DOCSLIB.ORG

Thesis Capstone Project-Conflict Dynamics

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Thesis Capstone Project-Conflict Dynamics Author: Willem Verdaasdonk Co-Authors: Wessel van Beelen and Ricardo Neefjes S1223194 Alister Reed Wednesday 24th August 2016 Total Word Count: 50025 Page Count: 152 Joint work Pages: 1-43, 112-152 Masters Thesis conflict Analysis Thesis capstone project-conflict dynamics 1 Abstract This capstone thesis aims to study what factors play a role before and during a conflict and how conflicts move from one conflict phase to the next. This particular thesis uses the case study of the Rhodesian Bush War a conflict waged from 1965 to 1980 in the now know republic of Zimbabwe. This thesis starts by giving a general overview of the entire conflict by looking at the role of the Rhodesian government, military as well as the political and military developments of both guerrilla movements (ZAPU/ZANU). After which an analysis will be done based on the criteria of the capstone project (context, state, and non-state) focusing on the factors that influenced the conflict, and coming to a general conclusion. After which a joint analysis and conclusion will be presented to see the similarities in two other case studies conducted for this capstone project, these being the Troubles in Northern Ireland and the Sendero in Peru. 2 Content 1. Joint introduction……………………………….……5 2. Literature review……………………………….…….7 • 2.1 Underlying theories……………………….…….7 • 2.2 General definitions…………………….………..8 • 2.3 Latent conflict…………………………………..12 • 2.4 Conflict emergence……………………….…….14 • 2.5 Conflict escalation……………………….……..19 • 2.6 Stalemate………………………………….…….20 • 2.7 Conflict De-escalation……………………….….22 • 2.8 Dispute settlement………………………………25 • 2.9 Peace building…………………………………..28 3. Research methodology……………………………….….31 • 3.1 Central research question……………………….31 • 3.2 Quantiative vs qualitative……………………….31 • 3.3 Historical research analysis……………………..32 • 3.4 Analytical Framework………………………..…33 • 3.5 Method of Data-gathering………………………40 4. Individual master thesis case study Rhodesia…………....43 • 4.1 Introduction……………………………….…,,,..44 • 4.2 Background to the conflict……………………...45 • 4.3 The honeymoon period 1965-1970………..........47 • 4.4 The republic of Rhodesia and the struggle for independence 1970-mid- 1974…………………………………………….…..56 • 4.5 The uneasy stalemate and resumption of hostilities mid-1974- 1976…………………………………………………………….…...69 • 4.6 When the guerillas came march in 1977-1979..…78 • 4.7 Analysis…………………………………………..90 o Context…………………………………...90 o State .……………………………………..96 o Non-state………………………………….103 • 4.8 Analysis conclusion…………………….….…110 5. Joint Analysis ………………………………………….112 3 • 5.1 Context……………………………………..…..112 • 5.2 State…………………………………………….121 • 5.3 Non-state………………………………………...130 6. Joint conclusion………………………………………..…135 7. Methodology reflection …………………………….....….139 8. Policy recommendations……………………………….…142 9. Bibliography…………………………………………....…144 List of illustrations Conflict phases graph…………………………………………….7 Conflict resolution framework…………………………………,,,12 Basic classification graph of political violence ……………….…14 Peace progress graph …………………………………………….26 Factors of actors………………………………………………….34 Geopolitical situation Rhodesia 1965…………………………….47 Immigration and Emigration of white Rhodesians………………..49 Geopolitical situation Rhodesia 1970+altena farm attack………..56 Map of Northern Rhodesia………………………………………..60 (96) Number of people in the Rhodesian armed forces………………...62 Map show areas of operation for Rhodesian armed forces………..63 (105) Geopolitical situation 1974……………………………………..….69 Map showing areas of guerilla activity in Rhodesia mid 1979…78 Estimated number of guerillas operating inside Rhodesia …….82 ZANLA combatants killed during the Rhodesian bush war ………98 Black population vs white population……………………………..100 Map showing areas of operation ZANLA (ZANU) and ZIRPA (ZAPU)…..104 Casualties per area of operation……………………………………105 Fractionalization map of guerilla forces……………………………107 Casualty rates 1972-1976…………………………………………...108 4 1. Joint Introduction “So why do we study war? I think most obviously, simply to survive. In the 20th century, a hundred and fifty million people, a hundred and fifty million people died as a result of war. Hundreds, millions, were disfigured, wounded or had their homes destroyed. War, has this horrific capacity. War is something that when it comes to us, we might not