Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1. B. Poplavsky, Stat’i. Dnevniki. Pis’ma (Moscow: Knizhnitsa, 2009), p. 126. 2. I address here in the first instance the problem of relatively limited aware- ness beyond the Russian-speaking world of russophone literary production of the Parisian diaspora. At the same time, there were spectacular cases of success in the West of those émigrés who did participate in the intellectual life of their host country by publishing in French (L. Livak, Russian Emigrés in the Intellectual and Literary Life of Interwar France: A Bibliographical Essay (Montreal: McGill Queen’s University Press, 2010)). 3. Bunin was the first Russian writer to receive this distinction (there have been five Russian laureates to date). Perhaps to an even greater extent than today, the decision of the Nobel committee was dictated by political considerations—Bunin’s chief opponent was the Soviet candidate, Maxim Gorky. Despite the obvious prestige and an increase in book sales and translation contracts, as well as a boost in self-esteem for Russian émigré writers, Bunin’s Nobel Prize provided few long-term benefits for the literary diaspora (I. Belobrovtseva, “Nobelevskaia premiia v vospriiatii I.A. Bunina i ego blizkikh,” Russkaia literatura 4 (2007): 158–69; T. Marchenko, “En ma qualité d’ancien lauréat... Ivan Bunin posle Nobelevskoi premii,” Vestnik istorii, literatury, iskusstva, 3 (2006), 80–91). 4. This formula was used by Varshavsky in his 1930s articles and in a later book, in which he paid tribute to his generation and documented its activities: V. Varshavsky, Nezamechennoe pokolenie (New York: izd-vo Chekhova, 1956). 5. E. Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Collier Books, 1987), p. 100. 6. Attributed to Gippius, this expression was possibly first used by Berberova in her “Liricheskaia poema,” published in Sovremennye zapiski, 30 (1927). 7. Z. Gippius and I. Bunakov, Chto delat’ russkoi emigratsii? (Paris: Rodnik, 1930). 8. A. Krainy [Z. Gippius] “Polet v Evropu,” in Kritika russkogo zarubezh’ia, eds. O. Korostelev and N. Melnikov, vol. 1 (Moscow, 2002), p. 60. 9. G. Slobin, Russians Abroad: Literary and Cultural Politics of Diaspora (1919–1939) (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2013), p. 14. 10. Yu. Lotman, “Simvolika Peterburga i problemy semiotiki goroda,” in Izbrannye stat’i v trekh tomakh, vol. 2 (Tallinn: Alexandra, 1992), pp. 17–18. 11. The flexibility of this cultural construct allows Catherine Ciepiela to include in the Russian Montparnasse circle diverse figures seemingly remote from the younger Parisian avant-gardists, such as Zinaida Gippius, Nadezhda Teffi, Avgusta Damanskaya and even Vera Bulich, who lived in Helsinki (C. Ciepiela, “The Women of Russian Montparnasse,” in A History of Women’s Writing in Russia, eds. A. Barker and J. Gheith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 117–33). 12. The tenets of transnational theory relevant for the study of literature were articulated in the following works, inter alia: J. Ramazani, A Transnational

236 Notes 237

Poetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); A. Seyhan, Writing Outside the Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); S. Clingman, The Grammar of Identity: Transnational Fiction and the Nature of the Boundary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture. (New York: Routledge, 1994); N. Papastergiadis, The Turbulence of Migration: Globalization, Deterritorialization and Hybridity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000); M. Thomsen, Mapping World Literature: International Canonization and Transnational Literatures (London: Continuum, 2008). 13. J. Ramazani, “A Transnational Poetics,” American Literary History, 18(2) (2006), 333. 14. R. Trousdale, Nabokov, Rushdie, and the Transnational Imagination: Novels of Exile and Alternative Worlds (New York: Palgrave, 2010), p. 195. 15. I trace a similar evolution towards open transnationalism in Vasily Yanovsky’s works of the American period (see M. Rubins, “Transnational Identities in Diaspora Writing: The Narratives of Vasily Yanovsky,” Slavic Review, 73(1) (2014), 62–84). 16. G. Struve, Russkaia literatura v izgnanii (New York: izd-vo Chekhova, 1956), p. 9. 17. Z. Shakhovskaya, “Literaturnye pokoleniia,” in Odna ili dve russkikh literatury? (Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 1981), pp. 52–62. 18. The main research question pursued in Slobin’s recent monograph (Slobin, 2013) is how Russian émigré literature contributed to articulating national identity. Defining her book as a study of Russian nationalism, she focuses on linguistic and cultural continuity as guiding principles of the diaspora. With the exception of Nabokov, who figures to some extent as a foil for more conservative members of the diaspora (Remizov, Khodasevich, Bunin, as well as Tsvetaeva), Slobin chooses examples that highlight the smooth transition between the pre-revolutionary Russian tradition (Gogol, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, and the Silver Age) to exile writing. The focus and material con- sidered in her book illuminate precisely the context that prompted Russian Montparnasse to articulate an alternative identity. 19. This view was perpetuated, as late as 1990 (see M. Raeff, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 115). 20. L. Livak, How It Was Done in Paris: Russian Emigre Literature and French Modernism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2003). 21. I. Kaspe, Iskusstvo otsutstvovat’: Nezamechennoe pokolenie russkoi literatury (Moscow: NLO, 2005). 22. A. Morard, De l’émigre au déraciné. La ‘jeune génération’ des écrivains russes entre identité et esthétique (Paris, 1920–1940) (Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 2010). Among other books that have addressed the younger generation of Russian Paris in the context of their host culture, see: J.-P. Jaccard, A. Morard, and G. Tassis (eds.) Russkie pisateli v Parizhe: vzgliad na frantsuzskuiu literaturu (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2007); O. Demidova, Metamorfozy v izgnanii: literaturnyi byt russkogo zarubezh’ia (Saint Petersburg: Giperion, 2003); Yu. Matveeva, Samosoznanie pokoleniia v tvorchestve pisatelei-mladoemigrantov (Ekaterinburg: izd-vo Ural’skogo universisteta, 2008); S. Semenova, Russkaia proza i poeziia 1920–1930-kh godov (Moscow: IMLI RAN, 2001); Livak (2010b). 23. M. Kundera, “Die Weltliteratur,” The New Yorker, 8 January, 2007, available at: http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/01/08/die-weltliteratur. 238 Notes

1 In the “Waste Land” of Postwar Europe: Facing the Modern Condition

1. V. Nabokov, The Gift, trans. Michael Scammell and Dmitri Nabokov, in collaboration with Vladimir Nabokov (London: Penguin, 2001), p. 156. 2. See S. Davydov, Teksty-matreshki Vladimira Nabokova (Munich: Otto Sagner, 1982); N. Melnikov “Do poslednei kapli chernil… Vladimir Nabokov i Chisla,” Literaturnoe obozrenie, 2 (1996), 73–82. 3. See A. Dolinin, “Tri zametki o romane Vladimira Nabokova ‘Dar,’” in V.V. Nabokov. Pro et contra, vol. 2 (Saint-Petersburg: RKhGI, 2001), pp. 697–721. 4. M. Malikova, V. Nabokov: Avto-bio-grafi ia (Saint-Petersburg: Akademicheskii proekt, 2002), pp. 106–11. 5. V. Nabokov, Despair (New York: Penguin Books, 2000), p. 173. 6. H. R. Jauss, Towards an Aesthetic of Reception, trans. T. Bahti (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), p. 32. 7. See http://www.panarchy.org/freud/war.1915.html (accessed: Oct. 9, 2014). 8. P. Valéry, “The Crisis of the Mind,” in The Collected Works of Paul Valéry (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962). 9. M. Arland, “Sur un nouveau mal du siècle,” in Essais et nouveaux essais critiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), pp. 11–37. 10. M. Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age (New York: Anchor Books Doubleday, 1990), p. 237. 11. T.S. Eliot, “The Waste Land,” in The Complete Poems and Plays (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), pp. 61–80, quote from p. 61. 12. P. Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (New York: Sterling, 2009), p. 212. 13. The postwar crisis of the novel primarily affected the conventional realist novel, which was associated with imagination, positivism, extensive descriptions, robust plot, and the objective representation of reality mediated through a neutral third-person narrator. Meanwhile, modernist novelists like Proust, Joyce, and Gide were at the peak of their popularity, precisely because they had found new forms and content for a genre in need of a radical facelift. Surrealists likewise embarked on the ambitious project of creating a Surrealist novel, transcending the boundaries between fiction and document, life and art, the waking state and dreaming, subjectivity and objectivity, the visible world and mystical surreality, spontaneous “automatic” writing and premeditated design. In 1924, they published a manifesto entitled “Le Cadavre”, in which they derided Anatole France, who epitomized in their eyes the traditional novelist—irrelevant in the contemporary world. 14. The importance of this genre was probed by the French journal Vita, which conducted in the March/April 1924 issue a survey questionnaire entitled “Reportage and Literature.” 15. See M. Collomb, Littérature Art Deco (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck, 1987), pp. 200–1.

2 Who Needs Art?

1. B. Poplavsky, Stat’i. Dnevniki. Pis’ma (Moscow: Knizhnitsa, 2009), pp. 45, 47. 2. For the purposes of this study, I begin my brief survey of the evolution of the human document from the invention of the term, leaving aside speculation Notes 239

about the possible links of this genre to confession, diaries, or epistolary narratives of the preceding periods. 3. The physiological sketch, assimilated from French literature (in particular, from Balzac), became one of the most conspicuous genres of Russian prose in the 1840s. In Russia, the physiological sketch was developed by the Natural School, as early Realism was then known. Critic Vissarion Belinsky promoted this genre as the best medium for descriptions of slum-dwellers’ daily life in a contemporary metropolis. The conventions of the genre required the graphic representation of reality and the creation of social types instead of individualized characters. Nikolai Nekrasov published a collection entitled Physiology of Petersburg by analogy with a corresponding French collection. The Russian physiological sketch is best exemplified by the stories of Dmitry Grigorovich. 4. E. Zola, “ Le Roman expérimental, ” in Œuvres complètes, vol. 10 (Paris: Cercle du livre précieux, 1968), p. 1186. 5. Zola, p. 1286. 6. Zola, p. 1315. 7. E. de Goncourt and J. de Goncourt, Préfaces et manifestes littéraires (Paris: Charpentier, 1888), pp. 56–7. 8. Edmond de Goncourt published only parts of his Journal, stipulating in his will that the full text should be released 20 years after his death. However, the complete version appeared only in 1956. 9. Goncourt and Goncourt (1888), p. 174. 10. See F. Lezhen, “‘Ia’ Marii. Retseptsiia dnevnika Marii Bashkirtsevoi (1877–1899),” in Avtobiografi cheskaia praktika v Rossii i Frantsii, eds. K. Violle and E. Grechanaia (Moscow: IMLI RAN, 2006), pp. 161–81. 11. The end of the Introduction was left unfinished, and was apparently com- pleted by André Theuriet, who was asked by Bashkirtseva’s relatives to edit parts of her journal and prepare them for publication. Theuriet’s text begins with the following phrase: “When I die you will read my life, which person- ally I find remarkable.” 12. Journal de Marie Bashkirtseff, 2 vols (Paris: Charpentier, 1890), p. 5. 13. P. Lejeune, Le Pacte autobiographique (Paris: Seuil, 1975), p. 26. 14. Lejeune (1975), p. 36. 15. Lejeune (1975), pp. 5–6, 13. 16. A. France, “Journal de Marie Bashkirtseff,” Le Temps, June 12, 1887. France’s complimentary review of the Goncourts’ Journal was published in the same magazine on March 20, 1887. 17. L. Gurevich, “Pamiati M. Bashkirtsevoi,” Novoe vremia, June 11, 1887; L. Gurevich, “M.K. Bashkirtseva. Biograficheski-psikhologicheskii etiud,” Russkoe bogatstvo, 2 (1888). 18. A. Aleksandrov, Mademuazel’ Bashkirtseva. Podlinnaia zhizn’ (Moscow: Zakharov, 2003), pp. 304–7. 19. P. Descamps, “Marie Bashkirtseff féministe?” La Fronde, September 4, 1926; G. Fuss-Amore, “Une annonciatrice de la jeune fille moderne, ” Nation Belge, May 18, 1936. 20. I. Kaspe, Iskusstvo otsutstvovat’: Nezamechennoe pokolenie russkoi literatury (Moscow: NLO, 2005), p. 163. 21. B. Dubin, Slovo-pis’mo-literatura. Ocherki po sotsiologii sovremennoi kul’tury (Moscow: NLO, 2001), pp. 265–6. 240 Notes

22. As opposed to the “unnoticed generation,” “the ‘lost generation” was not a self-definition, but was, as Hemingway suggests in The Moveable Feast, first used by Gertrude Stein in reference to the young men of the 1920s. Its members nevertheless eagerly embraced this identity. 23. In 1936, Céline visited the USSR and received his honorarium. 24. Kochev’e was a literary group organized in Paris in 1928 by Mark Slonim, primarily for the benefit of younger émigré writers and poets. In addition to critiquing each other’s writings, members of the group read and discussed Soviet literature. Some of the participants’ works were published in the Volia Rossii journal, edited by Slonim. 25. Yu. Terapiano, “Puteshestvie v glub’ nochi,” Chisla 10 (1934), 210. 26. G. Adamovich, “‘Puteshestvie v glub’ nochi,” Poslednie novosti, 4618, 27 April 1933, p. 3. 27. According to the Homage to Zola: Zola believed in virtue, he wished to instill horror in the criminal but not to drive him to despair … Do we still have any right, without insanity, to feature in our writing any kind of Providence? Our faith should be firm. Everything becomes more tragic and more irresolvable as we draw near the destiny of Man, whom we stop imagining in order to live him such as he is in reality … To distract ourselves we have only been left the instinct of destruction … Perhaps it remains only to give supreme homage to Emile Zola on the eve of yet another imminent catastrophe. There is no longer any question of imitating or following him. We have neither the gift nor the force and the faith that create grand movements … [W] hat can we expect from Naturalism in the conditions in which we find ourselves? All or nothing! … Since Zola, the nightmare that surrounded man has not only taken shape but become official. (https://fr.scribd. com/doc/6806862/Hommage-a-Zola-Louis-Ferdinand-Celine, accessed 13 Oct. 2014) 28. G. Adamovich, “Na raznye temy: Vtoroi tom ‘Tiazhelogo diviziona’ – ‘Kochev’e’ – Selin i Andre Malro,” Poslednie novosti, 4649, 14 December 1933, p. 3. 29. Chisla 9 (1933), 223–4. 30. M. Kantor, “Volia k zhizni (o Katerine Mansfild),” Vstrechi, 5214 (1934). 31. P. Bitsilli, “Vozrozhdenie allegorii,” Sovremennye zapiski 61 (1936), 200. 32. See T. Krasavchenko, “L.-F. Selin i russkie pisateli-mladoemigranty pervoi volny,” in Russkie pisateli v Parizhe. Vzgliad na frantsuzskuiu literaturu 1920–1940 (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2007), p. 193. 33. L. Livak, How It Was Done in Paris: Russian Emigre Literature and French Modernism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), pp. 142–53. 34. Yanovsky stated: Later, Berdiaev sort of accused me of imitating Céline … But both of us were … doctors of the Parisian school, and much of what he saw, I also saw, and our humanitarian reactions to poverty, pain and need could have been the same. I don’t think that I was influenced by Céline. (Bakhmeteff Archive of the Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University, Ms Coll Yanovsky Box 17) Notes 241

35. Kaspe suggests that the demonstrative marginality of the “unnoticed generation,” while conceived as a challenge to the older émigré writers, coexisted with a claim to be the “lawful and only heirs” to the mainstream Russian men of letters (Kaspe 2005, p. 119). I tend to assess the primary motivation behind the Russian Montparnasse rhetoric of marginality somewhat differ- ently, rather as a desire to disengage from a direct “line of succession,” to transcend the confines of Russian literature and to define themselves within the transnational interwar generation. 36. Poplavsky (1930), p. 311. 37. Poplavsky (1930), p. 308. 38. B. Poplavsky, “Sredi somnenii i ochevidnostei,” Utverzhdeniia, 3 (1932), 96–8. 39. Iliazd, Sobranie sochinenii. 5 vols, vol. 2 (Moscow-Düsseldorf: Gileia-Goluboi vsadnik, 1995), p. 13. Compare Iliazd’s declation with that of Carl in Henry Miller’s The Tropic of Cancer: “And the writing! What’s the use of putting words together? I can be a writer without writing, can’t I? What does it prove if I write a book? What do we want with books anyway? There are too many books already …” (H. Miller, Tropic of Cancer (New York: Grove Press, 1961), pp. 49–50). 40. Chisla 6 (1932), 255–6. 41. Chisla, 5 (1931), 286–9. 42. I. Kaspe, “Orientatsiia na peresechennoi mestnosti: strannaia proza Borisa Poplavskogo,” Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 47, 1 (2001), 200. Demonstrative anti-professionalism in art, expressed through a gesture of anonymity, was generally typical of the 1920s avant-garde. Some Dadaists, for instance, did not sign their artwork, claiming that the statement of authorship and other forms of publicity only contributed to commercial success, while imped- ing the direct perception of art. In the 1918 Dada manifesto, Tristan Tzara declared provocatively: “Art is a private affair!” Years later these words were echoed in Poplavsky’s formula “literature is a private affair.” Although he represented a different variety of interwar writer, Pierre Drieu la Rochelle has his protagonist, a disillusioned “young European,” formulate the principle of artist’s anonymity as he understands it: “I wanted … [t]o be a poor singer on the street corner, whose name nobody will ever know and who dedicates his art to the praise of marvelous anonymous passers-by” (P. Drieu la Rochelle, Le Jeune Européen suivi de Genève ou Moscou (Paris: Gallimard, 1978), p. 51). 43. It has become commonplace in contemporary Russian scholarship to regard the discourse of the younger émigrés through the lens of existentialism (S. Semenova, “Ekzistentsial’noe soznanie v proze russkogo zarubezh’ia (Gaito Gazdanov i Boris Poplavskii)”, Voprosy literatury, May–June (2000), 67–106; S. Kibal’nik, Gaito Gazdanov i ekzistentsial’naia traditsiia v russkoi literature (Saint Petersburg: Petropolis, 2011); V. Zherdeva, Ekzistentsial’nye motivy v tvorchestve pisatelei “nezamechennogo pokoleniia” russkoi emigratsii: B. Poplavsky, G. Gazdanov. Avtoreferat diss. 10.01.01 (Moscow: MPGU, 1999)). Some critics even maintain that Russian Montparnasse literary production displayed exis- tentialist philosophy and aesthetics prior to the appearance of the canonical Western texts, and credit diaspora writers with articulating a Russian brand of existentialism, traced to Russian classics and contemporary philoso- phers, such as Lev Shestov. In the common critical parlance, the émigrés’ 242 Notes

existentialism is understood as a focus on the fundamental problems of human existence, above all, death and anxieties, combined with skepticism about any positive, rational or teleological explanation of historical events and human life. 44. B. Poplavsky, Neizdannoe. Dnevniki. Stat’i. Stikhi (Moscow: Khristianskoe izdatel’stvo, 1995), p. 277. 45. “Chelovecheskii document,” in G. Adamovich, Literaturnye zametki, vol. II (Saint Petersburg: Aleteia, 2007), p. 217. 46. P. Balakshin, “Emigrantskaia literatura,” Kaliforniiskii almanakh (San Francisco, 1934), pp. 135–6. 47. V. Varshavsky, “O ‘geroe’ molodoi emigrantskoi literatury,” Chisla 6 (1932), 164–72. 48. Adamovich (2007), p. 218. 49. My: Zhenskaia proza russkoi emigratsii, ed. O. Demidova (Saint-Petersburg: RKhGI, 2003), pp. 525–31. 50. N. Iakovleva, “‘Chelovecheskii dokument’ (Material k istorii poniatiia),” in Istoriia i povestvovanie, eds. G. Obatnin and P. Pessonen (Moscow: NLO, 2006), p. 390. 51. E. Bakunina, Liubov’ k shesterym. Telo (Moscow: Geleos, 2001), p. 245. 52. My, pp. 525–31. 53. Kaliforniiskii almanakh (1934), 96. 54. Yu. Terapiano, “Yu. Felzen ‘Schast’e,’ izd. ‘Parabola.’ Berlin, 1932,” Chisla 7–8 (1933), 268. 55. G. Adamovich, “Literaturnaia nedelia,” Illustrirovannaia Rossiia 2 (348), 9 January 1932. 56. G. Adamovich, “Kommentarii,” Chisla 7–8 (1933), 153–65, 154. 57. Yu. Terapiano, “O novom cheloveke i o novoi literature,” Mech 15–16 (1934), 3–6, 6. 58. Chisla 7/8 (1933), 267. 59. Adamovich (2007), p. 95. 60. Adamovich (2007), p. 137. 61. G. Kuznetsova, Grasskii dnevnik (Washington, DC: Victor Kamkin, 1967), p. 16. 62. Kuznetsova (1967), p. 9. 63. P. Bitsilli, “G. Kuznetsova. Prolog. Izd. Sovremennye zapiski, 1933,” Sovremennye zapiski 53 (1933). 64. “Almanakh ‘Krug,’” in V. Yanovsky, Liubov’ vtoraia. Izbrannaia proza (Moscow: NLO, 2014), p. 525. 65. Vozrozhdenie 2431, 28 January 1932. 66. L. Aragon, Le paysan de Paris (Paris: Gallimard, 2003), p. 209. 67. Aragon (2003), p. 219. 68. B. Poplavsky, Proza (Moscow: Soglasie, 2000), p. 292. 69. I. Chinnov, “Otryvok iz dnevnika,” Chisla 10 (1934), 223. 70. A brief report on this evening was published in Chisla: B. Zakovich, “Vechera Soiuza molodykh poetov,” Chisla 4 (1931), 258–9. 71. Balakshin, (1934), p. 138. 72. N. Otsup, “Vmesto otveta,” Chisla 4 (1931), 158–60. 73. Among Nabokov’s parodies, the story “A Case from Life” (Sluchai iz zhizni, 1935), told by a female narrator, who dwells on her uninspiring daily Notes 243

