genghis Khan, himself, was a shaman and his grandsons, such as Hulagu Khan and Abaqa Khan, and Abaqa Khan’s children were Buddhists. However, they always dealt with the followers of other religions and sects with respect. The court of Hulagu Khan in Iran was always frequented by the scholars of other religions. Some of the children and grandchildren of Hulagu Khan abandoned their ancestral religion because of the necessities of their time and converted to Islam or Christianity. In this regard, reference can be made to Ghazan Khan and Muhammad Uljaytu who, because of the penetration of Muslim scholars in their courts, paid attention to Islam and Shi’ism. Ghazan Khan chose the Hanafite religion but did not formally acknowledge his conversion to Shi’ism for certain political reasons. Muhammad Uljaytu, his brother, persuaded the king to follow Shi’ism more openly for several reasons including the penetration of some Muslim scholars and Shi’iteministers and rulers, such as Allamah al-Hilli, his son Fakhr ul- Muhaqqiqin, and Amir TarmTaz, in his court and their arguments as to the superiority of Shi’ism over Sunnism. Uljaytu chose the Twelver branch of Shi’ism and, at the sometime, issued the order of reading sermons in Friday prayers in the name of the Shi’ite Imams (a) and minting coins in their names.
    [Show full text]
  • Politik Penguasaan Bangsa Mongol Terhadap Negeri- Negeri Muslim Pada Masa Dinasti Ilkhan (1260-1343)
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by E-Jurnal UIN (Universitas Islam Negeri) Alauddin Makassar Politik Penguasaan Bangsa Mongol Budi dan Nita (1260-1343) POLITIK PENGUASAAN BANGSA MONGOL TERHADAP NEGERI- NEGERI MUSLIM PADA MASA DINASTI ILKHAN (1260-1343) Budi Sujati dan Nita Yuli Astuti Pascasarjana UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung Email: [email protected] Abstract In the history of Islam, the destruction of the Abbasid dynasty as the center of Islamic civilization in its time that occurred on February 10, 1258 by Mongol attacks caused Islam to lose its identity.The destruction had a tremendous impact whose influence could still be felt up to now, because at that time all the evidence of Islamic relics was destroyed and burnt down without the slightest left.But that does not mean that with the destruction of Islam as a conquered religion is lost as swallowed by the earth. It is precisely with Islam that the Mongol conquerors who finally after assimilated for a long time were drawn to the end of some of the Mongol descendants themselves embraced Islam by establishing the Ilkhaniyah dynasty based in Tabriz Persia (present Iran).This is certainly the author interest in describing a unique event that the rulers themselves who ultimately follow the beliefs held by the community is different from the conquests of a nation against othernations.In this study using historical method (historical study) which is descriptive-analytical approach by using as a medium in analyzing. So that events that have happened can be known by involving various scientific methods by using social science and humanities as an approach..By using social science and humanities will be able to answer events that happened to the Mongols as rulers over the Muslim world make Islam as the official religion of his government to their grandchildren.
    [Show full text]
  • Protagonist of Qubilai Khan's Unsuccessful
    BUQA CHĪNGSĀNG: PROTAGONIST OF QUBILAI KHAN’S UNSUCCESSFUL COUP ATTEMPT AGAINST THE HÜLEGÜID DYNASTY MUSTAFA UYAR* It is generally accepted that the dissolution of the Mongol Empire began in 1259, following the death of Möngke the Great Khan (1251–59)1. Fierce conflicts were to arise between the khan candidates for the empty throne of the Great Khanate. Qubilai (1260–94), the brother of Möngke in China, was declared Great Khan on 5 May 1260 in the emergency qurultai assembled in K’ai-p’ing, which is quite far from Qara-Qorum, the principal capital of Mongolia2. This event started the conflicts within the Mongolian Khanate. The first person to object to the election of the Great Khan was his younger brother Ariq Böke (1259–64), another son of Qubilai’s mother Sorqoqtani Beki. Being Möngke’s brother, just as Qubilai was, he saw himself as the real owner of the Great Khanate, since he was the ruler of Qara-Qorum, the main capital of the Mongol Khanate. Shortly after Qubilai was declared Khan, Ariq Böke was also declared Great Khan in June of the same year3. Now something unprecedented happened: there were two competing Great Khans present in the Mongol Empire, and both received support from different parts of the family of the empire. The four Mongol khanates, which should theo- retically have owed obedience to the Great Khan, began to act completely in their own interests: the Khan of the Golden Horde, Barka (1257–66) supported Böke. * Assoc. Prof., Ankara University, Faculty of Languages, History and Geography, Department of History, Ankara/TURKEY, [email protected] 1 For further information on the dissolution of the Mongol Empire, see D.
