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Home , Council of Ancients

France, from Louis XIV to the Third Republic

A. The Old Regime

Characterized by extreme autocracy in government (ideas of Absolutism, Divine Right of Kings) and by great social inequalities in social, political, and economic life. These inequalities were remnants of the Old feudal order.

The Age of Louis XIV 1643-1715 1. Cardinal Richelieu(Louis XIII’s able minister) and Cardinal Mazarin greatly increased the power of the monarch and put down all opposition. At the Palace of Versailles, Louis drew hereditary nobles away from the estates and destroyed their ability to act as a check on his power. Louis failed to summon the Estates-General (the government) and so between 1614-1789, there was no one to advise or restrain the king. There was no uniformity in the law. An example of this was that anyone could purchase a lettre de cachet from the king, which would imprison someone for an indefinite period of time without a trial. Judges were given positions of authority at the king’s pleasure. The king censored any opposition to him or his policies. 2. Colbert (the chief minister 1661-1683) built up the French economy by improving agriculture, encouraging industry, establishing trading companies and colonies, and constructing roads and canals. Louis built up a very large army to protect his interests. But the complete centralization of all authority in the King at Versailles gave rise to much waste and corruption. In 1685 Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes which ended Huguenot religious toleration. 200,000 skilled artisans and merchants left France for areas that would allow them to practice their Protestant beliefs freely. Many came to the New World. 3. From 1667-1713, Louis and his army were in four wars and left France with debts and heavy taxes.

Louis XV and Louis XVI Louis XV (1715-74) increased the debt and taxes. He lost some of the colonies to the English. Louis XVI (1774-1792) was an incompetent leader who was under controls of his Austrian wife, .

Three Estates

1. First Estate- Clergy. 130,000 ½ of 1% of the population held 1/5 of the land with the income and capital equalling ½ that of the king. They also collected the tithe (10%) of your earnings. 2. Second Estate- Nobles. There were four times as many men than the clergy. They held 1/5 of the land. They paid little or no taxes. 3. Third Estate- Common people. 24 Million. It included the middle class bourgeoisie, artisans, and peasants. The peasants bore the burden of most of the taxes. They paid the tithe to the church, land tax (taille) to the king, performed the corvee (labour on the roads), a poll tax and an income tax. Farmers couldn’t hunt game animals, but the noble hunters and animals were allowed to damage their crops.

The Revolt of the Intellectuals/ Philosophers 1. (1689-1775) Spirit of the Laws- advocated separation of the executive, legislative and judicial functions of the government. 2. (1694-1778)- attacked intolerance and injustice of his day. 3. Diderot (1713-1784) ed. Encyclopaedia- brought together in one volume the advanced scientific and historical knowledge. 4. Rousseau (1712-1778) The Social Contract- was the political theory opposite of the Divine Right of Kings. He believed in “Government by consent of the governed”. He believe that kings and leaders had a moral responsibility to be responsive to the populations, and if they broke that trust, they should be removed.

Three financial ministers attempted financial Reforms: 1. Turgot proposed 5 reforms: - Abolish paying the pensions of pensions to useless nobles. - Levy general land tax on all landowners. - Abolish corvee - Abolish guilds - Abolish customs tolls on grain 2. Necher succeeded publishing source and amount of national revenue as well as determining how it was spent. 3. Calonne borrowed money and brought the French king to the verge of bankruptcy resulting in having to call the Estates-General (the government) together for the first time in 175 years.

Why Revolution broke out in France? 1. Bourgeoisie in France was more numerous, wealthy, educated, and influential than in any other European country except Britain. 2. There was much criticism of government from some of the clergy and nobles as well as the Third Estate. 3. The influence of the writer, thinkers, and intellectuals. 4. Influence of other revolutions including the glorious revolution, the execution of Charles I of Britain, and the American Revolution. 5. The extravagance of the ruling class and its inefficiency.