routine, trivial relationships, and banal tragedies, presents a remarkable summary of various features of ego-documentary prose. 74. R. Hagglund, “The Adamovich-Khodasevich Polemics,” Slavic and East European Journal 20 (1976), 239–52; O. Korostelev, “Polemika G.V. Adamovicha i V.F. Khodasevicha,” Rossiiskii literaturovedcheskii zhurnal 4 (1994), 204–8. 75. V. Khodasevich, “Avtor, Geroi, Poet,” Krug 1 (1936), 169–70. 76. V. Veidlé, Umiranie iskusstva (Saint Petersburg: Aleteia, 1996), p. 12. 77. V. Veidlé, “Chelovek protiv pisatelia,” Krug 2 (1937), 140, 141. Veidlé out- lined his approach to this topic in an early article, in which, discussing Drieu La Rochelle, he pointed out the need to choose between art and man as a sign of disharmony in contemporary culture: “either art without man—just bare play with forms, or man without art” (D. Leis [Veidlé], “‘Bolezn’ veka,’” Zveno 220 (1927), 5–6). Compare this with the deliberations of Drieu la Rochelle’s narrator in the novella Le Jeune Européen. The protagonist-narrator is presented as the incarnation of one particular type of a young interwar European intellectual. After adventurous travels, he eventually returns to Paris, where he finds himself “without money, without friends, without women, without children, without god, and without an occupation.” This deracinated and disillusioned young man, submerged in loneliness and inaction, finds writing to be the most congenial activity. His thoughts about the nature of writing represent in a nutshell the ethos and credo of the “lost generation”: “I had no idea that one could write about something else other than oneself. I didn’t see beyond the end of my nose, which fascinated me”; “what was beginning to interest me in myself was not the social individual, but the foundations of my soul, an underground kingdom broader than anything found under my name in the world of men” (Drieu la Rochelle, 1978, pp. 62, 45, 49). 78. Veidlé (1937), p. 142. 79. Veidlé (1937), p. 144. 80. Veidlé (1937), p. 145. 81. K. Mochulsky, “Krizis voobrazheniia,” Zveno 2 (1927), 75–81, 80. 82. A. Bem, “Literatura s kokainom,” in Issledovaniia. Pisma o literature (Moscow: Iazyki slavianskoi kul’tury, 2001), p. 437.

3 Human Document or Autofiction?

1. G. Ivanov, “The Atom Explodes,” trans. Justin Doherty, Slavonica, 8/1 (2002) 53. 2. N. Berdiaev “Po povodu ‘Dnevnikov’ B. Poplavskogo,” Sovremennye zapiski, (1939): 441–6, 442. 3. On the ways in which “The Atom Explodes” serves as a coda to the émigré human document, see L. Livak, “The End of the Human Document,” Russian Literature 49 (2001): 371–91. 4. Ivanov (2002), 53. 5. Despite the gradual isolation of Soviet culture as it moved towards the prescriptive poetics of socialist realism, major literary developments of the 1920s correspond typologically to international avant-garde trends, 244 Notes

another confirmation of the global import of postwar aesthetic shifts. As in the West, the anti-novelistic trend received a variety of articula- tions in the USSR, ranging from “fact literature” (literatura fakta) mani- festos to the articles of Osip Mandelstam (“Konets romana,” 1922), Yury Tynianov (“Literatura fakta,” 1924 and “Literaturnoe segodnia,” 1924), Boris Eichenbaum, and Mikhail Bakhtin. The perceived “exhaustion” of normative literary language, the genre of the novel, and the classical tradition more generally led, on the one hand, to the quasi-identification of literature with journalism and, on the other, to the intensification of con- fessional, autobiographical prose, an emphasis on self-reflection and psy- chological analysis. On the crisis of the novel and the documentary trend in interwar Soviet literature and criticism, see N. Chuzhak (ed.) Literatura fakta (Moscow, 1929); M. Zalambani, Literatura fakta. Ot avangarda k sotsrealizmu (Saint Petersburg: Akademicheskii proekt, 2006); M. Chudakova, “Sud’ba ‘samootcheta-ispovedi’ v literature sovetskogo vremeni (1920-e–konets 1930-kh godov),” in Poetika. Istoriia literatury. Lingvistika. Sbornik k 70-letiiu V.V. Ivanova (Moscow: OGI, 1999), pp. 340–73; K. Clark and G. Tihanov, “Soviet Literary Theory in the 1930s: Battles over Genre and the Boundaries of Modernity”, in: E. Dobrenko and G. Tihanov (eds.), A History of Russian Literary Theory and Criticism: The Soviet Age and Beyond (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), pp. 109–43. 6. Yu. Tynianov “Literaturnoe segodnia,” Russkii sovremennik 1, (1924), 292–306. 7. V. Shklovsky, O teorii prozy (Moscow: Federatsiia, 1929), p. 234. 8. M. Chudakova, “Bez gneva i pristrastiia,” Novyi mir 9 (1988): 245. 9. Yu. Lotman, “O soderzhanii i strukture poniatiia ‘Khudozhestvennaia literatura,’” Izbrannye stat’i v trekh tomakh, vol. 1 (Tallinn: Alexandra, 1992), 203–16. 10. Lotman (1992), p. 205. 11. The concept of faction generally implies simply a mixture of facts and fic- tional elements, while references to the authorial self, so central in autofi c- tion, are optional. 12. S. Doubrovsky, Fils (Paris: Gallimard, 1977), p. 10. 13. S. Doubrovsky, Un amour de soi (Paris: Hachette, 1982), p. 104. 14. G. Genette, Palimpsestes (Paris: Seuil, 1992), p. 358. 15. Later, Colonna developed his ideas in a monograph: Autofi ction et autres mythomanies littéraires (Auch: Tristram, 2004). 16. As summarized in P. Gasparini, Autofi ction: Une aventure du langage (Paris: Seuil, 2009). 17. Gasparini (2009), pp. 295, 296. 18. P. Gasparini, Est-il je? Roman autobiographique and autofi ction (Paris: Seuil, 2004) and Autofi ction (2009). 19. Gasparini (2009), p. 311. 20. Gasparini (2009), pp. 318–19. 21. Gasparini (2009), pp. 326–27. 22. S. Clingman, The Grammar of Identity: Transnational Fiction and the Nature of the Boundary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 15. 23. R. Trousdale, Nabokov, Rushdie, and the Transnational Imagination: Novels of Exile and Alternative Worlds (New York: Palgrave, 2010), p. 192. 24. Doubrovsky (1982), p. 105. 25. Doubrovsky (1977), p. 191, note 24. Notes 245

26. A. Morard, De l’émigre au déraciné. La ‘jeune génération’ des écrivains russes entre identité et esthétique (Paris, 1920–1940) (Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 2010), pp. 233–4. 27. Mikhail Andreenko recalled:

Once Sharshun told me bitterly: “Remizov … said that I should completely abandon any literary work.” Another time he said to me: “Adamovich … told me: perhaps in one hundred years there will appear a publisher who will print your compositions and maybe this publisher will find fifty readers.” (M. Andreenko, “Zhurnal Sharshuna,” Russkii al’manakh (Paris, 1981), p. 390)

Adamovich was rather sympathetic to Sharshun, but was convinced that his experiments in prose did not do justice to his talent as an introspective lyricist and revealed the absence of any gift for fiction writing (Poslednie novosti, 4795, May 10, 1934). Khodasevich was intransigent in his criticism of Sharshun’s prose, claiming that the author possessed neither imagination, stylistic inventiveness nor descriptive ability. The novel The Right Path is a failure, according to Khodasevich, because the investigation of a “case of sexual pathology” is an insufficient basis for a work of literature (see Vladislav Khodasevich’s review of The Right Path in Vozrozhdenie, 3249, April 26, 1934).

28. T. Pachmuss, “Sergei Sharshun i dadaizm,” The New Review, 177 (1989), 273. 29. Attempts to separate protagonists from their authors, for example, by slip- ping a different name into the narrative, are rare and easy to overlook (as, for instance, the protagonist Volodya in Felzen’s trilogy). In general, in Russian émigré prose, names, not only of the characters but also of their creators, are not a reliable factor in defining the extent of autobiographical connection, because of the widespread use of pseudonyms (this was one of the features of the playful Silver Age culture of mystifications, preserved and developed in emigration). The most famous cases of using pennames include Anton Krainy (alias Zinaida Gippius), Sirin (Nabokov), Dikoy (Vilde), D. Leis (Veidlé), Aldanov (Landau), etc. Sometimes pseudonyms were used to distin- guish between the writer and the critic hypostases of identity (Gippius vs. Krainy; Yanovsky vs. Mirny). Sometimes they were used due to the limited number of diaspora periodicals, so that the same person would contribute to a single issue under different names (for instance, Poplavsky “borrowed” the name of his protagonist, Apollon Bezobrazov, to sign his articles on boxing featured in Chisla). Sometimes writers wished to keep their literary persona separate from their passport identity (Yury Felzen vs. Nikolai Freidenstein). The cause célèbre of the mystified authorial identity was M. Ageev, the author of the infamous Romance with Cocaine (Roman s kokainom, 1934), attributed by Nikita Struve to Nabokov, but decades later identified as the work of Mark Levy. Such playful use of pennames contributed to a sense of ambiguity and fictionalization. 30. The Surrealists’ experiments have been cited in critical literature as examples of autofi ction avant la lettre. Russian Montparnasse writers (particularly Poplavsky, Sharshun, and Yanovsky) also drew on Surrealism and often reproduced a similar discourse in their own texts. 31. Poplavsky (1930), p. 309. 246 Notes

4 “A Shared Homeland for All Foreigners”

1. G. Stein, “An American and Paris,” in What Are Masterpieces (New York: Putman, 1970), p. 61. 2. Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, Lettres persanes, in Œuvres com- plètes. vol. I (Paris: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1964), p. 164. 3. K. Stierle, La capitale des signes. Paris et son discours (Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 2001), p. 59. 4. H. Miller, Tropic of Cancer (New York: Grove Press, 1961), pp. 67–8. 5. The trope of double exposure is used in Vladislav Khodasevich’s poem “Sorrento Photographs” (“Sorrentiiskie fotografii,” 1926). Its lyrical persona meditates on the effect of an accidental double exposure of an old negative and the resulting projection of Russian cities onto Italian sites. 6. Stierle (2001), p. 9. 7. Yu. Lotman, “Simvolika Peterburga i problemy semiotiki goroda,” in Izbrannye stat’i v trekh tomakh, vol. 2 (Tallinn: Alexandra, 1992), pp. 13–14. 8. R. Barthes, “Sémiologie et urbanisme,” in L’aventure sémiologique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1985), p. 263. 9. In the works of Gilles Corrozet, Pierre Bonfon, Jasques de Breul, Henri Sauval, Germain Brice, and Nicolas de Lamare. 10. For example, Berthod’s La ville de Paris en vers burlesques, Claude le Petit’s Chronique scandaleuse ou Paris ridicule, Nicolas Boileau’s Les embarras de Paris. 11. For example, Charles Rivière Dufresny’s Amusements sérieux et comiques, anonymous Lettres d’un Sicilien à ses amis, and Montesquieu’s Lettres persanes. 12. Stierle (2001), p. 97. 13. Stierle (2001), p. 119. 14. G. de Nerval, Œuvres complètes, vol. 1 (Paris: Gallimard, 1989), p. 338. 15. Selected Writings of Gérard de Nerval, trans. Geoffrey Wagner (New York: Grove Press, 1957), p. 197. 16. For example, Edouard Fournier’s Paris démoli. Mosaïque de ruines, Charles Monselet’s Les ruines à Paris, and Balzac’s essay “Ce qui disparaît à Paris.” 17. “Le Cygne,” in Charles Baudelaire, Les Fleurs du mal et autres poèmes (Paris: Flammarion, 1964), p. 108. 18. W. Benjamin, The Arcades Project (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 12. 19. M-C. Bancquart, Paris des Surréalistes (Paris: Seghers, 1972), p. 17.

5 An Illusory City

1. V. Nabokov, Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), p. 215. 2. “Zelenaia lampa. Bededa 3,” Novyi korabl’, 2 (1927), 42. 3. A. M. Remizov, “Uchitel’ muzyki,” in Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 9 (Moscow: Russkaia kniga, 2002), p. 49. Remizov uses the name of this Northern Russian city pejoratively as an example of a remote and insignificant provin- cial location. 4. Against the general tendency of Russian exiles to dwell in the mental ghetto of “Russian Paris” and to regard the surrounding city as irrelevant or, in Notes 247

Nabokov’s words, “illusory,” Aleksandr Kuprin presents an unusual deviation in his story “Zhanetta” (1933). Its elderly protagonist, Professor Simonov, praises Paris as a world capital, graced with a joyous tempo, love of spectacle, a taste for bons mots, elegance, and overall perfection. However, this paean reads as mere recycling of the traditional Russian admiration for France, and not as a reflection of any viable émigré discourse. 5. The Khodynka field in northwestern Moscow was the site of a stampede that occurred during the May 1896 coronation of Nicolas II. 6. Presnia Street in Moscow was the epicenter of the armed uprising of December 1905. 7. I. Shmelyov, “Shadows of Days,” in A Russian Cultural Revival: A Critical Anthology of Emigré Literature before 1939, ed. T. Pachmuss (Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981), pp. 139–40. 8. This rich semiotic potential of the obelisk was evoked in other texts written from a “nomadic” position. For example, in Elsa Triolet’s second Russian novel, Camoufl age (Zashchitnyi tsvet, 1928), Varvara, a Russian Parisian of long standing who nonetheless feels marginalized in the French capital, says of herself that “she was lonely, like the Obelisk on Place de la Concorde” (E. Triolet, Zashchitnyi tsvet (Moscow: Federatsiia, Krug, 1928), p. 49). 9. A term introduced by Russian Formalist critics, skaz designates a type of nar- ration simulating oral speech. 10. Many years later, in a program on Radio Liberty, Gazdanov spoke of Remizov’s own fear of Parisian concierges, concluding in his characteristic ironic manner: “Remizov practically did not leave his house, was afraid of traffic and avoided any contact with the outside world” (G. Gazdanov, “O Remizove,” in Sobranie sochinenii v piati tomakh, vol. 4 (Moscow: Ellis Lak, 2009), pp. 406–7). 11. G. Slobin, Russians Abroad: Literary and Cultural Politics of Diaspora (1919–1939) (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2013), pp. 180–98. 12. Slobin (2013), p. 195. 13. My: Zhenskaia proza russkoi emigratsii (Saint-Petersburg: RXGU, 2003), p. 123. 14. In the days of silent films, this was indeed a frequent form of temporary employment for many immigrants, rivaled perhaps only by one other occupation of necessity: taxi driver. 15. N. Berberova, Biiankurskie prazdniki (Moscow: izd-vo Sabashnikovykh, 1997), p. 26. 16. B. Cendrars “Trop c’est trop, ” in Œuvres complètes, vol. XV (Paris: Club Français du Livre, 1966), p. 125. 17. Compare with Gazdanov’s ironic reaction to the debates on this topic in the Russian press (“Denatsionalizatsiia russkoi molodezhi vo Frantsii,” in Gazdanov (2009) vol. 1, pp. 778–9). 18. Despite the widespread opinion that practically all refugees from Russia gravitated to Paris, some did move to rural areas. Roman Gul, for instance, describes in colorful detail the life of his family on a farm in Lot-et-Garonne (R. Gul, Ia unes Rossiu. Apologiia emigratsii, vol. 2: Rossiia vo Frantsii (Moscow: B.S.G.-Press, 2001), pp. 358–83). 19. Berberova includes a footnote explaining that the song was recorded in 1928. 248 Notes

20. N. Berberova, Poslednie i pervye. Delo Kravchenko (Moscow: izd-vo Sabashnikovykh, 2000), p. 81. 21. E. Bakunina, “N. Berberova ‘Poslednie i pervye,’” Chisla 6 (1931), 258. 22. The comparison of literary work with handicraft was quite common in Russian criticism when addressing women’s fiction. In his article, “Sochineniia Zeneidy R-voi” (1843), Vissarion Belinsky refers pejoratively to Maria Izvekova’s novels as “poetic knitting of socks, rhymed sewing.” Nabokov’s contemporary, Don Aminado, reacted to the publication of Odoevtseva’s novel Izolda in a parodic poem, praising the author for skillfully “embroidering a dialogue” (D. Aminado, Vsem sestram po ser’gam (Paris, 1931). 23. Rul’ (23 June 1931).

6 Below and Beyond

1. P. Drieu la Rochelle, Le Jeune Européen suivi de Genève ou Moscou (Paris: Gallimard, 1978), p. 38. 2. “Vokrug ‘Chisel,’” in B. Poplavsky, Stat’i. Dnevniki. Pis’ma (Moscow: Knizhnitsa, 2009), p. 132. 3. N. Otsup, Beatriche v adu (Paris, 1939), pp. 54–5. 4. E. Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Collier Books, 1987), p. 81. 5. In the novel Home from Heaven, Poplavsky ironically alludes to this peculiar inversion of perspectives and hierarchies when his Russian protagonist Oleg refers to a French customer of a Montparnasse café as métèque, a derogatory word usually employed by Frenchmen to designate an unwelcome foreigner (B. Poplavsky, Proza (Moscow: Soglasie, 2000), p. 301). 6. It is important to emphasize that the climate among non-verbal artists was quite different, and Montparnasse did offer painters and sculptors from various corners of the world a unique opportunity to exchange and collabo- rate. In particular, struggling artists congregated around the Académie de la Grande Chaumière and the studio of Maria Vasilieva, who even organized a special canteen for them. 7. Istoriia odnogo puteshestviia, in Gazdanov, Sobranie sochinenii v piati tomakh, vol. 1 (Moscow: Ellis Lak, 2009). 8. Gazdanov (2009), p. 221. 9. H. Menegaldo, Les Russes à Paris (Paris: Autrement, 1998), p. 32. 10. Otsup (1939), p. 78. 11. The Bal des Quat’z’Arts was apparently responsible for the rise of the strip- tease, after a model, called Mona, improvised slow artistic stripping to music at the Moulin Rouge, the ball’s venue in 1893. 12. E. Triolet, La Mise en mots (Geneva: Albert Skira Editeur, 1969), p. 8. 13. E. Triolet, Zashchitnyi tsvet (Moscow: Federatsiia, Krug, 1928), pp. 32–4. 14. For a more complete account of the Soviet reception of Camoufl age, see M. Delranc-Gaudric, “L’accueil critique des premiers romans d’Elsa Triolet en Union Soviétique,” in Recherches croisées: Aragon/Elsa Triolet (Besançon: Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, 1998), pp. 12–36. 15. V. Yanovsky, Elysian Fields: A Book of Memory (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), p. 40. 16. Henry Miller, Tropic of Cancer (New York: Grove Press, 1961), p. 42. Notes 249

