Cardiff School of Sport DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT PROFORMA: Empirical 1
Student name: Jordan Finney Student ID: St20003838
Programme: SES Common Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies Used During High Pressure Dissertation title: Situations in Elite Cricket: The Batting Powerplay
Supervisor: Dr Rich Neil
Comments Section
Title and Abstract (5%)
Title to include: A concise indication of the research question/problem. Abstract to include: A concise summary of the empirical study undertaken.
Introduction and literature review (25%)
To include: outline of context (theoretical/conceptual/applied) for the question; analysis of findings of previous related research including gaps in the literature and relevant contributions; logical flow to, and clear presentation of the research problem/ question; an indication of any research expectations, (i.e., hypotheses if applicable).
Methods and Research Design (15%)
To include: details of the research design and justification for the methods applied; participant details; comprehensive replicable protocol.
Results and Analysis (15%) 2
To include: description and justification of data treatment/ data analysis procedures; appropriate presentation of analysed data within text and in tables or figures; description of critical findings.
Discussion and Conclusions (30%) 2
To include: collation of information and ideas and evaluation of those ideas relative to the extant literature/concept/theory and research question/problem; adoption of a personal position on the study by linking and combining different elements of the data reported; discussion of the real-life impact of your research findings for coaches and/or practitioners (i.e. practical implications); discussion of the limitations and a critical reflection of the approach/process adopted; and indication of potential improvements and future developments building on the study; and a conclusion which summarises the relationship between the research question and the major findings.
Presentation (10%)
To include: academic writing style; depth, scope and accuracy of referencing in the text and final reference list; clarity in organisation, formatting and visual presentation
1 This form should be used for both quantitative and qualitative dissertations. The descriptors associated with both quantitative and qualitative dissertations should be referred to by both students and markers. 2 There is scope within qualitative dissertations for the RESULTS and DISCUSSION sections to be presented as a combined section followed by an appropriate CONCLUSION. The mark distribution and criteria across these two sections should be aggregated in those circumstances.
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CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)
SPORT AND EXERCISE SCIENCE
2013-4
Common Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies Used during High Pressure Situations in Elite Cricket: The Batting Powerplay
(Dissertation submitted under the discipline of Psychology)
Jordan Finney St20003838
COMMON STRESSORS AND SUBSEQUENT COPING STRATEGIES USED DURING HIGH PRESSURE SITUATIONS IN ELITE CRICKET: THE BATTING POWERPLAY
Cardiff Metropolitan University Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
Certificate of student By submitting this document, I certify that the whole of this work is the result of my individual effort, that all quotations from books and journals have been acknowledged, and that the word count given below is a true and accurate record of the words contained (omitting contents pages, acknowledgements, indices, tables, figures, plates, reference list and appendices).
Word count: 10,126 Name: Jordan Finney Date: 15/03/14
Certificate of Dissertation Supervisor responsible I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own effort. I have received dissertation verification information from this student
Name: Date:
Notes: The University owns the right to reprint all or part of this document.
Table Of Contents Page Number List of Appendices ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT ii
CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Cricket: The Demands of The Game 1 1.3 Cricket Specific Research 2 1.4 The Batting Powerplay 2 1.5 Stress and Coping Research 3 1.6 Limitations Within the Research 3 1.7 The Purpose of The Study 4
CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 The Stress Process 5 2.3 Defining Stressors 5 2.3.1 Organisational Stressors 6 2.3.2 Performance Related Stressors 6 2.4 Defining Coping 7 2.4.1 Coping Strategies 7 2.5 Chapter Summarisation 8
CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHOD 3.1 Introduction 10 3.2 Subjects Participating in The Study 10 3.3 Instrumentation 11 3.3.1 Constructing an Interview Guide 11
3.3.2 Pilot Interviews 12 3.4 Procedure 13 3.5 Data Analysis 13 3.6 Validity, Reliability, Trustworthiness and Ethical 14 Considerations
CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS 4.1 Introduction 16 4.2 Stressor and Coping Strategy Diagrams 16 4.2.1 Personal Game Related Stressors 16 4.2.2 Opposition Related Stressors 20 4.2.3 Experience Related Stressors 21 4.3 Coping Strategies 22 4.4 Chapter Summarisation 25
CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction 26 5.2 Contribution to Knowledge 26 5.3 Stressors 27 5.4 Coping Strategies 29 5.5 Practical Implications 30 5.6 Strengths, Weaknesses and Future Research 30 5.7 Conclusion 32
List of References 33
List of Tables Page Number Table 4.3.1 A Table Highlighting Coping Strategies 23 Used, and The Commonality of Strategy in Relation To a Specific Stressor
List of Figures Page Number Figure 4.2.1.1 Personal Game Related Stressors and 17 Subsequent Coping Strategies Figure 4.2.1.2 Personal Game Related Stressors and 18 Subsequent Coping Strategies Continued Figure 4.2.1.3 Personal Game Related Stressors and 19 Subsequent Coping Strategies Continued Figure 4.2.2 Opposition Related Stressors and 20 Subsequent Coping Strategies Figure 4.2.3 Experience Related Stressors and 22 Subsequent Coping Strategies
List of Appendices Page Number Appendix A. Participant Information Sheets A-1 Appendix B. Consent Form B-1 Appendix C. Question Themes and Rationale C-1 Appendix D. Interview Guides Appendix Draft Interview Guide D-1 D1. Appendix Final Interview Guide D-3 D2. Appendix E. Interview Transcription E-1 Appendix F. Ethical Approval F-1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would firstly like thank my dissertation supervisor Dr Rich Neil for the vast amounts of help, support and guidance he has given throughout University and throughout the course of this dissertation. I would also like to thank Adam Miles for the support he has provided throughout the course of this project. I would like to thank Hampshire County Cricket Club and their Director of Cricket Giles White for allowing me to use their playing staff as participants for this study. Finally I would like to thank all of the players who gave up their time for an interview, without them this study would not have been possible.
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ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the stressors experienced by elite cricketers during the batting powerplay and the subsequent coping strategies used. The study was conducted using a qualitative investigation method. Based on strict selection criteria three cricketers were chosen to participate in the study. A semi-structured interview was conducted, using questions that had been created based upon input from three UKCC 3 cricket coaches. The use of three categories within the interview guide (personal factors, opposition factors and experience) not only allowed participants to go into thorough detail, but clearly differentiated between the sources of each stressor highlighted and allowed for clarity in differentiation within the results (personal game related stressors, opposition related stressors, experience related stressors). The findings of this study are presented within these highlighted categories, and show common stressors and coping strategies that occur within the batting powerplay period. There is a general agreement on a large number of stressors experienced by the participants, as is the case with a considerable number of coping strategies. One clear finding is the use of multiple coping strategies to counteract a single stressor, along with the amount of coping strategies that are common to a specific stressor.
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction Throughout the course of this chapter the psychological demands that are related to cricket at an elite level will be highlighted. By identifying these demands along with the importance of coping when experiencing such stressors, a clear rationale will be provided as to why stressors and coping strategies need to be examined. The batting powerplay will be briefly described and the history of this ruling within cricket will be made apparent. This chapter will also begin to introduce stress and coping as a subject, each term shall be explained in depth. There will be a clear link displayed as to how important stress and coping is from a cricketing perspective, due to the impact that stress and coping literature has had throughout other sporting areas.
1.2 Cricket: The Demands of The Game Previous literature has highlighted that cricket as a game has extreme physical and psychological demands (Woolmer and Noakes, 2008). The sport of cricket has developed at pace over time. In the past games were played without a time limit (continue until someone wins), however back in those times there were less fixtures played within a season. The fact that games could just keep going, clearly highlights the physical demands placed upon the player (Malcolm et al., 2010). In more recent times elite cricket has seen the introduction of the one day game, which at domestic level is 40 overs per-side. Professional cricketers of the modern age are expected to play fast paced cricket over a long period of time, with the season starting at the end of March and ending in mid-September (Woolmer and Noakes, 2008). The most noticeable psychological demands placed upon cricketers now are the ability to perform physically and mentally day in day out (Cleary, 2012). Every cricketer will encounter extreme psychological demands when placed under this kind of pressure, highlighted by Gucciardi (2011) who stated that 187 out of 308 adolescent cricketers reported having positive and negative battles with their mind. Woolmer and Noakes (2008) stated that the batsman’s job is to score runs whilst adapting to the on-going changes that occur during the game (i.e. field placing, bowler changes and wicket). The previous statement highlights why batsmen of the modern day are placed under extreme mental demands and when facing these every day for months on end, may encounter various unwanted psychological outcomes. This brief description of the cricketing demands and the addition of high profile
1 cricketers past and present being diagnosed with stress related conditions highlights why there is a need to examine the psychological effects of the game further.
1.3 Cricket Specific Research There are minimal amounts of psychological research within cricket, which is surprising considering that it is a game where the mind is such a strong factor in success. With the need for success being great within elite sport, this prompted the first signs of psychological research into cricket, Thelwell and Maynard (1998) investigated the effects of anxiety on batting performance. Due to the findings of the previously mentioned study Bawden and Maynard (2001) conducted research with a similar approach; however they looked into the effect of debilitative anxiety within bowlers. This prompted various other psychological research to be conducted within cricket with studies such as Thelwell and Maynard (2002; 2003); Holt and Mandigo, (2004); Thelwell et al. (2007); Cotterill, (2011; 2012); Miles and Neil, (2013) furthering knowledge into the use of coping strategies within cricket, highlighting that self-talk, pre-performance routines, goal setting and concentration can provide greater consistency when considering cricketing performance. The studies that are mentioned above provide clarification as to why there is a need for mental skills and coping strategies within cricket. However what these studies do not do is provide distinct clarity as to what demands cricketers may be placed under at certain points during the game. For example Sanctuary et al. (2010) found that List A and First Class cricketers feel that they need to understand the effects of technical and tactical factors on their psychological state during specific moments of competition.
1.4 The Batting Powerplay The batting powerplay was introduced in 2008 within 40 over and 50 over List A cricket. This was a distinctive rule change within limited overs cricket which meant that during a period of four overs, no more than three fielders were allowed outside the circle as opposed to the normal five. The meaning behind this rule change was that batsman would have the ability to bat with greater freedom and score more boundaries as a result of less fielders being on the boundary, which ultimately makes the game more exciting for the viewer. This ruling was revisited in 2012, and is now the current ruling that there is only allowed to be three players outside the ring during powerplay period as opposed to the normal four fielders. Even though the batting powerplay was introduced to entertain
2 crowds, by allowing fast accumulation of runs through scoring more boundaries during this period, the analysis of Hughes (2011) showed that bowlers took more wickets during the batting powerplay than any other time in the innings throughout the 2011 World Cup. This suggests that there is a need to explore the coping strategies of batsmen during this period of the game, with the aim of understanding what can be done to help the cricketers achieve the desired outcomes within this critical period of the game.
