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Protagonist of Qubilai Khan's Unsuccessful
BUQA CHĪNGSĀNG: PROTAGONIST OF QUBILAI KHAN’S UNSUCCESSFUL COUP ATTEMPT AGAINST THE HÜLEGÜID DYNASTY MUSTAFA UYAR* It is generally accepted that the dissolution of the Mongol Empire began in 1259, following the death of Möngke the Great Khan (1251–59)1. Fierce conflicts were to arise between the khan candidates for the empty throne of the Great Khanate. Qubilai (1260–94), the brother of Möngke in China, was declared Great Khan on 5 May 1260 in the emergency qurultai assembled in K’ai-p’ing, which is quite far from Qara-Qorum, the principal capital of Mongolia2. This event started the conflicts within the Mongolian Khanate. The first person to object to the election of the Great Khan was his younger brother Ariq Böke (1259–64), another son of Qubilai’s mother Sorqoqtani Beki. Being Möngke’s brother, just as Qubilai was, he saw himself as the real owner of the Great Khanate, since he was the ruler of Qara-Qorum, the main capital of the Mongol Khanate. Shortly after Qubilai was declared Khan, Ariq Böke was also declared Great Khan in June of the same year3. Now something unprecedented happened: there were two competing Great Khans present in the Mongol Empire, and both received support from different parts of the family of the empire. The four Mongol khanates, which should theo- retically have owed obedience to the Great Khan, began to act completely in their own interests: the Khan of the Golden Horde, Barka (1257–66) supported Böke. * Assoc. Prof., Ankara University, Faculty of Languages, History and Geography, Department of History, Ankara/TURKEY, [email protected] 1 For further information on the dissolution of the Mongol Empire, see D. -
Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi POWER, POLITICS, AND TRADITION IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND THE ĪlkhānaTE OF IRAN OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Īlkhānate of Iran MICHAEL HOPE 1 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/08/16, SPi 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6D P, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Michael Hope 2016 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2016 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932271 ISBN 978–0–19–876859–3 Printed in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. -
The Mongols in Iran
chapter 10 THE MONGOLS IN IRAN george e. lane Iran was dramatically brought into the Mongol sphere of infl uence toward the end of the second decade of the thirteenth century. As well as the initial traumatic mili- tary incursions, Iran also experienced the start of prolonged martial rule, followed later by the domination and rule of the Mongol Ilkhans. However, what began as a brutal and vindictive invasion and occupation developed into a benign and cultur- ally and economically fl ourishing period of unity and strength. The Mongol period in Iranian history provokes controversy and debate to this day. From the horrors of the initial bloody irruptions, when the fi rst Mongol-led armies rampaged across northern Iran, to the glory days of the Ilkhanate-Yuan axis, when the Mongol- dominated Persian and Chinese courts dazzled the world, the Mongol infl uence on Iran of this turbulent period was profound. The Mongols not only affected Iran and southwestern Asia but they also had a devastating effect on eastern Asia, Europe, and even North Africa. In many parts of the world, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas in particular, the Mongols’ name has since become synonymous with murder, massacre, and marauding may- hem. They became known as Tatars or Tartars in Europe and Western Asia for two reasons. Firstly, until Genghis Khan destroyed their dominance, the Tatars were the largest and most powerful of the Turco-Mongol tribes. And secondly, in Latin Tartarus meant hell and these tribes were believed to have issued from the depths of Hades. Their advent has been portrayed as a bloody “bolt from the blue” that left a trail of destruction, death, and horrifi ed grief in its wake. -
'A Pox on the Pax!'