17. Miller (1961), pp. 174–5. 18. Poetry was affected as well, e.g. “ ” (Boris Bozhnev). 19. Poplavsky (2000), p. 27. 20. V. Yanovsky, Portativnoe bessmertie (Moscow: Astrel’, 2012), p. 483. 21. G. Ivanov, “The Atom Explodes,” Slavonica 8/1 (2002), 60. 22. Ivanov (2002), pp. 59–60. 23. In the original, the verb is used in the present tense: “Over Georgia’s hills nocturnal darkness lies” ( ). 24. In a later poem, “Na Gruziiu lozhitsia mgla nochnaia,” from the cycle Dnevnik (Diary, 1955), Ivanov included yet another variation on the same line from Pushkin’s poem. 25. V. Khodasevich, “Raspad atoma,” Sobranie sochinenii v 4-kh tomakh, vol. 2 (Moscow: Soglasie, 1996), pp. 414–18. 26. L. Livak, “The End of the ‘Human Document’”: Georgij Ivanov’s ‘The Disintegration of an Atom,’” Russian Literature XLIX (2001): 381. 27. J. Doherty, “‘Proshlo sto let ...’: The 1937 Pushkin Anniversary in the Work of Vladislav Khodasevich and Georgii Ivanov,” Irish Slavonic Studies, 20 (1999), 65, 66. 28. T.S. Eliot, “The Waste Land,” in The Complete Poems and Plays (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), p. 61. 29. Ivanov (2002), p. 55. 30. Eliot (1969), p. 68. 31. Eliot (1969), p. 67. 32. Ivanov (2002), p. 45. 33. Yanovsky (2012), p. 401. 34. Otsup (1939), p. 117. 35. K. Clark, Moscow, the Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931–1941 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 75. 36. Yanovsky (2012), pp. 476–88. 37. V.R., “Sredi knig i zhurnalov. Vasily Yanovsky.— ‘Portativnoe bessmertie.’” Vozrozhdenie, 63 (1957), 126. 38. E. Izwolsky, “V.S. Yanovsky: some thoughts and reminiscences,” TriQuarterly, Fall, 28 (1973), 492. 39. Yanovsky (1987), pp. 16–17. 40. The assassination on 6 May 1932 of President Paul Doumer by Pavel Gorgulov (1895–1932), a deranged fanatic, failed doctor, and compulsive writer, severely undermined the reputation of the Russian community, giv- ing substance to the heretofore purely abstract and manipulative discourse of a “foreign danger” threatening the cultural, economic, and political stability of France. This discourse became rampant in the 1930s, eventually leading many French people to embrace racist ideology. At Gorgulov’s trial, prosecutor Donat-Guigue strove to explain away Gorgulov’s terrorist streak by his ethnicity: as a Slav, he suffered from fantasies, fanaticism, mysticism, and cruelty. The psychiatrists invited by the prosecution to evaluate the mental state of the murderer ruled out insanity, and stated that there were “not pathological but ethnic reasons” for Gorgulov’s abnormality. They subsequently invited the jurors to turn to Chekhov and Dostoevsky to appreciate that Gorgulov’s mental condition, while 250 Notes

perceived as insane by Western Europeans, would be judged as entirely normal in the Russian environment. “He is Russian. Like all Russians, he has an intellect different from ours,” concluded the distinguished medical expert (S. Kudriavtsev, Variant Gorgulova. Roman iz gazet (Moscow: Gilea, 1999), pp. 346–7, 367–8). Gorgulov’s public execution took place just four months after the crime. 41. W. Benjamin, The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin MacLaughlin (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 86–7. 42. Yu. Lotman, Semiosfera (Saint Petersburg: Iskusstvo-SPB, 2000), p. 265. 43. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 295. 44. I. Shmelyov, “Shadows of Days,” in A Russian Cultural Revival: A Critical Anthology of Emigré Literature before 1939, ed. Temira Pachmuss (Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981), pp. 133–4. 45. The irrational fear of danger from the periphery appears to be a cultural universal. Andrei Bely’s novel Petersburg presents a classic example of this archetypal phenomenon: Apollon Apollonovich, who personifies the principle of symmetry as the chief attribute of centralized power structures, feels threatened by the formless suburbs. 46. P. Soupault, Les Dernières nuits de Paris (Paris: Gallimard, 1997), pp. 69–71. 47. “May I be lashed unjustly for speaking the truth–/But I adore the evening metro train” (D. Knut, Sobranie sochinenii v 2-kh tomakh (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1997–98), p. 139). 48. Benjamin (2002), p. 84. 49. The first metro line was built in Moscow only in the 1930s. 50. Poplavsky, Proza (Moscow: Soglasie, 2000), p. 37. 51. Yanovsky (2014), pp. 73–4. 52. G. Gazdanov, Night Roads: A Novel (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2009), p. 26. 53. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, pp. 294–295. 54. In orphic rituals of initiation, there existed a requirement of physical contact between the novice’s body and a snake that was placed under his clothes. Initiates themselves were referred to as “snakes” (V. Ivanov, Dionis i pradionisiistvo (Saint Petersburg: Aleteia, 1994), p. 110). 55. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 286. 56. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 287. 57. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 294. 58. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 295. 59. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 284. 60. Liubov Bugaeva interprets the title of the story and its main leitmotiv—the light of street lamps—as a “prefiguration of the Masonic ‘light from heaven’” and materialization of the Masonic concept of “ascent towards the light” (L. Bugaeva, Literatura i rite de passage (Saint Petersburg: Petropolis, 2010), p. 53). 61. Gazdanov was admitted to the Masonic lodge “The Northern Star” on 2 June 1932 on the recommendation of M. Osorgin and M. Ter-Pogosian, and remained an active member until the end of his life. On Gazdanov’s Masonic activities, see A. Serkov, “Masonskii doklad G.I. Gazdanova,” in Vozvrashchenie Gaito Gazdanova (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2000), pp. 271–81. 62. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 294. Notes 251

63. The founder of Anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, who exerted a defining influence on Russian Modernism, interpreted the Lazarus myth in Christianity as a Mystical Fact (1910) as a variation on the ancient mystery of initiation. 64. Cf. Tsvetaeva’s serpent metaphor for a metro train in her 1935 poem “Chitateli gazet”: “ ” (The underground snake crawls/It crawls and carries people). Tsvetaeva’s negative perception of the “underground serpents” could have been colored by a tragic 1934 accident at the Pasteur metro station, which claimed the life of her friend and admirer, the young poet Nikolai Gronsky. 65. “When you can bear it no longer–/There is the muddy Seine and the night” (A. Shteiger, “Kryl’ia? Oblomany kryl’ia”). 66. P. Mac Orlan, Le Quai des brumes (Paris: Gallimard, 1995), p. 100. 67. This was the pseudonym of Russian émigré director Marc David Kaplan (1899–1957). 68. Yanovsky (2014), pp. 108–9. 69. The following passage from Night Roads can be read as an illustration of the “death drive” (Todestrieb) articulated by Freud in Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920): This feeling—the urge to perform one truly final action, once and for all— was an old and familiar one; it would take hold of me when I was driving in my car beside the fragile railings of a bridge over the Seine, and I would think: just put my foot down a little harder on the accelerator, turn the wheel sharply, and it will be all over. (Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, pp. 26–7) 70. G. Adamovich, “Ramon Ortis,” Chisla 5 (1931), 37. The theme of gambling was popular in émigré prose (e.g. Ivan Lukash’s “Igrok,” Osorgin’s “Sibirskii igrok,” V. Unkovsky’s “Ruletka,” etc.). In 1938, Dovid Knut published a story entitled “A Lady from Monte Carlo” (“Dama iz Monte-Karlo”), which reads as an inverted “Queen of Spades” and thus challenges the conventional scenario. 71. L. Sproge, “Rasskaz G. Adamovicha ‘Ramon Ortis’: diskurs igry,” in Kul’tura russkoi diaspory. Samorefl eksiia i samoidentifi katsiia, eds. A. Danilevsky and S. Dotsenko (Tartu: Kirjastus, 1997), p. 223. 72. See S. Litovtsev’s discussion of the story in Poslednie novosti, 2 July, 1931. 73. Adamovich (1931), p. 43. 74. Némirovsky’s strategy in her early works to target two different audiences was routinely pointed out by reviewers (V. Shneerova, “Russkie pisatel’nitsy za rubezhom,” Kaliforniiskii al’manakh (San Francisco, 1934), p. 166). 75. I. Némirovsky, Le Bal and Snow in Autumn (London: Vintage Books, 2007), p. 106. 76. “Annexes,” in I. Némirovsky, Suite française (Paris: Denoël, 2004), p. 537. 77. Otsup (1939), p. 244. 78. S. Clingman, The Grammar of Identity: Transnational Fiction and the Nature of the Boundary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 21. 79. N. Otsup, “Iz dnevnika,” Chisla 10 (1934), 202. 80. D. Merezhkovsky, Taina trekh. Egipet i Vavilon (Prague: Plamia, 1925), p. 9. 81. V. Khazan, “O nekotorykh metaforakh strakha v russkoi emigrantskoi literature,” in Semiotika strakha, eds. N. Buks and F. Conte (Paris/Moscow: Sorbonne/Russkii institut, 2005), p. 293. 252 Notes

82. For example, Paris. Promenades dans les vingt arrondissements (1893), Paris inondé (1910), Paris en 8 jours (1913), N. M. Lagov’s Parizh (1911), Parizh nakanune voiny v monotipiiakh E.S. Kruglikovoi (1916). 83. Tsvibak was later known under his penname, Andrei Sedykh. 84. M-C. Bancquart (1972) Paris des Surréalistes (Paris: Seghers, 1972), p. 70. 85. Khazan (2005), pp. 296–7. 86. G. Gazdanov, “A Watery Prison,” in A Russian Cultural Revival: A Critical Anthology of Emigré Literature before 1939, ed. T. Pachmuss (Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981), p. 317. 87. Gazdanov (1981), p. 326. 88. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 370. 89. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 379. 90. In the poem “Berlinskoe” (“Berlin View,” 1922), Khodasevich similarly refers to Berlin as a dark aquarium:

“Behind the thick expanse of polished/plate-glass window, there’s a view/ as if of a dark aquarium,/a dim aquarium of blue://and through the under- water lindens/floating tramcars, many-eyed,/like luminous electric shoals/ of fish that nonchalantly glide” (V. Khodasevich, Selected Poems (New York: The Overlook Press/Ardis, 2013), p. 131). 91. Poplavsky (2000), p. 138. 92. Yanovsky (2012), p. 477. 93. R. Barthes, “Sémiologie et urbanisme,” in L’aventure sémiologique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1985), p. 270. 94. Gazdanov (2009), vol. 2, p. 233. 95. Yu. Lotman, Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory of Culture (London: Tauris, 1990), p. 140. 96. G. Genette. “Le jour, la nuit,” in Figures II (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1969), p. 107. 97. The same gendering holds true for Russian. Boris Bozhnev explores these connotation in the poem “Noch’—zenshchina, muzhchina—den’” (“Night is a woman, and a man is the day”). 98. Genette (1969), p. 121. 99. Soupault (1997), pp. 42–3. 100. P. Morand, “Préface,” in G. Brassaï, Paris de Nuit (Paris: Flammarion, 1987), n.p. 101. Soupault (1997), p. 30. 102. M. Meyer commente Le Paysan de Paris d’Aragon (Paris: Gallimard, 2001), pp. 53–4. 103. “Ulitsa Visconti,” in A. Sedykh, Staryi Parizh. Monmartr (New York: Russica, 1985), p. 69. Notes 253

104. Poslednie novosti, 22 October 1925. 105. “Ot avtora,” in Sedykh (1985), p. 209. 106. M. Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982), p. 167. 107. Cited from: A. Sedykh, Dalekie, blizkie (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1995), p. 21. 108. E. Jaloux, “L’Esprit des livres,” Les Nouvelles littéraires, 473 (1931), 7 November. 109. S. Sharshun, “Magicheskii realizm,” Chisla 6 (1932), 229. 110. V. Pozner, “Chasy bez strelok,” Zveno 226 (1926), 8. 111. E. Beaujour, Alien Tongues: Bilingual Russian Writers of the ‘First’ Emigration (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 155–6. 112. Miller (1961), p. 209. 113. E. Frietsch, “The Surrealist Artist is Strolling Around with the Little Puppy- Dog Sigmund Freud at his Heels: Perceptions of Space, the Subconscious and Gender Codifications in 1920s Paris,” in Rive Gauche: Paris as a Site of Avant- Garde Art and Cultural Exchange in the 1920s, eds. E. Mettinger, M. Rubin, and J. Türschmann (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010), p. 102. 114. In Bonsoir, Thérèse!, Elsa Triolet challenges the Surrealists’ idyllic view of such random encounters: on her promenades through the city, her heroine, who is a kind of female fl âneur (rôdeuse), is periodically harassed by lewd messieurs who approach her with indecent proposals. Peppering her text with key words from the Surrealist lexicon (aventure, hasard, rencontre), Triolet conducts an implicit polemic with Surrealism: “As for me, I don’t believe in wonderful street encounters” (E. Triolet, Bonsoir, Thérèse! (Paris: Denoël, 1938), p. 79). 115. A. Breton, Nadja (London: Penguin Books, 1999), p. 11. 116. Breton (1999), p. 71. 117. Bancquart (1972); O. Barbarand, Le Surréalisme. Texte étudié. Nadja d’André Breton (Paris, Editions Gallimard, 1994); Philippe Douet, Breton. Nadja. 40 questions, 40 réponses (Paris, Ellipses, 2002). 118. Breton (1999), p. 113. 119. For a comparative analysis of the two novels, see M. Rubins (2007) “Russkii emigrant na rendez-vous: Sergei Sharshun i ego roman,” Russian Literature, 61(3), (2007): 309–39. 120. C. Blinder, A Self-Made Surrealist. Ideology and Aesthetics in the Work of Henry Miller (Rochester, VT: Camden House, 2000), p. 52. 121. A. Astvatsaturov, Genri Miller i ego ‘parizhskaia trilogiia’ (Moscow: NLO, 2010), p. 199. 122. W. Benjamin, “Surrealism—The Last Snapshot of the European Intelligentsia,” in One Way Street (London: Verso Books, 1985), p. 229. 123. Bancquart (1972), p. 134. 124. Soupault (1997), p. 42. 125. Miller (1961), pp. 158, 166. 126. Miller (1961), p. 162. 127. B.L. Blower, Becoming Americans in Paris: Translating Politics and Culture between the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 135. 128. Anaïs Nin, “Preface,” in Miller (1961), pp. xxxi–xxxiii. 129. Miller (1961), p. 185. 254 Notes

130. Miller (1961), pp. 161, 26, 38, 39. 131. Ivanov (2002), p. 44. 132. Ivanov (2002), pp. 45, 46. 133. Ivanov (2002), p. 46. 134. G. Ivanov and I. Odojevceva (1994) Briefe an Vladimir Markov. 1955–1958 (Köln: Böhlau, 1994), p. 69. 135. Miller (1961), p. 249. The “atom” was a frequent trope in interwar literature, used to represent the “apocalyptic” condition of the contemporary world, reflecting popular interest in widely publicized scientific discoveries of atomic structure and the potential of atomic energy. Ivanov continued to use the image of disintegration into an infinite number of particles as a metaphor for death in his later poems:

. 136. Blinder (2000), p. 53. 137. Blinder (2000), p. 65. 138. Blinder (2000), p. 56. 139. Ivanov (2002), pp. 46, 49. 140. Ivanov (2002), p. 61. 141. A. Astvatsaturov, “Eroticheskaia utopia i simuliakry soznaniia u Genri Millera,” in Diskursy telesnosti i erotizma v literature i kul’ture. Epokha modernizma, ed. D. Ioffe (Moscow: Ladomir, 2008), p. 161. 142. E. Galtsova, “Na grani surrealizma. Franko-russkie literaturnye vstrechi: Zhorzh Batai, Irina Odoevtseva i Georgy Ivanov,” in Surrealizm i avangard, ed. S. Isaev (Moscow: GITIS, 1999), p. 110. 143. A.S.Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, trans. Ch.Johnston, available at: http://lib.ru/ LITRA/PUSHKIN/ENGLISH/onegin_j.txt. 144. G. Bataille, “Le Gros orteil,” in Œuvres complètes, vol. I (Paris: Gallimard, 1970), p. 200. 145. Ivanov (2002), pp. 63–4. 146. F. Scott Fitzgerald, Babylon Revisited (London: Penguin Books, 2011), p. 13. 147. Samuel Putnam captured the role of Paris in the lives and writing of interwar American expatriates in the suggestive title of his 1947 memoir: Paris Was Our Mistress: Memoirs of a Lost and Found Generation (New York: The Viking Press, 1947)/ 148. P. Valéry, “Fonction de Paris,” in Œuvres,vol. II (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), p. 1009. 149. Blower (2011), p. 5.

7 Post-traumatic hedonism

1. The term Art Deco was only applied to this style in the 1960s, which saw a revival of interest in interwar culture. 2. On Art Deco in Soviet architecture, see V. Khait and M. Nashchokina, “Vzaimodeistvie avangarda i ar-deko v mirovom protsesse razvitiia stilia,” in Notes 255

Russkii avangard 1910–1920-kh godov v evropeiskom kontekste (Moscow: Nauka, 2000), pp. 195–204. 3. Ekster emigrated to Paris during the same year that saw the release of Aelita. There she created a series of paintings and stage sets that incorporated the defining elements of Art Deco. 4. In Clark’s opinion, the major players on the Petersburg (Petrograd/ Leningrad) arts scene of the 1920s belonged, as in the West, to the young generation of the “post-traumatic” period, also exhibiting hedonism, apolitical attitudes, eroticism, and Freudian influence. However, as Clark concludes, in Russia, the Jazz Age was quickly recoded into the Age of the Revolution. (K. Clark, Petersburg: Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 173). 5. Even Soviet agitation posters denouncing the decadent Western woman and glorifying the Soviet female worker incorporated elements from the very style they ostensibly condemned. 6. F.S. Fitzgerald, “Echoes of the Jazz Age,” Scribner’s Magazine, vol. XC, number 5, November (1931), p. 460. 7. Fitzgerald (1931), p. 464. 8. M. Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age (New York: Anchor Books Doubleday, 1990), pp. 257–8. 9. Fitzgerald (1931), p. 463. 10. For example, pre-Columbian pyramid shapes were often “cited” in American Art Deco architecture, especially in the shapes of skyscrapers. In this way, a false genealogy was created: the style, which was borrowed wholesale from France in 1925 and had no roots on the American continent, could now be traced to aboriginal sources. 11. Eksteins (1990), p. 259. 12. Eksteins (1990), pp. 259–60. 13. C. Bard, Les Garçonnes. Modes et fantasmes des Années folles (Paris: Flammarion, 1998). 14. The venture ended in failure: the very first issue of the journal was confiscated, and the editors were sentenced to ten and six months in jail, respectively. 15. One example of the artist’s creative adaptation of what cinema had to offer is Henri Matisse’s recruitment of set designers from the Nice film studios. He commissioned them to create special cinema props, which he would later paint on canvas.

8 Art Deco Fiction

1. W. Benjamin (1969) “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations. ed. H. Arendt, trans. H. Zohn (New York: Schocken), p. 221. 2. Benjamin (1969), p. 223. 3. S. Nichols (2003) “The End of Aura?,” in Mapping Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Digital Age, eds. H. Gumbrecht and M. Marrinan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), pp. 257–8. 4. “Roman et Cinéma” L’Ordre, 291, 18 Oct. (1930), 1. 5. R. Iangirov, “‘Sinefily’ i ‘antisinemisty’: polemika russkoi emigratsii o kinematografe v 1920-kh gg. (Po stranitsam emigrantskoi pressy),” Ezhegodnik Doma russkogo zarubezh’ia 1, (2010), 349. 256 Notes

