CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

The Importance of Harmonic Analysis to Inform Twentieth-Century Performance

Practice

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the Master of Music in Music, Performance

By Shannon N. Thomas

August 2018 The thesis of Shannon N. Thomas is approved:

Dr. Lawrence Stoffel Date

Dr. Arthur McCaffrey Date

Dr. Julia Heinen, Chair Date

California State University, Northridge

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Signature Page ...... ii

List of Examples ...... iv

List of Tables ...... vi

Abstract ...... vii

Introduction ...... 1

1. Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, arr. for Clarinet, Violin, and Piano; (1918-1920) ...... 3

2. Three Preludes; George Gershwin (1926), arr. for Solo Clarinet and Piano by Charles Neidich (2014) ...... 21

3. Sonata for Clarinet and Piano; Arnold Bax (1935) ...... 32

4. Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp; Aaron Copland (1950) ...... 43

5. Wings for Solo Clarinet; Joan Tower (1983) ...... 55

Conclusion ...... 75

Bibliography ...... 76

iii Index of Examples Bax, Arnold, 32–42, pgs. of score pg. 1, Example 23 and 24, 34 pg. 3, Example 25, 35 pg. 4, Example 26, 36 pg. 6, Example 27, 36 pg. 7, Example 28, 37 pg. 8, Example 28, 37 pg. 11, Example 29, 38 pg. 13, Example 30, 39 pg. 14, Example 31–32, 40 pg. 16, Example 33, 41 pg. 20, Example 34, 41

Copland, Aaron, 43–54, pgs. of score pg. 2, Example 35, 45 pg. 4, Example 36, 45 pg. 5, Example 37, 46 pg. 10, Example 38, 47 pg. 11, Example 40, 50 pg. 12, Example 40, 50 pg. 16, Example 41, 51 pg. 17, Example 41–42, 51-52 pg. 23, Example 43, 53 pg. 27, Example 44, 54

Gershwin, George, 21–31, pgs. of score pg. 3, Examples 14–16, 23–24 pg. 4, Example 16, 24 pg. 6, Example 17, 25 pg. 7, Example 18–19, 26 ̶ 27 pg. 8, Example 20, 28 pg. 9, Example 21, 29 pg. 10, Example 22, 30

Rice, Albert, pg. from book pg. 45, Example 39, 49

Stravinsky, Igor, 3–20, pgs. of score pg. 1, Example 1, 7 pg. 4, Example 2, 8 pg. 6, Example 3, 9 pg 9, Example 4, 11 pg 10, Example 5, 12 pg. 11, Example 6, 13 pg. 13, Example 7, 14

iv pg. 16, Example 8, 16 pg. 18, Example 9, 16 pg. 22, Example 10–11, 17 pg. 24, Example 12, 18 pg. 26, Example 13, 19

Joan Tower, 56–73, visual graphic analysis, Example 58, 71 pgs. of score pg. 1, Examples 45–47, 60–62 pg. 2, Examples 48–50 & 59–60, 62–64, 72 pg. 3, Examples 51–52, 65 pg. 4, Example 53, 66 pg. 5, Example 54, 67 pg. 6, Example 55 & 61, 68, 73 pg. 7, Examples 56–57, 69–70

v List of Tables

Bax, Arnold Molto moderato, Table 3.1, 33 Vivace, Table 3.2, 38

Copland, Aaron Movement 1, Table 4.1, 44 Movement 2, Table 4.2, 49

Gershwin, George Prelude I, Table 2.1, 22 Prelude II, Table 2.2, 26 Prelude III, Table 2.3, 29

Stravinsky, Igor “The Soldier’s March,” Table 1.1, 6 “The Soldier’s Violin,” Table 1.2, 9 “A Little Concert,” Table 1.3, 10 “ ̶ Waltz ̶ Ragtime,” Table 1.4, 15 “The Devil’s Dance,’ Table 1.5, 19

Tower, Joan Table 5, 59

vi

Abstract

The Importance of Harmonic Analysis to Inform 20th-Century Clarinet Performance Practice

By

Shannon Thomas

Master of Music in Music, Performance

The 20th century has given rise to many prominent and substantial clarinet works, rich in harmonic complexity and unique historical contexts. For a clarinetist, an understanding of the theoretical construction of any piece is crucial to creating informed and intentional performances. However, some artists today might not delve into the complexities of 20th-century musical styles, and because of this, they would miss the opportunity to re-create unique and well-crafted compositions from a time not too distant from their own. For clarinet works written in the 20th century, a performing artist must be just as diligent as ever to use in-depth harmonic and historical analysis to inform their performance approach.

vii Modernism, neoclassicism, and many other musical movements of the past century have yielded clarinet repertoire that demands great attention from any performer, and to play these pieces well, it does not suffice for a clarinetist to possess minimal musical knowledge. Through the analysis of five clarinet works that were written at various points of the 20th century, the author will display how a deeper understanding of complex musical analysis and historical knowledge can significantly determine the success of performances given by today’s clarinetists.

Harmonic analyses, reception histories, and reflections of composers and performers will be used to achieve this goal, and from this research, the author will also be able to illustrate how an artist can use this knowledge to accomplish musically informed performances that honor 20th- century clarinet masterworks.

viii INTRODUCTION

When endeavoring to gain a further understanding of any piece, harmonic analysis is a first step in gaining knowledge of its structure, syntax, and intricacies. Some composers during the twentieth century, such Milton Babbitt, felt that harmonic understanding of their pieces was crucial to being able to be a good audience member of their works, let alone a successful performer.1 This was not true of all composers of this century, though it can be said that many composers in the twentieth century utilized various modes of musical communication that were not always prevalent in previous centuries. Clarinet repertoire from the century is no exception, for clarinet masterworks from that time vary in style, genre, and harmonic language.

The harmonic vocabularies prevalent in twentieth-century works make analysis a more complex endeavor, though analyzing music from any time period can be difficult. However, harmonic analysis is required in order for a clarinetist to give an informed performance.

Harmonic analysis, including of a twentieth-century work, can reveal details in a piece that can enhance not only the music itself, but any musical statements that composers want to convey to an audience through their music. Knowing how harmonic languages such as Neo-Classicism, jazz, serial composition, and Neo-Romanticism affected twentieth-century clarinet works will help modern clarinetists give performances that not only honor the compositions, but also the musical messages composers want to convey to their audiences through the clarinet idiom.

An analysis of five clarinet compositions are presented in this paper. The compositions analyzed come from various points of the twentieth century. These works are Igor Stravinsky’s

Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat arranged for violin, clarinet, and piano by the composer (1918

1920); George Gerswhin’s Three Preludes (1926), arranged for clarinet and piano by Charles

Neidich (2014); Arnold Bax’s Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1935); Aaron Copland’s Concerto

1 Milton Babbitt, “Who Cares if You Listen?” High Fidelity 8, no. 2 (February 1958): 38.

1 for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp (1950); and Joan Tower’s Wings for Solo Clarinet

(1983).

2 1. Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, by Igor Stravinsky; arr. for Violin, Clarinet and Piano by the Composer (1918–1920) Context

At the end of 1917, Igor Stravinsky moved to Switzerland to escape the tensions of the

World War I and the communist revolution, which had recently taken hold in his native Russia.

Cut off from and his other main employers, Stravinsky was left with no large

prospects to provide income. Stravinsky describes his period in Switzerland as one of the hardest

in his life. However, within the confines of isolation, Stravinsky and his colleagues came up with

an idea. In his book Igor Stravinsky: An Autobiography, Stravinsky recounts how the idea came

into being:

We often met and sought feverishly for some means of escape from this alarming situation. It was in these talks that Ramuz and I got hold of the idea of creating a sort of little traveling theatre, easy to transport from place to place and show in even small 2 localities.

Together with C. F. Ramuz (Swiss writer, acting librettist), (conductor), and Rene Auberjonois (artist, set designer), Stravinsky sought to put his plan into action at the beginning of 1918. Low on funds, the group sought a wealthy patron, and after some time found

M. Werner Reinhart, who financed the entire production. With all of the means they needed, they

sought a small-member cast, and on September 28, 1918, they premiered the play in ,

Switzerland. The group had planned to have several more performances after the premiere, but

the Spanish influenza, which was spreading in Europe during that time, made everyone in the

production ill, including the tours agents. However, once Stravinsky left Switzerland, the play

2 Igor Stravinsky. Igor Stravinsky: An Autobiography (New York, W.W. Norton Publishing, 1935), 70.

3 went on to receive more performances, though Stravinsky claimed that he had never seen another

3 performance that compared, in his mind, to the first performance in Lausanne.