‘A Pox on the Pax!’ A survey of the Pax Mongolica through Persian, Near Eastern and European sources Tobias Jones Research Masters in Middle Eastern Studies Supervisor: Dr. Gabrielle van den Berg 1 Table of Contents Chapter 1- Introduction ......................................................................................................................3 Chapter 2- Pax Mongolica in the Persian sources ..................................................................................8 2.1 Source Background....................................................................................................................8 2.2 Mongol destruction in the Persian sources................................................................................ 10 2.3 Life under the Mongols in the Persian Sources .......................................................................... 14 2.4 Travel and trade in the Persian sources..................................................................................... 25 2.5 Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 29 Chapter 3- Pax Mongolica in the Near Eastern Sources ....................................................................... 33 3.1 Source Background.................................................................................................................. 33 3.2 Mongol destruction in the Near Eastern sources ....................................................................... 36 -
Phd 2013 F Hodous, Toluid Dynamics of Asia
Toluid Dynamics of Asia: flexibility, legality and identity within Toluid institutions Florence Hodous Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in History 2013 Department of History School of Oriental and African Studies University of London 2 Abstract This thesis will show that the concept of Great Yasa is not supported by the contemporary sources and that alternative approaches are needed to investigate law in the Toluid empire. While the concept of Yasa tends to reinforce the perception of Mongol law as being rigid, in fact, considerable room for flexibility and negotiation was embedded within the Mongol legal tradition. This flexibility can be seen in the traditional Mongol institution of the quriltai, an institution which was important not only in terms of the election of khans and taking various decisions, but also in legal terms. The principle of collegiality which was at its foundation was central to Mongol legal culture and its effects can be discerned in the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty. While there was little political will on the part of the Mongol rulers to impose any particular legal practices, including Mongol customs, on the conquered populations, the principle of collegiality had a significant impact on how they dealt with legal matters, and how they and their officials interacted with Persian and Chinese legal traditions. In the many legal cases decided by conference, where many different stakeholders were present, can be seen the enduring effects of the principle of collegiality. The flexibility of the Mongol approach to law is also seen in the differences in the influence of Mongol law in Persia and China. -
Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia Thomas T
Cambridge University Press 0521803357 - Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia Thomas T. Allsen Index More information Index A-hu-ch’a, 205 Amu Darya, 48 Abaqa, 41, 73 An Shih-kao, 13 Chinese seal of, 26 An-ts’ung, 146, 151 sends envoys to Grand Qan, 26, 41, 47 ancestor worship, of Mongols, 65 receives patent from Qubilai, 25 animal slaughter, techniques of, 128–29, 207 titles on coinage, 26 animals, as tribute goods, 34, 43, 44 Abbasids, 9, 10, 13, 194 anti-Islamic attitudes, in Yuan China, 195 Abd al-Rahman, 49 Arghun, 31, 111 Abu’l Fazl, 101 conflict with Ahmad, 27 Abu’l Ghazı,85 sends envoys to Grand Qan, 27, 29 Abu Saıd, 47, 75 titles on coinage, 28–29 conflict with Chuban, 39–40 Arghun Aqa, 19, 48 sends envoys to Grand Qan, 43–44, 153–54, Ariq Böke, 23, 56 155 Armenia, 53 titles on coinage, 38 Armenia, Lesser, 88 Academy of Calendrical Studies, 184 see also Cilicia acculturation, theories of, 189–90 Armenians, 11, 12, 184 Achaemenids, 191, 194, 201–2 Arsacids, 8 Adshead, S., 113 astronomers Afrasiyab, 73–74 as prognosticators, 205–6 Africa, in Muslim cartography, 114 Chinese, in Iran, 161–62, 165 agricultural manuals collaboration between Chinese and Chinese, 118–19 Muslim, 163–64 Muslim, 116–17 Eastern Christian, in China, 166, 168 Ahmad, il-qan, titles on coinage, 26 Muslim, in China, 166–72 see also Tegüder Muslim, in Tibet, 171–72 Ahmad, Yuan minister, 70–71, 195 Muslim, influence in China, 172–74 Ai-hsieh, 27, 149 status among Mongols, 161 see also Isa kelemechi astronomical instruments, Muslim, in China, Ajiqi, 105 169 Akbar, -
Rashīd Al-Dīn and the Making of History in Mongol Iran