survive it, and as our capacity to impose violence on each other we had better understand exactly what it is” – Miguel Centeno (Coursera, 2016). As Miguel Centeno argues in the above quote, it is extremely important to study war, not only to understand it, but also to prevent it from happening. This paper will contribute to this effort by not only focusing on why a war starts or ends, but also by focusing on what happens during the war. What actions and decision by which specific actor escalated or de-escalated the war? Or why does one group suddenly decide to kill another group it lived with peacefully for years? This paper will especially focus on these questions in the following conflicts: 1) the Rhodesian Bush War, 2) the Internal Conflict in Peru and 3) The Troubles in Ireland. The Rhodesian Bush War was a civil war which lasted from July 4, 1964 to December 12, 1979 which led to universal suffrage, the end of the white minority-rule in Rhodesia and the creation of the Republic of Zimbabwe. The main actors during this war were the white- government under the leadership of Ian Smith who fought against Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and against Joshua Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU). The war which would last more than fifteen years, would cost more than 30.000 lives (New World Encoclopedia, 2016). The Internal Conflict in Peru began in 1980, on the eve of the first election Peru after more than seventeen years of military rule. After the Maoist organization, Sendero Luminoso, was led by a charismatic leader called Abimael Guzmán, burned the ballot papers in a small town in Peru’s countryside. What followed was a twenty-year internal conflict which would cost between the 30.000 to 70.000 lives (Peru Support Group, 2016) The Troubles was a violent thirty-year conflict that was framed by a civil rights march in Londonderry on 5 October 1968 and later the Good Friday Agreement on 10 April 1998. At the heart of this conflict lay the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. It was a war characterized by many actors who all engaged in killings. Eventually the death toll exceeded 3.600 people, and 50.000 more were wounded (BBC History, 2016). This thesis will have a slightly different structure than a “normal” thesis. The first part is a joint literature review and methodology which is the foundation of this paper. The second part contains the three internal conflicts, each researched and analyzed individually. The third 5 part of this paper will contain the joint analysis where the main differences and similarities between these three conflicts will be highlighted. Finally, the last section of this paper contains the main findings and conclusions on the basis of which policy advise is suggested. 6 2. Literature review 2.1 Underlying theories of conflict In this literary review we will explore the various theories and concepts surrounding conflict studies following the various stages as outlined by the graph below. We begin with latent conflict where the conflict has not yet began but underlying tension are beginning to be shown. This is then followed by conflict emergence where these tensions are now openly shown in the wider public space and some small acts of violence begin to occur, this in turn results in conflict escalation where violence and war occurs. However, as the conflict drags on a stalemate or a hurting stalemate occurs where none of the parties involved benefit anymore from the conflict and seek for a way out. This eventually leads to a de-escalation of the conflict and a start of negotiations in the hope of creating a settlement, which would result in a dispute settlement, which should end the conflict. The final phase of the conflict then transpires where peace building is conducted so that underlying tensions are resolved and stability can return to a country. It must however be noted that while we use this model to outline the various theories and concepts throughout a conflict, the conflict itself can vary where after a hurting stalemate instead of de-escalation occurring, conflict escalation re- occurs again. With that noted we begin with the latent conflict. By splitting up the concepts and theories in the literature review by each phase it allows us to adequately use the concepts in the relevant phase during our own conflict analysis and thus give deeper insights. Additionally, by doing so in the literary review there will not be any future