For the plot, Ramuz and Stravinsky decided upon a Faust story that centered on a soldier who is tricked by the devil to trade his soul (personified by the fiddle the soldier plays) for a book that tells the future and can gain him great wealth.4 However, coming home to his village and family after the deal, everyone in village assumes the Soldier is a ghost, for instead of being absent what seemed to be for a few hours, he was actually gone for three years. Losing his old life, the Soldier strives to find a way to get his soul and violin back from the Devil. In a series of events that involves a sick Princess, a little bit of trickery, a few dances, and a false sense of happiness, the play finally ends with the Soldier striving to want his old life, and the Devil

5 waiting to take his soul for the last and final time.

The original production used a setup where the orchestra (a with violin, double- bass, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, and percussion) was on one side of the stage and the narrator of the story on the other, with the play going on between them. Stravinsky had the idea that each group would “sometimes take turns as soloists and sometimes combine as an

6 ensemble” so that there was a play of interaction between all of the production’s elements.

Two years after the premiere, Stravinsky arranged a suite from L’Histoire du Soldat for violin, clarinet and piano for a set of concerts in Switzerland organized by the play’s original patron, Werner Reinhart. There, the trio and a number of other chamber pieces were premiered, including Stravinsky’s Three Pieces for Solo Clarinet. Both chamber pieces were dedicated to

Reinhart in gratitude for his patronage.

3 Ibid., 77. 4 Paul Griffiths, The Master Musicians: Stravinsky (New York, Schirmer Books, 1993), 58. 5 Stravinsky, 71. 6 Ibid., 73.

4 During the time that he was in Switzerland, Stravinsky was very disillusioned by the events that were going on in World War I and the 1917 communist revolution in Russia. After writing works for the , which sought to present Russian culture to the rest of the world, Stravinsky seemed to use compositions like L’Histoire du Soldat and to introduce western musical genres to Russian culture.7 Musical genres such as ragtime and jazz were seen as exotic in many European cultures at the time, and it is interesting that Stravinsky began write works such as Ragtime (1918) and L’Histoire du Soldat (1918) during his years in

Switzerland. Some scholars, such as Minna Lederman her book in Stravinsky in the Theatre, claim that L’Histoire du Soldat was a product of the constant change of environments that

Stravinsky went through at the time, and that the composition was made unique by the situation

8 Stravinsky facing.

Analysis

Stravinsky arranged five movements from the production for his arrangement with violin,

clarinet, and piano. The movements that he incorporated are the following:

I. “The Soldier’s March” II. “The Soldier’s Violin” III. “A Little Concert” IV. “Tango – Waltz – Ragtime” V. “The Devil’s Dance”

A chart is given below of the form of each movement along with its form, harmonic

structure, and other important aspects of its harmonic make-up.

7 Griffiths, 54. 8 Minna Lederman, Stravinsky in the Theatre (New York, Dance Index-Ballet Caravan, Inc., 1949), 4.

5 I: “The Soldier’s March” Table 1.1: Form Analysis of “The Soldier’s March”

Section Measure numbers Material

Introduction mm. 1 ̶ 5 e minor 7 (V)

First Strain mm. 6 ̶ 19 A major (I)

Second Strain mm. 20 ̶ 48 A major

Third Strain (no trio) mm. 49 ̶ 58 A major

“Break-up” Strain mm. 59 ̶ 78 G major with f-sharp (♭VII)- sequential movement to d- sharp minor bitonality Coda mm. 78 ̶ 83 e-flat minor- a-minor

A common practice in Neo-Classical composition was to take pre-existing musical forms and write them in a way that they broke with those forms’ conventions to make them sound new.

Though Igor Stravinsky was not bound to Neo-classicism in his compositional style, he wrote

L’Histoire du Soldat in a Neo-classical fashion, taking forms such as the European Military

March and writing them in unique ways.

“The Soldier’s March,” for instance, does not display many of the common characteristics of a typical European Military March. For many Military March introductions, there is an emphasis placed on establishing the dominant chord so that there is a strong harmonic pull to the tonic key at the beginning of the first strain. In this march, all three voices at the outset play figures that can lead to scale degree (Example 1: A), which would help the piece begin on a dominant chord to set up the tonic. However, landing securely on a dominant chord is avoided by all three voices, and the actual key of the introduction is revealed afterwards to be more ambiguous, as no harmonies are clearly established until measure 4. Then, as a resolution to V is

6 expected to be reached, the chord at beginning of measure 4 is not a major dominant chord, but a

minor dominant chord (Example 1: B). The key of A major is established by measure 6, but is

not preceded by a dominant V chord as expected.

9 EXAMPLE 1: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “The Soldier’s March;” Measures 1-17.

1 A 3 B (v) 5 7

The form of this march is also different from other marches. A standard European

Military March has a “da capo” ABA form, with a contrasting B strain comparable to a trio strain of an American Military March. Some marches have variations to this form, but in general, a contrasting trio is usually present. In this march, there are three strains that consist of similar material in the key of A major, and instead of a trio, there is an abrupt fourth “break-up” strain that brings a VII tonality into the musical forefront (G major 7th chord at m. 59). This “break-

9Igor Stravinsky, Suite from “L’Histoire du Soldat” for Violin, Clarinet and Piano (arranged by the composer) (London, J & W. Chester, Ltd., 1920), 2.

7 up” strain is also used as a sequential figure, so that d-sharp/e-flat can be reached by measures 76

and 77 (Example 2: A). Then, unlike a standard Military March, the march ends on a minor 7th

chord, giving the end of the work harmonic instability at measure 83 (Example 2: B).

EXAMPLE 2: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “The Soldier’s March;” The middle of the sequential section (mms. 61-78), and 10 the end of the work until measure 83. 61 65 68

69 72 74

75 76 81 83 B

The ♭VII tonality is also not a common key area to move to either in marches, as usually a trio

10Ibid., 4.

8 section will move to either a dominant key, a subdominant key, or another key more closely

related to the tonic.

“The Soldier’s Violin” Table 1.2: Form Analysis of “The Soldier’s Violin”

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1-30 A minor

B mm. 31-74 A major

A mm. 75-105 A minor

“The Soldier’s Violin” follows ABA form, though the there is no tonally distant

modulation from section A to section B. There is, however, many appearances of the ♭VII

modality in the B section, which is most prevalent in the clarinet melody as the melodic phrase

progresses (Example 3: A).

EXAMPLE 3: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “The Soldier’s Violin;” Measure 39 is where the clarinet melody begins, which 11 uses the ♭VII sonority. A 36 39

42 47

11Ibid., 6.

9 This modality is continuously used through all of the movements of The Suite from L’Histoire du

Soldat, and the use of the ♭VII chord often foreshadows the harmonic tension that follows.

“A Little Concert” Table 1.3: Form Analysis of “A Little Concert”

Section Measure numbers Material

Exposition: mm. 1 ̶ 21 A major A a: mm. 1–13 b: mm. 14–17 a': mm. 17–21

Transition (Bridge) mm. 22 ̶ 28 e minor

B mm. 29 ̶ 36 e minor

Closing Section mm. 37 ̶ 44 A major

Development mm. 45 ̶ 106 d minor, A major, D major, d minor

Recapitulation mm. 107 ̶ 147 A major trans.: mm. 107–120 a'': mm. 121–134 a''': mm. 135–147

“A Little Concert” is in standard sonata-allegro form. The A section uses a motive that was first introduced in “The Soldier’s Violin” and develops it into a motive that also contains smaller subsections. In the a subsection of the A section, the motive begins in A major and then proceeds to the b subsection, which is centered on the subdominant IV chord. It then returns to an a' subsection briefly back in A major.

10 12 EXAMPLE 4: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “A Little Concert;” The b and a' subsections are shown below. b 10 14

a' 16

A transition section in the dominant key occurs at measures 22 ̶ 28. Then, the B section of

the exposition is reached at measure 29, and the violin introduces the section B theme (see

Example 5).

12 Ibid., 9.

11 EXAMPLE 5: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “A Little Concert;” Measure 22 ̶ 28 go into the transition section in V, and at 13 measure 29 the B section begins.

