Prof. Park, Kwangsoo Wonkwang University Daedongyeojido (A Hand-drawn map of Korea) From the 4th week to the 7th week, the class covers Religious Cultures in Korea.
The lecture will enable students to understand Religious Culture in the Early History of Korea: Pre-History of Korea and Tan'gun Foundation Myth. 1. Pre-History and Culture of Korea
The Paleolithic Period in Korea (50,000-20,000 B.C.E) Paleolithic remains had been reported at: ① Tonggwanjin and Kulp'o-ri in North Korea ② Seokchang-ni (Kongju area) and Cheommal Cave, and P'ojeon-ni (Chech'eon) in South Korea Paleolithic inhabitants
Over a span of many millennia, then, these people slowly made advances in their culture and mode of life. It is not known, however, whether the Korean people of today are the ethnic descendants of these Paleolithic inhabitants of their land. (Lee Ki-baik, 1984, p. 1.) Culture and Mode of Life of Paleolithic Man in Korea Lived in caves and built habitations on level ground. Lived by gathering fruit, berries, edible roots, and by hunting and fishing. Polished sharp stones, hand-axes, knives, and points used in hunting. Some fixed form of communal life.
2. Society and Culture in the Neolithic Period ① Communal clan-centered society would be formed. ② Myth, legends, and traditional patterns of behavior described in records from later periods reflect certain features of the social structures of that age. ③ Tan'gun Foundation Myth, Sodo, Totem and Clan, Hwabaek (Council of Nobles), Jumong Myth, Pak Hyeokkerse Myth, and Spirit of Mountains ④ The conduct of religious ceremonies on a communal basis is suggested by the later customs known to us as: - Yeonggo (a shamanistic ceremony performed to invoke a god or spirit) - Tongmaeng (an ancestor worship ritual perhaps originating in cult honoring the founder-king Koguryo) - Much'eon (a "dance to Heaven": a form of heaven worship) (Lee, p. 6.) Prehistoric Korea and Gojoseon
The Korean Academy of Social Sciences discovered ancient human fossils originating from about 100,000 B.C.E. in lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 B.C.E. The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the paleolithic times around 10,000 B.C.E., and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 B.C.E. Society and Culture in the Neolithic Period (신석기시대의 사회와 문화)
No direct evidence suggests what form society took in the Neolithic period, when Korea was inhabited; most notably, by the people who made geometric-design pottery. However, myths, legends, and traditional patterns of behavior described in records from later periods reflect certain features of the social structure of that age. (Lee, Ki-baik, A New History of Korea, 1984, p. 5.) Archaeological, linguistic, and legendary sources support the view that the Korean peninsula was settled by Tungusic speaking peoples who migrated in waves from Manchuria and Siberia. They settled along the coasts and moved up the river valleys. These people formed the dominant ethnic foundation of the Korean people and developed the Korean language. There was a close relationship between Korean culture and that of neighboring peoples during the Neolithic Period ( New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age. For example, Korean comb pottery, widely used in the Neolithic Period, is commonly found in northeastern Asia; Korean bronze daggers, belt hooks, and knobbed mirrors also display the traits of bronze tools unearthed elsewhere in the region. New Painted design of pottery (around 1800 B.C.E) Neolithic culture in Korea thus experienced three major stages of development as these three successive waves of migration spilled down into the peninsula. It is believes that Neolithic people merged with one another and, combining with new ethnic groups of Korea’s Bronze Age, eventually came to constitute what we now think of as the Korean people. (Lee, p.3) References
Bale, Martin T. 2001. Archaeology of Early Agriculture in Korea: An Update on Recent Developments. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 21(5):77-84. Choe, C.P. and Martin T. Bale 2002. Current Perspectives on Settlement, Subsistence, and Cultivation in Prehistoric Korea. Arctic Anthropology 39(1-2):95-121. Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87-95. Lee, June-Jeong 2001. From Shellfish Gathering to Agriculture in Prehistoric Korea: The Chulmun to Mumun Transition. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison. Proquest, Ann Arbor. 3. Mumun pottery period