Rashīd al-Dīn and the making of history in Mongol Iran Stefan T. Kamola A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2013 Reading Committee: Joel Walker, Chair Charles Melville (Cambridge) Purnima Dhavan Program Authorized to Offer Degree: History ©Copyright 2013 Stefan Kamola University of Washington Abstract Rashīd al-Dīn and the making of history in Mongol Iran Stefan T. Kamola Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Associate Professor Joel Walker History The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh (Collected histories) of Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb (d. 1318) has long been considered the single richest witness to the history of the early Mongol Empire in general and its Middle Eastern branch, the Ilkhanate, in particular. This has created a persistent dependence on the work as a source of historical data, with a corresponding lack of appreciation for the place it holds within Perso-Islamic intellectual history. This understanding of Rashīd al-Dīn and the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, however, does not match certain historiographical and ideological strategies evident in the work itself and in other works by Rashīd al-Dīn and his contemporaries. This dissertation reads beyond the monolithic and uncritical use of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh that dominates modern scholarship on Mongol and Ilkhanid history. Instead, it fits Rashīd al-Dīn and his work into the difficult process of transforming the Mongol Ilkhans from a dynasty of foreign military occupation into one of legitimate sovereigns for the Perso-Islamic world. This is the first study to examine a full range of Persianate cultural responses to the experience of Mongol conquest and rule through the life and work of the most prominent statesman of the period. -
Nomads Under Arrest
Nomads under arrest: The nation-building and nation-destroying of Kalmyk nomads in Russia Saglar Bougdaeva1 and Rico Issacs2 1 Corresponding author: Saglar Bougdaeva, Ph.D. Independent scholar, 190 Saint Ronan Street, New Haven, CT, 06511. Email: [email protected] 2 Rico Isaacs, Ph.D. Reader in Politics. Oxford Brookes University, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, G4.27, Gibbs Building, Gipsy Lane, Oxford OX3 0BP. Email: [email protected] 2 Abstract Nomads are positioned outside of the modern conception of nations, which is based on a traditional or modern hierarchical model (Kuzio 2001) which tends to “dehistoricize and essentialize tradition” (Chatterjee 2010: 169). Using an analysis of the narrative construction of nomadic Kalmyk nationhood, particularly through historiography and culture, it demonstrates that in spite of nation-destroying efforts from the Tsarist Empire and the Soviet Union, the Kalmyk nation has been flexible with reinventing cultural strategies in charting the nomadic national imaginary from Chinggis Khan to the Dalai Lama. It argues that nomadic nationhood contains a deeply imaginary response to nomads’ cultural and intellectual milieu which provided a way of freeing itself from Tsarist and Soviet modular narratives of national imagination, demonstrating how nomadic nationhood exists as a non-modular form of nationhood. Keywords: Kalmyks, nomads, nation-destroying, Russia, Eurasia 3 Introduction With cultural and political identities which transcend fixed territorial boundaries, nomadic populations have always represented an obstacle to efforts of state consolidation (Scott 1999). Attempts to anchor the nomads resemble Walker Connor’s (1994) idea of ‘nation- destroying’ which occurs when states seek to consolidate and assimilate varying groups residing within its territorial borders. -
How Did Persian and Other Western Medical Knowledge Move East, and Chinese West? a Look at the Role of Rashid Al-Din and Others
BRILL Asian Medicine 3 (2007) 279-295 www.brill.nl/asme How did Persian and Other Western Medical Knowledge Move East, and Chinese West? A Look at the Role of Rashid al-Din and Others Paul D. Buell Abstract The name of Rashid al-Din (1247-1317) is associated with the transmission of considerable medical lore from China to Mongol Iran and the Islamic World. In fact, Rashid al-Din was only at one end of the exchange, and while Chinese medical knowledge, including lore about pulsing and the Chinese view of anatomy, went west, Islamic medical knowledge went east, where Islamic medicine became the preferred medicine of the Mongol elite in China. The paper traces this process and considers who may have been involved and what specific traditions in an on going process of medical globalisation. Keywords Rashid al-Din, medicine, Islamic medicine, Mongols, Qubilai, Huhui yaofong, Ibn Sina, isa the translator, globalisation The role of the translation agency headed by Rashid al-Din (1247-1317) in the westward dissemination of eastern knowledge of every sort is relatively well known. 1 Likewise well documented is the role of certain key individuals, including Rashid al-Din himself, as initiators and intermediaries in the exchanges involved. 2 Medicine loomed large among them. This is only to be expected since Rashid al-Din, a converted Jew, is said to have been a doctor, and first come to the attention of his Mongol masters in that capacity. 3 By contrast, far less well known is the dissemination oflranian4 and Arabic knowl edge east: military technology (the famous example are the counterweighted 1 On Chinese pulse lore, see Klein-Franke and Zhu 1998; Rall 1960; Adnan 1940. -