6. Iangirov (2010), p. 354. 7. Iangirov (2010), p. 351. 8. Iangirov (2010), p. 352. 9. Iangirov (2010), p. 358. 10. Iangirov (2010), p. 359. 11. Iangirov (2010), p. 361. 12. R. Régent, “O kinematografe,” Chisla 2–3 (1930), 234–8. 13. Cf. M. Rubins, Ecphrasis in Parnasse and Acmeism: Comparative Visions of Poetry and Poetics (New York: Palgrave, 2000), pp. 7–29. 14. V. Khodasevich, Selected Poems (New York: The Overlook Press/Ardis, 2013), p. 149. 15. Among texts prepared by Editions de la Sirène were Max Jacob’s Cinématoma, Louis Delluc’s novel La Jungle du cinéma, J. Epstein’s collection Cinéma, and Blaise Cendrars’ screenplay, La Fin du Monde Filmée par l’Ange Notre-Dame. 16. M. Collomb, Littérature Art Deco (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck, 1987), p. 141. 17. J. Auscher,“Sous la lampe. Irène Némirovsky,” Marianne 13 Feb. (1935), 5. 18. B. Cendrars, L’Or (Paris: Gallimard, 2004), p. 119. 19. Collomb (1987), p. 46. 20. I. Némirovsky, Œuvres complètes, vol. I (Paris: La Pochothèque, 2011), p. 465. 21. Némirovsky (2011), p. 408. 22. P. Drieu la Rochelle, Le Jeune Européen suivie de Genève ou Moscou (Paris: Gallimard, 1978), p. 35. 23. P. Morand, France la doulce (Paris: Gallimard, 1934), p. 364. 24. P. Morand, Lewis et Irène (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 2011), p. 36. 25. “Nonoche au ciné,” in Némirovsky (2011), p. 73. Along with “Nonoche chez l’extra-lucide,” “Nonoche au Louvre,” and “Nonoche au vert,” this comic dialogue marks the very beginning of Némirovsky’s literary career. These literary trifles, in which Némirovsky pokes fun at the nouveaux-riches and imitates the fashionable slang of young Parisians of the hedonistic age, fore- shadow her future satirical and grotesque manner. 26. Drieu la Rochelle (1978), p. 122. 27. For example, Jean Prévost’s Plaisir des sports (1925) and Jean Schlumberger’s Dialogues avec le corps endormi (1927). 28. This analogy was made explicit in the album of painter Willi Baumeister, Sport and Machine (1929). 29. A. Bezobrazov (1930) “O bokse,” Chisla 1, 259–61. 30. On the genre of sports fiction in interwar France, see: Essays in French Literature and Culture (46, November 2009), particularly articles by Thomas Bauer, Julie Gaucher, and Martina Stemberger. 31. Morand (2011), p. 27. 32. I. Némirovsky (1957) Les Feux de l’automne (Paris: Albin Michel), p. 243. 33. André Maurois’s Bernard Quesnay (1926) shows traditional business practice. The novel’s protagonist is a young man who returns from the front and reluctantly joins the family textile business. In contrast to the “speculator” characters, Quesnay has roots in France, shares “old-fashioned” values of productive labor and family obligations, and sacrifices dreams of individual happiness. 34. A.S. Stavissky (1886–1834) was a Jewish immigrant from Odessa, who became a powerful banker in France. For many years he issued false Notes 257

securities, implicating in his affairs influential politicians. Soon after his machinations were revealed, Stavissky was found dead in Chamonix, a vic- tim of murder or suicide. 35. Morand (1934), p. 357. 36. Némirovsky initially contemplated the title Le Charlatan. 37. The xenophobic public discourse matched legal initiatives. On 26 July 1935, the Cousin-Nast law was adopted, after a protracted xenophobic campaign in the French press accusing doctors of foreign (mainly Jewish) origin of malpractice. This law imposed tight restrictions on the exercise of medical practice, limiting admission to the profession to French citizens; imposing a 5-year waiting period for naturalized individuals; and discontinuing exami- nation procedures for foreign students. 38. Since the name Asfar is a cognate of the Arab word for “journey,” commentators of Némirovsky’s recent edition see here an implied allusion to the “Wandering Jew” (cf. “Notice,” in Némirovsky (2011), vol. II, p. 203). 39. Némirovsky (2011), vol. II, p. 207. 40. Morand (2011), p. 78. 41. Morand (2011), p. 86. 42. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the epicenter of the London Greek community was in Bayswater, where the construction of a magnifi- cent Greek Cathedral began in 1872. 43. Cited in S. Sarkany, Paul Morand et le Cosmopolitisme littéraire (Paris: Editions Klincksieck, 1968), p. 82. 44. Sarkany (1968), p. 83. 45. Cendrars (2004), p. 147. 46. Some critics even evoked Ecclesiastes when discussing Némirovsky’s protagonist B. Crémieux (Les Annales, 1 février 1930), A. Thérive (Le Temps, 10 janvier 1930), and A. Maurois (Le Spectacle des Lettres, mars 1930). 47. The reviewer of David Golder in the Russian émigré press praised Némirovsky’s “strength and pathos,” but found the novel, targeting the “most cynical and shamelessly mercenary” financial elite, to be “somewhat superficial.” (Chisla 1 (1930), 246–7). Discussing Némirovsky’s novel in L’Ordre, René Groos com- mented that Golder’s specific vice is his urge to do business, rather than a desire for money as such. He also observed that though this particular “fever” is generally characteristic of the contemporary period, it is most vividly captured in the figure of the “cosmopolitan Jew” (“Roman et Cinéma,” p. 291). 48. Némirovsky singled out her indebtedness to Tolstoy, underscoring the universal appeal of The Death of Ivan Ilych, which can be understood by any “old and ill person who is afraid of dying” (F. Lefèvre (7 June 1933), “En marge de l’Affaire Courilof. Radio-Dialogue entre F. Lefèvre et Mme I. Némirovsky,” Sud de Montpellier. IMEC, GRS 315 – Dossier de presse L’Affaire Couriloff (transcript of the radio interview)). 49. Steven Zdatny discusses short hair as a 1920s generational credo (“The Boyish Look and the Liberated Woman: The Politics and Aesthetics of Women’s Hairstyles,” Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture, vol. 1, issue 4 (1997)). 50. Bard (1998), p. 8. 51. Released in July (a dead season in publishing), the number of copies sold quickly reached the record number of 700,000. 258 Notes

52. Ten years later, a new screen version was made by Jean de Limur, starring Marie Bell and also casting Edith Piaf in her debut role. 53. Morand (2011), p. 74. 54. Morand (2011), p. 109. 55. Morand (2011), p. 137. 56. Morand (2011), p. 136. 57. Joseph von Sternberg’s Shanghai Express, Alfred Hitchcock’s The Lady Vanishes. 58. To capitalize on the contemporary “Russian vogue,” the Frenchman Séliman was replaced with a White Russian prince when Dekobra’s novel was turned into a film. 59. Cheka—the Bolshevik secret police. 60. Drieu La Rochelle (1978), p. 82. 61. Drieu La Rochelle (1978), p. 116. 62. Drieu La Rochelle (1978), p. 106. 63. Drieu La Rochelle (1978), p. 311. 64. The choice of name could not be coincidental. Ida Rubinstein, the legendary dancer of the ballets russes, had fascinated French audiences ever since her provocative appearance in Salomé, when she stripped naked while perform- ing the Dance of the Seven Veils. After leaving the ballets russes, Rubinstein founded her own company and continued to perform. In 1934, when Némirovsky’s novella was published, Ida Rubinstein was in the limelight again, having been awarded the Legion of Honor. 65. Némirovsky (2011), p. 1102. 66. Némirovsky (2011), p. 1102. 67. In La liberté ou l’amour! (1927), Robert Desnos elaborates ironically on new city myths, describing in a mock-epic key the mortal battle between two “heroes” of the Parisian billboards, Bébé Cadum, a plump smiling boy used in advertisements for Cadum soap, and Bibendum, a stout fellow adopted as the emblem of the Michelin tire company. 68. Némirovsky (2011), p. 1108. 69. The Egyptian subtext in this passage, describing Ida’s idol-like appearances atop a golden staircase with a tiara on her head and draped in a golden cloak, not only suggests the popular Egyptian component of the Art Deco style, but offers another allusion to Ida Rubinstein and her famous performance in the title role of Diaghilev’s ballet “Cleopatra.” 70. Paul Morand’s relationship with the film industry was a far cry from his popularity with publishers. Between 1930 and 1932, he sent no less than six scripts to Paramount, only to see them all rejected. The film based on the novel Lewis and Irène was never released. And when Georg Pabst commissioned him to write the script for “Don Quixote,” Morand felt com- pelled to abandon the project in protest against the director’s rejection of a soundtrack composed by his friend, Maurice Ravel. 71. Morand (1934), p. 396. 72. Morand (1934), p. 398. 73. Morand (1934), p. 406. 74. M. Collomb (2007) Paul Morand. Petits certifi cats de vie (Paris: Hermann Editeurs), p. 77. 75. Odoevtseva’s prose confirms Iangirov’s conclusion that “this epoch was permeated with a ‘sense of film,’ which radically renewed artistic Notes 259

devices in literature and their reception” (R. Iangirov, “‘Chuvstvo fil’ma.’ Zametki o kinematograficheskom kontekste v literature russkogo zarubezh’ia 1920–1930-kh godov,” in Imperiia N. Nabokov i nasledniki. Sbornik statei, eds. Yu. Leving and E. Soshkin (Moscow: NLO, 2006), p. 399). 76. G. Gazdanov, “Zerkalo,” Russkie zapiski, 15 (1939), 196. 77. I.Odoevtseva, Zerkalo. Izbrannaia proza (Moscow: Russky put’, 2011), p. 470. 78. The transatlantic ocean liner Normandy, launched in 1932, made its first voyage from Le Havre to New York in 1935. Intending to showcase French applied arts of the time, the French government covered some of the expenses for the luxurious interior design of the cabins and lounges, commissioned from fashionable Art Deco artists. 79. S. Sternau, Art Deco: Flights of Artistic Fancy (New York: Smithmark, 1997), p. 78. 80. Odoevtseva also employs an “electric” lexicon in the poem “Pod lampoi elektricheskoi” (“Under an electric lamp,” 1936). 81. D. Trotter, Literature in the First Media Age: Britain between the Wars (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), p. 23. 82. K. Elita-Vil’chkovsky, “Irina Odoevtseva ‘Zerkalo,’” in Odoevtseva (2011), pp. 639–40. 83. V. Yanovsky. “Irina Odoevtseva. Zerkalo. Roman. Izd. Petropolis (Bruxelles),” in Yanovsky (2014), p. 514. 84. The Mirror contains several nearly direct quotations from Triolet’s novel Camoufl age, suggesting that Liuka, who strives to live as if in a cinematic melodrama, may have been conceived as a foil for one of Triolet’s protagonists, Lucile, whose chic, carefree life, coupled with extreme selfishness and lack of concern for others, resembles an “American movie.” E. Triolet, Zashchitnyi tsvet (Moscow: Federatsiia, Krug, 1928), p. 160). 85. E. Proskurina, “Kinematografichnost’ i teatral’nost’ romana I. Odoevtsevoi ‘Zerkalo’,” Ezhegodnik Doma Russkogo Zarubezh’ia, (2011), pp. 265–79. 86. Morand (1934), p. 445. 87. Benjamin (1969), p. 231.

9 Anthologizing the Jazz Age

1. E. Tsymbal (2000) “Roman Gazdanova “Prizrak Aleksandra Vol’fa.” Popytka kinematograficheskogo prochteniia,” in Vozvrashchenie Gaito Gazdanova (Moscow: Russkii put’), p. 110. 2. G. Gazdanov (2013) The Spectre of Alexander Wolf (London: Pushkin Press), p. 52. 3. “La légende vraie d’Al Brown” (12 December 1998) Le Point (http:// www.lepoint.fr/actualites-litterature/2007-01-24/la-legende-vraie-d-al- brown/1038/0/79798 - accessed on 8 July 2013). 4. J. Cocteau (1973) “J’ai connu Al Brown…,” Poésie de journalisme (1935–1938) (Paris: Belfond), p. 123. 5. Judging by photos from Olga de Narp’s archive, showing Gazdanov perform- ing a handstand on the beach, athletic prowess was an autobiographical detail. 6. L. Dienes (1982) Russian Literature in Exile: The Life and Work of Gajto Gazdanov (München: Verlag Otto Sagner), p. 134. 260 Notes

7. By analogy with a popular series of French crime novels (la Série noire), the term fi lm noir was used by the French film critic Nino Frank to refer to fashionable Hollywood melodramas distinguished by an emphasis on the cynical relationship between a criminal (anti)hero and a manipulative femme fatale. While Hollywood’s classic fi lm noir period began in the early 1940s, the genre stems from the interwar decades and draws on German Expressionism and American crime fiction that emerged during the Great Depression. 8. T. Gronberg (2003) “Paris 1925: Consuming Modernity,” in Art Deco 1910– 1939, eds. C. Benton, T. Benton, and G. Wood (London: V&A Publications), pp. 162–3. 9. Houghton Library of Harvard University. “Gazdanov”: BMS Russian 69(2). 10. F. Frank (1996) “L’Inhumaine, la Fin du Monde: Modernist Utopias and Film- Making Angels,” MLN, 111, 5 (1996), 939, 942. 11. Yu. Stepanov. “V perlamutrovom svete parizhskogo utra… Ob atmosfere gazdanovskogo mira”, in Vozvrashchenie Gaito Gazdanova (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2000), pp. 25–39. 12. Tsymbal (2000), p. 110. 13. For example: “on the other side of the restaurant window, separated from us by glass alone, a winter’s night was beginning, with washed-out, cold light from the street lamps reflected on the wet Parisian road” (p. 33); “Raindrops beat against the car windows, dimly glinting in the light from the street lamps” (pp. 62–3); “I could see ... the slowly retreating rows of portholes as the ships sailed off, blending into at first a glittering, then fading, and then finally dim speck of light” (p. 97); “through the half-drawn curtains came a dull glow from the round street lamps. Above the divan the sconce was lit” (p. 113). 14. Lempicka was possibly the most iconic transnational artist of the Art Deco period. Born in Poland of mixed Russian-French descent, she lived in Saint Petersburg and eventually established herself in the Parisian artistic limelight, preferring to describe herself as a woman “without a homeland” (sans patrie). 15. Such expressionistic details can also be found in Nina Berberova’s “The Lackey and the Wench” (“Lakei i devka,” 1937). Staging her murder/suicide in a narcissistic key, the heroine at the last minute paints her nails: the contrast between her white body and the red nail polish is intended to imbue the entire scene with erotic tension. 16. In Art Deco art (not just in the nude genre but in portraiture), knees become the most marked part of the female body. This reflects the revolution in post-World War I fashion and, more generally, in conventional rules regard- ing the limits of acceptability in women’s dress. If previously, as testified by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century ceremonial portraits, only the upper parts of the body (neck, shoulders, arms) could remain bare, the 1920s saw a dramatic inversion of the “upper” and the “lower,” as the skirt progres- sively shortened and décolleté disappeared. The focus on the knees became a recurrent erotic marker not only in painting but also in literature, including Gazdanov’s novel or Odoevtseva’s Out of Childhood. 17. E. Proskurina, Edinstvo inoskazaniia: o narrativnoi poetike romanov Gaito Gazdanova (Moscow: Novyi khronograf, 2009), p. 53. 18. A. Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975), p. 338. Notes 261

19. In Apollon Bezobrazov, Poplavsky weaves together key symbols of modernity with references to Gogol’s troika flying across the “concrete steppe of Parisian Russia” driven by Lelia Geis, another modern woman fascinated by speed. 20. Houghton Library of Harvard University. “Gazdanov”: BMS Russian 69(2). 21. M. Asakura, “Le Style moderne: la boutique ‘simultanée’ de Sonia Delaunay à l’exposition de 1925,” in Les Années folles 1919–1929 (Paris: Paris musées, 2008), pp. 79–87. 22. This scene echoes Dovid Knut’s colorful description of a jazz performance at the Folies-Bergère in his poem, “An Oriental Dance” (“Vostochnyi tanets”). 23. Ph. Soupault, Les Dernières nuits de Paris (Paris: Gallimard, 1997), p. 24. 24. V. Khazan, “‘Moguchaia direktiva prirody.’ Tri etiuda ob eroticheskikh tekstakh i podtekstakh,” in Diskursy telesnosti i erotizma v literature i kul’ture: Epokha modernizma, ed. D. Ioffe (Moscow: Ladomir, 2008), p. 183. 25. For example, S. Gorny, “Val’s—tango—dzhazz (Monolog cheloveka s sedei- ushchimi viskami)” (1931), A. Ladinsky, “Dancing” (1929), G. Evantulov, “V kazino” (1921), E. Shakh, “Bylo dushno, tesno, nepriiatno” (1925), A. Eisner, “Glava iz poemy” (1927), Sharshun, “Tanets zakroishchika” (1939). 26. Baker also starred in several films, including La Sirène des tropiques (1927), Zouzou (1934), and Princess Tam-Tam (1937), and, as opposed to her dance routine, in the cinematic medium, she did not hesitate to frustrate expecta- tions. Princess Tam-Tam, for example, ironically subverts the gallocentric model of the world: two French gentlemen find a beautiful “savage” girl in Tunisia, teach her proper manners and try to pass her off as an aristocrat in Paris. All along they are recording their experiences, and eventually release a novel entitled Civilization. In the end, however, it becomes clear that the novel was not based on any real transformation of the Tunisian “Eliza Doolittle.” The girl in fact never left her country and, in the final scene, a Tunisian donkey triumphantly chews up a copy of Civilization. 27. P. Dewitte, “Le Paris noir de l’entre-deux-guerres,” in Le Paris des étrangers depuis un siècle, eds. A. Kaspi and A. Marès (Paris: Imprimerie national, 1989), p. 159. 28. For example, Blaise Cendrars, Anthologie nègre (1921), André Salmon, L’Art nègre (1922) and “Négresse de Sacré-Cœur” (1917–1919), Philippe Soupault, “Le Nègre” (1927), André Gide, Voyage au Congo (1927), Paul Morand, “Magie noire” (1928), Albert Londres, Terre d’ébène (1929), Jean-Richard Bloch, Cacahouètes et bananes (1929), Michel Leiris, L’Afrique fantôme (1934). Also of note is the translation into French of Carl Van Vechten’s novel Le Paradis des Nègres, published in 1927 with a preface by Paul Morand. One of the early signs of this fascination with Africa was the award of the 1921 Prix Goncourt to René Maran for his novel, Batouala-Véritable roman nègre. 29. In Steppenwolf, Harry Haller’s manuscript (which constitutes the lion’s share of Hesse’s novel) is defined as “a document of our times” by the “editor,” who purports to be publishing Haller’s notes: “They are a document of our times, for today I can see that Haller’s sickness of mind is no individual eccentricity, but the sickness of our times themselves, the neurosis of that generation to which Haller belongs” (H. Hesse, Steppenwolf (London: Penguin Books, 2012), p. 23. 30. The editor of Steppenwolf’s papers provides Haller’s own definition of his generation as one “caught to such an extent between two eras, two styles of 262 Notes

life, that nothing comes naturally to it since it has lost all sense of morality, security and innocence” (p. 23). Indeed, though the protagonist of Hesse’s novel is nearly 50, his words about a generation “caught between eras” aptly describes the post-World War I generation, marked by hybridity, deracina- tion, and loss of innocence (and equally captures Russian émigrés such as Gazdanov). 31. See: M. Swales, “Der Steppenwolf,” in A Companion to the Works of Hermann Hesse. ed. I. Cornis (Rochester: Camden House, 2006), p. 184. In the “Author’s Postscript” to the 1941 edition, Hesse called Steppenwolf his most misunderstood work. 32. Before World War II, Hesse was not very well known in France, and those novels that were released in French translation received little press coverage (Siddhartha came out in 1925, Damian in 1930, and Steppenwolf in 1931 in Juliette Pary’s translation). The situation changed completely in 1946, when “suddenly Hesse was besieged by French admirers and congratulated by renowned fans” (J.-P. Meylan, La Revue de Genève. Miroir des letters européennes, 1920–1930 (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1969), p. 327). 33. A. Zlochevskaia, “Dve versii misticheskogo realizma XX v.: roman. G. Gesse ‘Stepnoi volk’ i proza Nabokova-Sirina,” in Russkoe zarubezh’e—dukhovnyi i kul’turnyi fenomen (Moscow: Novyi gumanitarnyi universitet Natal’i Nesterovoi, 2003), pp. 119–24. 34. T. Ziolkowski (1965) The Novels of Hermann Hesse: A Study in Theme and Structure (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 184. Hesse scholarship also dwells on the author’s prior usage of the Steppenwolf image, indi- cating his earlier references to himself as a “wolf of the steppes” (because of his feeling of alienation from German society), as indicated in the title of his autobiographical poems “The Steppenwolf: A Diary in Verse” (1926). 35. Proskurina (2009), p. 236. 36. It has become commonplace in Gazdanov scholarship to spell out the connotations of “wolf” by pointing to the folk belief in werewolves. While I do not necessarily suggest, for lack of conclusive evidence, that the choice of the character’s name was an intentional allusion to Steppenwolf, it should be stressed that Gazdanov transcribes the name Wolf according to German, and not English phonetics. Furthermore, it is specifically indicated in the text that Alexander Wolf speaks German, a detail that has so far been interpreted by critics as an ironic hint at the famous “werewolf” of the Russian diaspora, Nabokov-Sirin, who notoriously downplayed his German proficiency (S. Kibalnik, Gaito Gazdanov i ekzistentsial’naia traditsiia v russkoi literature (Saint Petersburg: Petropolis, 2011), pp. 248–51). 37. Houghton Library of Harvard University. “Gazdanov”: BMS Russian 69(55). 38. Houghton Library of Harvard University. ‘Gazdanov’: BMS Russian 69(2). 39. E. Curtis, “Hermann Hesse,” in Hermann Hesse. ed. H. Bloom (Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House, 2003), p. 120. 40. Critics have drawn an analogy between The Spectre of Alexander Wolf and Camus’ L’Étranger, based on the respective narrators’ emphasis on the intensity of sunlight at the moment of murder. The sun indeed becomes a powerful metaphor in the novel but with somewhat different connotations. The entire period of the protagonist’s “death-like existence,” marked by apathy and dull sensual perception, passes mostly in twilight, whereas the Notes 263

beginning and ending of this period are associated with bright sunlight. This dichotomy of sun/darkness can be approached from a folkloric perspective: Slavs believed that solar eclipses happen when a werewolf swallows the sun. (V. Ivanov and V. Toporov, “Volkodlak,” in Mify narodov mira. Vol. I (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1980), p. 243). The absence of the sun between the moment of Wolf’s transformation into a “werewolf” and his ultimate demise in Paris possibly suggests a deeper mythological subtext in Gazdanov’s novel. 41. Proskurina (2009), p. 238. 42. Etymologically, the name of Hermione is linked to Hermes, the Greek messenger of the gods, a patron of travelers and a guide for the souls of the deceased. As for Elena, critics have discussed her role in the novel as “a messenger of fate” (Z.A. Mardanova, “Fantaziia v dukhe Gofmana (‘Prizrak Aleksandra Vol’fa’ Gaito Gazdanov),” Vestnik instituta tsivilizatsii. Vypusk 2. Vladikavkaz, 1999, 59–68, 63).