    [Show full text]
  • Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nineteenth-Century Iran
    publications on the near east publications on the near east Poetry’s Voice, Society’s Song: Ottoman Lyric The Transformation of Islamic Art during Poetry by Walter G. Andrews the Sunni Revival by Yasser Tabbaa The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Shiraz in the Age of Hafez: The Glory of Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century a Medieval Persian City by John Limbert by Zeynep Çelik The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi‘i Symbols The Tragedy of Sohráb and Rostám from and Rituals in Modern Iran the Persian National Epic, the Shahname by Kamran Scot Aghaie of Abol-Qasem Ferdowsi, translated by Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology, Jerome W. Clinton Expanded Edition, edited and translated The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952 by Walter G. Andrews, Najaat Black, and by Gudrun Krämer Mehmet Kalpaklı Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 Party Building in the Modern Middle East: by Daniel Goffman The Origins of Competitive and Coercive Rule by Michele Penner Angrist Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan Everyday Life and Consumer Culture by Daniel Martin Varisco in Eighteenth-Century Damascus by James Grehan Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey, edited by Sibel Bozdog˘an and The City’s Pleasures: Istanbul in the Eigh- Res¸at Kasaba teenth Century by Shirine Hamadeh Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid East by Ehud R. Toledano by Daniel Martin Varisco Britons in the Ottoman Empire, 1642–1660 The Merchant Houses of Mocha: Trade by Daniel Goffman and Architecture in an Indian Ocean Port by Nancy Um Popular Preaching and Religious Authority in the Medieval Islamic Near East Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nine- by Jonathan P.
    [Show full text]
  • Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran
    OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi POWER, POLITICS, AND TRADITION IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND THE ĪlkhānaTE OF IRAN OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Īlkhānate of Iran MICHAEL HOPE 1 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6D P, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Michael Hope 2016 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2016 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932271 ISBN 978–0–19–876859–3 Printed in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only.
    [Show full text]
  • Phd 15.04.27 Versie 3
    Promotor Prof. dr. Jan Dumolyn Vakgroep Geschiedenis Decaan Prof. dr. Marc Boone Rector Prof. dr. Anne De Paepe Nederlandse vertaling: Een Spiegel voor de Sultan. Staatsideologie in de Vroeg Osmaanse Kronieken, 1300-1453 Kaftinformatie: Miniature of Sultan Orhan Gazi in conversation with the scholar Molla Alâeddin. In: the Şakayıku’n-Nu’mâniyye, by Taşköprülüzâde. Source: Topkapı Palace Museum, H1263, folio 12b. Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte Hilmi Kaçar A Mirror for the Sultan State Ideology in the Early Ottoman Chronicles, 1300- 1453 Proefschrift voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad van Doctor in de Geschiedenis 2015 Acknowledgements This PhD thesis is a dream come true for me. Ottoman history is not only the field of my research. It became a passion. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Jan Dumolyn, my supervisor, who has given me the opportunity to take on this extremely interesting journey. And not only that. He has also given me moral support and methodological guidance throughout the whole process. The frequent meetings to discuss the thesis were at times somewhat like a wrestling match, but they have always been inspiring and stimulating. I also want to thank Prof. Dr. Suraiya Faroqhi and Prof. Dr. Jo Vansteenbergen, for their expert suggestions. My colleagues of the History Department have also been supportive by letting me share my ideas in development during research meetings at the department, lunches and visits to the pub. I would also like to sincerely thank the scholars who shared their ideas and expertise with me: Dimitris Kastritsis, Feridun Emecen, David Wrisley, Güneş Işıksel, Deborah Boucayannis, Kadir Dede, Kristof d’Hulster, Xavier Baecke and many others.
    [Show full text]
  • Late Onset of Sufism in Azerbaijan and the Influence of Zarathustra Thoughts on Its Fundamentals
    International Journal of Philosophy and Theology September 2014, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 93-106 ISSN: 2333-5750 (Print), 2333-5769 (Online) Copyright © The Author(s). 2014. All Rights Reserved. Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development DOI: 10.15640/ijpt.v2n3a7 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/ijpt.v2n3a7 Late Onset of Sufism in Azerbaijan and the Influence of Zarathustra Thoughts on its Fundamentals Parisa Ghorbannejad1 Abstract Islamic Sufism started in Azerbaijan later than other Islamic regions for some reasons.Early Sufis in this region had been inspired by mysterious beliefs of Zarathustra which played an important role in future path of Sufism in Iran the consequences of which can be seen in illumination theory. This research deals with the reason of the delay in the advent of Sufism in Azerbaijan compared with other regions in a descriptive analytic method. Studies show that the deficiency of conqueror Arabs, loyalty of ethnic people to Iranian religion and the influence of theosophical beliefs such as heart's eye, meeting the right, relation between body and soul and cross evidences in heart had important effects on ideas and thoughts of Azerbaijan's first Sufis such as Ebn-e-Yazdanyar. Investigating Arab victories and conducting case studies on early Sufis' thoughts and ideas, the author attains considerable results via this research. Keywords: Sufism, Azerbaijan, Zarathustra, Ebn-e-Yazdanyar, Islam Introduction Azerbaijan territory2 with its unique geography and history, was the cultural center of Iran for many years in Sasanian era and was very important for Zarathustra religion and Magi class. 1 PhD, Faculty of Science, Islamic Azad University, Urmia Branch,WestAzarbayjan, Iran.