confusion where each theory and concept belongs as opposed to debating it in our conflict analysis. Conflict phases model (Eric Brahm, http://www.beyondintractability.org) 7 2.2 General definitions and terms Irregular warfare Irregular warfare also known by various other degree of names (such asymmetric, guerrilla, unconventional warfare etc) is often referred to when mentioning a conflict where conventional military force is not used or irregular forces are used against a conventional military force. While the term is hard to define as it encompasses many various things the US Department of Defence has used two main forms of defining irregular warfare the first is “A form of warfare that has as its objective the credibility and/or legitimacy of the relevant political
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Canada Sanctions Zimbabwe
    Canadian Sanctions and Canadian charities operating in Zimbabwe: Be Very Careful! By Mark Blumberg (January 7, 2009) Canadian charities operating in Zimbabwe need to be extremely careful. It is not the place for a new and inexperienced charity to begin foreign operations. In fact, only Canadian charities with substantial experience in difficult international operations should even consider operating in Zimbabwe. It is one of the most difficult countries to carry out charitable operations by virtue of the very difficult political, security, human rights and economic situation and the resultant Canadian and international sanctions. This article will set out some information on the Zimbabwe Sanctions including the full text of the Act and Regulations governing the sanctions. It is not a bad idea when dealing with difficult legal issues to consult knowledgeable legal advisors. Summary On September 4, 2008, the Special Economic Measures (Zimbabwe) Regulations (SOR/2008-248) (the “Regulations”) came into force pursuant to subsections 4(1) to (3) of the Special Economic Measures Act. The Canadian sanctions against Zimbabwe are targeted sanctions dealing with weapons, technical support for weapons, assets of designated persons, and Zimbabwean aircraft landing in Canada. There is no humanitarian exception to these targeted sanctions. There are tremendous practical difficulties working in Zimbabwe and if a Canadian charity decides to continue operating in Zimbabwe it is important that the Canadian charity and its intermediaries (eg. Agents, contractor, partners) avoid providing any benefits, “directly or indirectly”, to a “designated person”. Canadian charities need to undertake rigorous due diligence and risk management to ensure that a “designated person” does not financially benefit from the program.
    [Show full text]
  • Bush War Rhodesia 1966-1980 Free
    FREE BUSH WAR RHODESIA 1966-1980 PDF Peter Baxter | 72 pages | 19 Jul 2014 | Helion & Company | 9781909982376 | English | Solihull, United Kingdom Bush War Rhodesia | i-go-books Lancaster House Agreement. The war and its subsequent Internal Settlementsigned in by Smith and Muzorewa, led to the implementation of universal suffrage in June and the end of white minority rule in Rhodesia, which was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia under a black majority government. However, this new order failed to win international recognition and the war continued. Neither side achieved a military victory and a compromise was later reached. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British and Commonwealth supervision in March ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 Aprilwhen the country achieved internationally recognised independence. The origin of Bush War Rhodesia 1966-1980 war in Rhodesia can be traced to the conquest of the region by the British South Africa Company in the late 19th century, and the dissent of native leaders who opposed foreign rule. Britain's unwillingness to compromise led to Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence UDI on 11 November Although Rhodesia had the private support of neighbouring South Africa and Portugalwhich still owned Mozambiqueit never gained formal diplomatic recognition from any country. Although the vote in Rhodesia was constitutionally open to all, regardless of race, property requirements left many blacks unable to participate. Amidst this backdrop, African nationalists advocated armed struggle to bring about black rule, primarily denouncing the wealth disparity between the races. Cold War politics played into the conflict.