10 “A ‘third-rate rhymer’ … but a poet of genius”

1. See M. Vasilieva, ed. Pushkin i kul’tura russkogo zarubezh’ia (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2000). 2. K. Balmont, “O zvukakh sladkikh i molitvakh,” in Taina Pushkina. Iz prozy i publitsistiki pervoj emigratsii, ed. M. Filin (Moscow: Ellis Lak, 1998), p. 29. 3. Maklakov’s speech was published in Sovremennye zapiski, 29 (1926), 228–37. 4. Cited in: M. Filin, “Pushkin kak russkaia ideologiia v izgnanii,” in Zarubezhnaia Rossiia i Pushkin (Moscow: Russkii mir, 1998), p. 18. 5. D. Merezhkovsky, “Pushkin i Rossiia,” in Taina Pushkina, (1998), 203–8. 6. K. Zaitsev, “Pushkin kak uchitel’ zhizni,” in Klassika otechestvennoi slovesnosti v literaturnoi kritike russkoi emigratsii 1920–1930-kh godov, ed. A. Gorbunov (Saransk: Mordovsky universitet, 2009), p. 99). 7. This aphorism was originally advanced in Apollon Grigoriev’s article, “Vzgliad na russkuiu literaturu so smerti Pushkina” (1859). 8. K. Zaitsev, “Bor’ba za Pushkina,” in Taina Pushkina, (1998) pp. 179–87. 9. I. Shmelev, “Taina Pushkina,” in Taina Pushkina, (1998) pp. 173–7. 10. Filin (1998), p. 25. 11. Cited in: Filin (1998), p. 10. 12. G. Gazdanov, “Mif o Rozanove, ” Sobranie sochinenii v 5-ti tomakh, vol. 1 (Moscow: Ellis-Lak, 2009), p. 719. 13. G. Adamovich, “Kommentarii,” Chisla 7–8, (1933), 159–60. 14. G. Adamovich, “Chekhov, ” in Literaturnye zametki, vol. I (Saint-Petersburg: Aleteia, 2002), p. 217. 15. A. Bem (1931) “Pis’ma o literature: Kul’t Pushkina i kolebliushchie trenozhnik,” Rul’ #3208, 18 June. 16. Adamovich (2002), p. 218. 17. L. Pumpiansky, Klassicheskaia traditsiia. Sobranie trudov po istorii russkoi literatury (Moscow: Iazyki russkoi kul’tury, 2000), p. 57. 18. Z. Shakhovskaia, “Veseloe imia Pushkina,” in Rasskazy. Stat’i. Stikhi (Paris: Les Editeurs, 1978), p. 68. 19. G. Adamovich, “Lermontov,” Literaturnye zametki, vol. 1 (Saint-Petersburg: Aleteia, 2002), p. 538. 264 Notes

20. Adamovich, “Lermontov,” Literaturnye zametki, vol. 1, (2002), p. 540. 21. G. Adamovich, “Lermontov,” in M.Iu. Lermontov. Pro et contra, eds. V. Markovich, G. Potapova (Saint-Petersburg: RKhGI, 2002), p. 843. 22. B. Poplavsky, “O misticheskoi atmosfere molodoi literatury v emigratsii,” Chisla, 2–3 (1930), 308. 23. D. Merezhkovsky, “M.Iu. Lermontov. Poet sverkhchelovechestva,” in M.Iu. Lermontov: pro et contra, (2002), p. 366. 24. Merezhkovsky (2002), p. 348. 25. Chisla 1 (1930), 272–3. 26. G. Ivanov, “The Atom Explodes,” Trans. Justin Doherty, Slavonica 8/1 (2002), 64. 27. B. Poplavsky “O misticheskoi atmosfere molodoi literatury emigratsii,” Chisla 2–3, (1930), 308–11, 310. 28. Chisla 4 (1931), 171. 29. G. Fedotov, “O parizhskoi poezii,” Kovcheg, (1942), 197. 30. M. Iu. Lermontov. Sobranie sochinenii. Vol. 2. Moscow: Khudozhestzennaia literatura, 1964, p. 227. 31. I. Odoevtseva, Out of Childhood. Trans. Donia Nachshen (London: Constable & Co., 1930), p. 88. 32. B. Zaitsev, “O Lermontove,” in M. Filin, Fatalist. Zarubezhnaia Rossiia i Lermontov (Moscow: Russkii mir, 1999), p. 72. 33. Adamovich quotes the last two lines of Lermontov’s poem “The Sail” (Parus) (M. Lermontov (1976) Selected Works (Moscow: Progress), p. 26. 34. Adamovich (2002) in Literaturnye zametki, p. 533. 35. Adamovich (2002), p. 535. 36. Lermontov believed that on his paternal side he descended from the thir- teenth-century Scottish bard and mystic, Thomas Learmonth. Lermontov’s legendary Scottish pedigree continued to captivate émigrés’ poetic imagination. In his poem “Verses on Lermontov” (1951), Vladimir Smolensky even refers to Lermontov as a “Scottish boy in Russian captivity” ( ). 37. Yu. Felzen, Pis’ma o Lermontove (Paris: izd-vo Ya. Povolotskogo, 1935), p. 74. 38. One case in point is Gazdanov’s An Evening with Claire, which was interpreted as a Proustian text although the author admitted that he had not yet read Proust when he wrote it. 39. For a comparative analysis of Proust and Felzen, see: G. Tassis, “L’exigence de sincérité: Jurij Fel’zen et le roman français de son époque,” in La Russie et le monde francophone. ed. D. Clayton (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2007), pp. 235–54. Terapiano pointed out that Felzen’s “motifs of introspection” differ from those of Proust, and that “Russian Proustianism” as a whole is not as close to Proust as it is to “the Russian penchant for the essence of things and introspection with the purpose of eventual self-transcendence.” In Terapiano’s view, these characteristics make Felzen closer to Lermontov than to Proust. (Yu. Terapiano, “Yu. Felzen “Schast’e,” izd. “Parabola.” Berlin, 1932,” Chisla 7–8 (1933), 268). 40. M. Lermontov, A Hero of Our Time. Trans. N. Randall (New York: Penguin Books, 2009), p.142. 41. P. Bitisilli, “Mesto Lermontova v istorii russkoi poezii,” in M. Yu. Lermontov. Pro et contra (Saint Petersburg: RKhGI, 2002), p. 831. 42. Merezhkovsky (2002), p. 360. Notes 265

43. I Belobrovtseva, “Moi Lermontov Iuriia Fel’zena,” in Russkaia emigratsiia: Literatura. Istoriia. Kiniletopis’, eds. V. Khazan, I. Belobrovtseva, S. Dotsenko ( Jerusalem: Gesharim, 2004), p. 212. 44. According to one source, still in need of confirmation, Lermontov’s biologi- cal father was allegedly A. Levis, his grandmother’s French-Jewish doctor. 45. L. Livak (2010) The Jewish Persona in the European Imagination: A Case for Russian Literature (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), p. 341. 46. Livak (2010), p. 350. 47. Livak states that “Fel’zen’s knowledge of Lermontov scholarship informs his vision of the Russian classic with ethnocultural ambiguity, rooted in the legend of Lermontov’s dubious origin” (Livak (2010), p. 341), but points to a much more recent source, which treats briefly the legend of Lermontov’s roots (S. Dudakov, Paradoksy i prichudy fi losemitizma v Rossii. Ocherki (Moscow: RGGU, 2000)). Another more relevant reference is Hans Günther’s (1931) Nazi-inspired manual (mentioned in Dudakov’s book), in which Lermontov’s portrait is featured as an example of the Jewish racial type. However, it remains unclear whether there is any evidence of Felzen’s familiarity with Günther’s preposterous publication. That said, some vaguely suggestive references to Lermontov’s “eastern” looks had occasionally circulated in Russian culture (for example, Ivan Goncharov once described Lermontov as a “dark- skinned, puffy-looking youth with vaguely Oriental facial features,” and an observation about the primacy in Lermontov’s poetic vision of the Jewish Bible had been made (I. Rozenkranz, “Lermontov i evrei,” Rassvet, 38 (Berlin) (1926), 12–15). But none of this suggests that there was any assumption about Lermontov’s own Jewishness during Felzen’s time. Given how avidly émigrés were engaged in exploration and reinvention of the poet’s legacy, they would have hardly glossed over such a “scoop.” The master source that informed their own writing about Lermontov’s life was Pavel Viskovaty’s 1891 biography, in which the author emphasized mutually tender feelings between Lermontov and his father. Nonetheless, Felzen’s protagonist’s peculiar disclaimer that his knowledge of Lermontov is drawn from “a modest, almost unique source” (pp. 57–8) deserves further investigation. 48. G. Gazdanov, Night Roads (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2009), p. 232. 49. Lautréamont, Les Chants de Maldoror (Paris: Pocket, 1999), p. 101. 50. By the time of the book’s discovery by the Surrealists, it had long been a bibliographic rarity. In April and May 1919, the text was published in two sequential editions of their magazine, Littérature. In 1925, a special edition of the Surrealist magazine Le Disque Vert was dedicated to Lautréamont, under the title “Le cas Lautréamont.” 51. B. Poplavsky, “Po povodu ‘Atlantidy—Evropy,’ ‘Noveishei russkoi literatury,’ ‘Dzhoisa’,” in Neizdannoe. Dnevniki. Stat’i. Stikhi (Moscow: Khristianskoe izdatel’stvo, 1995), p. 274. 52. D. Tokarev, “Mezhdu Indiei i Gegelem.” Tvorchestvo Borisa Poplavskogo v komparativistskoi perspektive (Moscow: NLO, 2011), p. 84. 53. G. Tihanov, “Russian Émigré Literary Criticism and Theory between the World Wars”, in: E. Dobrenko and G. Tihanov (eds.), A History of Russian Literary Theory and Criticism: The Soviet Age and Beyond (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), p. 162. 266 Notes

11 “Backyard” literature

1. V. Rozanov, Fallen Leaves (London: The Mandrake Press, 1929), p. 6. 2. Lev Trotsky perceived a revival of interest in Rozanov and, in a sweeping polemical argument, denounced his ideological inconsistencies in “Mysticism and canonization of Rozanov” (“Mistitsizm i kanonizatsiia Rozanova,” 1922), thereby marking Rozanov as a taboo subject for Soviet scholarship. 3. Opavshie list’ia (Paris: Russika, 1930); Uedinennoe (Paris: Ocharovannyi stran- nik, 1928). The Apocalypse of Our Time appeared in Versty (# 2, 1927). 4. Solitaria (1927); Fallen Leaves (1929); L’Apocalypse de notre temps, précédé de Esseulement (1930). The appearance of these translations is even more striking if we recall that in 1925 Adamovich had expressed dismay that transla- tors were unwilling to take on Rozanov, “possibly the single and the last of our writers still unknown in Europe, who is able to amaze and puzzle” (G. Adamovich, “Literaturnye besedy,” Zveno 131, 3 August 1925, 2). 5. B. Schloezer, “V. Rozanov,” La Nouvelle Revue française 194 (1 Nov. 1929), 608. D.H. Lawrence reviewed Solitaria and Fallen Leaves. Both Pozner and Sviatopolk-Mirsky allocated substantial space to Rozanov in their respective surveys of Russian literature, written for Western audiences: D. Mirsky, Contemporary Russian Literature (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926) and V. Pozner, Panorama de la Littérature russe contemporaine (Paris: Editions KRA, 1929). 6. Z. Gippius, Peterburgskie dnevniki (1914–1919) (New York: Orfei, 1982), p. 64. 7. Contemporaries often regarded Rozanov as a kind of “holy fool” (D. Filosofov, Slova i zhizn’. Literaturnye spory noveishego vremeni (1901–1908 gg.) (Saint Petersburg, 1909), p. 149); M. Kurdiumov [Kallash] “O Rozanove,” in A. Nikoliukin, Nastoiashchaia magiia slova. V.V. Rozanov v literature russkogo zarubezh’ia (Saint Petersburg: Rostok, 2007), p. 100)). R. Ivanov-Razumnik dedicated to Rozanov his 1911 article “A Holy Fool of Russian Literature.” The revival of this cultural myth in the writing of later twentieth-century Russian writers is discussed in: O. Ready, “The Myth of Vasilii Rozanov: the ‘Holy Fool’ through the Twentieth Century,” Slavonic and East European Review, 90, 1 (2012), 34–64). 8. “Dva zaveta” (1928). 9. “O zhenakh” (1925), “Ne nravitsia--nravitsia” (1928), “Razvod?” (1932). 10. “Ob odnoi knizhke” (1939). 11. For a brief summary of Gippius’ comments on Rozanov in the émigré press, see N. Koroleva, “Rozanov glazami Zinaidy Gippius i literatorov ee kruga,” in Nasledie V.V. Rozanova i sovremennost’ (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2009), pp. 162–7. 12. V.V. Rozanov. Pro et contra. Lichnost’ i tvorchestvo Vasiliia Rozanova v otsenke russkikh myslitelei, vol. 2 (Saint Petersburg: RKhGI, 1995), pp. 352–6. 13. Henrietta Mondry plausibly reads Remizov’s article as a parody of Trotsky’s “Mysticism and Canonization of Rozanov” (H. Mondry, “Šklovskij pro, Trockij contra: ‘Canonizing’ Vasilij Rozanov in the 1920s,” Russian Literature LXIX (2011), 239–57). 14. V.V. Rozanov. Pro et contra…, p. 380. 15. V.V. Rozanov. Pro et contra…, p. 397. 16. V. Zen’kovsky, Russkie mysliteli i Evropa. Kritika evropeiskoi kultury u russkikh myslitelei (Paris: YMCA Press, 1927), pp. 210–12. Notes 267

17. “Fallen Leaves by V.V. Rozanov,” in D.H. Lawrence, Introductions and Reviews, eds. N. Reeves and J. Worthen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 347. 18. Cf. H. Stammler, “Apocalyptic Speculations in the Works of D.H. Lawrence and Vasilij Vasil’evich Rozanov,” Die Welt der Slaven 4 (1959), 66–73; G. Zytaruk, D.H. Lawrence’s Response to Russian Literature (The Hague: Mouton, 1971). 19. “Solitaria by V.V. Rozanov,” in Lawrence (2005), p. 317. 20. G. Diment, A Russian Jew of Bloomsbury: The Life and Times of Samuel Koteliansky (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011), pp. 165–86). 21. “Vechera “Chisel”,” Chisla 1 (1930), 252–3. 22. B. Poplavsky, Stat’i. Dnevniki. Pis’ma (Moscow: Knizhnitsa, 2009), pp. 125–33. 23. Rozanov (1929), p. 88. 24. More recently, scholars have begun to engage with Rozanov’s peculiar polyphonic discourse. Anna Lisa Crone singles out eight distinct voices of Rozanov’s narrative persona. This kind of polyphony is different from Dostoevsky’s use of different idea-carriers, who engage in conscious dialogue and polemic. In Rozanov, different voices simply coexist and dominate the text alternatively, resisting any kind of unified view or hierarchy. (A.-L. Crone, Rozanov and the End of Literature (Würzburg: Jal-Verlag, 1978), p. 14). 25. V. Rozanov, Solitaria (London: Wishart, 1927), p. 121. These words are actu- ally attributed by Rozanov to his friend Sperk, whose opinions he seems to have shared. 26. N. Lapaeva remarks that in Poplavsky’s diaries Rozanov’s name signals the pres- ence of some controversial theoretical and aesthetic questions. (N. Lapaeva, “Rozanov ‘bez kavychek’ v dnevnikakh Borisa Poplavskogo: problema retseptsii,” Izvestiia Ural’skogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 1(72) (2010), 54–63). 27. Poplavsky (2009), pp. 131–2. 28. Rozanov (1927), p. 143. 29. Rozanov (1929), p. 10. 30. Poplavsky (2009), p. 64. 31. Poplavsky (2009), p. 46. 32. Poplavsky (2009), p. 49. 33. Rozanov (1927), pp. 155–6. 34. Poplavsky (2009), p. 85. 35. Poplavsky (1996). 36. Poplavsky (2009), p. 123. 37. Poplavsky (2009), p. 127. 38. Rozanov (1929), p. 109. 39. Rozanov (1927), p. 156. 40. Poplavsky (2009), p. 46. 41. N. Tatishchev, “O Poplavskom,” Krug 3 (1938), 151. 42. H. Menegaldo, L’Univers imaginaire de Boris Poplavsky (Lille: A.N.R.T., 1984), p. 286. 43. The origins of this religion of “love and friendship” can also be found in Poplavsky’s reading of Rozanov. Tatishchev recalls his words: “As in Rozanov: ‘Be true in friendship and faithful in love, and you don’t have to keep the other commandments’” (Poplavsky (2009), p. 503). 44. Poplavsky (2009), p. 122. 45. L. Aragon, Le paysan de Paris (Paris: Gallimard, 2003), p. 227. 268 Notes

46. Cf. Georgy Fedotov, “The Four-day Lazarus” (“Chetyrekhdnevnyi Lazar’”), Vladimir Veidlé, The Dying of Art (Umiranie iskusstva), Yury Terapiano, “Resistance to Death” (“Soprotivlenie smerti”). Russian Montparnasse writers also alluded to the myth of resurrection with profound ambivalence in their fiction (Gazdanov’s “Streetlamps,” Berberova’s “Mozart’s Resurrection” (“Voskreshenie Motsarta”), Sharshun’s The Right Path, Ivanov’s “The Atom Explodes,” Yanovsky’s “Freestyle American” (“Vol’no-amerikanskaia”) and Portable Immortality). 47. Poplavsky (1996), p. 377. This episode illustrates Poplavsky’s use of bathos, or rapid shifts between exultation and irony. According to Tatishchev, Poplavsky used to say: “It is not right to compose all the time at the highest note of your voice, this betrays an inability to use contrast. A prophet who will dance the kachucha or charleston before his performance will doubt- less make a sharper impression than the one who starts right in with tear” (Poplavsky (2009), p. 492). 48. Boris Poplavsky v otsenkakh i vospominaniiakh sovremennikov, eds. L. Allen, O. Griz (Saint Petersburg: Logos, 1993), p. 20. 49. Poplavsky (2009), p. 408. 50. Poplavsky (2009), p. 132. 51. Poplavsky (2009), p. 125. 52. Poplavsky (2009), p. 111. 53. Rozanov (1929), p. 119. 54. Poplavsky (2009), p. 413. 55. Rozanov (1927), p. 73. 56. Rozanov (1929), p. 53. 57. Poplavsky (1996), p. 109. 58. Poplavsky (2009), p. 19. 59. Rozanov (1927), p. 47. 60. Poplavsky (1996), p. 15. 61. Restating his credo of writing not for a specific audience but rather for some potential reader as a way of preserving the maximum poetic freedom, Poplavsky entitled one of his poems “Manuscript found in a bottle” (“Rukopis’, naidennaia v butylke,” 1928). 62. Rozanov (1927), p. 47. 63. Rozanov (1927), p. 48. 64. Rozanov (1927), p. 83. 65. Rozanov (1927), p. 114. 66. Rozanov (1927) p. 126. 67. Rozanov (1929), p. 59. 68. Rozanov (1927), p. 46. 69. Rozanov (1927), p. 118. 70. Rozanov (1927), p. 51. 71. Rozanov (1929), p. 83. Cf. Poplavsky’s definition of his own writing as “manuscript fornication” (“rukopisnyi blud”) in his diary entry of September 15, 1935: “Now my dream is to buy a new gray notebook in order to proceed with manuscript fornication.” (Poplavsky (2009), p. 447). 72. Poplavsky (2009), p. 60. 73. Poplavsky (2009), p. 428. 74. Poplavsky (2009), p. 339. 75. Mondry (2011), p. 246. Notes 269

76. B. Poplavsky, “Iz dnevnikov,” Zvezda 7 (1993), 79. 77. Poplavsky (1996), pp. 202–4. 78. Poplavsky’s phrase is an approximate translation of the French idiomatic expression sans queue ni tête, and may also be an intended allusion to Baudelaire’s Preface to his cycle “Petits poèmes en prose”: “Mon cher ami, je vous envoie un petit ouvrage dont on ne pourrait pas dire, sans injustice, qu’il n’a ni queue ni tête, puisque tout, au contraire, y est à la fois tête et queue, alternativement et réciproquement” (Ch. Baudelaire, La Fanfarlo. Le Spleen de Paris. Petits poèmes en prose. Paris : GF-Flammarion, 1987 p. 73). 79. Rozanov (1927), pp. 83, 136. 80. Nikoliukin (2007), p. 61. 81. “Whatever I do, whomever I meet—I can’t fuse myself with anything. A non-copulative man—spiritually. A man—solo” (Rozanov (1927), p. 102). 82. Rozanov (1929), pp. 64–5. 83. K. Solivetti., “ ‘Pis’ma o Lermontove’ Iuriia Felzena: k vyboru kommunika- tivnoi strategii,” Russian Literature XLVI, (2000), 509–28. 84. T. Pachmuss, Sergei Sharshun i dadaizm,” The New Review 177, (1989), 268–76. 85. Chisla 5 (1931), 288. 86. P. Brisset Charchoune le solitaire (Paris: Galerie J.-L. Roque, 1970), n.p. 87. S. Sharshu, Krest iz morshchin (Paris, 1959). 88. Cf.: “I carry literature as my coffin, I carry literature as my sorrow, I carry literature as my disgust” (Rozanov (1929), p. 44). 89. Chisla 5 (1931), 288. 90. “Iz listovok S. Sharshuna. Publikatsiia R. Gerra,” The New Review (1986), 163. 91. V.V. Rozanov Pro et contra, pp. 143, 173. 92. I. Odoevtseva, Izbrannoe (Moscow: Soglasie, 1998), p. 680. 93. E. Znosko-Borovsky, “Parizhskie poety,” Volia Rossii 1(1926). 94. Literaturnyi smotr: Svobodnyi sbornik (1939) eds. Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky (Paris), pp. 158–63. 95. V.V. Rozanov Pro et contra, p. 396. 96. In a later story, “Sunset over Petersburg” (“Zakat nad Peterburgom,” 1953), Ivanov calls Rozanov “a true professional of disintegration” who “more successfully than any minister … or revolutionary pushed the empire to the October abyss” (G. Ivanov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3 (Moscow: Soglasie, 1994), pp. 467–8). 97. G. Gazdanov, “Mif o Rozanove,” Sobranie sochinenii v 5-ti tomakh, vol. 1 (Moscow: Ellis-Lak, 2009), p. 724. 98. Lawrence (2005), p. 316. 99. Cf. with Pozner’s conclusion on Rozanov: “His manner was too personal to create a school, however, numerous writers, young and old, have exploited his vein” (Pozner (1929), p. 65). 100. Gazdanov (2009), pp. 725–6. 101. Lawrence (2005), p. 351. 102. Pozner (1929), p. 61. 103. On the reception of Shklovsky’s work see: V. Shklovsky, Gamburgskii schet. Stat’i—vospominaniia—esse (1914–1933) (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1990), pp. 500–1. 104. V.V. Rozanov. Pro et contra. vol. 2, p. 326. 270 Notes

105. Among émigré critics, Konstantin Mochulsky was a rare voice who called Rozanov a “professional literary man” and discerned “mischief and mystifi- cation” behind his ostensible “stripping down.” (V.V. Rozanov. Pro et contra. vol. 2, 388–92). 106. V.V. Rozanov Pro et contra, p. 337.