The Mumun pottery period is an archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 1500- 300 B.C.E. This period is named after the Korean name for undecorated or plain cooking and storage vessels that form a large part of the pottery assemblage over the entire length of the period, but especially 850-550 B.C.E. The Mumun period is preceded by the Jeulmun Pottery Period (c. 8000-1500 B.C. E.). The Jeulmun was a period of hunting, gathering, and small-scale cultivation of plants.[6] The origins of the Mumun Period are not well known, but the megalithic burials, Mumun pottery, and large settlements found in the Liao River Basin and North Korea c. 1800-1500 B.C. E. probably indicate the origins of the Mumun Period of Southern Korea. The Early (or Formative) Mumun (c. 1500-850 B.C.) is characterized by shifting cultivation, fishing, hunting, and discrete settlements with rectangular semi- subterranean pit-houses. The social scale of Early Mumun societies was egalitarian in nature, but the latter part of this period is characterized by increasing intra-settlement competition and perhaps the presence of part-time "big-man" leadership. The Middle (or Classic) Mumun (c. 850-550 B.C.) is characterized by intensive agriculture, as evidenced by the large and expansive dry-field remains (c. 32,500 square metres) recovered at Daepyeong, a sprawling settlement with several multiple ditch enclosures, hundreds of pit-houses, specialized production, and evidence of the presence of incipient elites and social competition. Ganghwa dolmen, South Korea
Ganghwa dolmen, South Korea Large Middle Mumun (c. 8th century BC storage vessel unearthed from a pit-house in or near Daepyeong, H= c. 60-70 cm. Representations of a dagger (right)and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim- dong, Yeosu, Korea. Burials dating to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700- 550 B.C.) contain a few high status mortuary offerings such as bronze artifacts. Archaeologists see this change in architecture as a social shift in the household. Namely, the tight and multi-generational unit housed under one roof in the Early Mumun changed fundamentally into households formed of groups of semi-independent nuclear family units in separate pit-houses. The average settlement in the Mumun was small, but settlements with as many as several hundred pit-houses emerged in the Middle Mumun. References
Ahn, Jae-ho (2000). "Hanguk Nonggyeongsahoe-eui Seongnib (The Formation of Agricultural Society in Korea)" (in Korean). Hanguk Kogo-Hakbo 43: 41–66. Bale, Martin T. (2001). "Archaeology of Early Agriculture in Korea: An Update on Recent Developments". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 21 (5): 77–84. Crawford, Gary W.; Gyoung-Ah Lee (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula". Antiquity 77 (295): 87–95. Bale, Martin T.. "Excavations of Large-scale Megalithic Burials at Yulha-ri, Gimhae-si, Gyeongsang Nam-do". Korea Institute, Harvard University. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~ekp/resources/studies/bale- yulha-ri.html. Retrieved 2007-11-08. [edit] Further reading Nelson, Sarah M. (1993). The Archaeology of Korea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521404436 4. Gojoseon
Gojoseon’s founding legend describes Dangun, a descendent of heaven, as establishing the kingdom in 2333 B.C.E. Archaeological and contemporary written records indicate it developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized kingdom sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries B.C.E. Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom, considered as the first proper nation of the Korean people. According to the Samguk Yusa and other Korean medieval-era records, Gojoseon is said to have been founded in 2333 BC by the legendary Dangun, who is said to be the Posterity of Heaven (天孫, 천손). It was centered in the basins of Liao and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Archaeological evidence of Gojoseon Archaeological evidence of Gojoseon are found in the transition from Jeulmun pottery to Mumun pottery around 1500 BC, when groups of semi- sedentary small-scale agriculturalists occupied most of the Korean peninsula. Local bronze production began around the 8th century BC. Modern historians generally believe it developed into a powerful federation or kingdom between the 7th and 4th centuries BC. Go(고, 古), which distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty, means "Old" or "Ancient"; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn. People
The Gojoseon people lived northeast of ancient Manchuria and are regarded as the first direct Korean ancestral line recorded in writing. The people of Gojoseon were recorded in several Chinese texts as one of the Dongyi, meaning "eastern barbarians". The people of Gojoseon were the descendants of migrating Altaic tribes that settled in Manchuria, far eastern China, and the Korean Peninsula. Gojoseon eventually consolidated in lower Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. Location - Initially, Gojoseon was probably located in Liaoning; but around 400 BC, it moved to nearby Pyongyang, the capital of modern North Korea. Gojoseon is said to have been established in 2333 BC, based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485). The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC – 2256 BC). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, Sejong Sillok says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year. Some historians suggested that Gojoseon was founded around 3000BC. State formation
Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century BC, as located around Bohai Bay and trading with Qi (齊) of China. Some historians argue that "Dangun" may have been the title of Gojoseon's early leaders. The legitimacy of the Dangun seems to have been derived from the divine lineage of Hwanin, a religious characteristic found in other ancient fortified city-states, such as those of Ancient Greece. By the 4th century BC, other states with defined political structures developed in the areas of the earlier Bronze Age "walled-town states"; Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region. The city-state expanded by incorporating other neighboring city-states by alliance or military conquest. Thus, a vast confederation of political entities between the Taedong and Liao rivers was formed. As Gojoseon evolved, so did the title and function of the leader, who came to be designated as "king" (Han), in the tradition of the Zhou Dynasty, around the same time as the Yan (燕) leader. Records of that time mention the hostility between the feudal state in Northern China and the "confederated" kingdom of Gojoseon, and notably, a plan to attack the Yan beyond the Liao River frontier. The confrontation led to the decline and eventual downfall of Gojoseon, described in Yan records as "arrogant" and "cruel". But the ancient kingdom also appears as a prosperous Bronze Age civilization, with a complex social structure, including a class of horse-riding warriors who contributed to the development of Gojoseon, particularly the northern expansion into most of the Liaotung basin. Around 300 BC, Gojoseon lost significant western territory after a war with the Yan state, but this indicates Gojoseon was already a large enough state that could wage war against Yan and survive the loss of 2000 li (800 kilometers) of territory. Gojoseon is thought to have relocated its capital to the Pyongyang region around this time. Founding legend - Dangun Myth The eastern bowmen had a myth in which the legendary founder, Dangun, was born of a father of heavenly descent and a woman from a bear-totem tribe. Dangun is said to have started to rule in 2333 B.C., and his descendants reigned in Choson, the "Land of the Morning Calm," for more than a millennium. Founding legend - Dangun Myth Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi. The Lord of Heaven, Hwanin, (환인, 桓因, a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts), had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the people. Hwanin relented, and Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek with 3,000 helpers, where he founded a city he named Sinsi (신시, 神市, "City of God" or "Holy City"). Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the people various arts, medicine, and agriculture. Heaven Lake of Baekdu Mountain, where Dangun's father is said to have descended from heaven A tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to Hwanung that they may become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort, instructing them to eat only this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave, but the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman. The bear-woman (Ungnyeo, 웅녀, 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a Sindansu (신단수, 神檀樹, "Divine Betula") tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검, 檀君王儉). System of Tangun Myth
Hwanin(환인) – Creator, Heavenly Being Hwangung(환웅) – A son of Hwanin Tangun (단군) – Son of Heavenly being and bear-woman Bear-Woman (웅녀) – Totem - Sacred Animal Posterity of Heaven or Cheonson (천손, 天孫) Posterity of Heaven or Cheonson (천손, 天孫) designates the Korean people because they are considered the descendants of Heaven or the heavenly god. The Koreans usually believe that their countries are the nation by the Posterity of Heaven. Based on historical records, the ancient Koreans generally worshiped the heavens and the sun, liked brightness, and considered their states governed by Heaven. Title of rulers
In very ancient time, there was no ruler for the Koreans. Instead, there was a divine regent who had supervised and taught the people as a representative of the Heavenly God. These divine regents were called as Hwanin, Hwanung and Dangun for different ancient periods. Hwanin (환인, 桓因 or 桓仁)
The Hwanin (환인, 桓因 or 桓仁) was a supervisory ruler at legendary Hwanguk. The word "hwan" in Hwanin is the radical of the Korean word that corresponds to "bright" in English, and it is believed that Hwan is originally used to represent the heavens. Because the Koreans think themselves the descendants of the Heavenly God, the ancient Koreans called themselves Hwan. The word "In" of Hwanin means a providential supervisor as a representative of the Heavenly God such that the benefits of the Heavenly God should be maximally served to the entire people, and the whole nation should be enlightened by the teaching of the Heavenly. Thus, Hwaning can be translated into a Divine Regent. The word of Hwanin is just to borrow the phonetic values of Chinese scripts, and must not be interpreted using the meaning of Chinese character. The Hwanung (환웅, 桓雄)