    [Show full text]
  • Dealing with the Crisis in Zimbabwe: the Role of Economics, Diplomacy, and Regionalism
    SMALL WARS JOURNAL smallwarsjournal.com Dealing with the Crisis in Zimbabwe: The Role of Economics, Diplomacy, and Regionalism Logan Cox and David A. Anderson Introduction Zimbabwe (formerly known as Rhodesia) shares a history common to most of Africa: years of colonization by a European power, followed by a war for independence and subsequent autocratic rule by a leader in that fight for independence. Zimbabwe is, however, unique in that it was once the most diverse and promising economy on the continent. In spite of its historical potential, today Zimbabwe ranks third worst in the world in “Indicators of Instability” leading the world in Human Flight, Uneven Development, and Economy, while ranking high in each of the remaining eight categories tracked (see figure below)1. Zimbabwe is experiencing a “brain drain” with the emigration of doctors, engineers, and agricultural experts, the professionals that are crucial to revitalizing the Zimbabwean economy2. If this was not enough, 2008 inflation was running at an annual rate of 231 million percent, with 80% of the population lives below the poverty line.3 Figure 1: Source: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350&page=0 1 Foreign Policy, “The Failed States Index 2008”, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350&page=0, (accessed August 29, 2008). 2 The Fund for Peace, “Zimbabwe 2007.” The Fund for Peace. http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=280&Itemid=432 (accessed September 30, 2008). 3 BBC News, “Zimbabwean bank issues new notes,” British Broadcasting Company. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7642046.stm (accessed October 3, 2008).
    [Show full text]
  • Title of Thesis: ABSTRACT CLASSIFYING BIAS
    ABSTRACT Title of Thesis: CLASSIFYING BIAS IN LARGE MULTILINGUAL CORPORA VIA CROWDSOURCING AND TOPIC MODELING Team BIASES: Brianna Caljean, Katherine Calvert, Ashley Chang, Elliot Frank, Rosana Garay Jáuregui, Geoffrey Palo, Ryan Rinker, Gareth Weakly, Nicolette Wolfrey, William Zhang Thesis Directed By: Dr. David Zajic, Ph.D. Our project extends previous algorithmic approaches to finding bias in large text corpora. We used multilingual topic modeling to examine language-specific bias in the English, Spanish, and Russian versions of Wikipedia. In particular, we placed Spanish articles discussing the Cold War on a Russian-English viewpoint spectrum based on similarity in topic distribution. We then crowdsourced human annotations of Spanish Wikipedia articles for comparison to the topic model. Our hypothesis was that human annotators and topic modeling algorithms would provide correlated results for bias. However, that was not the case. Our annotators indicated that humans were more perceptive of sentiment in article text than topic distribution, which suggests that our classifier provides a different perspective on a text’s bias. CLASSIFYING BIAS IN LARGE MULTILINGUAL CORPORA VIA CROWDSOURCING AND TOPIC MODELING by Team BIASES: Brianna Caljean, Katherine Calvert, Ashley Chang, Elliot Frank, Rosana Garay Jáuregui, Geoffrey Palo, Ryan Rinker, Gareth Weakly, Nicolette Wolfrey, William Zhang Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Gemstone Honors Program, University of Maryland, 2018 Advisory Committee: Dr. David Zajic, Chair Dr. Brian Butler Dr. Marine Carpuat Dr. Melanie Kill Dr. Philip Resnik Mr. Ed Summers © Copyright by Team BIASES: Brianna Caljean, Katherine Calvert, Ashley Chang, Elliot Frank, Rosana Garay Jáuregui, Geoffrey Palo, Ryan Rinker, Gareth Weakly, Nicolette Wolfrey, William Zhang 2018 Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincerest gratitude to our mentor, Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • “The Sitrep”. a Final Edition, for 2019, Is Planned for December – Perhaps to Include a Bit More Humour and News Before the “Silly Season” Reaches Its Conclusion
    A collection of some of the Rolls of Honour from various Rhodesian High Schools Welcome to “THE SITREP” – your RLI RA-Africa newsletter – Volume 9, November 2019. Salutation Greetings all ouens and crows, from various Africa branches, to another edition of “The Sitrep”. A final edition, for 2019, is planned for December – perhaps to include a bit more humour and news before the “silly season” reaches its conclusion Rhodesian Forces Memorial Service – Sunday 10 November 2019 Hearty congratulations must be poured upon the Rhodesian Forces Memorial Committee who organised, and ran, an outstanding show at Dickie Fritz the day before Independence. This was not the first of such gatherings and particular attention had been paid to ironing-out past “niggles”. It was the third invitation for Rhodesian High Schools to lay a wreath on behalf of their school, in honour of those fallen during the war years. Twenty-seven schools were represented this year, whereas, only 17 were present at the 2017 ceremony – a sure sign of the increasing popularity of the event. Wing Cdr Bruce Harrison, Alan Strachan and Padre Bill Beer. MC for the day was none other than Wing Cdr Bruce Harrison whose sense of presence never fails to instil an atmosphere of relaxation and family unity, despite the formalities about to unfold. The Rhodesian Forces Memorial Committee is chaired by Alan Strachan who delivered the welcome – followed by prayers, led Lt Col Bill Dodgen, lesson delivered by Alf Herbst and the sermon conducted by Padre Bill Beer. Steve Prophet (RhAF) showed us how to sing “Amazing Grace” – properly, before Marcus Main-Baillie (RhAF) “turned the pages” to read random snippets of those who fell, whilst serving with various units, during the bush-war – not forgetting members of the general Rhodesian population and the animals that perished in the conflict.