12 Dialogue with Tolstoy

1. See Petr Struve’s Stat’i o L’ve Tolstom (1921); Mark Aldanov’s Zagadka Tolstogo (1923); Lev Shestov’s Dobro v uchenii gr. Tolstogo i F. Nietzsche: Filosofi ia i propoved’ (1923); T. Polner’s Lev Tolstoy i ego zhena. Istoriia odnoi liubvi (1928); L. Tolstoy’s Pravda ob otse i ego zhizni (1923); Ivan Il’in’s O soprotivlenii zlu siloiu (1925); David Burliuk’s Tolstoy. Gorky. Poemy (1928–1929); Ivan Bunin’s “O Tolstom” (1927); Petr Bitisilli’s “Problema zhizni i smerti v tvorchestve Tolstogo” (1928); Nikolai Lossky’s “Tolstoy kak khudozhnik i myslitel’” (1928); Vasily Maklakov’s “Tolstoy—kak mirovoe iavlenie” (1929), etc. 2. E. Ponomarev, “Lev Tolstoy v literaturnom soznanii russkoi emigratsii 1920–1930-kh godov,” Russkaia literatura 3 (2000): 202–11. 3. Le Studio Franco-Russe. ed. L. Livak and G. Tassis (Toronto: Toronto Slavic Library, 2005), p. 138. 4. Varshavsky’s prose is generally characterized by an original interplay between Proust and Tolstoy, as pointed out in: A. Shmeman, “Ozhidanie: Pamiati Vladimira Varshavskogo,” Kontinent, 18 (1978), 269. 5. V. Varshavsky, “Iz zapisok besstydnogo molodogo cheloveka. Optimisticheskii rasskaz,” in Proza russkogo zarubezh’ia, ed. O. Dark, vol. 2 (Moscow: Slovo, 2000), p. 189. Subsequent quotations from this edition are given with page numbers in parentheses. 6. M. Schwob, Vies imaginaires (Paris: Charpentier, 1896), pp. 2–3. 7. “A naked person” is Varshavsky’s definition of the archetypal protagonist of émigré writing (V. Varshavsky, “O ‘geroe’ molodoi emigrantskoi literatury,” Chisla 6 (1932), 164–72). 8. It is noteworthy that so many of the writers of the younger émigré generation were childless (including Ivanov and Odoevtseva, Berberova, Gazdanov, Felzen, Poplavsky, Sharshun, Adamovich, Shteiger, Chervisnskaya), and that many never married. For Poplavsky, as we have seen in Chapter 2, “emigration is first of all the tragedy of bachelor life” (Poplavsky (2009), p. 127). 9. Deti emigratsii, ed. V. Zenkovsky (Prague, 1925). 10. These compositions were kept in the Prague Russian Historical Archive Abroad until 1945 and then transferred to the USSR. They were eventually published: L. Petrusheva, Deti russkoi emigratsii. Kniga, kotoruiu mechtali i ne smogli izdat’ izgnanniki (Moscow: Terra, 1997). 11. Deti emigratsii, p. 153. 12. A. Wachtel, The Battle for Childhood: Creation of a Russian Myth (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990). 13. C. Creuziger, Childhood in Russia: Representation and Reality (New York: University of America Press, 1996), p. ix. Notes 271

14. I. Shmelyov, “Shadows of Days,” in A Russian Cultural Revival: A Critical Anthology of Emigré Literature before 1939, ed. T. Pachmuss (Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981), p. 137. 15. G. Boas, The Cult of Childhood (London: The Warburg Institute, 1966), p. 21. 16. R. Kuhn, Corruption in Paradise: The Child in Western Literature (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1982), p. 111. 17. Boas (1966), p. 16. 18. P. Ariès, Centuries of Childhood (London: Pimlico, 1966), p. 125. 19. Boas (1966), p. 32. 20. Kuhn (1982), p. 66. 21. P.B. Shelley, “On Life,” in Shelley’s Poetry and Prose: Authoritative Texts, Criticism, eds. D. Reiman and S. Powers (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1977), p. 477. 22. A. Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea, vol. III. (London, 1909), p. 162. 23. Andrei Bely’s vision is an offshoot of this Romantic tradition. 24. Wachtel (1990), p. 2. 25. N. Karamzin, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow-Leningrad: Khudozhestvennaia literature, 1964), pp. 758–61. 26. Pushkin’s unfinished Russian Pelham (Russkii Pelam, 1834?), which used a similar topos, can be seen as an early narrative contesting the myth of idyllic childhood. 27. Wachtel (1990), p. 3. 28. I. Bunin, The Well of Days (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1934), p. 6. 29. The second was his nonfiction piece “Pouchkine, ou le vrai et le vraisembla- ble” featured in La Nouvelle revue française 48 (1937), 362–78. 30. The original version of the story celebrated creative freedom of the artist over memory: “Did she really live? No, to think of it—she has never lived. But from now on she is alive because I created her, and this existence that I give her would be a very sincere token of gratitude if she had really existed” (V. Nabokov, Mademoiselle O (Paris: Julliard, 1986), p. 36 ––subsequent quotations from this edition, with page numbers in parentheses). 31. Further echoes of Proust’s novel are discussed in: J.B. Foster, Jr, Nabokov’s Art of Memory and European Modernism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 119. 32. Jacqueline Hamrit singles out the “French tradition of introspection, and its use of the autobiographical mode” going back to Montaigne and Rousseau, and finds parallels between Nabokov’s story and André Gide’s Les Nourritures terrestres (“French Echoes in “Mademoiselle O”,” available at: http://www. libraries.psu.edu/nabokov/hamrit.htm#FOOT3). 33. Nabokov obsessively re-wrote this story in the 1940s–1960s, publishing different versions in different collections and also including this episode in Chapter 5 of Speak, Memory! 34. In marked contrast to the overconfident authorial stance typical of Nabokov’s Russian and English-language texts, the author begins his only French story with veiled apologies suggesting linguistic insecurity: Comme il ne m’est presque jamais arrivé de séjourner dans un pays où cette langue soit parlée, j’en ai perdu l’habitude, de sorte que c’est une tâche 272 Notes

inouïe, un labeur éreintant que de saisir les mots médiocrement justes qui voudront bien venir vêtir ma pensée. (p. 8)

35. Foster (1993), p. 126. 36. A similar lexicon was employed in a vast corpus of travelogues written by French visitors and describing Russia from an exoticizing perspective (works of L.R. de Bussierre, J.-B. May, Th. Gautier, A. Dumas, H. de Balzac, A. de Custine, F. Ancelot, B. de Perthes, and many others). 37. Poplavsky (2000), p. 310. 38. Odoevtseva (1930), p. 8. 39. Odoevtseva (2011), p. 394. 40. This conflation of childhood and adolescence in émigré writing in fact contradicts Tolstoy, whose protagonist in Boyhood (Otrochestvo) contrasts adolescence to “happy childhood.” 41. “Detstvo Anatoliia Shteigera. Iz ego vospominanii”, The New Review 154 (1984): 117. 42. V. Varshavsky, “Amsterdam (otryvok iz povesti),” Krug 3 (1938): 43–74. 43. R. Descartes, Œuvres: Correspondances I: avril 1622–février 1638 (Paris, 1974), p. 203. 44. V. Varshavsky, “Neskol’ko rassuzhdenii ob Andre Zhide i emigrantskom molodom cheloveke,” Chisla 6 (1931); 216–22. 45. In the fourth chapter of his book The Unnoticed Generation, Varshavsky quotes Descartes again, linking his Amsterdam metaphor more explicitly to the isolated existence of young Russian émigrés in the midst of the Parisian metropolis. 46. P. Valéry, “ Le retour de Hollande,” in Œuvres I, (Paris, 1957), p. 848. 47. Cf. V. Khazan, “Pisatel’ ‘nezamechennogo pokoleniia’ (O proze V.S. Varshavskogo,” Vtoraia proza, eds. I. Belobrovtseva et al. (Tallinn: Trü Kirjastu, 2004), pp. 216–45. 48. In an article devoted to the gestation of Varshavsky’s novel Anticipation, Khazan provides a list of prior texts incorporated into the novel, including both “Solitude and Idleness” and “Amsterdam” (V. Khazan, “Bez svoego mesta v mire (‘Otsy’ i ‘deti’ v proze V. Varshavskogo,” in Mir detstva v russkom zarubezh’e (Moscow: Dom-muzei Mariny Tsvetaevoi, 2011), pp. 179–206). 49. This echoes the realization of the protagonist in Tolstoy’s Boyhood. 50. This presents a transparent parallel to Ganin’s experience in Nabokov’s Mary. 51. G. Gazdanov, An Evening with Claire (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1988), p. 92. 52. F. Göbler, “Zeit und Erinnerung in Gajto Gazdanovs Roman Vecher u Kler,” Zeitschrift für Slawistik 44 (1) (1999): 79–87. 53. T. Semenova, “K voprosu o mifologizme v romane Gazdanova ‘Vecher u Kler’,” in Gazdanov i mirovaia kul’tura, ed. L. Syrovatko (Kaliningrad: KGT, 2000), p. 46. 54. See reviews of V. Unkovsky in Novoe russkoe slovo XX, 6293, 20 April 1930 and L. Kel’berin Chisla 2/3 (1930): 251. 55. See reviews of: Unkovsky in note 53; P. Pilsky, Segodnia 17 March 1930; V.L. [Levitsky] Vozrozhdenie 1714, 10 February 1930; and Kirill Zaitsev’s “ ‘Novye pisateli’ o sovremennykh detiakh,” Rossiia i slavianstvo 65, 22 February 1930. 56. “Bibliographie. Une nouvelle traduction de Mme Gaebelé-Cekhanowski,” Le Républicain orléanais 18363. Notes 273

57. Claudine Chonez’s review in Les Nouvelles Littéraires 4//III (1933), 542. 58. B. Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment (London: Penguin Books, 1991). 59. Kuhn (1982), pp. 20–44. 60. Odoevtseva (2011), p. 191. 61. By altering the title of the novel (Out of Childhood instead of The Angel of Death), its English translator, Donia Nachshen, expressed her perception of the centrality of the coming-of-age motif. The title in the German translation also highlights Liuka’s teenage status: Ljuka der Backfi sch (1930). 62. C. Bard, Les Garçonnes. Modes et fantasmes des Années folles (Paris: Flammarion, 1998), p. 123. 63. In the works by Foujita, Lempicka, Pascine, Laurencin, Beckmann, Schad, Mammer, and many others. This topos was actively explored in fiction as well. In Home from Heaven, Poplavsky describes two girlfriends as “a glori- ous unity of young athletic bodies, packed into a small white-washed room whose window had no frames or glass but only a green Italian antique one- pane shutter” (Poplavsky (2000), p. 264). Poplavsky saturates his description with the plasticity of Art Deco marble bas-reliefs, such that the entire scene lends itself to re-coding as ecphrasis. 64. Odoevtseva (2011), p. 632. 65. In fact, this novel was first advertised precisely under this title. 66. Although it is explicitly stated in the novel that Cromwell was named after Oliver Cromwell, Odoevtseva’s unusual Russian transcription of this name (Kromuel’ as opposed to Kromvel’) also suggests her intention to liken it pho- netically to Kornuel’ (Cornwall, Tristan’s kingdom of origin). 67. R. Bartlett, Wagner and Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 94–102. 68. Mikhail Kuzmin’s “Elegiia Tristana,” “Tristan” and “Sumerki,” Vsevolod Rozhdestvennsky’s “V tenetakh vremen.” 69. X.S. Harwell, “The Poetics of Exile in the Interwar Novels of Irina Odoevtseva,” in Creativity in Exile, ed. M. Hanne (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004), pp. 15–134, 129. 70. Published in Rul’ on 30 October, 1929. 71. Quoted in: E. Bobrow, Irina Odoevtseva: Poet, Novelist, Memoirist. A Literary Portrait (Oakville, Buffalo: Mosaic Press, 1996), p. 43. 72. M. Slonim, “Molodye pisateli za rubezhom,” Volia Rossii 10, (1929): 100–18. 73. Published in Don Aminado’s book Vsem sestram po ser’gam (1931). 74. E. Bobrova, “Irina Odoevtseva,” The New Review 146 (March 1982): 95. 75. When Bunin touched upon eroticism of adolescent girls in his cycle Dark Avenues (Temnye allei, 1937–1945), he was likewise accused by some critics of writing “pornography.” 76. Kuhn (1982), p. 6. 77. Odoevtseva (2011), p. 429. 78. J. Cocteau, Les Enfants terribles (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1925 [sic.!]), p. 25. 79. Cocteau (1925), p. 27. 80. Cromwell thus shares the fate of his legendary namesake: after the restora- tion of the monarchy, Oliver Cromwell’s body was exhumed and quartered. 81. Odoevtseva (2011), p. 636. In her third novel, The Mirror, Odoevtseva represented another version of lovers/children. There are no teenage characters, but Ludmila’s relationship with her husband suggests, as Harwell writes, that they 274 Notes

are both “frozen in childhood,” speaking a childish language and playing with a stuffed animal. Harwell links this motif of spouse-children to “infantilization of individuals in exile” (X. Harwell, “‘Venus’ Mirror: Exile and Masquerade in Irina Odoevtseva’s The Mirror,” in Masquerade and Femininity: Essays on Russian and Polish Women Writers, eds. U. Chowaniec et al. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), p. 150). When Ludmila leaves her husband to join Thierry Rivoir, she makes a transition out of childlike innocence into the world of adult passionate love, which in the end destroys her. 82. X. Harwell, The Female Adolescent in Exile in Works by Irina Odoevtseva, Nina Berberova, Irmgard Keu, and Ilse Tielsch (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), p. 36. 83. According to Hesse: The likeable but sentimental chap with his song about the blissfully happy child would also like to get back to nature, to his innocent origins, but he has totally forgotten that children are by no means blissfully happy. Rather, they are capable of many conflicts, a host of contradictory moods, … Things do not begin in innocence and simplicity. (H. Hesse, Steppenwolf (London: Penguin Books, 2012), p. 67) 84. Arsène Alexandre’s review of the Salon d’Automne, Le Figaro, 3 November 3, 1929. 85. V. Leonidov (2011) “Eshche do ‘Lolity,’” available at: http://www.russkiymir. ru/russkiymir/ru/publications/review/review0063.html. 86. “Infanticide before the court/I stay – unmerciful and blue” (Marina Tsvetaeva, “Last night was looking in my eyes,” trans. V. Savin, available at: http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/last-night-was-looking-in-my-eyes/). 87. E. Krasnostchekova, Roman vospitaniia. Bildungsroman na russkoi pochve (Saint Petersburg: Pushkinsky fond, 2008), p. 28. 88. Bunin (1934), p. 16. 89. N. Berdiaev, The Russian Idea, trans. R. French (Boston, 1962), p. 6. 90. N. Berberova, Povelitel’nitsa (Berlin: Parabola, 1932), p. 17. 91. On the “maternal myth” in Russian culture and the concept of the “mother, perceived as the land,” see J. Hubbs, Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1988). 92. E. Bakunina, Liubov’ k shesterym. Telo (Moscow: Geleos, 2001), 257. 93. Z. Gippius, Arifmetika liubvi. Neizvestnaia proza 1931–1939 godov (Saint Petersburg: Rostok, 2003), p. 135. 94. A. Morard, De l’émigre au déraciné. La “jeune génération” des écrivains russes entre identité et esthétique (Paris, 1920–1940) (Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 2010), pp. 213–14. 95. See Mikhail Tsetlin’s review in Sovremennye zapiski 35 (1933). 96. Émigrès responded to this publication with a series of reviews: A. Ladinsky, “Angliia posle voiny,” Poslednie novosti 3984, 18 February 1932, 3; I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, “Zashchita ledi Chatterley,” Vozrozhdenie 4, 11 August 1932. 97. See N. Reinhold, “Russian Culture and the Works of D.H. Lawrence: An Eighty-Year Appropriation,” in The Reception of D.H. Lawrence in Europe, eds. Ch. Jansohn and D. Mehl (London: Bloomsbury, 2007), pp. 187–97. 98. V. Khodasevich, “Knigi i liudi: Napyshchennyi muzhik,” Vozrozhdenie 3, 26 May 1932. Notes 275

99. G. Adamovich, “O knige Lorensa,” Poslednie novosti 4033, 7 April 1932, 3. 100. V. V[arshavs]ky (1932) “D.H. Lorens ‘Liubovnik Ledi Chatterlei,’” Chisla 6 (1932): 259–62. 101. I. Kaspe, Iskusstvo otsutstvovat’: Nezamechennoe pokolenie russkoi literatury (Moscow: NLO, 2005), p. 133. 102. G. Marcel’s review appeared on 1 May 1929 in La Nouvelle Revue française, pp. 729–31. 103. See A. Lalo (2011) Libertinage in Russian Culture and Literature: A Bio-History of Sexualities at the Threshold of Modernity (London: Brill, 2011), pp. 219–52. 104. Adamovich (2007), p. 220. 105. Gippius’s negative reaction to Bakunina’s novel resonates with her own reflections on the “feminine” in the context of her unrealized treatise “Women and the Feminine” (“Zhenshchiny i zhenskoe”). In the extant passages, Gippius explains her metaphysics of gender: a human being is the reflection of two principles, masculine and feminine, which are manifested in each person in different combinations. A woman remains connected to the transcendental realm, preserves harmony and her individual personality, as long as she has a sense of herself as a bride, sister, or mother. But when she makes herself over into primarily wife or mistress, when she finds herself “under the unforgiving power of her localized, finite sex,” then she “begins to reflect the light of her lover” and ceases to exist as an individual personality (R. Iangirov, “Body and Reflected Light. Notes on Émigré Women’s Prose and Zinaida Gippius’ Unwritten Book ‘Women and the Feminine,’” Russian Studies in Literature, 44(3) (2008): 13–14). 106. Gippius (2003), p. 503. 107. V. Yanovsky, Liubov’ vtoraia. Izbrannaia proza (Moscow: NLO, 2014), p. 570. 108. N. Berberova, The Accompanist (New York: A New Directions Classic, 1987), p. 12. 109. One formidable exception to the generally benign mothers of Russian folk- lore is Baba Iaga, an ambivalent character who is occasionally threatening and even cannibalistic. As Andreas Johns argues, Baba Iaga as a mother(ing) figure frequently represents the negative aspects of motherhood. (A. Johns, Baba Yaga: The Ambiguous Mother and Witch of the Russian Folktale (New York: Peter Lang, 2004)). I would like to thank Faith Wigzell for drawing my attention to this source. 110. Clytemnestra’s story represents the most complex cluster of contrast- ing family loyalties and betrayals: she is driven to murder her husband, Agamemnon, by her desire to avenge her daughter Iphigenia, sacrificed on Agamemnon’s orders. Her other children, Orestes and Electra, in turn plot against her in order to avenge their father’s death. Finally, it is Orestes who kills Clytemnestra, but Electra is fully implicated in the conspiracy, thus becoming the archetypal “matricidal” daughter of ancient mythology. 111. W. Shakespeare, The Tragedies (New York: The Heritage Press, 1958), p. 575. 112. H. Madland, “Gender and the German Literary Canon: Marianne Ehrmann’s Infanticide Fiction,” Monatshefte 84(4), (1992): 405–16. 113. M. Hirsch, The Mother/Daughter Plot: Narrative, Psychoanalysis, Feminism. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989). 114. In the 1930s, Mauriac’s novel came out in Galina Kuznetsova’s Russian translation and with a Preface by Bunin. Reviewing the book for 276 Notes

Illiustrirovannaia Rossia, Yanovsky wrote: “‘Genitrix’ is the story of a mother who loved her son so much that she maimed him, ruined his entire life, almost killed his wife, and even after her death continued to keep a tight grip on his soul” (Yanovsky (2014), p. 512). 115. F. Mauriac, Œuvres romanesques et théâtrales complètes, vol. I (Paris: Gallimard, 1978), p. 609. 116. D. Dessanti, La femme au temps des années folles (Paris: Stock, 1994), p. 30. 117. Dessanti (1994), p. 29. 118. Margueritte (1922), pp. 47, 16. 119. I. Némirovsky, Œuvres complètes.vol. I (Paris: La Pochothèque, 2011), p. 372. 120. Note the similarity between this scene and an analogous episode in Mauriac’s Genitrix. 121. Némirovsky (2011), vol. I, p. 1466. 122. Olivier Philipponnat and Patrick Leinhardt, La Vie d’Irène Némirovsky 1903–1942. (Paris: Grasset-Denoël, 2007), p. 273. 123. Némirovsky (2011). pp. 1555, 1548, 1615. 124. In “On Narcissism: An Introduction,” Freud articulated his theory of narcissism on the basis of his observations of various self-absorbed personalities, including egomaniacs and coquettes. 125. Among Némirovsky’s unambiguously negative characters, women predomi- nate, and some commentators have attempted to link this apparent misogyny to the writer’s difficult relationship with her own mother. According to wit- ness accounts, Anna Némirovsky fit the profile of the archetypal female character of her daughter’s fiction: she adored money, jewelry and furs, kept young lovers, lived a life of glamor, circulating between Biarritz, Nice and Cannes, and seized her daughter’s inheritance after the death of her husband. Anna did not assist Irène financially during the Occupation, and refused to accept her orphaned granddaughters after the war. She managed to survive the war having procured a fake Latvian passport, and lived in comfort until 1972. Thirty-four years earlier, Irène Némirovsky made the following striking entry in her diary: “What would I have felt if I had seen my mother die? What I say is: pity, horror and fright before the dryness of my heart. Knowing desperately at the bottom of my heart that I had no grief, that I was cold and indiffer- ent, that it was no loss for me but on the contrary …” (O. Philipponnat and P. Lienhardt, La vie d’Irène Némirovsky (Paris: Grasset-Denoël, 2007), p. 314).