1.5 Stress and Coping Research A lot of research has considered the stressors identified and the accompanying coping strategies used by sports performers. However the majority of the research considers either stress or stressors and coping as separate concepts. Within the research that has adopted a narrow conceptual focus it has been highlighted that athletes will experience performance related or organisational related stressors (Holt and Hogg, 2002; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003a; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003b; Anshel and Sutarso, 2007; Neil et al., 2007; McKay et al., 2008; Thelwell et al., 2008; Mellalieu et al., 2009). Similarly when considering coping strategies, it has been clarified that there are different types of coping strategy; avoidance coping (Holt and Mandigo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009a), emotion focused coping (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007) and problem focused coping preparation (Holt and Mandigo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Thelwell et al., 2007; Nicholls & Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009b; Devonport et al., 2013). A further issue with the stressor and coping research is the overreliance on retrospective designs where comparisons are made based upon participant differences and characteristics like gender (Calvete et al., 2011). Secondly where there are longitudinal designs, participants are grouped based upon the initial coping strategies they identify and results and comparisons are then drawn (McDonough et al., 2013).
1.6 Limitations Within The Research The biggest limitation within the research is the lack of specificity within the link between stressors and coping strategies at the elite level, even more so when considering this notion from a cricketing perspective. Studies such as Holt and Mandigo (2004) and Thelwell et al. (2007) highlighted coping strategies used, however within this literature there is minimal evidence given as to the stressors that are perceived during performance.
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It also must be noted that the work of Holt and Mandigo (2004) was conducted using non- professional cricketers, therefore a true reflection of coping strategies at the elite level cannot be concluded from this study.
1.7 The Purpose of The Study Due to the limitations that are prominent throughout the stressor and coping literature, the aim of this study is to qualitatively examine the common stressors encountered by elite batsmen during the specific batting powerplay period and the coping strategies commonly used to counteract the identified stressors.
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction The following chapter will cover the following aspects. The first part of the chapter will aim to provide clear and precise definitions of the stress process, stressors and coping strategies. Following this a balanced critique of stress and coping literature will be conducted, culminating with a justification for the current study.
2.2 The Stress Process Early insights into definitions of the stress process were made by McGrath (1970) who defined stress as something that occurs as a result of the demands placed upon someone being greater than their ability to respond or cope. Ultimately meaning it will have a detrimental effect on performance. However, other researchers have built upon the views of McGrath and come up with the following conclusions. Defined broadly, stress is the reaction between an athlete and the particular environment they find themselves in (Crocker et al., 1998; Lazarus, 2000; Hoar et al., 2006). Literature highlights the process of stress from a transactional perspective (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Lazarus, 1999). Such literature shows how stress, coping and emotion should not be isolated, and should be examined together (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus, 2000). Defined simply, the transactional model of stress shows how a demand (stressor) that is apparent to the athlete can be managed using various different techniques (coping strategies) after first and secondary appraisals have been conducted by the athletes (Lazarus, 1991; Lazarus, 1999; Neil et al., 2007). Primary appraisals involve the athlete evaluating the demand with regards to the performance of affected goals, the threat or challenge of the demands, whether the demands are personally relevant and whether the athlete has the ability to adapt to the demands. Secondary appraisals revolve purely around the athlete evaluating what they can do to relieve themselves from the pressures of the demands (Zohar and Dayan, 1999). Previous research into such subjects from a cricketing perspective is very limited.
2.3 Defining Stressors During the infancy of stressors research, early definitions were derived as to what stressors were. For example it could be seen that demands such as the fear of making errors, or injury concern were clarified as stressors (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1999).
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When looking deeper into the stressors that are placed upon athletes, there is a broad field of literature from various sports that provide an insight into the theoretical background of this subject. Noticeably a general agreement exists that stressors can be separated into the following categories; organisational (e.g., preparation, finance, opposition, refereeing decision) and performance related stressors (e.g., making a mental or physical error; (Holt and Hogg, 2002; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003a; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003b; Hanton et al., 2005; Anshel and Sutarso, 2007; Neil et al., 2007; McKay et al., 2008; Thelwell et al., 2008; Mellalieu et al., 2009).
2.3.1 Organisational Stressors In layperson terms organisational stressors are sourced from the interaction between the individual and their sporting organisation (Woodman and Hardy, 2001a). Using a framework designed by Carron (1982), Woodman and Hardy (2001a) stated that there are four different sub categories that fall into the bracket of organisational stressors; personal issues, environmental issues, team issues and leadership issues. This provided clear grounding in stressors literature on which to build and begin to define and clarify the sources of stressors. From this research academics were able to provide up to date research and clarify a concise definition of organisational stressors. Fletcher and Hanton (2003a) provided further knowledge for organisational stress by highlighting that factors like family issues and finance can be considered organisational stressors even though they may not be directly related to the organisation itself. Clearly this now categorises demands placed on the athletes in much more specific ways at the same time as highlighting that stressors external to the sport itself will still be apparent within athletes minds during performance. This is very important to academics and applied psychologists, because it provides the information that every athlete has different demands, but these demands are not necessarily directly related to sport, therefore providing a more holistic approach to organisational stress. Recent research has since focused on gaining knowledge on the broad sources of organisational stressors. For example, research has considered what organisational stressors a range of elite athletes encounter throughout their careers (Woodman and Hardy, 2001a; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003b; Didymus and Fletcher, 2012).
2.3.2 Performance Related Stressors
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Despite early research providing some insight into competitive demands encountered by sports performers, early research into performance related stressors considered the following terms as; fear of injury or making physical or mental errors as stressors (Noblet and Gifford, 2002; Holt and Hogg, 2002). Neil et al. (2007) portrayed how performance related stressors clearly focus upon the demands that occur within a game or training that are directly related to that activity, for example; in game performance, preparation and injury concern are all common stressors highlighted by athletes (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993; Holt & Hogg., 2002; Noblet and Gifford., 2002; Heller et al., 2003; Nicholls et al., 2009a). This form of stressor is different to organisational stressors, because the source of stress comes from not only the athlete themselves, but the specific sporting activity in which they are partaking rather than demands external to competition.
2.4 Defining Coping Within stressful competitive sporting situations, athletes adopt coping strategies to attempt to succeed and counteract the stressor(s) that is placed upon them. Coping strategies have been examined over a long period of time, early research from Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as “constantly changing behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.” From this foundation, researchers began to further the knowledge of coping and came to the conclusion that coping can be divided into three clear sub categories:- 1) problem focused coping, which refers to tackling the problem in hand and managing the stressor through things such as time management and goal-setting;- 2) emotion-focused coping, which considers the individual aiming to attain an element of control over the somatic and cognitive responses of the body, through efforts such as deep breathing, visualisation and acceptance;- 3) avoidance coping, a strategy used by athletes that relates to withdrawing themselves from a certain situation which they perceive to be stressful, this can include both behavioural and psychological reactions such as walking away (behavioural) and blocking (psychological) (Krohne, 1993; Lazarus, 1999).
2.4.1 Coping Strategies As a result of the breakdown of coping strategies, there has become a clearer understanding as to the methods athletes use to counteract stressors within sport. The splitting of coping strategies into sub-categories not only provided researchers with
7 rationale to look deeper into what coping strategies are used, but identify which bracket the commonly used coping strategies fall under. There is a generic conclusion across research from various different team and individual sports that avoidance coping is used primarily through a technique known as thought blocking (Holt and Mandigo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009b). Similarly emotion focused coping is commonly used through the forms of; thought control, confidence boosting and teammate support (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007). Finally the most used form of coping across various studies, is problem focused coping which involves;- increased concentration, increased effort, planning, problem solving and preparation (Holt and Mandingo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Thelwell et al., 2007; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009b; Devonport et al., 2013). It must be mentioned that coping strategies are athlete specific and other coping strategies have been highlighted throughout other forms of coping literature (Dugdale et al., 2002; Nicholls and Polman, 2008; Neil et al., 2011; Miles and Neil, 2013). Within more recent, researchers have tried to highlight common links between the stressor experienced by an athlete, and the coping strategy they would use to counteract the stressor. Thelwell et al. (2010) found that the coping strategies such as; showing frustration, self-talk and escaping are used when trying to manage both organisational and competitive stressors, highlighting that the coping strategy is used based upon how the individual manages the situation best, rather than there being better ways to manage certain situations. However McDonough et al. (2013) did find that there are three prominent responses to how athletes perceive stressors; a) as something to be avoided (e.g., fear of event, coach), b) a problem to be solved (repeating poor performance history), c) the athlete finds sport minimally stressful. The research then led on to describe the coping strategies used by the athletes, but these were not in relation to the groups of perceived stressors, or the individual stressor highlighted. Also this research was conducted with adolescent swimmers rather than elite adults, therefore the findings could differ if this study was conducted on elite adult athletes.
2.5 Chapter Summarisation The initial aims of chapter two were to define the stress process (Neil et al., 2007), stressors (Mellalieu et al., 2009) and coping strategies (Lazarus, 1999) and provide a clear history of the research into these three subjects. Athletes will have benefitted from the research stated due to the applied impact that it would have on them, and the definitions
8 and breakdowns into stressors and coping strategies has advanced theoretical knowledge in these areas. The chapter highlights how demands placed upon athletes can be categorised as either organisational and performance related stressors, but also clarifies that there can be a cross over between these two categories (Neil et al., 2007; Mellalieu et al., 2009). Similarly there is also clarity in the breakdown in the types of coping strategy that can be used; emotion-focused coping, problem-focused coping and avoidance coping (Nicholls et al., 2006). However from this critique it is clear that there is no reference with regards to specific points within games when considering cricket, which is surprising considering that cricket is played over a long period of time and various different events occur within the limited overs games (e.g., powerplays). Also there is limited literature that is focused around the idea of rule changes. Therefore this provides the rationale for this current study into stressors and coping strategies within the batting powerplay. More research is required to examine coping within actual competition and within specific competitive situations. The purpose of this study is to examine stressors experienced, and the coping strategies used to counteract these stressors during the four over batting powerplay by using a qualitative design.