The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchanges Over Eurasia
The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchanges over Eurasia Hodong Kim* I. TWO DIFFERENT VIEWS Today ‘Pax Mongolica’ is no longer an exotic term. It is easily found in scholarly works on Central Eurasia.1 It emphasizes the positive aspect of Mongol rule in contrast to the term ‘Tatar Yoke,’ which highlights their oppressive aspect. Nowadays, many scholars are critical of this viewpoint which emphasizes the destruction brought about by the Mongol conquest. Instead, they tend to perceive ‘Pax Mongolica’ and ‘Tatar Yoke’ as two sides of the same coin.2 T. T. Allsen aptly remarked, “[these] two visions of nomadic history, as Bernard Lewis points out, are not mutually exclusive alternatives; the nomads destroyed some cultural resources and at the same time created conditions in which long-distance cultural exchange flourished. There was, in fact, both a Pax Mongolica and a Tatar Yoke, inhering and coexisting in the very same polity.”3 Now it is regarded as a commonly used historical terminology, and, according to P. D. Buell, “[this] term has been used to describe the freedom of travel and security occasioned by the Mongolian conquests, which brought much of Eurasia under a single political authority and fostered long-range commerce. Conditions continued to be favorable even after the breakdown of the Mongol Empire, and long-range contacts of *Seoul National University (Seoul, Korea) Journal of Central Eurasian Studies, Volume 1 (December 2009): 15-42 © 2009 Center for Central Eurasian Studies 16 Hodong Kim every sort briefly flourished again after the end of the disturbances caused by the wars of Qaidu (q.v.) in the early 14th century.”4 However, the fact that Pax Mongolica has become a favorite, and even fashionable, term among scholars and writers does not necessarily guarantee that it has sufficiently been proven as an accurate term in history. -
Tabriz on the Silk Roads: Thirteenth-Century Eurasian Cultural Connections
Asian Review of World Histories 1:2 (July 2013), 169-188 © 2013 The Asian Association of World Historians doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.12773/arwh.2013.1.2.169 Tabriz on the Silk Roads: Thirteenth-Century Eurasian Cultural Connections Roxann PRAZNIAK University of Oregon Oregon, United States [email protected] Abstract Tabriz under Mongol Ilkhanate rule commanded a global reach in the thir- teenth-century Afro-Eurasian world. Tabriz functioned during this period not only as a commercial emporium and diplomatic center but as a seat of innova- tive artistic and intellectual activity. Consideration of Tabriz as a world histor- ical city offers insight into the economic and social dynamics that shaped a critical passage in Eurasia's history including regions of the Mediterranean and East Asian zones. Keywords Tabriz, Ilkhanate, Silk Road, Mongol Empire, Eurasia 169 Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 10:21:16PM via free access 170 ASIAN REVIEW OF WORLD HISTORIES 1:2 (July 2013) Instructors of world history courses frequently select for close study urban centers they consider to exemplify significant devel- opments in human history. Calicut and Quanzhou, for example, are often studied for their extensive roles in the twelfth-century world economies of south and east Asia. Florence and Amsterdam of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries respectively become lo- cations of emergent early capitalism. Tabriz of the Ilkhanate (1256- 1335) in Iran under the Mongol Empire is not generally singled out for such attention. I would like to suggest that Tabriz was, in fact, a striking example of a world historical city in both its cosmopolitan intellectual culture and its central role in the thirteenth-century global economy. -
Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire
Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire Paul D. Buell The Scarecrow Press Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras Series editor: Jon Woronoff 1. Ancient Egypt, Morris L. Bierbrier, 1999. 2. Ancient Mesoamerica, Joel W.Palka, 2000. 3. Pre-Colonial Africa, Robert 0.Collins, 2001. 4. Byzantium, John H. Rosser, 2001. 5. Medieval Russia, Lawrence N. Langer, 2001. 6. Napoleonic Era, George F. Nafziger, 2001. 7. Ottoman Empire, Selcuk Aksin Somel, 2003. 8. Mongol World Empire, Paul D. Buell, 2003. 9. Mesopotamia, Gwendolyn Leick, 2003. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire Paul D. Buell Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras, No. 8 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland, and Oxford 2003 SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A Member of the Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Lanham, Maryland 20706 w~~.~carecr~wpre~~.com POBox 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright O 2003 by Paul D. Buell All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Buell, Paul D. Historical dictionary of the Mongol world empire / Paul D. Buell. p. cm. - (Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras ; no. 8) ISBN 0-8108-4571-7 (Cloth : alk, paper) 1. Mongols-History-To 1500-Dictionaries, 2. Mongols-History-To 1500. I. Title. 11.