Conclusion

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Académie de la Grande autofiction, compare with Chaumière 114, 248 autonarration 8, 11, 39–8, Ageev (Mark Levy) 37, 247 243, 281 Aichenwald, Yuly 123 automatic writing, see also écriture Aksakov, Sergei 199 automatic 97, 176 Al Brown, Panama 146, 259, 279, autonarration, compare with 283 autofiction 43,44 Aldanov, Mark (Landau) 245, 270 Avvakum 179 Aleksandrov, Arsène 277 Alexaxis, Vassilis 233 Baker, Josephine 64, 116, 135, 153, Allen, L. 268, 277 154, 261 Ancelot, F. 272 Bakhtin, Mikhail 244 Andreenko, Mikhail 245, 277 Bakhtin, Nikolai 123 (les) années folles, see also die Goldenen Bakunina, Ekaterina 2, 7, 27, 28, 29, Jahren 1, 114, 118, 128, 137, 31, 35, 46, 61, 183, 220–24, 141, 146, 151, 155, 212, 255, 231, 242, 248, 274, 275, 277 261, 273, 276, 277, 279 Bakunina, Ekaterina, works by anthroposophy 103, 251 The Body (Telo) 31, 35, 220–22, Apollon Bezobrazov (Boris 224, 242, 274, 277 Poplavsky) 127, 146, 245 Love for Six (Lubov’ k shesterym) Apuleius 42 221, 223–24, 242, 274 Aragon, Louis 67, 92, 97, 103, 124, Bal des Quat’z’Arts 66, 248 184, 242, 252, 267, 277, 279, bal musette 104 285, 286 Balakshin, Petr 30, 34, 242, 277 Aragon, Louis, works by ballets russes 64 Le Paysan de Paris 92, 97, 103, 242, Balmont, Konstantin 165 248 Balzac, Honoré de 52, 259, 246, 272 Arendt, Hannah 255, 278 Balzac, Guez de 206 Ariès, Philippe 199, 200, 201, 271, Bancquart, Marie-Claire 54, 90, 103, 277 246, 252, 253, 278 Arland, Marcel 16, 36, 122, 238, 277 Bard, Christine 134, 255, 258, 273, Art Deco 8, 11, 113–77, 212, 227, 278 238, 254, 255, 256, 258, 259, Barney, Natalie 119 260, 273, 279, 281, 288 Barthes, Roland 42, 51, 92, 246, 252, Art Nouveau 116 277 Asakura, M. 261, 277 Bartlett, R. 273, 278 Astvatsaturov, Andrei 108, 253, 254, 277 Bashkirtseva, Maria 20–5, 30, 239, Atget, Eugène 86, 92 277, 281 Auffray, Alexandre 64 Baudelaire, Charles 53, 54, 101, 246, Auscher, J. 256, 277 269, 278 Austen, Jane 225 Bauer, Thomas 256 autobiographical pact, see also Baumeister, Willi 256 referential pact 23, 42 Beaudine, William 145

290 Index 291

Beaujour, Elizabeth 100, 253, 278 Bretonne, Rétif de La 51, 52 Beckmann, Max 63 Breul, Jasques de 246 behaviorism 117 Brice, Germain 246 Belinsky, Vissarion 239, 248 Brisset, P. 269, 279 Bell, Marie 258 Briusov, Valery 168 Belobrovtseva, Irina 236, 265, 272, Brontë, Charlotte 225 278, 283 Bugaeva, Liubov 250, 279 Bely, Andrei 44, 109, 199, 250, 271 Buks, N. 251, 283 Bem, Alfred 37, 243, 263, 278 Bulich, Vera 236 Benjamin, Walter 54, 76, 78, 79, Bunakov, I. 236, 281 103, 121, 131, 144, 246, 250, Bunin, Ivan 1, 3, 32, 40, 57, 79, 202, 253, 255, 259, 278, 285 218, 236, 237, 270, 271, 273, Benois, Nikolai 202 275, 278, 279, 284 Benton, T. 260 Burliuk, David 270 Benton, C. 260 Bussierre, L.R. de Berberova, Nina 2, 31, 58, 59, 60, Cahuet, Albéric 24 61, 75, 219, 224, 231, 236, 247, 248, 260, 268, 270, 274, 275, Camus, Albert 42, 262 277, 281 Carco, Francis 99 Berdiaev, Nikolai 39, 179, 180, 194, Carné, Marcel 96 218, 240, 243, 274, 278, 289 Céline, Ferdinand, see also Selin 10, Bergerac, Cyrano de 42 11, 25, 26–28, 37, 42, 44, 54, Berman, M. 253, 278 73, 77, 96, 240, 279 Bernard, Claude 19 Céline, Ferdinand, works by: Berthod 246 Voyage au bout de la nuit 25, 26, Bettelheim, B. 273, 278 28, 77, 96 Beyala, Calikst 233 Cendrars, Blaise 42, 59, 125, 126, Beyria, Gustave 119 130, 131, 132, 247, 256, 257, Bhabha, Homi 237, 278 261, 289 Bildungsroman 208, 274, 283 Cendrars, Blaise, works by biographie romancée 132 “Trop, c’est trop” 59, 247, 279 Bitsilli, Petr 27, 33, 174, 240, 242, 278 L’Or : La merveilleuse histoire du Blinder, C. 105, 253, 254, 278 général Johannes August Suter Bloch, Jean-Richard 261 125, 126, 130, 131, 256, 279 Blok, Alexander 107 L’Argent 132 Bloom, H. 262 Chadourne, Marc 86 Blower, B.L. 110, 253, 254, 278 Chanel, Coco 146 Boas, George 199, 200, 271, 278 Chaplin, Charlie 124, 131 Bobrow, Ella 213, 273, 278 Chonez, Claudine 273 Boehme, Jacob 182 ciné-roman 124 Boileau, Nicolas 246 Charchoune, see also Sharshun, Bonfon, Pierre 246 Sergei 269, 279 Boucard, Arlette 217 Charpentier, Georges 21 Bozhnev, Boris 191, 249, 252 Chekhov, Anton 249, 263, 277 Brassaï (Gyula Halász) 94, 95, 96, Cherny, Sasha 166 119, 252, 285 Chervinskaya, Lydia 30 Breton, André 42, 101–03, 253, 279 Chervinskaia, Lidia, works by Breton, André, works by We 30 Nadja 101–03, 253, 279 Chinnov, Igor 34, 242, 279 292 Index

Chisla 4, 15, 27, 29, 34, 57, 62, 89, Dark, O. 270, 288 123, 146, 169, 170, 180, 181, Dekobra, Maurice 135, 258 185, 190, 238, 240, 241, 242, Dekobra, Maurice, works by 245, 248, 251, 253, 256, 257, La Madonne des sleepings 135 263, 264, 267, 269, 270, 272, Delaunay, Sonia 118, 151, 152, 275, 277, 278, 279, 284, 285, 261, 277 286, 287, 288, 289 Delaunay, Robert 151 Chowaniec, U. 274, 282 Delluc, Louis 59, 256 Chudakova, Marietta 244, 279 Delranc-Gaudric, M. 248, 279 Chuzhak, N. 244 Demidova, O. 237, 242, 279, 285 Ciepiela, Catherine 236, 279 Descamps, P. 239, 279 Claire, René 85 Descartes, René 206, 272, 279 Clark, Katerina 73, 114, 244, 249, 279 Deschamps, Eustache 51 Clayton, Douglas 264, 288 Desnos, Robert 75, 289 Clingman, Stephen 89, 237–44, Desnos, Robert, works by 251, 279 La liberté ou l’amour! 75, 258 Cocteau, Jean 7, 83, 146, 211, Dessanti, Dominique 227, 276, 279 214–17, 226, 227, 259, 273, 279 Dewitte, Philippe 155, 261, 279 Cocteau, Jean, works by Diaghilev, Sergei 258 “Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel” 211 Dienes, L. 259, 280 Les Enfants terribles 214–16, 273, Dietrich, Marlene 119 279 Dikoy, see also Vilde 245 Les Parents terribles 226–27 Diment, Galya 180, 267, 280 “Orphée” 83 Dobrenko, Evgeny 244, 265, 279, 288 Colette, Sidonie-Gabrielle 42, 44 Doherty, Justin 71, 243, 249, 264, Colonna, Vincent 42, 244 280, 281, 282 Conte, F. 251, 283 (Le) Dôme, café 63, 92 Corneille, Pierre 202 Don Aminado (Aminodav Cornis, I. 262, 288 Shpoliansky) 213, 248, 273 Corrozet, Gilles 246 Donat-Guigue, Charles 249 La Coupôle, café 64, 67 Dostoevsky, Fedor 37, 60, 67, 86, 87, Cousin-Nast law, the 257 156, 157, 165, 166, 170, 179, Crémieux, Benjamin 131, 257 185, 209, 237, 249, 267 Creuziger, C. 214, 215, 216, 270, 279 Dotsenko, S. 251, 265, 278, 287 Cromwell, Oliver 153, 172, 212, Doubrovsky, Serge 41–5, 244, 280 214, 215, 216, 273 Doumer, Paul 75, 249 Crone, Anna Lisa 267, 279 Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre 36, 42, 62, Cubism 151 127, 135, 136, 140, 180, 241, Curtis, E. 262, 279 243, 248, 256, 258, 280 Custine, Astolphe de 272 Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre, works by “Le Jeune Européen” 127, 135–36, Dada, see also Dadaizm and 140, 241, 243, 256, 258, 280 Dadaists 70, 125, 241 Dubin, Boris 25, 239, 280 Dadaizm, see also Dada and Duchamp, Marcel 70 Dadaists 245, 269, 285 Dudakov, S. 265, 280 Dali, Salvator 92 Dufresny, Charles Rivière 246 Damanskaya, Avgusta 236 Dumas, A. 272 Danilevsky, A. 251, 287 Duncan, Isadora 135, 215 Dante 42, 67, 79, 179 Duvivier, Julien 132 Index 293

Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts 66–7 Babylon Revisited 109, 254, écriture automatique, see also automatic 280 writing 97 “Echoes of the Jazz Age” 115, 255, Ehrenburg, Ilya 73 280 Ehrmann, Marianne 225, 275, Flâneur 52, 53, 54, 63, 83, 94, 95, 97, 284 98, 101, 105 Eisner, A. 261 Florovsky, Georgy 179 Eichenbaum, Boris 244 Fondaminsky, Ilya 74 Ekster, Alexandra 114, 255 formalist(s) 40, 193, 247 Eksteins, Modris 17, 115, 118, 238, Foster, J.B., Jr. 271, 272, 280 255, 280 Foujita, Tsugouharu 64, 273 Eliot, T.S. 6, 17, 71–2, 164, 201, 225, Fournier, Edouard 246 238, 249, 280 Frank, F.M. 148, 260 Eliot, T.S., works by Frank, F. 260, 280 “The Waste Land” 17, 71–2, 164, Frank, Nino 260 238, 249, 280 French, R. 274, 278 Eliot, George 201, 225 Frietsch, E. 253 Elita-Vil’chkovsky, K. 259, 280 Fulton, Robert 52 Engelgardt, Lev 170 Fumet, Stanislas 194 Epstein, Jean 59, 256 Fuss-Amore, G. 239, 280 Ernst, Max 92 Futurism 115, 148 Erte (Roman Tyrtov) 118 Evantulov, G. 261 Gabin, Jean 96 Expressionism 78, 260 Galtsova, Elena 108, 254, 281 Garçonne 109, 118, 119, 133, 135, fact literature, see also literatura 149, 212, 227, 255, 273, 277, fakta 15 284 faction 41, 244 Gasparini 43, 44, 244, 281 Fargue, Léon-Paul 94 Gaucher, Julie 256 Fedotov, Georgy 170, 179, 180, 191, Gautier, Théophile 53, 272 264, 268, 280 Gazdanov, Gaïto 2, 6, 27, 28, Felzen, Yury (Nikolai Freidenstein) 2, 45, 46, 65, 66, 67, 69, 76, 80, 26, 31, 172, 173, 174, 175, 183, 82, 83, 91, 96, 97, 135, 139, 189, 198, 231, 242, 245, 264, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 265, 269, 270, 280, 287, 288 151, 153, 155, 156–61, 167, Felzen, Yury, works by 176, 191, 192, 198, 207, 208, Happiness (Schast’e) 31, 242, 264, 231, 241, 247, 248, 250, 251, 288 252, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, Letters on Lermontov (Pis’ma o 264, 265, 268, 269, 270, 272, Lermontove) 172–75, 189, 264, 280, 281, 283, 286, 287, 288, 269, 280, 287 289 Filin, Mikhail 263, 264, 277, 280, Gazdanov, Gaïto, works by 285, 289 “Streetlamps” (“Fonari”) 76, 80–3, film noir 147 268 Filosofov, Dmitry 266, 280 “Third Life” (“Tert’ia zhizn”) 91 fin-de-siècle 9, 65, 119, 163, 169, “A Watery Prison” (“Vodianaia 210, 226 tiur’ma”) 91, 252, 281 Fitzgerald, F. Scott 1, 109, 115, 135, “A Great Musician” (“Velikii 254, 255, 280 muzykant”) 96 294 Index

Gazdanov, Gaïto – continued Griz, O. 268, 277 “Funeral Service” Gronberg, T. 281 (“Panikhida”) 155 Gronsky, Nikolai 251 An Evening with Claire (Vecher u Groos, René 122, 257, 286 Kler) 207, 208, 264, 272, 281, Grosser, Boris 90 287 Guerra, René 269 The Story of One Trip (Istoriia odnogo Gul’, Roman 4, 105, 247, 281 puteshestviia) 65, 66, 248 Gumbrecht, H. 285 Night Roads (Nochnye dorogi) 28, Gumilev, Nikolai 197 45, 96, 176, 250, 251, 265 Günther. Hans 265 The Spectre of Alexander Wolf (Prizrak Gurevich, Lubov 24, 239 Aleksandra Vol’fa) 145–61, Gutenberg, Johannes 187 259, 263, 288 Genette, Gérard 41, 42, 93, 94, 244, Hagglund, R. 243, 281 252, 281 Hamrit, Jacqueline 271, 281 Gergiev, Valery 231 Hanne, M. 281 Gide, André 10, 136, 156, 206, 238, Harbau, Thea von 117 261, 271 Harwell, X.S. 216, 273, 274, 281, 282 Gillet, Léon 194 hasard objectif 54 Gippius, Zinaida, see also Anton Haussmann, Georges Eugène 53 Krainy 2, 3, 4, 15, 178, 179, Hellman, Lillian 217 190, 212, 220, 223, 224, 236, Hemingway, Ernst 1, 3, 36, 63, 64, 245, 266, 269, 274, 275, 281, 104, 109, 135, 236, 240, 248, 282, 283, 284 282 Göbler, Frank 272, 281 Hemingway, Ernst, works by Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 12, Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises 64, 104, 156, 225 109 Gogol, Nikolai 98, 170, 197, 237, 261 A Moveable Feast 5, 63, 236, 240, die Goldenen Jahren, see also les 248, 282 années folles 156 Herbart, Pierre 98 Goncharov, Ivan 265 Hesse, Hermann 6, 107, 122, Goncourt, Edmond 11, 19, 21, 23, 155–61, 217, 261, 262, 274, 38, 239, 281 279, 282, 286, 288, 289 Goncourt, Jules 20, 281 Hesse, Hermann, works by Golding, William 217 Steppenwolf 107, 122, 155–69, Golenishchev-Kutuzov, I. 274, 281 217, 261, 262, 274, 282, 286, Gollerbach, E. 191 288 Gorbunov, A. 263 Hirsch, Marianne 225, 275 Gorgulov, Pavel 74, 75, 249, 250, 283 Hitchcock, Alfred 258 Gorky, Maxim (Alexei Peshkov) 193, Hollander, A. 260, 282 199 holy fool 178, 190, 266, 286 Gorny, S. 261 Hubbs, J. 274, 282 Gourmont, Rémi 182 Hugo, Victor 52, 53, 201 Grechanaia, Elena 239, 284 Huston, Nancy 233 Green Lamp 2, 31, 179, 185 Huysmans, J.-K. 133 Grigoriev, Apollon 263 Grigoriev, Ya. 69 Iakovleva, N. 242, 282 Grigorovich, Dmitry 239 Iangirov, R. 255, 256, 258, 259, 275, Grimms (Wilhelm & Jacob) 211 282 Index 295

Idov, Michael 235 167, 202, 220, 222, 237, 243, Iliazd, see also Zdanevich, Ilia 28, 245, 246, 249, 252, 256, 274, 241, 282 280, 281, 283 Il’in, Ivan 270 Kibalnik, Sergei 262 Illustrirovannaia Rossiia 29, 242, Kiki (of Montparnasse) 64, 153 277 Kirsanoff, Dmitry (Kaplan) 85 Ingres, J.-A.-D. 217 Kisling, Moïse 118 Iofan, Boris 114 Kizevetter, Aleksandr 122 Ioffe, D. 254, 261, 277, 283 Knut, Dovid 55, 83, 96, 250, 251, Isaev, S. 254, 281 261, 283 Ivanov, Georgy 7, 28, 31, 37, 39, 46, Kochev’e 26, 191, 240, 277 71, 72, 75, 105, 106, 107, 108, Kolesnikova, Olga 69 109, 164, 169, 191, 217, 243, Koroleva, N. 266, 283 249, 254, 264, 268, 269, 270, Korostelev, O. 236, 243, 283 280, 281, 282, 284 Koteliansky, Samuel 180, 267, 280, Ivanov, Georgy, works by 286 “The Atom Explodes” 28, 31, 37, Krasnostchekova, Elena 274, 283 39, 71, 72, 105, 106, 107, 164, Kruchenykh, Alexei 71 169, 191, 223, 243, 249, 264, Kudriavtsev, S. 250, 283 268, 282 Krainy, Anton, see also Gippius 123, Ivanov, Viacheslav 250 236, 245, 283 Ivanov-Razumnik, R. 266 Krasavchenko, Tatiana 240, 283 Izvekova, Maria 248 Krug 74 Izwolsky, Elena 74, 249, 282 Krug 4, 243, 247, 248, 272, 283, 288, 289 Jaccard, J.-P. 237, 282 Kuhn, Reinhard 199, 211, 214, 271, Jacob, Max 256 273, 283 Jaloux, Edmond 253, 282 Kulman, Nikolai 194 Jansohn, Ch. 286 Kundera, Milan 12, 232, 237 Johnston, Ch. 254 Kuprin, Aleksandr 98, 247, 283 Kuzmin, Mikhail 273 Kafka, Franz 211, 217 Kuznetsova, Galina 32, 33, 242, 275, Kallash, Maria, see also 278, 283 Kurdiumov 179, 266 Kaminer, Wladimir 276, 282 Ladinsky, Antonin 274, 283, 261 Kantor, Mikhail 27, 123 Lagov, N. 252 Karakash, Mikhail 123 Lalo, A. 194, 275, 283 Karamzin, Nikolai 201, 218, 271, Lalou, René 194 282 Lamare, Nicolas de 246 Kaspe, Irina 10, 25, 237, 239, 241, Lamartine, Alphonse de 202 275, 282 Lang, Fritz 78, 117 Kaspi, A. 261, 279 Lapaeva, N. 267, 283 Kelberin, Lazar 27 Laurencin, Marie 118, 119, 273 Khait, V. 254, 283 Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse) 176, Khazan, Vladimir 90, 91, 153, 206, 265, 284 251, 252, 261, 265, 272, 278, Lawrence, D.H., see also Lorens 6, 283 7, 36, 107, 180, 192, 222–224, Khodasevich, Vladislav 23, 33, 35, 266, 267, 269, 274, 284, 286, 39, 71, 83, 96, 122, 124, 165, 288, 289 296 Index