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CHAPTER THREE METHOD
3.1 Introduction The use of qualitative inquiry through semi-structured interviews allows for the “whats” of a study to be addressed, and for the researcher to have more control over what content is gathered (Culver et al., 2012) along with allowing the subject freedom of expression and rich description to be provided (Miles and Hubermann, 1984). Due to the nature of this study relying on in-depth descriptions of stressors and subsequent coping strategies, it is clear that there is a need for the data collection method to be of a qualitative nature. What will follow in this chapter will be; 1) the methodological process that this study will follow, 2) reasoning behind the sample used within the study, 3) the process of both the data collection and data analysis. Finally this chapter will be concluded, by highlighting the validity and reliability of the study and the methods used.
3.2 Subjects Participating in The Study There needs to be great specificity in the selection of subjects (Patton, 2002). Batting powerplays are only present within the professional game therefore there is a need for an elite sample. The definition for elite however isn’t always clear (Hanton and Connaughton, 2002), as there are many differing definitions of the term. This particular study will base the term elite as someone who has been signed to a professional club and played List A cricket, the participants should also be considered as batsmen and should have batted during the batting powerplay (Miles and Neil, 2013). This sampling method follows the guidelines set out by Patton (2002). Four participants were selected based upon the criteria mentioned. The participants selected provided a diverse age range between 22 and 33 (Mean= 27.6 years of age). When considering the length of time the participants had been in the professional game, this varied between 2 and 15 years (Mean= 8 years). After the potential participants were highlighted, the researcher wrote to the participants’ club about the study asking for permission to speak to the players. Once permission had been granted and the players had been contacted, a participant information sheet was sent to the perspective participants inviting them to take part in the study, this invitation outlined the main purpose and aim of the study along with what benefits they could get from participating (see appendix A; Woodman and Hardy, 2001a). Accompanying this letter was a consent form (Gratton and Jones, 2010) for the participants to fill in and send back should they wish to take part in the study (see appendix B).
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3.3 Instrumentation This study relied on semi-structured interviews to gather the data. Before a complete interview guide was made and before interviews were conducted, both professional coaches and players were consulted to check the relevance of the themes to be focused on preliminary to wording. The following will describe the process undertaken during each stage of the data collection.
3.3.1 Constructing an Interview Guide When considering past stressor and coping strategy research many studies have used log books and diaries to gain instant information (Nicholls and Polman, 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Hanton et al., 2012). For this study diaries were not appropriate to gain information due to the professional club only allowing access for one hit interviews. Therefore it was decided that the data collection would happen through the use of semi- structured interviews, an approach that has also been successful in the stressor and coping research field (Thelwell et al., 2007; Reeves et al., 2009; Evans et al., 2012). Patton (2002) showed that interviews allow for necessary information to be gathered from the participant through sequential questioning. Similarly a particular strength of using semi- structured interviews is that it allows for the researcher to probe the interviewee to gain more information about the emerging themes (Flick et al., 2004; Kvale, 2009; Gratton and Jones, 2010; Newby, 2010; Silvermann, 2010). The creation of the interview guide started by highlighting key themes that need to be addressed within the interview based upon the information gathered from previous studies (see appendix C) and from cricketing professionals. Following this, these themes were placed into an open question form, and a draft interview guide was submitted to be reviewed by the researchers’ dissertation supervisor (see appendix D1). Following the advice given, a final interview guide was created (see appendix D2). The interview guide opened with a series of introductory questions that were not directly related to stressors and coping, and were used primarily to get the interviewee comfortable in answering simple questions that enabled them to get into the flow of the interview. As the interview progressed the questions were split into three sections; 1) personal factors, 2) opposition effects and 3) experience, as these were the emergent themes that occurred with regards to stressor sources during conversations with professional coaches. This split allowed for clarity within the answers given both for the interviewer and participant by enabling both to understand the categories in which to place
11 the stressors and coping strategies mentioned. The structure of the interview guide also allowed for greater depths to be explored as there was no confusion as to which category of the interview the question was referring to.
3.3.2 Pilot Interviews Pilot interviews are required due to the fact that they allow for the researcher to analyse their own performance within the interview, along with understanding if their interview guide addresses all relevant information needed for a strong study (Cohen et al., 2007; Basit, 2010). From the analysis conducted into the performance of the interview, the researcher can then adjust their interview guide to ensure aforementioned pathways are addressed, along with enabling researcher to gain experience conducting interviews which will provide greater cues as to when to interject and probe (Kvale, 2009). This study was the first time that the researcher had ever conducted interviews from a research perspective, meaning that researcher gained vast information into improving both the interview guide (see appendix D1; appendix D2) and their own performance in time for when the real interviews took place. Within the pilot interview, an ex-professional cricketer who currently plays minor counties cricket was used as the subject. Due to the fact there was a full interview guide available to use, the researcher was able to take vast amounts of information away from the pilot interview, not just experience of conducting the interview. Based upon the feedback given about the researchers pilot interview experiences, the researcher was advised by their dissertation supervisor to create a relaxed atmosphere, and not come across too forceful with regards to probing for answers. After the pilot interview was conducted, it was fully transcribed and analysed both while being played back and through being read. The researcher realised that there was a lack of probing within the interview, and that the interviewer often just went straight to the next question after being given an answer. As a result of this, the researcher and dissertation supervisor decided that the best course of action next time around would be to take time to digest the information given, before deciding whether to probe or continue on with the interview guide. This ultimately gives the interviewer the chance to digest the information and make good informed decisions as to how to best progress with the interview. Similarly there were slight changes made to the wording of the questions to make sure they were as open as possible, but still maintained the greatest possible specificity, for example starting the
12 question with “Tell me” which gave the participant the chance to talk in greater depth. This meant that all bases of information could be covered with minimal crossover.
3.4 Procedure To ensure that it was ok to interview professional cricket players of a certain club for this study, the club was contacted in July 2013 asking for permission to address and ultimately interview certain members of their playing staff. Once the club had given permission for the players to be contacted, the selected participants were sent information sheets and consent forms to fill out to ensure that they fully agreed to partake in the study. Following the three players giving their consent, interview dates were arranged with the partcipants. As a result of the schedule for professional cricket being very intense, the time and date of the interview was left purely down to the participant. The only instruction given by the researcher was that the ideal timing to conduct the interviews would be in November. The interview guide however was ready and prepared well in advance of the earliest date that was given by a participant. Similar to the above, the interviews were conducted in an environment that was entirely the choice of the participant (e.g., a coffee shop on two occasions). This meant that the participant felt in control of their surroundings as they had chosen them. Gratton and Jones (2010) highlight how imperative it is to maximise convenience and comfort within the environment for the participant.
3.5 Data Analysis When analysing qualitative data the information firstly has to be transcribed. Following the transcription the data can then be coded and placed into specific themes (Miles and Hubermann, 1984). The process of analysing the data will be explained in greater detail below. Firstly the information that is gathered through the use of a Dictaphone, must be fully transcribed verbatim into a Word Document (see appendix E; Miles and Huberman, 1984; Patton, 2002; Flick et al., 2004; Corbin and Strauss, 2008). Post completion of the transcription, the completed documents were sent to the participants to complete a process called “member checking’’. This process allows for the participants to read over the transcriptions and ensure that all data is presented and interpreted correctly (Kvale, 2009).
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To gain the greatest understanding of the transcripts and the participant in which the transcriptions are based around, Corbin and Strauss (2008) suggested that reading the transcripts multiple times allow for the maximal familiarization with the data. Once manuscripts were read for familiarity, the data was subsequently coded based on both an inductive and deductive approach. A deductive approach allows for the analysis to fall into line with other frameworks and provides the study with a particular strength with regards to agreement with existing frameworks (Gratton and Jones 2010). An inductive approach however allows the researcher to take an open minded approach to the analysis of the data and allow for the creation of new discoveries (Patton, 2002). An inductive approach is also critical to this study based upon the sport specificity, there will naturally be new themes emerging. An example of both these themes being used in this study is where the coping strategies were defined based upon previous research where possible, but highlighting that multiple strategies can be used to counteract one specific stressor. The final part of the data analysis, is to provide each highlighted stressor with a subsequent coping strategy, to allow for clear patterns to be seen that are relevant to the desired findings of the study.
3.6 Validity, Reliability, Trustworthiness and Ethical Considerations To have a study that is unreliable and invalid ultimately undermines the research outcomes of any type of study, therefore the reliability and validity considerations within studies have to be of extreme importance (Gratton and Jones, 2010). There are various pieces of literature that highlight the importance of validity and also provide the description that validity is based around the data both telling the truth and being portrayed truthfully (Corbin and Strauss, 2008; Silverman, 2010). Reliability and validity within qualitative studies has also become a prominent factor within literature, Miles and Hubermann (1984) explained that the researcher needs to have maximal familiarization with regards to everything included within the study, and also have the ability to allow the interview to run its course and not finish early. When considering this current study, the researcher conducted a review of literature regarding the stress process and stressor and coping literature respectively, along with conducting pilot interviews to ensure that skills were at a sufficient level. The semi-structured interview guide used for the data collection within this study allowed similarities with regards to the way in which each question was portrayed to the subject, but also allowed for probing where necessary to discover new themes. Also within this chapter, the various protocols and processes behind this method have been
14 described and explained which means if necessary this study could be replicated. This process supports Newby (2010) who stated that reliability revolves around the study being able to be replicated and produce similar results. When considering trustworthiness, the data should be believable with regards to results and also how well the interpretations of the findings are portrayed (Corbin and Strauss, 2008; Gratton and Jones, 2010). When considering this study up against the above, the trustworthiness within the data of this study can be clarified. Also the trustworthiness and reliability of the data within this current study was enhanced due to the utilised technique of “member checking”, this meant that the participants themselves could dictate to the researcher whether a reliable account of the data was being portrayed. All that is stated above falls into line with the guidelines to trustworthiness and reliability that are stated by Miles and Hubermann (1984) ensuring the credibility of this study.
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CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS
4.1 Introduction This study explored stressors encountered by three elite cricket players during a specific point in a 40 over innings, this point in the game being the four over batting powerplay. Also the subsequent coping strategies of the respective stressors were explored.
4.2 Stressor and Coping Strategy Diagrams Within this study a total of 37 different stressors were highlighted by the participants. Each of the stressors will be represented below within one of the three categories; 1) Personal Game Related Stressors, 2) Opposition Related Stressors, and 3) Previous Experience Related Stressors. These categories will provide the starting point to a framework that depicts the stressor and coping strategy relationship. The relationship will be portrayed in a way that clearly links a specific stressor its own specific coping strategy. The frame work has been created based upon previous work that has highlighted stressors and coping strategies in a similar way (Fletcher et al., 2006; Mellalieu et al., 2009). These frameworks were chosen due to their clarity in depicting the clear pathway of stressors and coping strategies. It must however be noted that although some of the names of stressors and coping strategies are the same within this study as they are in previous framework, there are also some new or different names as a result of the specificity of this study to the sport of cricket.