    [Show full text]
  • The Coins of the Later Ilkhanids
    THE COINS OF THE LATER ILKHANIDS : A TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 1 BY SHEILA S. BLAIR Ghazan Khan was undoubtedly the most brilliant of the Ilkhanid rulers of Persia: not only a commander and statesman, he was also a linguist, architect and bibliophile. One of his most lasting contribu- tions was the reorganization of Iran's financial system. Upon his accession to the throne, the economy was in total chaos: his prede- cessor Gaykhatf's stop-gap issue of paper money to fill an empty treasury had been a fiasco 2), and the civil wars among Gaykhatu, Baydu, and Ghazan had done nothing to restore trade or confidence in the economy. Under the direction of his vizier Rashid al-Din, Ghazan delivered an edict ordering the standardization of the coinage in weight, purity, and type 3). Ghazan's standard double-dirham became the basis of Iran's monetary system for the next century. At varying intervals, however, the standard type was changed: a new shape cartouche was introduced, with slight variations in legend. These new types were sometimes issued at a modified weight standard. This paper will analyze the successive standard issues of Ghazan and his two successors, Uljaytu and Abu Said, in order to show when and why these new types were introduced. Following a des- cription of the successive types 4), the changes will be explained through 296 an investigation of the metrology and a correlation of these changes in type with economic and political history. Another article will pursue the problem of mint organization and regionalization within this standard imperial system 5).
    [Show full text]
  • Brief History of Dzogchen
    Brief History of Dzogchen This is the printer-friendly version of: http: / / www.berzinarchives.com / web / en / archives / advanced / dzogchen / basic_points / brief_history_dzogchen.html Alexander Berzin November 10-12, 2000 Introduction Dzogchen (rdzogs-chen), the great completeness, is a Mahayana system of practice leading to enlightenment and involves a view of reality, way of meditating, and way of behaving (lta-sgom-spyod gsum). It is found earliest in the Nyingma and Bon (pre-Buddhist) traditions. Bon, according to its own description, was founded in Tazig (sTag-gzig), an Iranian cultural area of Central Asia, by Shenrab Miwo (gShen-rab mi-bo) and was brought to Zhang-zhung (Western Tibet) in the eleventh century BCE. There is no way to validate this scientifically. Buddha lived in the sixth century BCE in India. The Introduction of Pre-Nyingma Buddhism and Zhang-zhung Rites to Central Tibet Zhang-zhung was conquered by Yarlung (Central Tibet) in 645 CE. The Yarlung Emperor Songtsen-gampo (Srong-btsan sgam-po) had wives not only from the Chinese and Nepali royal families (both of whom brought a few Buddhist texts and statues), but also from the royal family of Zhang-zhung. The court adopted Zhang-zhung (Bon) burial rituals and animal sacrifice, although Bon says that animal sacrifice was native to Tibet, not a Bon custom. The Emperor built thirteen Buddhist temples around Tibet and Bhutan, but did not found any monasteries. This pre-Nyingma phase of Buddhism in Central Tibet did not have dzogchen teachings. In fact, it is difficult to ascertain what level of Buddhist teachings and practice were introduced.