Lawrence, D.H., works by Mac Orlan, Pierre, works by Lady Chatterley’s Lover 107, 180, Le Quai des brumes 85, 96, 251, 215, 222, 223 284 Le Corbusier, Ch.-E. J.-G. 118 MacGrath, Harold 124 Le Bris, Michel 276 Madland, H. 275, 284 Learmonth, Thomas 264 Maeterlinck, Maurice 202 Lefèvre, F. 257 Magic realism 98, 99, 100 Léger, Fernand 147 Makine, Andreï 232, 233 Leinhardt, Patrick 276, 286 Maklakov, Vasily 165, 263, 270 Leiris, Michel 261 Malevich, Kazimir 114 Leis, see also Veidlé 243 Mallarmé, Stéphane 202 Lejeune, Philippe, see also Lezhen 21, Mallet-Stevens, Robert 147 23, 41, 42, 239, 284 Malro (André Malraux) 240, 277 Lempicka, Tamara de 118, 119, 140, Mammer 273 149, 150, 217, 260, 273 Mandelstam, Osip 193, 244 Leonidov, V. 274, 284 Mann, Thomas 213 Leskov, Nikolai 179, 218 Mansfield, Katharine, see also Lestrade, Gaston 119 Mansfild 27 Leving, Yu. 259, 282 Mansfild, see also Mansfield 240, Levinson, Andrei 123 282 Levis, A. 265 Maran, René 261 Levy, Mark, see also Ageev 37, 245 Marcel, Gabriel 223, 275 Lezhen, see also Lejeune 239, 284 Merchant, Tatiana 236, 284 L’Herbier, Marcel 131, 147, 148 Mardanova, Z.A. 263 Limur, Jean de 258 Marès, A. 261 L’Inhumaine 147, 148, 149, 260, 280 Margueritte, Victor 133, 134, 264, Lindbergh, Charles 116 284 Lissitzky, El 73 Margueritte, Victor, works by literatura fakta, see also fact La Garçonne 133, 134, 227, 284 literature 244, 245, 284 Markovich, Vladimir 264, 277, 285 Litovtsev, S. 251 Marrinan, M. 255, 285 Littell, Jonathan 232, 233 Massenet, Jules 226 Little Annie Rooney 145 Mata Hari 135 Livak, Leonid 10, 175, 236, 237, Matisse, Henri 104, 255 240, 243, 249, 265, 270, 284 Matveeva, Yulia 237, 284 Londres, Albert 261 Maupassant, Guy de 21, 23 Lorens, see also D.H. Lawrence 275, Mauriac, François 36, 136, 226, 227, 277, 288 275, 276, 284 Lossky, Nikolai 270 Mauriac, François, works by: Lost generation, the 3, 25, 109, 113, Genitrix 226, 276 240, 243 Maurois, André 37, 256, 257, 284 Loti, Pierre 42 Maurois, André, works by Lotman, Yury 40, 41, 76, 93, 236, Bernard Quesnay 256, 284 244, 246, 250, 252, 284 May, J.-B. 272 Lukash, Ivan 251 Mehl, D. 274, 286 Melnikov, N. 236, 238, 283, 284 Mabanckou, Alain 233 Menegaldo, Hélène 183, 248, 267, Mac Orlan, Pierre 85, 96, 136, 251, 284 284 Mercier, Louis-Sebastien 51, 52 Index 297

Merezhkovsky, Dmitry 2, 90, 166, 61, 69, 157, 167, 202, 203, 204, 169, 170, 171, 174, 178, 179, 213, 217, 237, 238, 242, 244, 251, 263, 264, 265, 269, 284, 245, 246, 247, 248, 259, 262, 285 271, 272, 279, 280, 281, 282, Mesures 203 284, 285, 288, 289 métissage 8, 44, 46, 136 Nabokov, Vladimir, works by Mettinger, E. 253, 280 “Mademoiselle O” 202–04, 271, Meyer, Michel 97, 252, 285 281, 285 Meylan, J.-P. 262, 285 Despair 16, 27, 238, 285 Meyerhold, Vsevolod 213 The Gift 15, 238, 285 Miliukov, Pavel 213 Nachshen, Donia 264, 273, 285 Miller, Henry 1, 7, 42, 44, 49, 54, Narp, Olga de 259 73, 94, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, Nashchokina, M. 254, 283 108, 109, 241, 246, 248, 249, Natural School, the 239 253, 254, 277, 278, 285 negritude 155 Miller, Henry, works by Nekrasov, Nikolai 239 Tropic of Cancer 104–09, 241, 246, Némirovsky, Irène 6, 28, 77, 87, 88, 248, 285 89, 122, 125, 126, 127, 128, Mirny, see also Yanovsky 245 129, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, Mirsky, see also Sviatopolk- 137, 217, 227, 228, 229, 230, Mirsky 266, 285 251, 256, 257, 258, 276, 277, Mochulsky, Konstantin 37, 243, 270, 285, 286 285 Némirovsky, Irène, works by Modigliani, Amedeo 64, 176 “” “Nonoche au ciné” 127, 256 Mondry, Henrietta 188, 266, 268, Niania (Les Mouches d’automne, ou 285 La Femme d’autrefois, Snow in “Monocle” 104 Autumn) 87, 88, 285 Monselet, Charles 246 Le Bal 217, 227, 251, 285 Montaigne, Michel de 271 David Golder 126, 132–33 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Ida 136, 137, 258 Baron de 246, 285 Films parlés 125 Montherlant, Henri de 36 Le Maître des âmes 130 Morand, Paul 6, 95, 96, 127, 128, Les Chiens et les loups 28, 130 129, 130, 131, 134, 135, Les Feux de l’Automne 77, 128, 129, 136, 138, 139, 144, 146, 256, 256, 285 257, 258, 259, 261, 279, 285, Jézabel 228–30 287 Le Vin de solitude 228 Morand, Paul, works by Suite française 251, 285 Lewis et Irène 127, 256, 285 Némirovsky, Anna 276 France la doulce 127, 138, 139, Neoproustian(s) 58 144, 256, 285 Nerval, Gérard de 53, 246, 285 Morard, Annick 10, 222, 237, 245, Neue Sachlichkeit 119 274, 282, 285 Nichols, Stephen 122, 255, 285 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeo 156, 268 Nietzsche, Friedrich 180, 270 Mukhina, Vera 114 Nikoliukin, A. 266, 269, 285 Muratov, Pavel 122 Nin, Anaïs 104, 253 Novalis, G. Ph. F. 156, 201 Nabokov, Vladimir, see also Sirin 6, Novyi korabl’ 4, 170, 246, 281, 289 8, 15, 16, 27, 32, 35, 55, 57, Novyi mir 69, 244, 279 298 Index

Obatnin, Grigory 242, 282 Ponomarev, E. 270, 286 Odoevtseva, Irina 7, 75, 108, 135, Pope Pius IX 21 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, Poplavsky, Boris 2, 6, 28, 29, 33, 34, 150, 153, 171, 172, 191, 205, 39, 62, 64, 74, 75, 79, 90, 91, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 127, 150, 170, 176, 180, 181, 216, 217, 219, 231, 248, 254, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 258, 259, 260, 264, 269, 270, 188, 189, 198, 204, 231, 236, 272, 273, 274, 278, 280, 281, 238, 269, 270, 272, 273, 277, 282, 285 284, 286, 289 Odoevtseva, Irina, works by Poplavsky, Boris, works by Out of Childhood 171, 205, 212, Apollon Bezobrazov 33, 79, 90, 92, 260, 264, 273, 285 151, 176, 181, 184, 261 Izolda 153, 172, 205, 212, 213, Home from Heaven (Domoi s 214, 216, 217, 219, 248 nebes) 33, 34, 187, 204, 248, Mirror 139, 141–44, 150, 259, 259, 273 273, 282 Poslednie novosti 240, 245, 251, 253, “The Jasmin Island” 211 274, 275, 277, 281, 283 Olesha, Yury 69 Poststructuralist(s) 186 Oltarzhevsky, Viacheslav 114 Potapova, G. 264, 277, 285 OPOIaZ 192 Powers, S. 271, 287 Osorgin, Mikhail 250, 251 Pozner, Vladimir 2, 83, 99, 100, 192, Otsup, Nikolai 2, 27, 34, 38, 66, 67, 253, 266, 269, 286 73, 89, 104, 190, 198, 231, 242, Pozner, Vladimir, works by 248, 249, 251 “A Clock without Hands” 99, 100, Otsup, Nikolai, works by 286 Beatrice in Hell 66, 67, 73, 87, 89, Prévert, Jacques 94, 95 190 Prévost, Jean 256 Prévost, Marcel 24 Pabst, Georg Wilhelm 119 Proskurina, Elena 143, 150, 160, Pachmuss, Temira 45, 245, 247, 250, 259, 260, 262, 263, 286 252, 269, 271, 281, 285, 287 Protazanov, Yakov 114 Papastergiadis, N. 237, 285 Proust, Marcel 10, 26, 42, 44, 58, 172, Paris School, the 2, 74 173, 202, 238, 264, 270, 271 Pary, Juliette 262 Pumpiansky, Lev 168, 263, 286 Pascal, Blaise 180 Pushkin, Alexander 12, 71, 72, 108, Pascine 273 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, Perthes, B. de 272 171, 174, 177, 194, 249, 254, Pessonen, P. 242, 282 259, 263, 271, 277, 278, 280, Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich 200 285, 286, 287, 289 Peter the Great 166 Petrusheva, L. 270 Racine, Jean 202, 228 Philipponnat, Olivier 276, 286 Raeff, M. 237, 286 physiological sketch 19, 239 Rahimi, Atiq 233 Piaf, Edith 258 Ramazani, Jahan 8, 236, 237 Pilsky, Petr 122, 123, 272 Rambuteau, Count de, préfet de la Plessis, Armand du 134 Seine 70 Poe, Edgar 158 Randall, N. 264, 284 Poiret, Paul 147 Ravel, Maurice 258 Polner, T. 270 Ray, Man 64, 153 Index 299

Ready, O. 266, 289 Schopenhauer, Arthur 182, 201, Reeves N. 267, 284 271, 287 referential pact, see also Schwob, Marcel 197, 270, 287 autobiographical pact 23 Sedykh, Andrei, see also Tsvibak, Régent, Roger 123, 256, 286 Iakov 252, 253, 287 Reiman, D. 271, 287 Seifert, David 64 Reinhold N. 274, 286 (Le) Select, café 63 Remizov, Aleksei 2, 55, 57, 58, 179, Selin, see also Céline 240, 277, 283 193, 237, 245, 246, 247, 266, Semenova, S. 237, 241, 287 286 Semenova, T. 272, 287 Rêves éveillés 96 Sentimentalist 201 Rilke, Rainer Maria 44 Serkov, A. 250, 287 Rimbaud, Arthur 186 Seyhan, A. 237, 287 Rodolphe Julian’s Academy 21 Shadr, Ivan 114 Roman d’argent 128 Shafir, A. 69 Romov, Sergei 25 Shakespeare, William 225, 275, 287 (La) Rotonde, café 63, 68 Shakh, E. 261 Rouaud, Jean 276 Shakhovskaya, Zinaida 9, 168, 237, Rougemont, Denis de 5 263, 287 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 97, 200, 201, Sharshun, Sergei, see also 271 Charchoune 2, 31, 34, 45, 64, Rozanov, Vasily 12, 169, 177–94, 66, 98, 102, 103, 183, 189, 190, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 191, 198, 231, 245, 253, 261, 279, 285, 286, 287, 288 268, 269, 270, 277, 285, 287 Rozenkranz I. 265, 286 Sharshun, Sergei, works by Rozhdestvennsky, Vsevolod 273 The Right Path (Put’ pravyi) 45, Rubina, Dina 234 102, 245, 268 Rubins, Maria 237, 253, 256, 286, Flares of Sparks (Vspyshki iskr) 190 287 Whispered Aphorisms (Shepotnye Rubinstein, Ida 258 aforizmy) 190 Rushdie, Salman 8, 232, 237, 244, Shelley, Percy Bysshe 200, 271, 287 288 Shestov, Lev 179, 241, 270 Rutebeuf 51 Shklovsky, Viktor 40, 192, 193, 244, 269, 287 Sagan, Leontine 119 Shmelev, Ivan 56, 57, 76, 166, 202, Saint-Pierre, Bernardin de 200, 214 263 Salmon, André 261 Shmelev, Ivan, works by Samokhvalov, Alexander 114 “Shadows of Days” 56, 76, 77, Sand, George 201, 225 247, 250, 271, 287 Sarkany, Stéphane 131, 257, 287 “An Entry into Paris” 56 Sartre, Jean-Paul 42 Shmeman, A. 287 Sauval, Henri 246 Shneerova, V. 251, 287 Savin, V. 274 Shteiger, Anatoly 2, 205, 231, 251, Savoir, Alfred 227 270, 272, 279 Sazonova, Iulia 180 Shteyngart, Gary 232 Schad, Christian 119, 273 Shchuko, Vladimir 114 Schiller, Friedrich von 201, 225 Siji, Dai 233 Schloezer, Boris de 266, 287 Sirin, see also Nabokov 27, 32, 245, Schlumberger, Jean 256 262, 289 300 Index skaz 57, 58, 247 Sviatopolk-Mirsky, see also Slobin, Greta 4, 57, 236, 237, 247 Mirsky 266 Slonim, Mark 26, 194, 213, 214, Swales, M. 262, 288 240, 273, 287 Syrovatko, Lada 272, 287 Smolensky, Vladimir 264 Solidor, Suzi 119, 146 Tassis, Gervaise 237, 264, 270, 282, Solivetti K. 269, 287 288 Soloviev, Vladimir 169, 170, 171 Tatishchev, Nikolai 39, 183, 267, Soshkin, E. 259, 282 268, 288 Soupault, Philippe 70, 77, 92, 94, Teffi, Nadezhda (Nadezhda 96, 104, 152, 250, 252, 253, Lokhvitskaya) 58, 202, 236 261, 287 Ter-Pogosian, M. 250 Soupault, Philippe, works by Terapiano, Yury 26, 31, 32, 170, 240, Les Dernières nuits de Paris 70, 77, 242, 264, 268, 288, 289 94, 96, 103, 152, 250, 261, 287 Tharaud brothers 122, 129 Sovremennye zapiski 236, 240, 242, theosophy 182 243, 263, 274, 278, 281 Thérive A. 257 Sperk, Fedor 267 Theuriet, André 239 Sproge, L. 251, 287 Thomas à Kempi 182 Stammler, H. 267, 288 Thomsen, M. 237, 288 Stanislavsky, Konstantin 143 Tihanov, Galin 177, 244, 265, 279, 288 Stavissky A.S. 129, 256, 257 Todestrieb 251 Stavrov, Perikl 96 Tokarev, Dmitry 265, 288 Stein, Gertrude 1, 49, 119, 240, 246, Tolstoy, Lev 12, 31, 88, 128, 132, 288 142, 172, 194–99, 201–03, 205, Steiner, Rudolf 251 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, Stemberger, Martina 256 215, 217, 218, 219, 221, 223, Stepanov, Yu. 260, 288 224, 225, 227, 229, 230, 257, Sternau, S. 259, 288 270, 272, 286 Sternberg, Josef von 119, 258 Tolstoy, Lev (son) 270, 286 Stevenson, R.L. 99 Toporov, Vladimir 265, 288 Stierle, Karlheinz 49, 246, 288 Triolet, Elsa 6, 25, 67, 69, 92, 231, Strauss, Richard 226 247, 248, 253, 259, 279, 286, streamline 43, 115, 140 288 Structuralist (s) 40 Triolet, Elsa, works by Struve, Gleb 9, 217, 237, 288 Camouflage 67, 69, Struve, Petr 166, 270 Bonsoir, Thérèse! 231, 253, 288 Struve, Gleb 9, 217, 237, 288 La mise en mots 248, 288 Struve, Nikita 245 Trotsky, Lev 266 Studio franco-russe, Le 194, 270, 284 Trotter, David 140, 288 Sturm und Drang 225 Trousdale, Rachel 8, 44, 237, 244, Sue, Eugène 52 288 surrealism, see also surrealist(s) 110, Tsetlin, Mikhail 274 176, 245, 253, 278 Tsvetaeva, Marina 237, 251, 274, surrealist(s), see also surrealism 33, Tsvibak, Iakov, see also Andrei 34, 46, 54, 70, 90, 91, 92, 94, Sedykh 90, 96, 97, 98, 104, 252 95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, Tsvibak, Iakov, works by 104, 124, 176, 238, 245, 246, Old Paris (Staryi Parizh) 90, 97, 252, 253, 265, 278, 280 287 Index 301

Monmartre (Monmartr) 97–8 Wagner, Geoffrey 246, 285 Paris by Night (Parizh noch’iu) 96, Wanner, Adrian 232, 276, 289 97, 98 Wells, H.G. 197 Tsymbal, Evgeny 145, 149, 259, 260, Westernizers 5, 182 288 Wilde, Oscar 226, 284 Turgenev, Ivan 186, 237 Woolf, Virginia 211 Türschmann, J. 253, 280 Wood, G. 260 Tutankhamen 117 Worthen, J. 267, 284 Tynianov, Yury 40, 244, 288 Tzara, Tristan 241 Yanovsky, Vasily, see also Mirny 2, 27, 31, 33, 45, 46, 54, 70, 73, Un Chien andalou 142 74, 75, 77, 79, 92, 198, 208, Unkovsky, V. 251, 272 220, 224, 231, 237, 240, 242, Unnoticed generation, the 2, 6, 10, 242, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 24, 25, 113, 175, 181, 186, 193, 252, 259, 268, 275, 276, 282, 240, 272 287, 289 ut pictura poesis 124 Yanovsky, Vasily, works by “Pink Children” (“Rozovye Valéry, Paul 16, 109, 122, 136, 206, deti”) 27 238, 254, 272, 288 “A Physician’s Story” (“Rasskaz Van Dongen, Kees 118 medika”) 27, 74 Van Vechten, Carl 261 “Freestyle American” Varshavsky, Vladimir 2, 26, 30, 31, (“Vol’no-amerikanskaia”) 32, 46, 99, 195–97, 198, 205, The Wheel (Koleso) 208 206, 207, 216, 222, 231, 236, The World (Mir) 33 242, 270, 272, 288 Second Love (Lubov’ vtoraia) 31, 74, Varshavsky, Vladimir, works by 79, 224, 242, 275 “The Sound of Villon’s Steps” 99 Portable Immortality (Portativnoe “From the Notes of a Shameless bessmertie) 73, 74, 77, 92, 249, Young Man” 195–97 268, 289 Vasilieva, Maria 64, 248, 263, 286 Elysian Fields (Polia eliseiskie) 74, Vautel, Clément 127, 227 248, 289 Veidlé, Vladimir see also Leis 26, 35, 36, 37, 38, 243, 245, 268, 284, Zaitsev, Boris 2, 55,171, 202, 264, 289 289 Verhaeren, Emile 202 Zaitsev, Kirill 166, 194, 263, 272, Vestnik Evropy 19 289 Verlaine, Paul 202 Zakovich, B. 242, 289 Vilde, see also Dikoy 245 Zalambani, M. 244 Violle (Catherine Viollet) 239, 284 Zdanevich, Ilia, see also Iliazd 28, Viollon, François 46, 51, 99 167 Viskovaty, Pavel 265 Zdatny, Steven 257, 289 V.L. [Levitsky] 272 Zen’kovsky, Vasily 179, 266, 270, Volia Rossii 240, 269, 273, 287, 289 289 Volkonsky, Sergei 123 Zherdeva, V. 241, 289 Zhirmunsky, V. 193 Wachtel, Andrew 199, 201, 270, Zhizn’ iskusstva 192 271, 289 Ziolkowski, T. 262, 289 Wagner, Richard 213, 273, 277 Zlobin, Vladimir 170, 191 302 Index

Zlochevskaya, A. 157, 289 Zola, Emile 11, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, Znosko-Borovsky, Evgeny 123, 191, 26, 38, 54, 131, 239, 240, 279, 269, 289 289 Zohn, H. 255, 278 Zytaruk, G. 267, 289