4.2.1 Personal Game Related Stressors This section considers stressors that relate directly to the performance of an individual, meaning there are no external factors such as opposition directly involved with the stressor. Within this category 24 stressors were highlighted by the participants. 12 of the aforementioned 24 stressors were highlighted by at least two of the participants. This category has the most frequently cited stressors when compared to the other categories. Figure 4.2.1.1 shows a total of three stressors that are highlighted by all of the participants; required run-rate, lack of boundaries and peer evaluation. When considering peer evaluation, two types of evaluation were identified; - 1) Teammate evaluation, and 2) Opposition evaluation. Teammate evaluation is highlighted by participant A, “I know I worry what the dressing room might be thinking. Participant C reported on the worries that opposition evaluation brings, “you know that they fancy you (think you’re an easy wicket) and they fancy you won’t do anything against them”.
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A) Multiple Strategies – Planning and Required 3 Preparation/Knowledge of Run-Rate Game/Talk to Partner/Avoidance
B) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Game/Talk to Partner/Planning and Preparation/Remember
Positive Experience
C) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Game/Remain Positive
A) Knowledge of game Lack of 3 B) Multiple Strategies – Knowledge Boundaries of Game/Talk to Partner
A) Multiple Strategies – Planning and Preparation/Teammate Support/Negative Opposition Tactics
Peer 3 B) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Personal Evaluation Game/Enhanced Game Related Concentration/Remember Positive Stressors Experience/Thought Blocking
B) Multiple Strategies -Remain Positive/Pre-Delivery Routine C) Multiple Strategies –Talk to Facing Dot 3 Partner/Knowledge of Balls Game/Avoidance
B) Multiple Strategies- Thought Blocking/Self-Belief Crowd 2 C) Multiple Strategies- Though Blocking/Self-Belief/Learning From Previous
Experience/Visualisation
A) Talk to Partner Fear of 2 C) Multiple Strategies- Talk to Failure Partner/Teammate Support
Loss of 2 B) Multiple Strategies- Talk to Wickets Partner/Knowledge of Game
Figure 4.2.1.1: Personal Game Related Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies
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For the stressor named run-rate required it is apparent that all three participants used multiple strategies to cope with this demand, and all participants used their knowledge of the game as one of the multiple strategies.
Away 2 A) Multiple Strategies – Previous
Games Experience/Practice/Planning and Preparation/Knowledge of Game C) Planning and Preparation
B) Re-Assessing Change of 2 Plan C) Multiple Strategies- Planning and Preparation/Practice
B) Multiple Strategies- Talk to Slow 2 Scoring Partner/Take Responsibility C) Multiple Strategies- Talk to Partner Partner/Knowledge of Game
Missing Out 2 A) Pre-Delivery Routine on Bad C) Multiple Strategies- Talk to Balls Partner/Teammate Support
Personal Scoring 2 B) Knowledge of Game Quickly C) Multiple Strategies- Learning from Game Related Stressors Previous Experience/Knowledge of Game
Adaptation 1 A) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Game/Planning and Preparation
Tempo 1 Change B) Knowledge of Game
Chasing 1 B) Multiple Strategies-Knowledge of
Game/Planning and Preparation
Expectation 1 B) Knowledge of Game
Batting First 1
Figure 4.2.1.2: Personal Game Related Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies Continued
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It is noticeable that the majority of stressors highlighted within this section relate to run scoring (see figures 4.2.1.1; 4.2.1.2; 4.2.1.3). This is due to the participants highlighting that the batting powerplay is a good time to score runs at an increased rate. Participant C quoted “I think in a batting powerplay it is aimed to get you in an aggressive mind-set and thinking that way of scoring runs and being positive.” This statement clarifies the pressure on the batsmen to score at these specific points.
General 1 B) Multiple Strategies-
Pressure Visualisation/Enhanced
Concentration
Losing 1 C) Multiple Strategies-Knowledge of
Control Game/Enhanced Concentration/Talk to
Partner/Planning and Preparation Importance 1
of Match A) Enhanced Concentration Personal Game Related Making a 1 C) Multiple Strategies-Talk to Stressors Mistake Partner/Knowledge of Game/Avoidance
Match 1 A) Multiple Strategies-Talk to Outcome Partner/Knowledge of Game/Avoidance
Underperfo 1 A) Knowledge of Game rming at
Home
Self-Doubt 1 A) Multiple Strategies-Pre-Delivery
Routine/Learning From Previous Experience/Practice/Planning and Preparation/Enhanced
Concentration
Figure 4.2.1.3: Personal Game Related Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies Continued
Finally, it is noticeable that some of the names of stressors are very similar (see figures 4.2.1.1; 4.2.1.2; 4.2.1.3), for example making a mistake and fear of failure.
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These two stressors had very different meanings when considering what the participants views were. Participant A stated “The last thing I want to do is use up balls and then get out.” The demand that is prominent within this quote is the fear of getting out, which is what batsmen define as failure. Participant C quoted “Technically you have more fielders inside the circle, so you can make a mistake.” This differs from the previous quote because there is no mention of getting out, which proves these two stressors are different.
4.2.2 Opposition Related Stressors These stressors considered the demands put on the performers by opponents during the powerplay. For example, the opposition doing something that the participants within this study deem as demanding.
A) Multiple Strategies – Knowledge of Game/Talk to Partner Field 3 B) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Changes Game/Planning and Preparation C) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Game/Re-Assessing
B) Knowledge of Game Change of 2 C) Multiple Strategies- Learning From Bowler Previous Experience/Knowledge of Game/Planning and Preparation Matching 2 Oppositions A) Knowledge of Game Opposition Powerplay B) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Related Game/Planning and Preparation Stressors Opposition 2
Bowling Well A) Multiple Strategies – Learning From Previous Experience/Goal-Setting/Pre- Sledging 1 Delivery Routine/Remember Positive Experience.
Previous Low 2 Scoring C) Multiple Strategies-Remain Positive Overs /Knowledge of Game
Turning 1 Wicket A) Multiple Strategies- Knowledge of Game/Talk to Partner/Learning From Previous Experience
Figure 4.2.2: Opposition Related Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies
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Seven stressors were highlighted within this category. Of these seven, the following five were highlighted by at least two participants; Field Changes, Change of Bowler, Matching Oppositions Powerplay, Opposition Bowling Well, Previous Low Scoring Overs, Sledging, Turning Wicket (see figure 4.2.2).
4.2.3 Experience Related Stressors This category was the most limited with regards to stressors experienced by the participants, with a total of six stressors being identified and only two of those being highlighted by more than one participant. Negative previous experience was the most common stressor; all three participants found this demanding. As this category is related to experience it is not surprising that the majority of stressors are only named by one of the three participants (see figure 4.2.3). As is the case in previous sections, negative previous experience and negative experience of specific bowler are split as a result of the way in which the participants explained these demands. Participant A stated “sometimes under pressure you start to see the stuff that has gone wrong and start seeing stuff that will go wrong so you make it worse for yourself.” The quote shows the participant talking about previous experience in a very broad context, the only thing this recollection of experience can be related to is the batting powerplay. When considering a specific bowler Participant A also stated “if it is a guy that I have had indifferent times against then it is the other way around then I feel that I suppose I am ultra-wary of getting out to him again or getting bogged down by him again, which only goes and makes it worse.” The specificity of this quote is why this must be considered as a separate stressor. A prominent factor within figure 4.2.3 is two of the participants stated facing spin bowling as a demand compared to the one participant that highlighted facing fast bowling as a demand. Participants found facing spin bowling a threat at the actual point when they were facing them within the powerplay, highlighted here by Participant A; “In reality there are times when you find it gets a little bit too much. I actually find it trickier against spin.” This differs from the participants views on facing fast bowling. The previous point is clarified by Participant A who commented “with a quick bowler you just react, ok you might get yourself into a bit of a frenzy or a bit of a panic or state beforehand.”
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A) Multiple Strategies – Getting Feedback/Thought Blocking/Pre- Delivery Routine/Enhanced
Concentration
B) Multiple Strategies- Thought Blocking/Seeing Threat as a Challenge/Learning From Previous Experience/Remember Positive Experience/Visualisation
Negative 3 C) Multiple Strategies- Thought
Previous Blocking/Planning and Preparation/Pre-
Experience Delivery Routine/Technical Self- Talk/Enhanced Concentration
Facing Spin 2 A) Tactical Self-Talk Bowling B) Multiple Strategies- Planning and
Experience Preparation/Practice/Seeing Threat as a
Related Challenge/Pre-Delivery Stressors Routine/Knowledge of Game Facing Fast 1 Bowling A) Controlled Breathing
Venue 1 B) Multiple Strategies – Seeing Threat as a Worries Challenge/Thought Blocking/Technical Self-Talk/Visualisation Negative 1 Experience of Specific A) Multiple Strategies- Pre-Delivery Bowler Routine/Practice/Planning and
Preparation Previous 1 C) Multiple Strategies- Remain Positive Experience Positive/Remember Positive Experience
Figure 4.2.3: Experience Related Stressors and Subsequent Coping Strategies
4.3 Coping Strategies When considering coping strategies in relation to counteracting specific demands, the use of multiple strategies was the most common way the participants attempted to deal with stressors. An example of the term multiple strategies is evident via a statement made by Participant A, “I would probably chat to the guy at the other end and say, look he is taking away what I feel is one of my go tos. He might take square leg to mid-wicket because I am not quite as happy sweeping but I might still reverse, if you can get me a single.” This
22 statement shows the participant uses talking to their partner and their knowledge of the game together to deal with a demand. Participants reported using multiple strategies 40 times. Specific coping strategies were either used on their own or in combination with other strategies. A total of 24 coping strategies were highlighted overall (see table 4.3.1).