22 25 27

29 The B section

The closing section of the exposition at measure 37 leads back into A major (the A' section), and at measure 46, a transitional section in the key of the Neapolitan (♭II) leads to the development section in d minor. A motive based on the Dies Irae motive (Example 6: A) is established at measure 54 as the instrumental texture becomes thinner.

13Ibid., 10.

12 EXAMPLE 6: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “A Little Concert;” The Dies Irae motive is heard in the clarinet melody 14 at measure 54.

46 49 52

54

Various keys are explored in the development, including d minor, A major, and D major.

Motivic material from the previous two movements also appear, and the recapitulation occurs at measure 108 with transitional material using melodic material from “The Soldier’s March.” A return to the A section material happens at measure 121, though there is no return to the b subsection material. The movement then ends securely in A major.

14Ibid., 11.

13 EXAMPLE 7: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “A Little Concert;” The recapitulation for the third movement begins at 15 108, where a theme from the first movement can be seen in the piano part. Recap. Transitional Material 104 108

111 115

118 121 A Material

15Ibid., 13.

14 “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime” Table 1.4: Form Analysis of “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime”

Section Measure numbers Material

Tango mm. 1 ̶ 74 A: mm. 1 ̶ 33 g minor B: mm. 34 ̶ 40 g-minor/d-minor bitonality, A': mm. 41 ̶ 59 A major/Bb minor B': mm. 60 ̶ 74 B major/f-sharp minor

Waltz mm. 75 ̶ 189 A: mm. 75 ̶ 88 C major B: mm. 89 ̶ 130 A: mm. 131 ̶ 177 Trans. mm. 178 ̶ 189 D major

Ragtime mm. 190 ̶ 282 A: mm. 190 ̶ 204 D major B: mm. 205 ̶ 229 A major A': mm. 230 ̶ 244 C major C: mm. 245 ̶ 252 implied French aug. 6th chord B': mm. 253 ̶ 266 A major A'': mm. 267 ̶ 282 D major

Each dance in this set of dances is fairly symmetrical in length. The tango can be broken up into four sections within binary form, with the B and B' sections using the Dies Irae motive from “A Little Concert.” When these sections occur, Stravinsky places the clarinet and violin in bitonal arrangements. The second section (measures 34 ̶ 40) sets A major and b minor against one another (Example 8), and the fourth section (measures 60 ̶ 74) sets B major and f-sharp against each other (Example 9).

15 EXAMPLE 8: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” A major/b-minor tonality displayed in the 16 violin and clarinet part at measure 34.

34 36

EXAMPLE 9: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” B major/f-sharp minor bitonality at measure 17 60. 60

The waltz section is more tonally stable, as for the majority of the time, the tonic of C

major takes precedence. It follows an ABA structure, and though its key goes temporarily into its

secondary dominant key (D major), the section remains in C major until transitional material

starting at measure 177 modulates the movement into D major.

After the waltz, the ragtime section introduces multiple motives. From measures 189

203, the first motive is in D major.

16Ibid., 16. 17Ibid., 18.

16 EXAMPLE 10: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” The first ragtime motive at measure 189, 18 seen in the violin part in the box below.

189

Following, the second section of the ragtime takes place from measures 204 ̶ 228 in A major, with a new motive played by the violin and at times the piano (Example 11:A).

EXAMPLE 11: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” The next motive of the ragtime occurs at 19 measure 208, with increased volume of instrumental texture.

201 204

206 208 A

18Ibid., 22. 19 Ibid.

17 By measure 229, when the third section brings back first section material, the key

changes to C major, but then segues into an implied French augmented 6th chord at measure 244

(Example 12: A) and also contains its own motive.

EXAMPLE 12: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” The implied French augmented 6th chord 20 modality can be found in measure 244.

236 241

242 244

With G-sharp present in the chord, a return to A major is made possible at measure 252. Once a

final section in D major appears from measure 266 to the end of the ragtime, the movement ends

in G major.

20Ibid., 24.

18 “The Devil’s Dance”

Table 1.5: Form Analysis of “The Devil’s Dance”

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1 ̶ 41 B-flat major

B mm. 16 ̶ 42 D major

A' mm. 43 ̶ 62 B-flat major

B' mm. 63 ̶ 70 D major

Coda mm. 71 ̶ 73 d minor

“The Devil’s Dance,” is a binary form with a coda. The A and B sections alternate

between the keys of B-flat major and D major, and transitional material from “A Little Concert”

is evident in measures 39 ̶ 41. In addition, the clarinet part has an accompaniment line (Example

13: A) that resembles the one used in “The Soldier’s Violin.”

EXAMPLE 13: Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat, “Tango - Waltz - Ragtime;” Material from “The Soldier’s Violin” seen 21 in the clarinet line in measures 16 ̶ 22. A 16 19 22

21 Ibid., 26. 19 As a composition that utilizes twentieth-century harmonic language in older musical forms, Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat is a work that embodies the principal ideals of Neo-

Classicism. Though Stravinsky was simply working with the means that he had to make an income, he constructed a work that reflected the time period as well. War and conflict caused individuals like Stravinsky to question and mourn the loss of long-established institutions and traditions, and disillusionment began to be reflected in the musical conventions of the time period. Stravinsky’s Suite from L’Histoire du Soldat is no exception, though the social commentary made throughout is never explicitly expressed. Stravinsky’s harmonic language displays Neo-Classical ideals while incorporating musical aesthetics of the twentieth century. It is crucial for performers to know how these elements are presented so that they can give informed and intentional performances of this work and other Neo-Classical works.

20 2. Three Preludes by George Gershwin (1926); arr. for clarinet and piano by Charles Neidich (2014) Context

In January of 1925, George Gershwin had already begun to write a notebook of

“Preludes,” being inspired by Frederic Chopin’s set of 24 etudes.22 Gershwin planned to write 24 of his own, and then to publish it under a collection called The Melting Pot, which was still an incomplete project in 1926. Gershwin premiered five preludes for solo piano on December 4,

1926, while accompanying his friend, contralto Marguerite D’Alvarez, on her 1926 ̶ 1927 recital tour.23 He performed five preludes on the first performance, and then an additional one along with the five at another tour performance. However, after the concert series had ended, he chose to publish only three. The etude collection was never finished and some of the preludes he performed on tour were either turned into parts for other compositions or we never performed again.24 The sixth prelude became known to many as the “lost etude,” and it was never used in another composition. Some scholars speculate that Gershwin simply improvised the sixth prelude, since no manuscript or sketch of it has ever surfaced.25 Richard L. Stokes, when writing a review for the New York newspaper publication Evening World on the premiere, described five of the preludes in the following fashion:

They proved brief and glowing little vignettes of New York life. The first was a vigorous bit of syncopation; the second, lyrical in vein, resembled a … and the fifth 26 stirred together a Charleston for the left hand and a Spanish melody for the right.

22 Howard Pollack, George Gershwin: His Life and Work (Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006), 391. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid., 390. 25 Edward Jablonski. Gerswhin (New York: C. P. Putnam, 1962), 137. 26 Ibid., 136.

21 Each prelude is only a few minutes long. The three that were published (I, II, and V from

above) became well known and offered a taste of jazz into a classical idiom. Preludes I and III

27 are quick and energetic in character, while the middle Prelude II is slow and slightly rubato.

Many arrangements and transcriptions of the piece were made since the solo preludes were first published. Violinist was known to perform his own arrangement of the piece for violin and piano for encores.28 Other artists made arrangements of the piano part for other solo instruments or ensembles, and there are many published arrangements of the work for solo clarinet and piano. In 2014, Charles Neidich, used Heifetz’s arrangement to fashion his own

29 arrangement of the preludes.

Analysis

Prelude I

Table 2.1: Form Analysis of Prelude I

Section Measure Numbers Material

A Introduction: mm. 1–2 Bb major mm. 3–20 mm. 21–29 C major

B mm. 30–34 D major mm. 35–41 C major mm. 42–45 B-flat major mm. 46–49 Closing sequential section; starting in E-flat major

A mm. 50 ̶ 57 B-flat major Closing material mm. 58–60 Coda mm. 61–62 A-flat major, B-flat major

27 George Gershwin, Three Preludes for Clarinet and Piano, trans. and arr. by Charles Neidich, (Los Angles, WB Music Corp., 2014.), 2. 28 B.S. Taylor, “Fantasy Variations on George Gershwin's Prelude II for Piano: An Analysis and Conducting Guide,” (DMA diss., The University of Southern Mississippi, 2008), 124, http://libproxy.csun.edu/login? url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/304465992?accountid=728524. 29 Gershwin, 2.