    [Show full text]
  • The Isaian November December Issue
    NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2018 CONTENTS Message from the Clergy 2-3 Annual Giving Appeal 4-5 VP of Community Affairs 8 Shabbat Schedule 15 Each lifetime is the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. For some there are more pieces. For others the puzzle is more difficult to assemble. Some seem to be born with a nearly completed puzzle. And so it goes. Souls going this way and that, Trying to assemble the myriad parts. But know this. No one has within themselves All the pieces to their puzzle. Like before the days when they used to seal Jigsaw puzzles in cellophane, insuring that All the pieces were there. Everyone carries with them at least one and probably Many pieces to someone else’s puzzle. Sometimes they know it. Sometimes they don’t. And when you present your piece Which is worthless to you, To another, whether you know it or not, Whether they know it or not, You are a messenger from the Most High. -- Rabbi Lawrence Kushner 2 | THE ISAIAN NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2018 In his book, “Honey From the Rock,” Rabbi Larry Kushner uses the imagery of puzzle pieces to illustrate our capacity to connect, to encourage, to strengthen and to support one another. “There must have been a time when you entered a room and met someone and after a while you understood that unknown to either of you there was a reason you had met. You had changed the other and he had changed you.” At Temple Isaiah, our commitment to you is that we create space for these precious moments of connection and transformation.
    [Show full text]
  • An Interview with Peter Godwin by John Noonan
    SMALL WARS JOURNAL smallwarsjournal.com An Interview with Peter Godwin by John Noonan Sometimes the most effective COIN lessons are found in the strangest of places. Some time ago, while researching Zimbabwe’s staggering collapse under the Robert Mugabe regime, I stumbled upon When a Crocodile Eats the Sun – a deeply moving memoir of Zimbabwe’s corrosive rot, told by native Zimbabwean reporter, Mr. Peter Godwin. Godwin spun his tale with an enviably smooth narration, blending microcosmic personal tragedies with macrocosmic political and economic failures into a sad, powerful account of a functional nation-state’s collapse. When I finished reading, I wanted more. Digging into Godwin’s Amazon.com author history, I came across Mukiwa, the fascinating autobiography of a white boy growing up in colonial Africa (and winner of the Orwell Prize for political writing). Mukiwa spans multiple governments in a single country, as Godwin’s wonderfully interesting experiences stretch from Rhodesia as a British Crown Colony, to an international pariah, to an undeclared Republic, an unrecognized hybrid state in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, and finally to Mugabe’s Zimbabwe. While Mukiwa isn’t necessarily a war memoir (though Godwin did spend much of his career as a war correspondent), several chapters are dedicated to his time serving with the British South Africa Police during the Rhodesian Bush War. So poignant were the stories from Godwin’s tour, I sent a copy to a close friend serving in Afghanistan. He too was taken with how simply and effectively Godwin laid out basic COIN principles, so much so that he had his NCOs read the chapters that I had bookmarked.