Table 4.3.1: A Table Highlighting Coping Strategies Used, and the Commonality of Strategy in Relation To a Specific Stressor Coping Strategy Number of Times Used Common Coping Strategy Knowledge of the Game 30 6 Planning and Preparation 16 2 Talk to Partner 15 3 Pre-Delivery Routine 8 1 Learning from Previous 7 0 Experience Thought Blocking 7 2 Enhanced Concentration 7 1 Remember Positive 5 0 Experience Practice 4 0 Avoidance 4 0 Visualisation 4 0 Remain Positive 4 0 Teammate Support 3 0 Seeing Threat as a 3 0 Challenge Self-Belief 2 1 Re-Assessing 2 0 Technical Self-Talk 2 0 Take Responsibility 1 Previous Experience 1 Negative Opposition 1 Tactics Goal-Setting 1
23
Controlled Breathing 1 Tactical Self-Talk 1 Getting Feedback 1 Multiple Strategies 40 7
Eight different coping strategies were highlighted as common to a specific stressor; meaning that the specific coping strategy was used by at least two of the three participants in the attempt to counteract a specific demand. Some coping strategies are common to more than one stressor. Common coping strategies were linked to specific stressors a total of 23 times. The categories that included the largest amounts of common coping strategies were; Personal Game Related Stressors, and Opposition related stressors. Excluding the use of multiple strategies, it is clear that the most common specific coping strategy is knowledge of game which was stated 30 times. Knowledge of the game was used as a phrase to highlight when the participants used their knowledge to create tactical plans on the spot. One example is provided by Participant B, who stated “I think I just really like accepting that you can’t go through the motions during the powerplay, I think it is important for your side to use it, so I think instead of taking the usual principles during your innings, I think there is a concerted effort to lift the tempo.” When considering common coping strategies, multiple strategies was used the most by at least two participants in relation to a specific stressor. Similarly, knowledge of the game is the most common specific coping strategy used when relating it to the amount of times used by two or more people to counteract a specific stressor. Coping strategies such as planning and preparation and talking to your partner were also highlighted frequently, and were also common coping strategies in some cases. Participant C commented on the importance of planning and preparing, when he stated “So you have plan a, plan b, plan c and if plan a goes wrong you use plan b if that’s not working you use plan c so I’m sure you will be aware of all the different plans and I hope that preparation would have got me into a position where I am ready for that.” Similarly, Participant C also mentioned the need to communicate with the batsmen at the other end by commenting “I think it is important to try and communicate with your partner because it’s a lonely place if you are not timing it and your partner is timing it. Or you are not rotating the strike or communicating you put a lot of weight on your shoulders. So it is important to communicate with your partner.”
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4.4 Chapter Summarisation Via the use of framework flowcharts and tables, this section illustrated the stressors experienced and subsequent coping strategies used by the participants during the batting powerplay period. It is evident that there are a number of common stressors that are experienced by batsmen within this period of the game. Similarly there is a considerable number of coping strategies used to counteract specific demands.
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CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction This final chapter will discuss the findings of this study and where these findings sit in relation to previous research, specifically highlighting and explaining any differences and relationships that are evident. The chapter will then progress on to discussing the relevant practical implications with regards to stressors and coping strategies within cricket. The next section will then focus on strengths, limitations and future research directions.
5.2 Contribution to Knowledge Using interviews of a semi-structured nature, this study aimed to qualitatively investigate the stressors experienced and subsequent coping strategies used by elite batsmen during the batting powerplay in List A limited overs cricket. The use of a semi-structured interview guide allowed the participants to provide detailed explanations and descriptions of their experiences during the batting powerplay. The subsequent results showed the wide range of stressors that batsmen encounter during the batting powerplay periods, with the majority of stressors being unique to the sport of cricket. This highlights the specificity of the demands to the sport. It is also clear within this study that the majority of demands identified revolved around personal performance factors, such as; required run-rate, lack of boundaries and peer evaluation. These findings are somewhat similar to previous research that has stated various different personal related demands within their most cited stressors (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Mellalieu et al., 2009). Similarly previous research into cricket has highlighted that 43% of stressors are performance related worries (Holt and Mandigo, 2004). This current does however disagree somewhat with the work of Hanton et al. (2005) who found the majority of stressors highlighted were not related to performance. Opposition effects were also relatively prominent, with stressors such as;- field changes or matching oppositions powerplay highlighting the mental impact that the opposition could have on batsmen during high pressure situations. Opposition related stressors similar to the ones named within this study are also mentioned in previous research within rugby (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007). From a cricket specific perspective, it is apparent that the majority of stressors are directly related to run scoring. Similarly it must be noted that there are a vast number of cricket specific stressors that are common across the three participants. Previous studies within cricket have also highlighted the unique nature of the stressors experienced by batsmen (Thelwell et al., 2007).
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A key contribution to knowledge this study provides with regards to coping strategies was the identification that multiple strategies are used at the same time by the athletes to counter-act one specific stressor. Previous research has only highlighted the demand in relation to a single coping strategy (Nicholls et al., 2006; Thelwell et al., 2007; Nicholls and Polman, 2007). Possible reasons for this differentiation revolve around the methods of the respective studies, as two of the aforementioned studies asked participants to fill in log books over an extended period of time which may have resulted in the participants believing they should only highlight one coping strategy in relation to one stressor. Also two of the three aforementioned studies investigated the focus of the coping which may be another reason behind relating one stressor to one coping strategy. When considering coping strategies within cricket more specifically, it is clear that strategies that are solely controllable to the batsmen are used the most, with knowledge of the game and planning and preparation being two prime examples. This shows the faith in which the players have in their ability, knowledge and work ethic. Previous research has only shown planning and preparation to be a coping strategy used frequently by elite batsmen (Thelwell et al., 2007). This difference however may be a result of this current study being more specific to a certain point of a batsmans innings, rather than focusing on the innings as a whole. Research into specific point in a batsmans innings has been suggested by previous researchers (Sanctuary et al., 2010) This study also contributes to knowledge from a sense of its specificity to a certain high pressure moment within the game. Previous studies have looked into stressors and coping strategies, but have done so broadly both within training and competition (Nicholls et al., 2006; Thelwell, et al., 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009a; Devonport et al., 2013). This study looks into the stressors and coping strategies that are experienced and used at a critical high pressure point within competition which may explain why some results differ from that of previous research. The reasoning being that athletes may recall broad and prominent demands over a period of time when recalling a whole game, however they are allowed to be much more in depth and specific when considering a short high pressurised moment. Similarly that high pressure moment may be the most prominent memory they have.
5.3 Stressors
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Early research into stressors showed that there was a breakdown of the term stressors into organisational and performance related stressors (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993; Woodman and Hardy, 2001a). These conceptualisations allowed future research to be conducted with greater specificity when considering the type of stressor that is being encountered (Holt and Hogg, 2002; Noblet and Gifford, 2002; Heller et al., 2003; Fletcher and Hanton, 2003a; Nicholls et al., 2009a). The early research also enabled future research to provide definitions for both types of stressor (Neil et al., 2007). These definitions aided this study with regards to categorising the stressors experienced by the participants. It can be noted when comparing this study to previous stressor research, that there are demands that appear as a generalisation across sports such as; “fear of failure” and “making a mistake” (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993; Holt and Hogg., 2002; Noblet and Gifford., 2002; Heller et al., 2003; Nicholls et al., 2009a). These broad definitions however can be somewhat vague. This study shows that “fear of failure” and “making a mistake” are two completely separate stressors. It is seen within this study that failure for a batsmen is getting out, whereas making a mistake is defined as “playing a rash shot”. When considering this study in particular, it can be seen that the stressors are very sport specific; this is also the case within previous psychological research within cricket (Thelwell et al., 2007; Miles and Neil, 2013). Thelwell et al. (2007) highlighted 25 different types of stressor experienced by batsmen during the Commonwealth Games One Day International Competition, providing good grounding for future research. However the findings of the study were somewhat vague and focused on batting as a generalisation. This meant that stressors encountered at all different times of the innings were being quoted. This study builds upon that of Thelwell et al. (2007), based upon suggestions by Sanctuary et al. (2010) because this study focuses on a specific point in the game, allowing greater insight into stressors experienced within certain times of games. The 37 stressors highlighted within this study do correlate somewhat with that of the Thelwell et al. (2007) study, but also provide clear evidence as to how different stressors are experienced at different points during the innings. For example this study shows the distinct relationship between the majority of stressors and run-rates, which differs greatly from previous research. This is due to this study focusing on a specific time of the game when fast run scoring is encouraged. Similarly there is a greater specificity with regards to the demands that are experienced surrounding opposition effects, building upon the findings of previous
28 studies because this shows the way in which oppositions can affect athletes at specific points rather than a game as a whole. When considering this research is empirical due to way in which it investigates specific points of a batsmans innings, greater research into stressors experienced at different points of the innings is needed if a true reflection of demands placed upon batsmen is ever to be revealed.
5.4 Coping Strategies The majority of contemporary coping strategy research was influenced by the work of Lazarus and Folkman (1984), who stated that coping is a process used to counteract specific demands. Early coping strategy research revolved around breaking down and defining specific categories: 1) Problem-focused coping, 2) Emotion-focused coping, and 3) Avoidance coping (Krohne, 1993; Lazarus, 1999). As was the case with stressor research, these early definitions have allowed for the continual progression of coping strategy research into naming different types of coping strategy and defining the ways in which they can be used (Holt and Mandigo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009b; Devonport et al., 2013). Research has then progressed on to highlight coping strategies in specific sports (Holt and Mandigo, 2004; and Polman, 2007 and Devonport et al., 2013). There has also been more specific research revolving around relating coping strategies to specific stressors (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Nicholls et al., 2009b; Devonport et al., 2013). These studies showed that stressors are dealt with by specific coping strategies, but only one for each type of stressor. This study supported this notion to an extent, that there is a case for specific stressors to have a coping strategy attached to them, however this study also showed that specific stressors are sometimes managed through the use of multiple coping strategies. From a more specific perspective this study has shown that athletes use their own knowledge and preparation as the best form of coping strategy, and like to trust their own judgements and abilities to get through certain situations. Similarly it can be seen that the batsmen talking to their partner about the game or certain tactics within the game is another coping strategy that is broadly used. This shows that the sharing of knowledge, similar to that of the use of the batsman’s personal knowledge is a key coping strategy. This is a new finding, when considering all these strategies being used together. Previous work has only looked at similar coping
29 strategies in relation to specific stressors separately (Nicholls et al., 2006; Nicholls and Polman, 2007).