22 In this prelude, there is a reliance on using the ♭VII modality to act as a modulatory

device. Unique treatment of modality is a common characteristic of jazz, which was beginning to

increase in popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century, when Gershwin was establishing

himself as classical composer. His time working in Tin Pan Alley in New York City exposed

him to the growing genre, and jazz influenced many of his works.30 Often, jazz treatments of

modality helped to drive his pieces’ structure and phrasing. In this composition, modality is key

to influencing his harmonic lay-out.

The tonality is first introduced in the introduction, when the clarinet (in this edition) picks

up the melody and the line concludes on scale degree ^♭7 (A-flat, Example 14; A).

EXAMPLE 14: Three Preludes, Prelude I; transcribed for clarinet and piano; the introduction to the prelude, where

31 the scale degree ^♭7 is introduced in the clarinet line. A

This sonority appears when the clarinet finishes its melodic progression in measure 13 (Example

16: A).

30 Robert Payne, Gershwin (London, Robert Hale Ltd. 1960), 29. 31 Gershwin, 3. 23 EXAMPLE 15: Three Preludes, Prelude I; the clarinet melodic progression in the first A section, when ♭VII 32 sonority appears. 12 14

These appearances act as a harbinger to what happens in measures 16 ̶ 19 when the harmony in the piano consists of a B-flat seventh chord. This B-flat seventh chord (Example 16: A) is then used as pivot chord, interpreted as the ♭VII sonority (previously V7/IV) so that the piece can modulates to C major at measure 21.

EXAMPLE 16: Three Preludes, Prelude I; measures 16 ̶ 21 contains the modulatory sequence to C major with the

33 ♭VII modulation device.

18

22

32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., 3–4.

24 This occurs again in measures 27 ̶ 28, when ♭VII of D (C major seventh chord) helps the piece modulate to D major. All of the ♭VII chords for the rest of the B section, will continue to be the main modulatory device.

Before the return of the A section at measure 50 in B-flat major, the subdominant key appears in the closing of the B section from measures 41 ̶ 49. The prelude ends in the key of B- flat major, though in the coda (measures 62 ̶ 63), an A-flat major scale in both instrumental parts

(in Neidich’s edition) contains the ♭VI sonority.

EXAMPLE 17: Three Preludes, Prelude I; the coda section (measures 62 ̶ 63), when the ♭VI sonority appears in

34 both parts, as indicated below.

62 63

34 Ibid., 6.

25 Prelude II Table 2.2: Form Analysis of Prelude II

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1 ̶ 31 c-sharp minor Introduction mm. 1–5 Part a mm. 5-12 Part b mm. 13–18 A (repeat with condensed introduction) mm. 19–29

Transition m. 30

B (Interlude) mm. 31 ̶ 42 F-sharp major Transition mm. 43–44

A (One iteration only) mm. 45 ̶ 58 c-sharp minor Coda mm. 59–61

Prelude II, is in ternary form, with the outer two a sections in c-sharp minor and the inner b section in F-sharp major (subdominant relationship). A “walking bass” in the piano part

(Example 18: A) introduces the prelude in the key of c-sharp minor in measures 1 ̶ 4 and the clarinet melody commences part a of the section one beat before measure 5 with a syncopated motive (Example 18: B).

EXAMPLE 18: Three Preludes, Prelude II; The “walking bass” in the piano and the beginning of the main melodic 35 mater (measures 1–5). 1 4 B

35 Ibid., 7.

26 When the melody temporarily modulates to the dominant key (G-sharp major, measures 9 –10),

syncopation concludes and stresses are put on the beat (Example 19: A).

EXAMPLE 19: Three Preludes, Prelude II; measure 10 shows where the melody goes to the dominant key, with the 36 syncopation ending on beat 1.

The melody progresses temporarily to vi (a minor) at the beginning of part “b” (measure 13), but then c-sharp minor returns at measure 15. The A section is then repeated, and a transition appears at measure 30, where a modulation to F-sharp major can be seen. At measure 31, the B subsection begins (Example 20: A), and its rhythm differs significantly from the subsection a theme.

36 Ibid.

27 37 EXAMPLE 20: Three Preludes, Prelude II; the section B motive starting at measure 31.

29

At measure 41, a second transitional section occurs (Example 21: A), and after resting on a G- sharp major chord on beat 3 of measure 44, subsection a returns to c-sharp minor at measure 45

The A section is only repeated once, and the movement ends on a C-sharp major 9th chord in the short coda at measure 61.

37 Ibid., 8.

28 EXAMPLE 21: Three Preludes, Prelude II; the second transitional section (measures 41–44) leads the prelude back to the A section at measure 45.

42 A

48 50

Prelude III Table 2.3: Form Analysis of Prelude III

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1 –28

Introduction mm. 1 –4 e-flat minor

a mm. 5 –12

b mm. 13–20 E-flat major

a mm. 21-28 e-flat minor

B mm. 29-44 A-flat major,

Transition mm. 45–51 b- flat minor

A mm. 51-58 e-flat minor E-flat major a (one iteration) cadence

38 Ibid., 9.

29 The last prelude, subtitled “Spanish Dance” also follows an ABA form.39 The outer two subsections are in e-flat minor, while the subsection focuses on the subdominant and dominant keys. Compared to the other the preludes, this prelude has less use of modality, with the exception of when D major is put against B-flat major (dominant key) at measures 35–36 and measures 43–49.

EXAMPLE 22: Three Preludes, Prelude III; the D major key in the clarinet often clashes with the dominant chords 40 in the piano, especially here in measures 45 –49. 46 D major 48

B-flat major

Each subsection is repeated twice, except for when the A section returns, when the a subsection

repeats only once, without any return of the b subsection. Compared to the other two movements,

there is no coda, and the piece ends abruptly once the embellished a subsection ends.

In all of these preludes, the influence that jazz had on Gershwin’s compositional style is

evident by his reliance on modality. In many instances, it is modality that drives the work

39 Ibid., 10. 40 Ibid., 12.

30 harmonically, and helps give it complexity, depth, and direction. Knowing how these modalities are present in the composition, and where, will help performers know how Gershwin and other jazz-influenced composers incorporated jazz into the classical genre, and how to present those works in an informed manner.

31

3. Sonata for Clarinet and Piano by Arnold Bax (1935) Context

Throughout his lifetime, Arnold Bax classified himself as a Celtic at heart, though he was born in the County of Surrey, England in 1883. Claiming that the Irish were able to decipher dream from reality better than anyone else, but “deliberately (chose) to follow the dream” anyway, Bax had a strong affinity for the culture, folklore, and “mysteriousness” of Ireland.41 He moved to the west of Ireland at the age of 19, and throughout his musical career took on the pseudonym Dermot O’Byrne when composing and residing in different places on the island.42

Strongly influenced by Neo-Romanticism, Bax was known to write emotional and harmonically complex works. He was a well-known composer in both England and Ireland, and he was most noted for his Celtic-influenced works and his symphonies.

Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, op. 327 was written later in Bax’s career in 1935, the

same year that Bax had written his penultimate Symphony No. 6, op. 331. The sonata was

dedicated to Hugh Prew, a friend who was a member of the “Old Broughtonians,” a club started

by Bax’s father comprised of literary and music scholars who met and played cricket together.43

However, it is believed that piece was actually written for (his life companion) to

play, along with another clarinetist.44 The piece was premiered with Cohen in June 17, 1935, and

has since been characterized by its use of florid chromaticism and lush melodies. There are only

41Sir Arnold Bax, Farewell My Youth (London, Longmans, Green and Co. 1943), 42. 42 Colin Scott-Sutherland, Arnold Bax (London, J.M. Dents and Sons, Ltd., 1973), 17. 43 Ibid, 44–45. 44 Charles H. Willett, “The Use of the Clarinet in the Solo and of Arnold Bax,” (DM diss., Florida State University, 1996), 76.

32 two movements that comprise the work: Molto moderato and Vivace. This sonata, as a whole, is

highly reminiscent of Romanticism due to its treatment of tonality and its reliance on

chromaticism to drive harmonic flow. Augmented chords, obscure chordal relationships, and

chromatic sequencings are present throughout. The movements use older musical forms, such as

sonata form, but display newer harmonic vocabulary to express musical ideas.