    [Show full text]
  • Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish Or Turkic Volume 12/35, P
    Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 12/35, p. 433-446 DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.12393 ISSN: 1308-2140, ANKARA-TURKEY This article was checked by iThenticate. MOĞOL KAĞANI OLCAYTU HAN’IN MARDİN MÜZESİNDE BULUNAN BİR SİKKESİNDE ŞİA PROPAGANDASI Alemde var olan her sikke ve her hutbe yaşadığı sürece Olcaytu adına olsun. -Kâşânî- Ramazan UYKUR ÖZET Bu makalede, Mardin Müzesi’nde yaptığımız araştırma da karşılaştığımız iki sikke ele alınmıştır. Biri gümüş, diğeri bakır olmak üzere iki farklı madenden imâl edilmiş sikkelerin yazıtları okunduğunda, bunların Moğol Kağanı Olcaytu Han’a ait oldukları anlaşılmıştır. Bu yazıtların, Olcaytu Han’ın yaşamına dair bilgiler veren dönem kaynaklarındaki anlatımlarla da paralellik arz ettiği görülmüştür. Dönem kaynakları Olcaytu Han’ın Müslüman olma sürecini ayrıntılı ele almışlardır. Bu bağlamda ilk tanıttığımız 704/1304 tarihli gümüş sikke Olcaytu Han’ın Müslüman oluşundan sonra basılmıştır. Ve bu sikkede Raşid halifenin (4 halife) isimleri anılmış, onlara selam edilmiş, böylece Ehl-i Sünnet (Sünnî) bir tavır ortaya konulmuştur. Fakat Olcaytu Han’ın renkli dini hayatı içinde Sünnî anlayışı çok uzun sürmemiş, çok yakın bir zamanda Şiî mezhebini tercih serüveni başlamıştır. İkinci tanıttığımız bakır sikke ise, Olcaytu Han’ın Şiî olduktan sonraki uygulamalarının ipuçlarını taşımaktadır. Olcaytu Han bu sikke üzerine yazdırdığı “Aliyyenveliyullah” ibaresiyle, sikkeyi adeta bir Şiî propaganda malzemesine dönüştürmüştür. Dahası dönem kaynakları, Olcaytu Han’ın sadece paralara Aliyyenveliyullah yazdırmakla yetinmeyip, hâkim olduğu beldelerde dört bir tarafa gönderdiği fermanlarla Ezana “Hayye ale’l-Hayrü’l Amel” ibaresini eklenmesini emrettiğini, sikkelerin üzerinden sahabenin adını çıkartarak, 12 Şiî imamının isimlerini yazdırdığını da nakletmiştir.
    [Show full text]
  • Il-Khanate Empire
    1 Il-Khanate Empire 1250s, after the new Great Khan, Möngke (r.1251–1259), sent his brother Hülegü to MICHAL BIRAN expand Mongol territories into western Asia, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel primarily against the Assassins, an extreme Isma‘ilite-Shi‘ite sect specializing in political The Il-Khanate was a Mongol state that ruled murder, and the Abbasid Caliphate. Hülegü in Western Asia c.1256–1335. It was known left Mongolia in 1253. In 1256, he defeated to the Mongols as ulus Hülegü, the people the Assassins at Alamut, next to the Caspian or state of Hülegü (1218–1265), the dynasty’s Sea, adding to his retinue Nasir al-Din al- founder and grandson of Chinggis Khan Tusi, one of the greatest polymaths of the (Genghis Khan). Centered in Iran and Muslim world, who became his astrologer Azerbaijan but ruling also over Iraq, Turkme- and trusted advisor. In 1258, with the help nistan, and parts of Afghanistan, Anatolia, of various Mongol tributaries, including and the southern Caucasus (Georgia, many Muslims, he brutally conquered Bagh- Armenia), the Il-Khanate was a highly cos- dad, eliminating the Abbasid Caliphate that mopolitan empire that had close connections had nominally led the Muslim world for more with China and Western Europe. It also had a than 500 years (750–1258). Hülegü continued composite administration and legacy that into Syria, but withdrew most of his troops combined Mongol, Iranian, and Muslim after hearing of Möngke’s death (1259). The elements, and produced some outstanding defeat of the remnants of his troops by the cultural achievements.
    [Show full text]
  • Life Science Journal 2013;10(7S) 799 a Study on Buddhism in the Parthian Era in Iran Dr Mehrn
    Life Science Journal 2013;10(7s) http://www.lifesciencesite.com A Study on Buddhism in the Parthian Era in Iran Dr Mehrnaz Behroozy1, Khadijeh Naghipourfar 2 1. Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2. Graduated in pre Islamic Historical Era of Iran, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Abstract: Religion among Iranians, like other nations, has always been very important. Religious tolerance in Achaemenid Empire continued in Parthian Era as well. This religious openness among public lasts in Seleucid Empire and after them, in Parthian era, and let the other religions to enter to Iran. Of course it shall be considered that after Seleucid’s attack to Iran, the Iranian’s lost their self-esteem, therefore their belief to religion became poor and acceptance of foreign religions was common in this era. One of these foreign religions was Buddhism. Buddhism formed in east and northeast of Iran. Its missionaries tried to extend their influence inside Iran and find some followers among Iranians. This is a library study to investigate Iranians approach toward Buddhism in Parthian Era, the followers of this religion, and the areas affected by this religion in the Parthian Era. This investigation is performed using different reference texts, historical resources and the literatures regarding Buddhism in Iran in Parthian Era. This is worth to mention that one can conclude that due to the religious tolerance in Parthian Era, a lot of new religions emerged in this era and Buddhism is one of them. The main problem of the author is the lack of references for the chosen subject and there is no direct reference about Buddhism history in the Parthian Era.
    [Show full text]