5.5 Practical Implications This study explored the stressors and coping strategies that elite cricketers encounter during the specific batting powerplay period. The findings showed that there are a number of stressors and coping strategies that are common to elite batsmen during this critical performance period. There were some stressors and coping strategies that were specific to the individual, but a considerable number or stressors and coping strategies were named by at least two out of the three participants. Based upon these findings it can be suggested that psychologists working with batsmen should make them aware of the different stressors and the ways in which other elite cricketers have tried to cope with them. This suggestion is not too dissimilar from the work of Nicholls et al. (2006), Nicholls and Polman (2007) and Devonport et al. (2013) within rugby and netball respectively. The findings of this study intertwined with the aforementioned studies give evidence to psychologists working within specific sports that there are multiple ways in which sport specific demands can be dealt with. In addition the use of multiple strategies seems prominent across an array of stressors; suggesting that sport psychologists educate performers about a wide range of skills and techniques in order to deal with different demands effectively. Finally the breakdown of stressors into the categories highlighted (personal related, opposition related, experience related) allow for practitioners to see a generalisation of both sources of stressor and relative coping strategies. This will ultimately make it easier to find and categorise the stressors highlighted along with highlighting common coping strategies that are used of this said stressor within a certain category.
5.6 Strengths, Weaknesses and Future Research This particular study added to knowledge within the field of stress and coping via a semi- structured interview based upon experiences at a certain stage within competition. Previous studies have looked into stressors and coping strategies within particular sports (Dugdale et al., 2002; Holt and Mandigo, 2004; Nicholls et al., 2006; Thelwell et al., 2007; Nicholls and Polman, 2007; Thelwell et al., 2010; Devonport et al., 2013). Such studies highlighted key trends within stressors and coping strategies through various different
30 qualitative measures. Nevertheless, few of these studies have looked at cricket in particular, and secondly these studies have been related purely to the game as a whole, rather than focusing on specific high pressure situations within games (e.g., the batting powerplay). Consequently the main strength of this particular study was the focus on stressors and coping strategies at a specific point of the game. In addition through the use of cricket specific questions, the method was greatly improved with regards to strength. As a result of well organised pilot studies and in-depth research into previous stress and coping, and cricket related studies (Thelwell et al., 2007; Devonport et al., 2013; Miles and Neil, 2013), the Method for this particular study could be considered a strong one. This allowed for the structure of the study to be similar to previous stress and coping literature to allow for enhanced but relevant findings. A limitation of this study, however, was the completion of the interviews one to three months prior to the completion of the cricket season. This was due to the large number of high pressure cricket matches in which the participants were expected to participate during the course of the season. Therefore, future research could build upon this study by interviewing and collecting data either during the season, or much closer to the end of the season. This will make the recollection of thoughts and feelings easier to identify for the performer and will be much closer to the exact thoughts and feelings that occurred (Neil et al., 2009). Another limitation to this particular study was the number of participants. Three participants was a substantial number with regards to finding trends, similarities and differences within the results, however it was slightly low when considering the vast number of cricketers on the professional circuit. A greater subject base would allow for a greater range of results, and would also prevent the results from being team specific. This will then show a more reliable reflection of the stressors and coping strategies experienced within the batting powerplay. This research was empirical in nature due to many factors. Firstly there is limited stressor and coping research that focuses on specific high pressurised performance moments within games, therefore to enhance the likelihood of athletes coping within high pressure situations, more research needs to be done to highlight the thoughts and feelings of the athletes at these critical times. Secondly, there is a lack of psychological research within cricket (Thelwell et al., 2007; Woolmer and Noakes, 2008; Sanctuary et al., 2010; Miles and Neil, 2013). In order to gain a broader understanding of the psychological demands placed upon elite cricketers, it is of paramount importance that more research is
31 done that focuses on the various grey areas such as; the stressors experienced at specific points throughout an innings and the differences in stressors experienced in different formats of cricket (twenty20 and first class cricket).
5.7 Conclusion The purpose of this study was to examine the stressors and coping strategies that were apparent within elite cricket batsmen during the batting powerplay period through a semi- structured interview process. The findings highlighted that the stressors experienced are generally common across batsmen during this period, and are often related to current score or the effect personal game related issues have on the mind-set. With regards to coping strategies this study again showed there were some generic coping strategies, but most importantly this study highlighted that multiple coping strategies are often used to counteract a specific stressor. It can be seen that the majority of stressors are related to poor performance, and that the coping strategies are used as a confidence booster or concentration mechanism to allow for standards to be kept high. This study has only brushed the surface with regards to the stressors and coping strategies experienced by elite athletes at specific points during competition. This study however provides only a small amount of information on such a broad area, and strongly encourages the use of more empirical research into this field.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Participant Information Sheet Participant Information Sheet This document is an invitation to take part in a cricket specific project of research. Before you give your answer however it is of paramount importance that there is a mutual understanding as to why the research is being done, and why you personally have received the invitation. Similarly it is also important that you understand as a subject what the entire study will involve. Below is a small amount of reading to be done in your own time, please feel free to ask if you should have any queries about the study. Thank you for your consideration. Aims and Purpose of This Study The purpose of this study is to highlight what stressors are commonly encountered during the batting powerplay and similarly what coping strategies are commonly used to counteract the said stressors. Stressors are simply the demands that are placed upon athletes during performance, and coping strategies are the techniques used to try to positively counteract the stressors that are encountered. This study will require one interview of between 60 and 90 minutes. The aim of this study is to understand the most common stressor encountered by elite cricketers, along with the most common coping strategy used for counteraction. This will be done through questioning during a qualitative interview and will enhance knowledge by helping to eradicate common stressors that batsmen experience by using certain techniques. Why you? As is stated this study revolves around stressors and coping within the professional game, this is why you have been considered to be a part of a group of 4 people that will take part in this study. Is this compulsory? The decision in whether you participate is entirely yours and should you choose not to take part there will be no further ramifications with regards to penalisations or benefits to which were originally and are still entitled. Should your decision be to participate you will be given a copy of this information sheet and will also be provided with an informed consent form. You should also be aware however that you are still entitled to withdraw from this study at any given time without any reasoning required. What is needed from you?
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You will be required for one interview that will last approximately between 60 and 90 minutes. During this interview you will be asked a series of questions that have been devised specifically to address the relevant subjects needed for this study to be effective. After the interviews have been transcribed you will be sent a copy and asked to confirm that everything is correct. Advantages for Participants There will be no direct advantages for you the participant; however you will gain an insight into common stressors and coping strategies within the powerplay overs. It will rest solely on the shoulders on the individual as to whether they act upon the findings. Potential Risks The only risk within this study is if the participant is not willing to discuss their experiences, it should be noted at this point that the participant is entitled to withdraw at any stage of the research. Confidentiality Within Cardiff Metropolitan University, there is secure storage where this information will be held. Any information that is given will be kept strictly confidential and you will be completely unrecognisable. This study will also have no relevance on team selection. Next Steps Should you be interested in participating please fill in the informed consent and send to. [email protected]
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Appendix B: Consent Form Consent Form
UREC Reference No: Title of Project: Stressors and Coping Strategies in Elite Cricket Name of Researcher: Jordan Finney Please complete all sections
1. I have read the information sheet fully and have had all questions relevant to the study answered.
2. I know that the study is purely voluntary and I can pull out at any time during the process.
3. I realise that no relationships with Cardiff Metropolitan University will be jeopardised at any point, and my legal rights are the same if I was to pull out.
4. I understand that my data will be used within the write up of the study but it will be confidential to the researcher, and I will not be named at any Point.
5. I agree with all the above and am happy to take part in this study
______
Name of Participant Date ______Name and Signature of Persons Taking Consent Date
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Appendix C: Question Themes and Rationale Theme Question Justification Stressor (big Talk to me about the batting powerplay Miles and Neil (2013) score to get) when you've gone to bat chasing a big score? Stressor (field Tell me what you look at, and what your Nicholls et al (2006) placing) thoughts are when you are considering the field positioning? Stressor (type of Is there a certain type of bowler that you Miles and Neil (2013) bowler) dislike facing during the powerplay? Stressor (required Tell me how you deal with required run Nicholls et al (2009) in game run rate) rates, if you are on or off target with situations regards to them? Stressor (previous Tell me about the previous situations Devonport et al (2013) situations) you look back upon when batting within the powerplay? Stressors Talk to me about how you feel when you (previous have a good or bad start to an over? deliveries in the over) stressors (talk Does on field 'chat' affect your game from opponents) during the powerplay? Stressors Talk to me about what the team expects Devonport et al (2013) (expectation) during the four over batting powerplay? Stressor Talk to me about what you do during Nicholls et al (2006) Comparison (opponents your powerplay, after the opponents powerplay score) have had a big powerplay? Stressor (batting Talk to me about how your experiences first or second) during the powerplay differ between batting first and second? Stressor (limited Do you feel the same when the number overs) of overs has been limited during the powerplay as a result of weather conditions? Stressor (Poor Talk to me about when you play a shot Nicholls et al (2006) Shot) badly, and that is a big scoring option for you given the context of the game? Stressor (Ball Tell me about the process of picking Nicholls et al (2009) type) what ball the bowler is going to bowl? Stressor (Timing) Talk to me about the timing of when the Nicholls et al (2007) batting powerplay is taken and how this affects you? Stressor ( Wickets Talk to me about what happens during Nicholls et al (2007) lost) the batting powerplay when you have lost a lot of wickets? Stressor (batting Is there a certain type of batsman you partner) enjoy batting with during the powerplay?
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Stressor Talk to me about when you bat during (Boundary length) the batting powerplay on a ground with a big boundary? Stressor Talk to me about when you bat during (Boundary length) the batting powerplay on a ground with a small boundary? Stressor Talk to me about how boundaries affect (boundaries) you and the game during the batting powerplay?
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Appendix D1: Draft Interview Guide Interview Guide
Talk to me about the effect that runs on the board have on how you feel during the batting powerplay?
And what process do you undertake to deal with this situation? Tell me what happens when the What’s your process of dealing opponents play tactically, and change with a field or bowler change? the bowler or the field setting during the What do you think about when this powerplay? occurs? Can you relate these changes to What do you do to give yourself the anything? best opportunity to make a positive outcome of the situation? Tell me about how you feel batting with In what way does your batting partner certain players (aggressive or affect you? defensive) and how this mentally How do you mentally deal with this? affects your approach to the What are your thoughts and powerplay? communications with your partner?
Do you always go about the situations in the same way regardless of who you’re batting with? Tell me how valuable you feel Do you look at past experiences to try experience is in powerplay situations? and deal with the one you’re in? Does experience of playing certain What previous experiences can you bowlers help you? draw upon?
Does previous success or failure help you?
How do you deal with negative experience? Tell me about how the situation of the Lack or lots of boundaries? game affects you mentally during the Previous good or bad overs? powerplay? Pressure from opponents? How do you deal with such situations? Do you use the same thought Size of the ground? processes and routines regardless of Reduced overs game? situation? Chat from opponents? Batting first or second? Talk to me about how members of the Expectation? opposition, or people watching effect Spectators want to see boundaries? you during the powerplay?