Analysis I. Molto moderato Table 3.1: Form Analysis of I: Molto moderato

Section Measure numbers Material

Exposition: mm. 1–37 D major, F-sharp major, b A a: 1–10 minor, A major b: 11–27 a': 28–37

Transition (Bridge) to B mm. 38– 41 F major

B mm. 42–73 F major, A-flat major, F major, G-flat major

Closing Section mm. 74 –95 F major, a minor against B- flat major

Development mm. 96–127 G major, e-flat minor, b-flat minor, B major, G major, B- flat augmented chord sonority

Recapitulation mm. 128–171 D major B': mm. 128–137 Trans. mm 138–145 Sequence to G major a'':146–157 D major b': 158–166 coda (a material): mm. 167–171

As a Neo-Romantic composer, Bax used more Romantic harmonies to convey musical

ideas. Even though he “came to musical maturity before the –isms and –alities of the twentieth

33 century,” Bax wrote works in a way that also mirrored twentieth-century ideas such as creating

new things from the old.45 The way he accomplished this, though, was by using Romantic

harmonic writing to show drastic breaks with harmonic expectations.

The first movement, in sonata-allegro form, begins in D major, and explores varying key

areas throughout the movement. The A section has three subsections that use two motives:

motive a (Example 23) from measures 1–6 and motive b (Example 24) from 11–14.

46 EXAMPLE 23: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto Moderato; measures 1–4 show motive a.

1 motive A

47 EXAMPLE 24: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto moderato; measures 11 –14 show motive b. 11 Motive b 9

13 15

45 Colin Scott-Sutherland, “Arnold Bax 1863–1953,” The Musical Times 104, no. 1148 (1963): 706. 46 Arnold Bax, Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, (London: Murdoch, Murdoch and Company, 1935), 1. 47 Ibid. 34 A sequential section occurs from measures 15–27. The closing section of the expositions uses

material from motive a, and the transitional to the B section occurs at measures 38 (shown in

Example 25). From there, the B section begins in F major (♭III of D major). Moving to more

remote keys in the B section of a sonata is not uncommon in . However, the

constant changing of keys in the A section preceding it shows how Bax was highly influenced by

the likes of Strauss and Ravel, and wanted to pursue new musical expression through complex

48 treatments of Romantic harmonic language and harmonic instability.

EXAMPLE 25: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto Moderato; the transitional section (m. 38–41) which leads to 49 section B at measure 42.

38

42

47

48 Scott-Sutherland, 706. 49 Ibid., 3.

35 The B section continues in F major, occasionally going into A-flat major and using Neapolitan chords approach G-flat major. By measure 66, there is a stronger resolution to F major as the B section closes (Example 26: A), and the development begins at measure 74 in G major.

50 EXAMPLE 26: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto Moderato; the start of the closing section of section B. A 63 65

In the development, several keys emerge, including G major, B major, e minor, and B-

flat major, and motive a material from the A section recurs frequently (see Example 27).

EXAMPLE 27: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto Moderato; the transition to and appearance of B major in the 51 development using motive a material. 89

94 96 motive A material

50 Ibid., 4. 51 Ibid., 6.

36 EXAMPLE 28: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Molto Moderato; the appearance of the B-flat augmented chord, set 52 against the clarinet line at measures 120 –125.

117 119

120 123

124 127

A transition to the recapitulation does not occur until measure 128, and after using motive a and

b material, the recapitulation ends in D major.

52 Ibid, 7–8.

37 II. Vivace Table 3.2: Form Analysis of II: Vivace

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1 –46 d minor, F major, E major

B mm. 47 –78 f minor

A' mm. 79 –99 e minor, e-flat minor, B major, f minor

B' mm. 100 –127 D major

The second movement of the sonata is in binary form, with a closing coda that utilizes

material from the first movement. D minor is the opening key, and the main motive of the A

section is introduced in the clarinet in the first four measures (Example 29: A).

EXAMPLE 29: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the motive for the A section begins in the clarinet melody in 53 the first four measures of the movement.

1

3 5

53 Ibid., 11.

38 The piano then repeats the opening motive from measures 13–16. At measure 20, repeated notes

in the clarinet part offer a pedal tone that enables the motive (Example 30: A) to be developed

and a key change to F major to occur at measure 30.

EXAMPLE 30: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the pedal tone in the clarinet part enables the motive to 54 modulate to F major, as e minor acts as a pivot chord to F major by a seventh chord relation. A 24 26

28 30

54 Ibid., 13.

39 Once measure 41 is reached, there is a transitional section in the key of E major, that

leads the movement into Section B, where a c-sharp minor chord (d-flat minor enharmonically

spelled, Example 31: A) is used as a pivot chord to f minor.

EXAMPLE 31: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the c-sharp minor chord seen in measure 46, 55 enharmonically spelled as a d minor chord, helps to be a pivot chord from E major to f minor.

The B section begins in f minor at measure 47, and a repeat of the B section material is seen in

the piano part in measures 63 –66.

56 EXAMPLE 32: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the Section B motive displayed in measures 49-58. 49 52 A

53 55 57

55 Ibid., 14. 56 Ibid.

40 A brief second transitional section appears in measure 77, and the A' section emerges at measure

79 in the key of e minor.

57 EXAMPLE 33: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the transition section at measure 77.

The A' section has develops different keys using the main A section motive, including e- flat minor, B major, and f minor. However, starting at measure 91, the piano and clarinet begin to use the repeated pedal tone motive from the A section. This occurrence helps a third transitional section to appear in measure 98, leading to a dominant chord preparation from measures 100–

109 (A major pedal). By measure 110, the B' section begins with the B section motive in D major. At measure 126, the closing material from the B' section leads to a coda (measure 132) and the piece ends on a perfect authentic cadence (Example 34: A).

EXAMPLE 34: Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Vivace; the coda section borrows material from motive a of the first 58 movement, with its close ending on a PAC instead of an IAC (compared to Movement I). A 132 134

57 Ibid., 16. 58 Ibid., 20.

41 Unlike some of the composers previously mentioned in this paper, Bax did not seek to recreate any musical language. He favored a musical vocabulary that utilized a more Romantic approach, and did not favor some of the new harmonic vocabularies of the twentieth century. In a personal correspondence to , Bax even said of some modern music: “My appreciation of widely accepted modern music (apart from Sibelius symphonies) stops at the end

59 of Part I of ‘Sacre du Printemps.’”

However, Bax still strove to create music that reflected the time he was living in. He conveyed the twentieth-century ideal of wanting to change standard musical expression by using a more common Romantic compositional style, but in a way that opened more obscure directions that music could go to harmonically and creating more opportunities for harmonic ambiguity.

59 Arthur Bliss, et al., “Arnold Bax: 1883-1953,” Music and Letters 35, no.1 (January 1954): 4.

42 4. Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano

by Aaron Copland (1950)

Context

Jazz clarinetist Benny Goodman asked Aaron Copland to write a work for him to perform

in 1947. While traveling in on a four-month tour through Latin America, Copland finished the

first movement of a concerto, using recordings of Benny Goodman’s jazz quintet to gain a better

60 conception of what Benny’s playing style was like.

After Copland finished the entire concerto, Goodman requested some changes to be made to make the concerto easier to perform for the debut.61 The concerto was first premiered by

Goodman on NBC Radio, and three weeks later, the concerto had its concert premiere on

November 24, 1950, by clarinetist Ralph McLane and the Philadelphia Orchestra under Eugene

62 Ormandy.

The debut performances received mixed reviews, but after more performances, the concerto was a success. Today, the Clarinet Concerto has become a staple of clarinet repertoire.

Its jazz elements make it work that is highly challenging to perform.

Analysis

The concerto, though it is a through-composed work, is comprised of two main movements separated by a cadenza. Movement I is a slow lento section, which contains three specific motives that will be developed later on in the piece. A jazz-like cadenza occurs, and then

Movement II, organized into a loose rondo structure, follows, using motives from the cadenza to

60 Albert Rice. Notes for Clarinetists: A Guide to the Repertoire (New York, , 2017), 43. 61 Ibid., 47-48. 62 Ibid., 41.

43 create variations and to delve into more remote and distant key areas.63 Jazz modality is highly

prevalent in the piece, and the way Copland treats variations of the motives in the shows how he

was influenced by Goodman’s jazz ensemble and the music of South America, where he was

64 travelling for a time during part of the composition process.