The Hwanung (환웅, 桓雄) was a supervisory ruler at legendary Baedal, and the power of Hwanun seems to be stronger than Hwanin. Because the word "woong" of Hwanwoong means a preeminent person, and it seems that "In" is just replaced with "woong" to make the word. This implies that Hwanun was likely to be elected among the eminent people in the nations. Korean legendary history books say that the ruler of Baedal nation was selected to be a ruler because he is so wise and brilliant. thus, Hwanun can be translated into Supreme Divine Regent. In the word of Hwanung, the first syllable, "Hwan" borrows the phonetic value of Chinese script, and the second syllable borrows the meaning of Chinese script. The Dangun (단군, 檀君) The Dangun (단군, 檀君) was a ruler's title of Gojoseon, and it is said to a theocracy state. It is said that Gojoseon was founded at the place where many birch trees existed. At that time, people roughly called the Gojoseon as the Birchen Nation because Chinese character "Dan" means a birch tree. At this time, the power of a ruler was stronger than the Baedal nation, so that the word "Gun" was used ("Gun" means a king). Thus, Dangun can be translated into Heavenly Regent King. Some say that the pronunciation of Korean translation for Dan(檀) is similar with the pronunciation of the Korean word "bright." So, Dangun means the king of "Bright Nation.“ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterity_of_Heaven) Dangun Wanggeom Significance of Dangun Myth
The myth is important inasmuch as it links the Korean people with a heavenly origin. Dangun’s legendary association with agriculture has led to speculation that the myth is based on a historical leader who learned the secrets of the soil in the city-states of the Huang Ho (river) valley. Buddhism and Taoism clothed themselves with a Korean mantle by crediting Dangun with starting a national religion of Heavenly Teaching and with originating the Korean maxim Hongik-ingan (“Love humanity”). Daejong-gyo's revival as an indigenous, nationalistic religion
In the religious perspective, Homgam(Na Cheol, 1863- 1916) initiated Daejong-gyo's revival as an indigenous, nationalistic religion on January 15, 1909. He tried to recover the general identity of Korean history and 0spiritual culture based upon the foundation myth of Dan’gun. In the legendary history of the Old Korea, Hwanung(Hanung), the son of the omniscient God Hwanin(Hanim), descended to the mountain-top of Mt. Taebaek. There he established a city, called Shinshi, meaning the City of the Gods. Dan’gun was born of his father Hwanung and a woman from a bear-totem tribe. Influence to New Korean Religious Movement
Hongam (Na Chŏl, 1863-1916) initiated Dan'gun'gyo in 1909 and reestablished it as Taejonggyo, an indigenous religion of Korea, in 1910 in order to spread the Dan'gun faith under Japanese colonialism. Hongam accepted Paekbong's religious movement of Dan'gun faith which was active in the Paekdu mountain and newly systematized the doctrine of the Samwi- ilch'e; the trinity of three gods. He considered Dan'gun not as a mystical person of the National Foundation myth of Korea, but as a historical person and a heavenly being who founded the Kingdom of Kojosŏn (Old Korea). the ritual of Sŏn (the Heavenly ritual)
Hongam performed the ritual of Sŏn or the Heavenly ritual serving to Hanim at the Samsŏngsa shrine at Guwŏl mountain in 1916. This became the main Heavenly ritual in Taejonggyo. During the ritual, all the participants adhered to the religious regulations and performed the ritual in the area of the sacred mountain during the specified sacred time of the full moon day, also known as August 15 in the lunar calendar. They participated symbolically in the process of recovering oneness with the Heavenly Being; thereby becoming part of the essence of the cosmos. The archetype of the Tan'gun faith can be demonstrated in the Heavenly ritual. An altar on Kanghwa Island, which is said to have been built by Dangun himself, is periodically refurbished. Dangun’s birthday (“Opening of Heaven Day”) on the 3rd day of the 10th month is a holiday for schoolchildren. Samsungdan: the place for the ritual ceremony 삼성단: 단군 제례 지내는 곳 Rituals of Taejonggyo (대종교선의식 천향) 대종교선의식 참령 대종교선의식 Shrine of Dangun in Seoul 단군성전 (서울특별시 종로구 사직동) Rituals of Taejonggyo 중광절(重光節)
(100년인 망백(望百)을 3년 앞둔 제97주년)
Dangun and San-shin (Mountain God) Legend says Dangun ruled for one thousand-five hundred years, and then decided to leave humanity where he went to the mountains and became a divine spirit of the mountain. Thus, the first king of Korea retired as a San-shin (Mountain God) and therefore, Koreans began to associate different San- shin spirits belonging to each mountain Mountains play a big part of Korean culture A Brief Description of Typical Portraits and Symbols of San-shin 토템 설화 Korean Daoism and San-shin
Daoism deeply believes in Geomancy. This belief , that the earth is alive with both spiritual and physical energy is strongest on the ridges and peaks of mountains. In Korea, these beliefs sometimes blended with San-shin beliefs. A San-shin-je was sometimes carried out by the Shilla, Koguryo and Baekje dynasties. These were divided into three scales; Dae, Jung and So (grand, middle and small) according to the level of sacredness of each mountain in their territory. Incense burner from Baekje, used in San-shin-je Korean Confucianism and San-shin