    [Show full text]
  • An Analysis of the Chronicle's Coverage of the Gukurahundi Conflict in Zimbabwe Between 1983 and 1986
    Representing Conflict: An Analysis of The Chronicle's Coverage of the Gukurahundi conflict in Zimbabwe between 1983 and 1986 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master of Arts Degree in Journalism and Media Studies Rhodes University By Phillip Santos Supervisor: Professor Lynette Steenveld October 2011 Acknowledgements I am forever in the debt of my very critical, incisive, and insightful supervisor Professor Lynette Steenveld whose encyclopaedic knowledge of social theory, generous advice, and guidance gave me more tban a fair share of epiphanic moments. I certainly would not have made it this far without the love and unstinting support of my dear wife Ellen, and daughter, . Thandiswa. For unparalleled teamwork and dependable friendship, thank you Sharon. My friends Stanley, Jolly, Sthembiso, Ntombomzi and Carolyne, tbank you for all the critical conversations and for keeping me sane throughout those tumultuous moments. I also owe particular debt of gratitude to tbe Journalism Department and UNESCO for enabling my studies at Rhodes University. Abstract This research is premised on the understanding that media texts are discourses and that all discourses are functional, that is, they refer to things, issues and events, in meaningful and goal oriented ways. Nine articles are analysed to explicate the sorts of discourses that were promoted by The Chronicle during the Gukurahundi conflict in Zimbabwe between 1982 and 1986. It is argued that discourses in the news media are shaped by the role(s), the type(s) of journalism assumed by such media, and by the political environment in which the news media operate. The interplay between the ro les, types of journalism practised, and the effect the political environment has on news discourses is assessed within the context of conflictual situations.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Zimbabwe – Researched and Compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 19 October 2016 1.Please Provide Inform
    Zimbabwe – Researched and compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 19 October 2016 1.Please provide information on the treatment of PDP members in Zimbabwe. 2. What is the relationship between the PDP party and the MDC party? 3. What is the relationship between the PDP party and the Zanu PF party? A report published by the International Crisis Group, in a section titled “The Shifting Political Landscape” (paragraph headed “Opposition Doldrums”), states: “The main opposition MDC-T remains fragmented. Its former secretary general, Tendai Biti, and treasurer general, Elton Mangoma, broke ranks with Tsvangirai to form MDC Renewal in August 2014. Mangoma split from that party in June 2015 to establish the Renewal Democrats of Zimbabwe. That September, MDC Renewal relaunched itself as the People’s Democratic Party.” (International Crisis Group (29 February 2016) Zimbabwe: Stranded in Stasis, p.10) An article from Africa Confidential, in a paragraph headed “'Mob-ocracy'”, states: “The PDP is led by Tendai Biti, former MDC Secretary General and respected Finance Minister in the coalition government with ZANU-PF before he broke away in 2014. Its Deputy Secretary General, Tongai Matutu, reacted angrily to the MDC-T's new attitude towards a coalition and called its protests a form of 'mob-ocracy'. The PDP has abandoned rallies after small turnouts but has been busy producing weekly policy briefs for journalists and the public via email. Much like the breakaway MDC formation led by Welshman Ncube, its impact on the political arena has been marginal.” (Africa Confidential (29 April 2016) Despite mobilising thousands against the government, the opposition is failing to exploit the ruling party's weakness and division) A report from Voice of America Zimbabwe states: “Five opposition parties formed a coalition on Tuesday that will challenge President Robert Mugabe and his Zanu PF party in the 2018 general elections.