Movement I Table 4.1: Form Analysis of Movement I

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 1–60 C major, E-flat major

B mm. 61–76 C major, E Major, E-flat major

A' mm. 77–115 C Major, E-flat major, D-flat major, C major

Cadenza mm. 115–121 C major, sequential material in multiple keys, ending on Db major

Labeled “slowly and expressively,” the A section of the first movement starts in C major,

resembling a waltz.65 Some scholars claim that the opening of this movement has some

connection to Erik Satie, who was an influence on Copland during the earlier years of his

66 career. On multiple occasions, the use of E-flat major chords (♭III) appear in the harmonic

texture (see Example 35), and this chord serves as an indicator of what is to come later, when a

temporary modulation to E-flat major occurs in measure 51.

63 Ibid. 64 Stanley V. Kleppinger, “On the Influence of Jazz Rhythm in the Music of Aaron Copland,” American Music 21, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 34. 65 Neil Butterworth, The Music of Aaron Copland (Gloucester, Toccata Press, 1985), 120. 66 Peter Dickinson, “Copland, Early, Late, and More Biography,” The Musical Times 131, no. 1773 (November 1990): 582.

44 EXAMPLE 35: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement I;” here, an E-flat 67 major chord appears in the context of C major at measure 11.

EXAMPLE 36: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement I;” a modulation to 68 E-flat major at measure 51.

At measure 61, the B section of the first movement begins using new motivic material (Example

37: A) and the keys of D and E-flat majors emerge (ii and ♭II relationships, respectively).

67 Aaron Copland. Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra, with Harp and Piano. (London, Boosey & Hawkes, 1952), 2. 68 Ibid., 4. 45 Scholar Julia Smith, in her book Aaron Copland: His Work and Contribution to American Music,

linked the hymn-like calm of the B section with the religious tone of Appalachian Spring (1944),

and thus believes Movement I combines aspects of worldliness and religiosity.

EXAMPLE 37: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement I;” the B section 69 begins at measure 61.

61 A 63

A cont. 67

Sudden changes to more remote modalities, like ♭III and ♭II, occur often in the work, and the treatment of modality will change over time in the piece as jazz modalities are introduced in the cadenza and Movement II. The abruptness of the modal change also will be a harbinger to what will follow in the cadenza, when pivots notes help modalities change frequently and quickly.

69 Copland, 5.

46 At measure 77, an A' section begins in the tonic key. At various times, the A' section temporarily moves into ♭III and ♭II (E-flat and D-flat major), but then closing material for the section returns to key back to C major.

EXAMPLE 38: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement I;” the brief 70 modulation to E-flat and D-flat majors from measures 95 –104, that lead back to C major in measure 105.

E-flat major

D-flat major

C Major

70 Ibid., 10.

47 At measure 115, the jazz-like cadenza begins, and arpeggios in the solo clarinet line

change in key as notes at the peak of each arpeggio act as pivot notes to different keys.

Throughout the section, there are three different motives that are introduced. Albert Rice, in his book Notes for Clarinetists: A Guide to the Repertoire, has noted three specific motives from the cadenza.

EXAMPLE 39: Notes for Clarinetists: A Guide to the Repertoire; Albert Rice’s figure of the three different motives 71 used in the cadenza of Movement I.

The cadenza develops many different key areas, such as C major, D major, D-flat major,

G-flat major, B-flat major, B major, and A-flat major. However, towards the end of the cadenza,

there is a clear transition to D-flat major, as a withheld altissimo E in the clarinet part acts as a

pivot to D-flat major. A quality that makes confirms the jazz influence of the cadenza is the

syncopated rhythm and the “incisive rhythmical attacks,” which was reminiscent of Copland’s

playing style.72 In general, though the work is mainly influenced by jazz, different musical styles

will emerged and will combined, making the concerto a work that is a synthesis of multiple

musical styles.

71 Rice, 45. 72 Butterworth, 120.

48 Movement II

Table 4.2: Form Analysis of Movement II

Section Measure numbers Material

A mm. 121–175, D-flat

mm. 176–186 Transition: E major

B mm. 187–227 D major

A' mm. 228–249, D-flat major

mm. 250–257 Transition: A-flat and A major

B' mm. 258–269, A-flat major

mm. 270–296 Transition: D-flat

C mm. 297–322 F major, C major, F major

Development mm. 323–429, D-flat major, B, major, B-flat major, A major

mm. 430–441 Transition: D-flat major

A'' mm. 442–473, C major

mm.474–480 Transition: A major/G-flat 7th chords paired with E-flat/C major chords B'' mm. 481–489 D-flat, B-flat

Coda mm. 490– end C major, E major, C major

Movement II is in 8-part variation rondo form with an added development section. The three motives from the cadenza are used and developed throughout the movement. The

“freeness” of this form recalls the freedom of improvisational jazz, and allows for different

49 musical influences to emerge as new variations of the motives occur. The A section of the rondo

73 is in the key of D-flat major, using a variation of motive C (Example 40: Var. C).

EXAMPLE 40: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement II;” the soloist’s 74 opening in the A section in D-flat major at measure 150, using a variation of motive C.

Var. C

A transitional section occurs in measure 176, using a variation of motive B material in E major,

and then the B section occurs from measures 187–222, using motive A material in C major.

73 Ibid., 46. 74 Ibid, 11-12.

50 EXAMPLE 41: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement II;” the transition 75 section to the B section, along with the B section’s motive. Variation of motive A

Following, another transition section occurs in measures 223–239, and an A' section is

established in measure 239. By measure 259, a B' section emerges, but then ends at measure 269.

A longer transition section begins in D-flat major from measures 270–296, and the C section is

initiated in F major (Example 42: C motive). Copland attributed the melody of the C sections to a

75 Ibid., 16-17.

51 popular Brazilian tune, which he heard while on a good will tour through South America in

76 1947.

EXAMPLE 42: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement II;” the beginning of 77 the C section at measure 297.

C motive

The C section, a variation of motive A, is in ternary form, with its outer subsections in F major

and its inner subsection in the dominant key (C major). The development then begins at measure

323, and all three motives are expanded and developed in numerous keys, including D-flat

76 Butterworth, 120. 77 Copland 17.

52 major, B major, B-flat major, and A major. A transitional section takes place at measure 430,

using a variation of the B' transition material.

EXAMPLE 43: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement II;” the transitional 78 material that leads to B' at measure 441.

The coda of the movement occurs at measure 490, with the brief appearance of E major. Finally,

the piece ends with a glissando in the solo clarinet part that ends on C major which also reflects

79 the influence of Benny Goodman (Example 44: A).

78 Butterworth, 120. 79 Copland, 23. 53 EXAMPLE 44: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra with Harp and Piano, “Movement II;” the last coda 80 section from measure 490 to the end.

Coda

In essence, Copland’s Clarinet Concerto is a synthesis of many different musical styles.

There is a unique combination of American jazz and Latin-American popular music idioms, and

the way Copland combines these styles is through his treatment of modality, that enables

different key areas to move quickly, create different moods, and open opportunities for variations

to introduce different rhythms and motives. With a more loosely-constructed form, the Clarinet

Concerto is a piece that reflects twentieth-century ideals, which emphasize using harmonic

language to convey common musical forms in different ways that were not commonly seen

before.

80 Ibid., 27.

54 5. Wings for solo clarinet by Joan Tower (1981) Context

Joan Tower is an American composer who has written many well-known compositions in

the latter half of the twentieth century. Before 1976, Tower dedicated herself to serial

composition, and often relied on pre-compositional maps to help her successfully complete a

work.81 However after composing Breakfast Rhythms I and Breakfast Rhythms II (1974 and1975,

respectively), she decided to transition to a compositional style that was freer in harmonic

structure and more impressionistic in character. Claiming that strict was preventing her

from creating expressive works, she began to write works that utilized octatonic, chromatic, and

whole tone scales, and used timbre, density, dynamics, and other musical elements to direct

motion and create phrasing.82 Throughout her works, there is occasionally the occurrence of

tritones, which are often featured prominently.83 Tower has a fascination with physics, and has

84 come to use the concept of energy to define musical phrasing and motion of a work.

When finding titles for her pieces, Tower often takes time to reflect on what ideas may

come out of the compositional process, and often asks friends and colleagues for suggestions.85

When composing Wings for Solo Clarinet, Tower originally decided to name the piece Panthers.

However, after some time, she realized that the title needed to be changed:

The piece literally started to take off — to go up, up. And I said “Panthers don’t take 86 off like this…I've got to change it to a bird.”