San-shin is depicted as an elderly, grandfatherly man despite earlier belief in San-shin as mostly female. This is most likely a Confucian influence. Also, in most San-shin paintings, the old man is wearing robes that are identical to those typically worn by a high government official in the Neo-Confucian Choseon Dynasty. During the Choseon dynasty, Confucianism tried to inflict Confucian values on San-shin worship, rather than eradicate it. San-shin and Korean Buddhism Buddhism has by far shown the most tolerance towards the San-shin indigenous culture Including deities or spirits that aren’t Buddhist doesn’t have a negative impact on achieving the goals set forth in Buddhism San-shin and Buddhism - Continued Buddhism has a Hwa-eom Sutra, that is about eighteen “Mountain-gods” that are said to serve as guardians of the dharma. Each mountain god is said to protect the Buddhist monks that live in the temples at that particular mountain. Here we can see how San-shin would fit in easily with this part of Mahayana Buddhist scripture. Buddhism has very close ties with mountains, so it seems logical that they would accept the San-shin belief Gija controversy
Now, let’s go back to the historical facts or stories which are written in the early book of history. What happened in Korea after Dangun? According to some Chinese records, Gija Joseon is the kingdom founded by Chinese descendants led by Gija. Whether Gija Joseon actually existed is a matter of controversy. Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons. These scholars point to the book entitled Chu-shu chi-nien (竹書紀年) and Confucian Analects (論語), which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon. Detractors of the Gija Joseon theory also point out that the cultural artifacts found in the region do not appear to have Chinese origins. An example of such an artifact is found in a Gojoseon mandolin-shaped bronze dagger. Its shape and bronze composition are different from similar artifacts found in China. According to the school of historians who believe that Gija Joseon coexisted with Gojoseon of Dangun, Gija Joseon was established at the west end of Gojoseon, which is currently around Hebei, Liaoning and southern east of Inner Mongolia, and was later overthrown by Wiman. Thus Emperor Wu of Han’s conquest of Wiman Joseon was in the western part of Gojoseon, formerly ruled by Gija and his descendants. The records of Gija refer to laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條) that prove a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property. Wiman Joseon and fall
The course of the decline and Gojoseon's fall is also controversial, depending on how historians view the migration of Gija Joseon. One account relays that King Jun appointed a refugee from Yan, Wiman. Wiman later rebelled in 194 BC, and Jun fled to the South Korean Peninsula. Wiman Joseon was influenced by the Chinese, but was not a Chinese fiefdom. In 109 BC, Wudi of China invaded near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war in 108 BC. It is thought that after this China established the Four Commanderies of Han in the western part of Gojoseon. The Gojoseon disintegrated by 1st century BC as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. As Gojoseon lost control of its confederacy, many smaller states sprang from its former territory, such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Guda-guk, Galsa-guk, Gaema-guk, and Haengin-guk. Goguryeo and Baekje evolved from Buyeo. Buyeo kingdom Goguryeo and other early Kingdoms (1st-3rd century) Goguryeo and three other Kingdoms (5th century) Three Kingdoms (7th Century) Later Three Kingdoms (Late 9th-early 10th Centuries) The basic unit of the society
The basic unit of the society of this time was the clan. (부족) An example of a clan would be the “six villages” of the Pak Hyokkese legend (고대 신라 박혁거세와 여섯 부족) These consanguineous social groupings, each bound together by its distinct blood line, are thought to have been totemistic, and differentiated one from the other by the object in the natural world with which a particular clan closely identified itself. (Lee, Ki-baik, p. 5.) The “six villages” of the Pak Hyeokkeose legend, the founder of Shilla kingdom is related with totemism, and more specifically, the horse. The Kim clan of Alchi and Aryeong relate with the chicken. Culture
Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture of painted and chiseled design evolves. These people practiced agriculture in a settled communal life, probably organized into familial clans. Rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. Bronze daggers and mirrors have been excavated, and there is archaeological evidence of small walled-town states in this period. Bronze tools
The beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is usually said to be 1000 BC, but estimates range from the 15th to 8th centuries BC. Although the Korean Bronze Age culture derived from the Liaoning and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns. The distribution map of the mandolin-shaped dagger shows the possible extent of Gojoseon's influences of politics, military or culture Gojoseon's development seems linked to the adoption of bronze technology. Its singularity finds its most notable expression in the idiosyncratic type of bronze swords, or mandolin-shaped daggers (비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍). The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of Liaoning, Manchuria down to the Korean peninsula. It suggests the existence of Gojoseon dominions, at least in the area shown on the map. Remarkably, the shape of the "mandolin" dagger of Gojoseon differs significantly from the sword artifacts found in China. The dolmen
Dolmens are burial places. Later and in certain regions - western Europe, Sweden - the dolmen was transformed into a covered passage by the addition of a sort of vestibule in the form of a long corridor covered with capstones. Dolmen tombs
Around 900 BC, burial practices become more elaborate; a reflection of increasing social stratification. Goindol, the Dolmen tombs in Korea and Manchuria, formed of upright stones supporting a horizontal slab, are more numerous in Korea than in other parts of East Asia. Other new forms of burial are stone cists (underground burial chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar coffins. The bronze objects, pottery, and jade ornaments recovered from dolmens and stone cists indicate that such tombs were reserved for the elite class. the dolmen (dol “table” and men = “stone”) is made up of an immense capstone supported by several upright stones arranged to form a sort of enclosure or chamber. Originally the dolmen was covered by a mound. (Eliade, 1979, p.115) Around the 6th century BC, burnished red wares, made of a fine iron-rich clay, characterized by a smooth, lustrous surface, appear in dolmen tombs, as well as in domestic bowls and cups. A Group of Dolmens in Gochang
Dolmen in Korea
Goindol in Gochang(South Korea) Dolmen at Koch’ang in Korea
Goindol in Gochang(South Korea) Dolmen at Koch’ang in Korea
Goindol in Gochang(South Korea) Dolmen at Koch’ang in Korea
Baby Goindol in Gochang(South Korea) Meaning of stone burials
The dwellings for the dead were built of stone. “The rock, the slab, the granite block reveal duration without end, permanence, incorruptibility - in the last analysis a modality of existing independently of temporal becoming. Religious and political functions
Religious and political functions were combined as one. Later, ruling political elites – These people were content with secular power alone They entrusted religious ceremonies to masters of ritual. (Lee, pp. 32-33) Religious Ceremonies
Because of the Koreans' thought about Heavenly offspring, they have had an anniversary sacrifice, where animals were sacrificed, or part of the annual harvest ritual was performed. (The date of the ritual was established by following the lunar calendar). Some scholars say that dolmen in Manchuria and Korean Peninsula was an altar to sacrifice to Heaven. Religious ceremonies
The conduct of religious ceremonies on a communal basis is suggested by the later customs known to us as: 1) Sangdalje (상달제, 上月祭) of Gojoseon in October 2) Yeongo(영고, 迎鼓) of Buyeo: “spirit-invoking drums” - a shamanistic ceremony performed to invoke a god or spirit (in November) 2) Tongmaeng(동맹, , 東盟) of Koguryeo: “Chumong founder-worship” - an ancestor worship ritual perhaps originating in a cult honoring the founder-king of Koguryeo 3) Much’eon (무천, 舞天): “dance to Heaven” of the Eastern Ye (in October )(Lee, p. 6.) This celebration; held in the Samhan(삼한) in the tenth lunar month represents such harvest festivals. Most rituals were performed in the tenth lunar month, at the conclusion of the harvest - with the exception of Buyeo’s yeonggo, which was held in the twelfth month, probably as a survival of the tradition of the primitive hunting society out of which Buyeo evolved from. Other religious ceremonies
Samhan: Gipungje (기풍제, 祈豊祭) in May, and Chusugamsaje (추수감사제, 秋收感謝祭) in October Silla: Palgwanhoe (팔관회, 八關會). This sacrifice seems to be mixed with Buddhism Goryeo: Palgwanhoe (팔관회, 八關會), Choje (초제, 醮祭). Choje may seem to be mixed with Taoism. => On the occasion of these major religious festivals the entire populace thronged together, giving themselves over to eating, drinking, singing, and dancing for several days on end. Epilogue
As you can see, Korea has an interesting past, that goes back to Paleolithic times, and evolves to modern day. There have been many myths, symbols and rituals that make up Korea’s past. Beliefs such as the Dangun myths, and the thought of benefitting all human beings is a fundamental basis of Korean thought and culture. Quiz
1. What ritual did you find interesting from Korea’s early history? 2. Does your country have any similar creation myths, or heavenly rituals, or religious ceremonies, to that of Korea’s? 3. What is your thought about life after death? 4. Why do you think ancient Koreans used dolmens? 5. What animals or objects are important to your country’s history?