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What do you do to take your mind off who is watching, or who you’re playing against? Tell me about how your own game Timing good/bad? affects you mentally in the batting Strong or weak scoring areas? powerplay? Weakness to certain bowler type? Poor shots in previous overs? Do you stick to the same routines, or do you have different rituals depending on how you are playing? Does the team plans during the powerplay mentally affect you during the game?
How do you deal with the adaptations of plans within the game?
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Appendix D2: Final Interview Guide Introductory Questions Talk to me about Is the game constantly changing? your opinions on Do cricketers have to constantly adapt to these limited overs changes? cricket? Are stress levels What makes the stress levels higher/lower? higher or lower in limited overs cricket, than in longer formats of the game? In terms of How are they the same/How do they differ? preparation, is attention to detail the same in both limited overs cricket and longer forms of cricket? Tell me about your most memorable performance in limited overs cricket? Tell me about your proudest moment in cricket?
Personal Performance and Processes Tell me about how you feel during the What thoughts are prominent in your batting powerplay when you are chasing a mind when chasing a big score? big score? How do you attempt to regulate these thoughts? Talk to me about your feelings during the What do you specifically think about batting powerplay when you are chasing a when you are chasing a low score? low score? How do you control your emotions in these situations? Do you use the same thought processes Do you still look to score the same and routines during the batting powerplay amount of boundaries in both regardless of runs? situations? Do previous good or bad overs shape your thought processes? Tell me about how you control your mind-set in the batting powerplay? Do you always use the same techniques? What are the techniques?
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Tell me about your own game, and how Do you feel form is key to you having this affects your thoughts during the success? batting powerplay? Tell me what you do to cope with your thoughts in these situations? Talk to me about how you feelings in the Do you feel confident you can have a batting powerplay when you are timing and successful powerplay? seeing the ball well? Do you feel comfortable playing shots with more risk when you are playing well? Tell me about how you control your thoughts in this type of situation? Tell me how you feel during the batting How confident are you to accumulate powerplay when you are not time the ball runs quickly? so well or you are new to the crease? How do you feel about manipulating the fielders? Tell me how you cope in these situations? What do you do to attempt to be successful in these situations?
Talk to me about how the crowd affect you Do different types of crowd change during the batting powerplay? your approaches? How do you cope with people watching? Tell me about how your teams’ plans affect Does attention to detail in preparation you mentally during the batting powerplay? help you? Tell me about how you cope with the pressure to stick to the plan put in place? Explain to me how you feel when there is a Does this affect your routines and change of team plans during the batting mind-set? powerplay? Explain how you go about coping with these adaptations? Talk to me about how batting with Does this harm your mental someone who is using up a lot of dot balls approach? affects your mental state during the batting Do you feel there is more pressure on powerplay? you? What do you do to control your thoughts in this situation? Do you have a different routine to deal with this?
Explain to me how you feel when you are Do you feel that there is less pressure batting with someone in the batting on you? powerplay who is scoring freely? What do you do mentally to try to be just as successful?
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Opponents Tell me how you feel when your opponents Does this disrupt your mental change the bowler during the batting approach to the powerplay? powerplay? Do you feel this is a threat? How do you mentally deal with a change of bowler? Talk to me about how you feel when the Do you feel the need to try something field is changed in the batting powerplay to different? block of your scoring area? Do you feel your mind-set instantly changes? What do you do cope with field changes? How do you feel when the opposition Do you feel you need to match them? batted first and had a successful batting Is there more pressure on you to beat powerplay? their powerplay score? How do you cope with opposition successes in these situations?
Experience Tell me about previous successes that you Do you reflect back on previous have had in the batting powerplay? success, to try and deal with the situation you’re placed under? Do you have set routines based upon your previous success? Do you think of how you dealt with demands when you were successful and try to replicate it? Talk to me about previous failures that you Do you use these memories of failures have had during the batting powerplay? to try and deal with certain situations you are placed under? Have previous failures meant that you have adapted your approach mentally? Has your perception of the demands in this situation changed since your previous failure? How do you deal with negative experiences? Tell me about your experience facing Is there a certain type of bowler you different types of bowler in the powerplay? prefer to face during the powerplay? Do previous dismissals or successes to certain types of bowler affect your mentality and approach? Tell me how you would deal with a bowler you are uncomfortable facing? Do you feel preparation is key to success when facing different types of bowler in the powerplay?
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Talk to me about how experiences against Are there teams that you play against, different teams affect you during the who bowl well in powerplays? powerplay? Are there teams you play against that you know you need to attack during the powerplay? How do you control your emotions in such situations? Explain to me how previous experiences at Are there grounds where you know certain grounds affect your approach to the powerplays are crucial parts of the batting powerplay? game? Are there grounds where you have been successful before? How do you deal with previous experiences on grounds to get the best out of yourself when you play there again?
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Appendix E: Interview Transcription JF: Could you start by telling me what your opinions are on limited overs cricket? ST: I think it is really good for the game, it tests different skills. In test match cricket is the ultimate, but the different strategies and mental routines that you have to go into in one day cricket I find fascinating. There are so many elements, I just find many different facets of it very interesting. JF: Do you think that the one day game is constantly changing? ST: Yeah I do, I mean now you see in international cricket the introduction of two new balls I think the scores are getting a lot bigger. Back in the day 300 used to be a massive score. But it seems to be the way now, a lot of teams are getting over 300 quite easily because the wickets are flatter and the introduction of two new balls. JF: Would you say that stress levels are higher or lower in limited overs cricket, than in the longer form? ST: I still think the longer form, mentally a lot more has to go into that, so that is the ultimate. I think stress levels in first class cricket and test cricket are a little bit higher. JF: In terms of preparation, do you think that attention to detail is greater in the shorter form of the game? ST: It’s a tough one because, obviously a lot of technical stuff has to go into both. The game Is changing so much, the pressure to score so quickly is increasing. I think it has different elements to it, but yeah a lot more specific skill stuff is going into one day cricket. Your seeing lap sweeps and all sorts of shots 360 degrees. JF: Final introductory question, just tell me about your proudest moment in cricket? ST: Proudest moment, I think it has to be recently, my first half century for Hampshire is probably my proudest moment so far. I mean it didn’t look like I would get that chance, but to finally get out there was good. JF: Cool, just going to go into the main bulk of it now, like I said the questions are going to focus around the batting powerplay. So can you just start by telling me how you feel when you are chasing a big score? How do you feel during the batting powerplay? ST: I think it is always important to utilise the batting powerplay, so obviously the tempo has to significantly increase, but it is trying to find that balance between not losing wickets and scoring quickly. With wickets in hand you can do anything towards the end, so it’s important to utilise it, but it is also important to be smart. A lot of people think I have got to score as quick as I can but being intelligent is probably the most important thing. JF: Ok, and in what way do you think intelligently?
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ST: The first thing to understand is that it is not always about scoring boundaries, it is very important to get your singles and run your twos. Picking your areas, you can’t just hit the ball anywhere and expect to score, so I think picking your areas. Especially last year in county cricket there was one less fielder allowed out, so utilising those extra areas to score and rotating the strike. JF: Do your feelings change when you chase a low score? ST: I think it is important to acknowledge it. You don’t want to put your side under pressure. But initially you have more time to get yourself in, but I think it is important to remain in the same mind-set either way. JF: Ok, and how do you maintain that mind-set? What do you do personally? ST: I think it is all about staying true to your game, for me personally I would always look to get myself in and build an innings. I think that Is the same whatever you are chasing still take the risks when you see fit and make sure you rotate the strike and continue doing the things you do, because even when you are chasing a big score, you are not going to bash and crash your way there. Stick to the same principles. JF: So you would say that it is all about having a plan when you go out? ST: Yeah, obviously when different obstacles are put in front of you, your plan might change a little bit. You can’t just chew up a load of balls when you are chasing a big score, you just take more risks because that is part of the game. When you are chasing a low score being smart and keeping wickets in hand. But low score big score it is all the same stuff. JF: Ok, so how do you mentally adapt to a slight change in plan? ST: I think the best way to do that, I think assessing situations and not panicking. A lot of the time when chasing scores the mistake people make is they think they have to keep up with rate straight away. But as you see now these days, people can hit the ball out of the ground at will so yeah its backing the change of plans the whole way in. Being clear, are we going to try and get there quickly or are we going to try and keep wickets in hand and go through until the end. It is just assessing the situation the best you can I reckon. JF: Ok, so within the powerplay, your thought processes and routines so pre-delivery routines, are they the same as they are outside the batting powerplay? ST: I think there is a lift in tempo so I think for me personally where I open the batting a lot I always just look to play hard shots, I don’t look to go over the top too much, I just pick gaps. But I guess in the powerplay I guess you have to look for the boundary options a little bit more as opposed to just playing and taking the risk if need be. Whereas
E-2 powerplays almost promote boundaries a little bit more so yeah, it does change a little bit yeah. JF: Ok, so how do you adapt to that change mentally? ST: I think just really like accepting that you can’t go through the motions during the powerplay, I think it is important for your side to utilise it, so I think instead of taking the usual principles you would during your innings, I think there is a concerted effort to sort of lift the tempo, talking to your partner is extremely important because that is a good way you can adapt and work out with your partner where you are going to look to score and make sure that you are on the same sort of wavelength during the powerplay. JF: Is that all you say to your partner? Or is there a bit more depth about what is going on? ST: Yeah I guess it is important to talk to your partner because you don’t want to lose wickets. So as you can see them, I mean the mistake people make is they often push a bit too hard and then there is no point you getting out and a new person coming in during the powerplay but I think it Is important that you and your partner understand that. Usually when you take the powerplay when both of you are in, so I think it is important that you both realise the importance of set batters being in so talk to them about where they are going to look to score make sure you both have a plan. Again stress the importance of singles and twos, that sort of stuff. JF: Ok, so you talk about batting with your partner, how do you feel if the is eating up a lot of deliveries? So if he is facing a lot of dot balls? ST: Yeah I guess you don’t want to put too much pressure on it, but I think it comes down to those conversations. But maybe if it’s not working for you or it’s not his day, you have to discuss the fact that you really need to look for your ones and take the pressure on yourself and say leave it up to me now. Yeah it is important not to put too much pressure on them because at the end of the day it is probably better that they are in. JF: Ok, so how do you feel when you eat up a lot of dot balls? ST: I think it is human nature you always think to, you start to feel the pressure, a lot of people would but I guess that is the skill of it, you see players like Dhoni and stuff like that now they are able to understand that you are going to go through periods where you might chew a few balls up but it important to just maintain that mind-set and just back yourself. You just have to keep trucking because at the end of the day there is no point in you just slogging one up in the air after chewing up a whole load of balls. JF: Ok, so how do you deal with that mind-set? How do you get into that mind-set is there a specific thing that you do?