81 Ellen K. Grolman, Joan Tower: The Comprehensive Bio-Bibliography (Lanham, Maryland, Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007), 27. 82 Ibid, 29. 83 Ibid. 84 Ibid. 85 Ibid. 86 Ibid., 32. 55 After that moment, the title of the work was changed to Falcons, and eventually became

Wings. Wings is one of Joan Tower's favorite titles because it evokes flying imagery so well.87

As a note to the work, Tower states:

The image behind the piece is one of a large bird—perhaps a falcon—at times flying very high, gliding along thermal currents, barely moving. At other moments, the bird goes into elaborate flight patterns that loop around, diving downwards, gaining tremendous 88 speeds.

In addition, Tower credits inspiration for the work’s construction on Laura Flax’s playing style

(the clarinetist it was written for), and the clarinet part from “Quartet for the End of Time” by

89 Olivier Messiaen.

Analysis

For pieces after 1976, Tower recommends that her pieces be analyzed via an energy line

analysis:

[I would use an] energy line analysis [to examine my works]. There are not tools for that, and as far as I know it hasn't been explored in theory books or anything. But that would be a way of getting to my music… I would start with something like a physics point of view. What direction is it going? There are three directions: one is up, one is staying, and one is down. There are three energy lines: one is up, one is staying, and one is down. In other words, music can get more intense, get less intense, or it can stay the same…Then I would go "okay, this is energy line one, increasing in intensity how? Well it's getting louder, it’s getting higher, the instruments are multiplying, the rhythm is getting slower.” There [are] different ways of increasing intensity.....

Then I would do a space analysis on top of that because the space you're in for me is very important. Are you up there? Are you covering this grid? Are you done there? Where are you in the spacial grid? Because the energy line has a lot to do with that? … I mean there 90 are all kinds of maps that you could create that are not pitch maps.

87 Ibid. 88 Ibid., 101. 89 Rochelle Lynn Oddo, “Joan Tower’s Compositional Profile, Use of the Clarinet, and Collaboration in Turning Points for Clarinet and String Quartet,” (DMA diss., Rice University, 2003), 24. 90 Ibid., 31. 56 This type of analysis will be beneficial for Wings, but within Wings there also is a reliance on octatonic scales, that are often grouped into sets of four through the duration of the piece. An analysis combining twelve-tone and energy line analysis is listed below in the analysis section below. A visual graph analysis of Wings created by the author will also display the change of four musical attributes through the composition: intensity of sound, duration, timbre, and dynamics. In this combined approach, Tower’s freer compositional approach is made evident, along with the work’s reliance on octatonic scales and its foundations based on tritones. In addition, by tracing the changes in the four parameters listed above, it can be shown how Tower uses musical parameters to determine the pace and flow of the entire composition, rather than standard musical forms.

57 Table 5: Form Analysis of Wings

Section Page/ System number Material Beginning– Pg. 1, System 3 Octatonic sets are introduced in tri-tone I Meno mosso arrangements: C, F♯ based on Oct. (0,1) Introduction B♭, E based on Oct.(1, 2) B, F based on Oct. (2, 3)

Meno mosso–System 6 B♭, E pedal C, F♯ pedal Transition I Pg. 1, System 6–Pg. 2 System 1 All 12 tones presented and rotated

Pg. 2, System 1–4 Pedal on C♯; C, C♯, F , F♯ set variated

System 4 Variation of Oct. (1, 2) B♭, B, C♯, D, E, G, A Pg. 2 System 5 Variation of Oct. (1,2): B, D, E, F A System 6 Variation of Oct.(2, 3):

B♭, B, C, C♯, E♭, F, F♯, A♭ System 7 Pedal on A

System 8 Variation of Oct.(2, 3) :C, D, F, G, A♭, A

System 9 Tri-tone pairings C♯, G B♭, E G♯, D

System 10 Variation of Oct. (1,2): B♭, B, C♯, G, A Pg. 3, System 1–6 12-tone set accumulating to D, F, F♯, G, A♭ II (Oct. (1, 2)) using pedal tone

12- tone set accumulating to (Oct. (0,1)) Pg. 3 System 7–Pg. 4, System 1 12-tone pitch collection complete System 2–3 B

System 4 Pedal on E, using B♭, C, C♯, D, E set

System 5–7 Pedal on D, then F♯, A♭, F♯, C

Ending on B♭, C♯, D, E♭, F (Oct. (2,3)) B' Pg. 5, System 1– System 5 “Bright (jazzy)” Alternating pedals on F, C, E♭, D♭, E♭, E (Oct. (2,3)) “Bright (jazzy)”– System 7 All pitches presented except B♭, D, E, F♯ C “more energetic”

Rotation of ascending/descending pedal System 8–Pg. 6, Transitional material tones System 1 Transition II Pg. 6, System 1–5 Variation of pitch collection from Introduction (Oct. (2,3))

System 6–Pg. 7, System 3 Variation of Trans. A material (Oct. (0, 1)) “Meno mosso” A' Pg. 7, System 3 “Meno Oct. (2,3) arpeggio figure mosso–System 5 Collection of all 12 tones after second arpeggio figure Coda System 5–7 Alternating pitch centers, Collection of 12 tones except B♭

58 The construction of Wings is based on the development of the three possible octatonic

91 scales that can be used in composition: Oct. (0, 1), Oct. (1, 2), and Oct. (2, 3). Joan Tower introduces the octatonic scale sets in the beginning, however, by their tri-tone foundations, and she builds on those foundations throughout the piece in each principal section. In contrast, the transitional sections involve the collecting all twelve pitches, and this enables the piece to move from one octatonic scale center to the next, depending on which pitch is used as a pivot. In the introduction, the three octatonic tri-tone foundations are presented, which include:

I. C, F♯; Oct (0, 1): [0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, t]

II. E, B♭; Oct. (1, 2): [1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, t, e]

III. F, B; Oct. (2, 3): [2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, e, 0] Though there are multiple small sections, the work as a whole can be divided into two main parts.92 The labels for each octatonic set will applied to sounding pitches, and transcriptions of the score in C will be provided for each example.

91 Joseph N. Straus, Introduction to Post-Tonal Music: Fourth Edition (New York, W.W. Norton and Co., 2016), 249-252. 92 Nancy E. Lecky Bonds, “An Analysis on Joan Towers Wings for Solo Clarinet” (DMA diss., Arizona State University, 1992), 43.

59 Example 45: Wings; pg. 1 systems 1–2; where tri-tone centers are introduced. A transcription in C of the excerpt is 93 also shown. 1 I II

2 III

Transcription in C:

In the middle of system 3 at “Meno mosso,” pedals focusing on the tri-tones B♭, E, and C, G♭ act as a transitional figure, and also help to increase the pace for the next section, which involves the

94 rotation and collection of all twelve pitches.

93 Joan Tower, Wings (New York, Associated Music Publishers, Inc., 1983), 1. 94 Bonds, 39.

60 95 Example 46: Wings; pg. 1 systems 3–5; the pedals are shown.

3 B♭, E

transition C, F♯ 4

5

Transposition in C:

At system 6, Transition I begins, and pitch centers rotate throughout, so that all twelve pitches can be seen except E (see Example 47). In system 8, the pitch centers ascend gradually from B to

C to D♭, and this allows for a more stable section emphasizing D♭ to occur at the top of page 2

(See Example 48).

95Ibid.

61 96 Example 47: Wings; pg. 1 systems 6–8; the beginning of Transition I is shown. All 12 pitches are indicated.

6

7

8

Reduction of the appearance of all 12 pitches in C:

97 Example 48: Wings; pg. 2 systems 1–4; the emphasis on the pedal tone on D♭ and Oct. (2, 3). Pedal on D♭

2

3

Oct. (2, 3) 4

96 Ibid. 97 Ibid., 2. 62 The pedal section in Transition I leads to the A section, where Oct (1, 2) and Oct (2, 3) are

emphasized. An ABA form is present in this section. Variations Oct. (1, 2) take place at the

beginning and end of the section, and a variation of Oct (2, 3) occurs in the middle of the section

between transitional points. System 6 comprises a variation of Oct. (1, 2) , but the appearance of

the B, F tri-tone at the end of the measure acts a pivot to reach a variation of Oct (2, 3) in system 7.