    [Show full text]
  • Matabeleland: Its Struggle for National Legitimacy, and the Relevance of This in the 2008 Election
    Matabeleland: Its Struggle for National Legitimacy, and the Relevance of this in the 2008 Election By Shari Eppel Matabeleland consists of three western provinces of Zimbabwe, namely Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South and Bulawayo. This region, stereotyped as marginalised and underdeveloped, and also as a hotbed of political opposition both historically and currently, is once more poised to play a strategic role in the forthcoming elections. After Independence in 1980, Matabeleland and parts of the Midlands were subjected to a brutal and hidden period of oppression, in which an estimated 20,000 civilians were massacred and tens of thousands more were tortured by the Fifth Brigade, which answered ultimately to Robert Mugabe. Hundreds disappeared and thousands lost homes and livestock, as Mugabe relentlessly moved to effectively establish a one-party state in Zimbabwe. The 1980s violence was without any doubt far in excess of anything that happened in affected regions during the 1970s war of liberation.1 While the “dissidents” of Matabeleland can be blamed for some of the atrocities, all evidence points to government forces, in particular the Fifth Brigade and the Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO) being responsible for over 90% of violations.2 It is fair to say that few people in Matabeleland claim not to have been affected by these events. Most people in the region – more than 70% - seem able to justify their claim to be primary victims of Fifth Brigade atrocities.3 The fact that to date these events remain largely unacknowledged at an official level, combined with continued perceived regional under-development, has had a lasting impact in terms of political outlook.
    [Show full text]
  • Report, Volume 9
    Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Volume 9 Spring 2019 Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Volume 9 Spring 2019 Report, 1 Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Volume 9, Spring 2019 Editors Daniel Berardino (2020) Editor-in-Chief Military History Helen Burleigh (2019) Assistant Editor International History Morgan Conrow (2019) American History Gregory Brookover (2020) Military History Andrew Carter (2020) Military History Mike Avallone (2020) American History Collin Keogh (2021) American History Brandi Braggs (2021) American History Cameron Hay (2021) American History Report, 2 Copyright and photocopying © 2019 Department of History United States Military Academy West Point, New York 10996 Acknowledgments The Editorial Board would like to thank the faculty of the History Department for their submission recommendations, all the students who submitted papers, and Captain Alexander Humes for his advice and guidance on historical scholarship. Without their help, Report would not have been possible. About The Review Report is a non-profit publication produced by undergraduate cadets at the United States Military Academy. It accepts and encourages submissions from undergraduates in the fall and spring. Reproduction in whole or in part without written permission is prohibited. On The Internet https://www.usma.edu/academics/academic- departments/history/history-journal Disclaimer The contents of Report, including words, images, and opinions, are unofficial and are not to be considered as the official views of the United States Military Academy, the United States Army, or the Department of Defense. Readers accept and agree to this disclaimer in the use of any information obtained from Report. Report, 3 Letter from The Editor Dear Reader, This year the Report editorial staff is pleased to present the spring edition of our journal.
    [Show full text]
  • Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) Emerged, but Then Disintegrated Rapidly
    African Studies Quarterly | Volume 7, Issues 2 & 3 | Fall 2003 Opposition Politics in Independent Zimbabwe LIISA LAAKSO Abstract: Zimbabwe has implemented a multi-party system on a universal franchise for more than two decades. This era has witnessed consolidation of power into the hands of the ruling ZANU party and its leader Robert Mugabe, and a gradual evolution of political crises. All general elections have shown support for the opposition among the voters. However, the opposition has changed a lot. Between 1980 and 1987 there was a strong regional party, ZAPU, which transformed from a partner of the ruling party to repressed dissident. The second period after the unity between ZANU and ZAPU witnessed mobilisation in defence of multipartyism and against corruption, and the birth of a populist party ZUM. ZUM’s disintegration was followed by massive electoral apathy in 1995. The third period started with civic organization for constitutional reform in 1997 and led to the emergence of the MDC, a wide coalition of interest groups united by their aim to seize ZANU from power. State responses to opposition politics help to clarify its unstable nature. Introduction Consolidation of the authoritarian power of Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in independent Zimbabwe has not proceeded through the withering away of dissent. All general elections have witnessed support for other parties. But the parties and their support base have changed radically. On the one hand this reflects the government’s different strategies to silence its critics. On the other hand it tells about changes in Zimbabwean society itself.
    [Show full text]