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ST: For me it is important not to let everything just drift along. It is important you take a moment, at the end of the day the bowler can’t run up if you’re not ready, so just take a moment, reassess, have a chat, just relax your mind and make sure you don’t get fuzzy. Try and keep a clear head. JF: Ok so think of crowds, do you feel that the crowd will affect you during the batting powerplay? ST: I think the crowd will always lift me during the powerplay. I think the whole idea of the powerplay is to promote wickets and runs so I think there will always be a sudden surge when the powerplay is happening. There will always be pressure to score, there will be pressure on the fielders and yeah, the crowd is always going to play a part in that. JF: Ok, so how do you deal with that pressure to score from the crowd? Do you try and block them out? ST: I think you have to yeah, at the end of the day you are out there to do a job. I think it is always good to embrace the crowd, but don’t let them dictate how you are going to play the game. At the end of the day you’re out there as the professional. So yeah you want to embrace them but you don’t want to let it dictate how you play. JF: Ok, so how do you not let it dictate how you play? How do you avoid that situation? ST: I think that is part and parcel of being where you are, you just have to back your ability. At the end of the day without sounding patronising you can’t let a guy who might work in an office put pressure on you. You wouldn’t put pressure on them and tell them how to do their job. So you just have to understand that you are there for a reason and if you make a mistake you make a mistake, but you just have to back your ability. JF: Ok, final question about this section of the interview, how do you feel when you are batting with someone who is scoring freely? ST: I think it is good, it takes a lot of pressure off. Sometimes if someone is scoring freely, I was talking about it before assess the situation, sometimes it is better for you to just make sure you are scoring your ones and getting them on strike. If it is somebodies day and they are whacking it out of the ground get your singles and get them on strike. JF: Ok, so do you not feel that that puts pressure on you to match them or do you just feel that you can let them go about their game? ST: No I don’t think so, I think if you keep a clear frame of mind and understand that it is not. You have to put your ego aside and realise what is best for the side. If it is your day and you are both whacking it out of the ground so be it but that very rarely happens.
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JF: Ok, so we are going to look at how opponents might affect you now. So can you tell me how you feel when they change the bowler during the batting powerplay? ST: I think the same principles apply as to when a new bowler comes on all the time. It is important to have a look at what their plan is going to be, it is always important to have a look at their field, so if they have men out on the leg side they are obviously going to bowl a bit straighter and they might bring the off side up. All those sorts of things you just have to assess what you think their plan is going to be. I think that is the most important thing, trying to figure out what they are going to do to you. JF: Ok, and do you see that maybe them bringing on a certain bowler that you don’t like facing as a threat or a demand? ST: I think it is just another challenge, whether your good against quick bowling or spin or something, those are the sorts of things that throughout any career, anyone knows what their weaknesses and strengths are but you would hope during the week that you are working on those sorts of things and I guess for me I would see it as a challenge and I would also see it as wanting to prove them wrong. If they thought I couldn’t play spin, it would be a great satisfaction to put him out of the ground. JF: Ok, so how do you regulate your emotions in that situation? ST: Again I think it is important to take a moment and. Cricket is important to keep a clear mind and if you are too emotional and those sorts of things, it is hard to think clearly and be smart about it. I have spoken about it today, powerplays or any type of cricket scoring quickly is not all about putting it out of the ground, as I said it is about rotating and all those sorts of things so yeah it is the same thing taking that moment to realise that you have got to be smart. JF: Ok, so tell me about how you feel when they change the field to block off an area that you are strong? ST: If something is working for you then obviously you think it’s a bit frustrating. But that is part of it, one day cricket these days you have to score all around the wicket to be successful so you hope that they block off one area, you hope that you have got something in your armoury to sort of combat that. JF: Ok, so do you feel that your mind-set changes as a result of field changes? ST: Yeah I think it would, say if they have long on up, mid-on up then they put him back and you were hitting it straight then I guess yeah you have to move around the crease a little bit more to try and open up different options. Some players don’t like moving around their crease, I guess it is just being clear in your plans. If you can’t hit straight anymore,
E-5 giving yourself room all those sorts of things, it depends on what sort of player you are I guess. If your Chris Gayle you are still going to back yourself to hit it out of the ground. JF: Ok, so if you bat second and the opposition had a good batting powerplay do you feel that there is a pressure to match that? ST: Yeah I think there is, if you are chasing a big score I think it is. You know the powerplay is good. But there is also accepting that your powerplay might not be as good and then you have just got to adjust to that. I like to think if I’m playing cricket that the game is not won or lost within a few overs. You have to realise that there is so much time. JF: Ok, so if there is that pressures where you need to score say eight or nine an over, what do you do to ensure that you have got a clear mind-set going into that situation? ST: I think it is the same thing that we spoke about before, having your clear plans, understanding that you are not just going to hit boundaries all of the time. I think it is about looking for your ones and twos again comes into it. You are not just going to go four, four, four, and six. You have to employ the principles of being smart, picking ones and twos off but having a clear boundary option. JF: Ok, so final part of the interview now, everything about personal experience. So would you say that previous success in batting powerplays has a positive or negative affect on your mind-set when you are in a similar situation? ST: I think it is positive, because you have always got that success to look back on. It is like anything I guess. You have done it before so there is no reason why you can’t do it again. I guess it gives you a blueprint for what your best options are during it. Also understanding that you can’t just do the same thing every time. You have to adjust, teams are going to work you out. But I think it does give you confidence yeah. JF: Ok, would you try to replicate that mind-set in a different situation, maybe where you are struggling? ST: Yeah I think so, I think confidence in anything if you score runs in the four day game, you are going to go into the one day game with confidence. It doesn’t matter what you are trying to do, obviously you just have to adjust to different situations, yeah that kind of thing. Confidence can be brought into any form. JF: Ok, and similarly, do previous situations where you have not done so well have a big effect mentally on you, or would you use that as a positive as well? ST: I think the sign of a good player is being able to put that out of your mind. You have to understand that it is not going to happen everytime. That just comes down to mentally strong people, if you can’t put it out of your mind, you are not going to be very successful I
E-6 guess. It is just another challenge, it is how you bounce back from it, having a bad day, because everybody has them. JF: Ok, would you say that a negative experience could aid you with regards to planning or preparation? ST: Yeah I think sometimes you can make clear what you need to work on. If you have a good work ethic, it gives you that chance to understand your strengths and weaknesses and put the right. JF: Ok, how do you feel when you have overcome a tough situation? What do you feel? Is it pride? Is it an achievement? ST: Yeah I think both of those things, if you are chasing a score and you are there at the end, it is a lot more satisfying than getting out ten runs before. I think a lot of cricketers pride themselves on sort of getting the job done themselves. So that is something that a lot of cricketers would find very satisfying. There is no point in getting a hundred and then getting out when there are a few runs to win. JF: Ok, so obviously with the county cricket circuit as it is, you come across the same people week in week out do you feel that experience facing different types of bowler can help of hinder you mentally? ST: I think it is only going to help you. As I said it is something you have to work on, if you work ethic is good and you are up for working hard then I guess the more exposure you have to every type of bowling is good, because it makes you want to work hard and put up with everything that is put in front of you. JF: OK, so do you feel that previous success against a certain bowler really help you adapt to say that whole team that you are playing against with that bowler in the side? ST: Yeah I think no matter what anyone says, you always have confidence in certain teams and certain bowlers, because you know that they know what you are capable of and yeah I think it is a natural thing because a lot of people seem to do well against a certain type of team. JF: Ok, so you speak there about people knowing what you are capable of is there a big thing within the cricketers mind-set that you have to prove yourself to these people that you are playing against? ST: Yeah, I don’t think people would like to admit it but yeah there is that element to it. Having heard a lot of people speak about it. I think there is that little bit where you feel a little bit more confident against people that you have scored runs against. I think when you do that against a team naturally there is that sort of thing.
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JF: Ok, so you feel that there is that pressure that comes from social comparison? ST: Yeah I think it is just a pride thing, everyone wants to show what they are able to do against different opponents. JF: Similarly grounds, do you feel that there are certain grounds that you are more comfortable at? Do you feel that you get more confidence playing at home? ST: Not necessarily at home, I think there is just certain grounds around to me in England that for some reason you just feel comfortable there. There are some grounds that you don’t, there is definitely an element of that. JF: Ok, and how do you deal with going to grounds that you are not so comfortable? ST: I guess you can look at is a positive, it is another challenge I guess. Obviously you are not trying to think about it too much, the minds a powerful thing and you can talk yourself into bad form so try and put that out of your mind I think is pretty important. JF: Do you think that self-talk is a big part of the game? Whether that be positive or negative? ST: Yeah I think it is, it’s something I do, all that sort of stuff, self-talk, visualisation. Yeah it is important. JF: Ok, so what do you say to yourself? ST: For example early in my innings I would make sure I was on every ball. Play straight, all those sort of clichés and stuff but I think if you have those simple sort of cues in your mind that can only help you. JF: Ok, and you spoke about visualisation, what specifically do you visualise? Is it a successful innings, or a successful shot? ST: Yeah, I think so. That is something that I have always done. Visualise putting my bat up and acknowledging the crowd and all of that sort of stuff. I only visualise positive things. JF: Ok, final question, are there any specific things you do before facing the ball that help you get into a mind-set to face that delivery? ST: I just have a routine, play the ball, walk away to square leg, telling myself to work hard and be on the next ball, then as the bowler is running I tell myself to watch the ball, that sort of stuff. Just to make sure I am giving myself the best chance to hit the ball. JF: Ok, is there anything specific on the ball that you are watching? Is it the seam? Wrist position? ST: Personally I have never been one for that, I have never understood how people do that, I think I just try to naturally pick up cues and that means sub-consciously that I will be able to pick it up. There is nothing in particular, I just try to watch it as close as I can.
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JF: Ok thank you, that is us done, thank you very much.
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Appendix F: Ethical Approval
Date: 01/10/2013
To: Finney, Jordan
Project reference number: (13/05/114U)
Your project was recommended for approval by myself as supervisor and formally approved at the Cardiff School of Sport Research Ethics Committee meeting during the 2013/14 Academic Year.
Yours sincerely
Dr. Rich Neil
Supervisor
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