98 Example 49: Wings; pg. 2 systems 5–6; the transition from the variation of Oct. (0, 1) to Oct (1, 2).

5 Oct. (1, 2) B, F

6 Oct (2, 3)

Transposition in C:

System 7 contains a pedal on A (part of Oct (2, 3)), which serves as a rhythmic transition to a slower tempo. This is then followed by another variation on Oct. (2, 3), that introduces ascending and descending triplet patterns. At system 9, a new set of three tri-tones allow for a return to Oct.

(1, 2) which finishes at the end of system 10.

98 Ibid., 2. 63 Example 50: Wings; pg. 2 systems 9–10; the appearance of the new set of three tri-tones, and the return of 99 Oct. (1, 2).

9

10

Reduction of tritones in C:

The B section then begins at page 3 system 1 with in triplet motivic pattern. This section

also involves collecting all twelve pitches, but involves moving from variations of Oct. (2, 3) to

Oct. (0, 1). Like in Transition I, pedal tones are used to collect pitches, and pivots that can occur

with one or two pitches allow for Oct. (2, 3) to move to Oct. (0, 1) and back. However, the pedal

tones chosen, when collected together, make up a variation of Oct. (1, 2).

99 Ibid.

64 100 Example 51: Wings; pg. 3 systems 1–5; pedals on particular pitches of Oct. (0, 1).

1

2 G G

3

4 B

E G 5

G

A scalar variation of Oct. (2, 3) then occurs at system 6.

101 Example 52: Wings; pg. 3 system 6; the setting of Oct. (2, 3).

6

Reduction in C:

100 Ibid., 3. 101 Ibid.

65 By system 7, a new triplet motivic pattern begins, but is set in Oct. (0, 1). As the B section continues all 12 pitches are presented, and by page 4 system 4, a pedal on E is reached. From system 5 to system 7, there is a decrease in pace, but a continued alteration of pedals and by the very end of system 7, a six-pitch motive occurs, using this half (H) and whole-tone (W) construction: W-W-H-H-W.

102 Example 53: Wings; pg. 4 systems 5–7; alternating pedals, followed by a display of Oct. (2, 3)

5

6

7 Oct. (2,

Octatonic Reduction in C:

W W H H W

After this, the B' section takes place on page 6 system 1, with triplet motivic material that alternates pedal tones based on Oct. (2, 3). By the end of system 5, a C section acts as a “jazzy” interlude, which focuses on the pitch centers based on a variation of Oct. (1, 2)).

102 Ibid., 4. 66 103 Example 54: Wings; pg. 5 systems 5–7; the C section with pitches of Oct. (1, 2).

5 G F

6

7

Reduction of pitches, as they occur, in C:

At system 8, centers are once again rotated until by page 7 system 1, the A' section commences, with the presentation of a variation of Oct. (2, 3) in swooping ascending and descending arpeggiated figures. Motivic material from Transition I returns at system 6 in Transition II, though in system 7, there is an introduction of that material based on Oct. (0, 1).

103 Ibid., 5. 67 104 Example 55: Wings; pg. 6 systems 6–8; Transition II in the A' section, where Oct. (0, 1) is also presented.

6

7 Oct. (0, 1)

8

Transcription of Oct. (0, 1) in C:

Transition I material is reprised at page 7 system 1 until 3. In system four, three arpeggiated figures, often using tritones to change the key, help to modulate the phrase and slow the pace of the section so that the coda can begin at system 5.

104 Ibid., 6. 68 105 Example 56: Wings; pg. 7 systems 3–5; arpeggios indicated below.

3 Arp. #1

#2 #3 4

5

Reduction of the arpeggios in C, tritones indicated:

#1

#2

#3

At the end of system 5, material from the B section is used as a coda, and the piece ends on a variated chromatic scale, using all pitches except for E. The same motive from the end of page

4 occurs, but transcribed by a half-step.

105 Ibid., 7. 69 106 Example 57: Wings; pg. 7 systems 6–7; borrowed material from the B section that comprises the coda..

6

6-pitch motive 7

Reduction of chromatic collection in C as they occur in systems 6 ̶ 7:

Reduction of the return of the six-pitch motive in C:

W W W

As a whole, the piece relies on the emphasis of the three different octatonic scales. The main principal sections rotate the scales in a predictable ABA fashion, and some scales are variated based on the foundations of ones that are not even being presented. Like Joan Tower has stated about many of her compositions, Wings uses a freer plan in order to give different energies. In terms of an energy line analysis, more details about the piece are revealed, especially when viewing general intensity, pitch durations, timbres, and dynamics.

106 Ibid.

70 Example 58: Visual Graphic Analysis of Wings, done by author.

≥ 16 beats Highest intensity C6

fff

4 beats C5

mf 1 beat Intensity

Duration mp 1/2 beat C4 Pitch Dynamics

1/4 beat

C3 1/6 beat

Lowest intensity ≤ 1/16 beat ppp

Pg.1 Pg. 2 Pg. 3 Pg. 4 Pg. 5 Pg. 6 Pg. 7

These four parameters are in flux throughout the piece, but when looking at them comparatively, one will notice how through most of the work, intensity and dynamics will coincide with one another as pair, as well as timbre and duration. Tower seems to use lower pitches and darker timbres to create slower pacing and higher timbres for vice versa. This concept is most evident in the Introduction and the end of Section A, when lower timbres either initially have longer durations or are used to slow down the pace of the section. Example 59 below displays how timbre and duration steadily decrease at a similar rate, lowering the energy of Section A. The average duration of notes decreases from quarter-notes, to dotted quarter- notes, to half-notes, while arpeggiated notes of lower timbre act as anchoring points to bring the section’s pace to 120 bpm to 60 bpm.

71 Example 59: Wings, page 2 systems 7 ̶ 8; the use of timbre and duration is used here to decrease the pace of Section A.107 Anchoring point (AC) 7 AC

8 AC

When this rule is not followed, a critical moment in the piece occurs, such as a statement

of an octatonic variation or an opening of a new contrasting section. The opening statement of

Section A is an instance of this, when variations of Oct. (1, 2) and Oct. (2, 3) are established. Pitch,

duration, and timbre constantly fluctuate, and the only parameter that remains the same for two

systems is dynamics.

Example 60: Wings, page 2 systems 5 ̶ 6; the beginning of Section A, when Oct. (1, 2) and Oct. (2, 3) are 108 established. Oct. (1, 2) 5

Oct. (2, 3) 6

Transcription in C:

107 Tower, 2. 108 Ibid.

72 This also occurs at the beginning of Transition II at the top of page 6, where dynamic again is the

only constant of the parameters. Using this technique, Tower is able indicate through the music

that the piece is returning to variations of original material and may be coming to a finish.

Example 61: Wings, page 6 systems 1 ̶ 4; the beginning of Transition II, where original material returns, and all 109 parameters except for dynamics are in flux.

Return of Trans. I material 1

2

3

4

Knowing when these breaks with the rule happen can help a performer display what musical

statements Tower sought to make at those moments. As Nancy Bonds says in her dissertation on

Wings, knowing where sections and treatments of motives are differentiated are crucial for the

110 performer to emphasize.

Like the other compositions mentioned in this paper, Wings is a work that fits into the

context of the time it was written. Unlike the other works, however, it uses its own unique form.

By the end of the twentieth century, a departure from older musical forms became more

109 Ibid, 6. 110 Bonds, 56.

73 common, and enabled composers such as Joan Tower to write works in a freer fashion, combining aspects of the old with the new. Like the other previous composers, Tower sought to use a new vocabulary to break down older musical conventions, and knowing this will help modern clarinetists honor the way she chose to write her music.

74 CONCLUSION

The emergence of new and different musical languages in the twentieth century enabled

composers to create compositions that used modes of expression that were less common in

previous centuries. In many instances, music theory and form were the main vehicles to relaying

this expression, since many genres of the time were emphasizing the breakdown of older musical

forms. In-depth analyses of these works can reveal to performers how twentieth-century ideals

are reflected in the masterworks they are performing. In addition, clarinetists who know how to

perform compositions with these newer musical vocabularies can shape the success of musically-

informed performances.

An integral part of a musician’s education is harmonic analysis. Knowing the musical foundations of a composition, including its chordal and formal structures, helps a musician to determine a work’s flow, phrasing, message, and context. The twentieth century gave rise to many compositions that varied in vocabulary and purpose, and works of this century offer contributions to the time period that deserve to be heard and understood. Though the harmonic vocabularies used in twentieth-century works make analysis a more complex problem, they need to be thoroughly understood by performers so that twentieth-century masterworks can be presented to today’s audiences in an intentioned and informed manner.

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77