The Bourgeois Revolution (1789-1791)

Meeting of the Estates General

All men over 21 whose names appeared on tax roles might vote. The third estate had 600 representatives while the other two estates had 300 each. When the Estates-General met at Versailles, there was a problem of the method of voting. Nobles and clergy wanted to vote by estate, but the third estate said there should be one vote per deputy. The problem came when the two upper estates voted together, it would always be 2 to 1, and therefore no change that was favouring the third estate would ever occur.

The In frustration of being locked out of the government, the third estate met on the tennis court and decided that they were now a national assembly, and they swore that they would not disband until France had a new constitution. Members of the first estate and second estate finally joined them.

The Period of Bourgeois Control 1. July 14, 1789 a mob stormed the Bastille, which was a state prison in . They thought they were freeing a lot of political prisoners, but in reality the prison only held 7 prisoners. However the fall of the Bastille was the symbol of the autocratic king and it became the start of the . 2. Peasants throughout France attacked country houses and manors of nobles and burned the tax records. 3. Aug. 4-5, 1789- feudal privileges were swept away in the National Assembly. The government adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. The constitution stated that a. Men were born free and equal in rights. b. Every citizen was free to write, speak, or print opinions. c. Citizens were free to believe what they wanted to believe. d. No one was arrested or imprisoned without due process of law. e. Citizens have the right to take part in law making. All officials were servants of the people, who had ultimate authority. f. People have the right to depose rulers who abuse their trust.

Government of the National Assembly

Reforms: 1. 83 uniform departments replaced the old provincial systems, which had their own different customs, laws, tolls, and areas. 2. Reorganized the Church, abolished monasteries, and assumed the right of appointing the clergy and fixing their salaries. 3. Church lands were sold to the peasants, and 4,000,000 francs in paper currency (called assignats) were issued on security of former church lands. (LATER ON THEY PRINTED TOO MUCH MONEY AND IT MADE THE ASSIGNATS WORTHLESS).

The Legislative Assembly 1. The Constitution of 1791 provided for a Legislative Assembly of one chamber (rather than 3). 2. The right to vote went to citizens who paid a heavy tax. Thus this meant that much of the power was in the hands of the bourgeois. 3. However radicals, such as The Club led by Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, wanted to abolish the monarchy completely, abolish property qualifications for voting, and overthrow the control of the bourgeoisie. 4. Also emigres (nobles who had fled France after the revolution started) conspired to overthrow the National Assembly. 5. The Clergy were angered by the reforms made on the church. 6. Louis the XVI fled to try and raise an army but he was caught and brought back to Paris.

The Proletarian Revolution (1792-1799) 1. There was the threat of invasion by Prussia and Austria. 2. War was declared on Austria (April 20,1792) 3. The (the new government) faced these challenges: a. French armies suffered defeat. b. Hysteria caused a mob to attack the Tuileries and forced the Legislative assembly to suspend the king from office. c. The new more radical assembly called the National Convention was instituted, and they drew up another constitution. d. Under Danton (Jacobin leader), a Parisian mob killed over 1,000 suspected royalist supporters.

4. Acts of the National Convention: a. They declared France a Republic. (a constitution and no king). b. All titles were abolished. (Citizen was adopted) c. They sent Louis XVI to the guillotine on January 21,1793. 5. A struggle for power in the National Convention led to the more radical groups gaining control over the government. They set up a small committee of twelve known as the Committee of Public Safety. These twelve, all members of the Jacobin Club, adopted a policy of terrorism.

The 1. The Committee instituted a levy of the entire male population and put 14 armies in the battlefield. (levee en Masse) 2. Many nobles and officials were guillotined including Marie Antoinette, and some those had supported the revolution earlier but were not as radical as the . 3. They set up a new calendar “”. 4. By early 1794, the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety passed into the hands of Maximillian Robespierre. He even sent the former leader of the Jacobins, Danton to the guillotine. 5. Ironically eventually even Robespierre and some of his supporters were guillotined as well. 6. Thus the Reign of Terror ended with Robespierre’s death in July 1794. But an estimated 17,000 people were tried and executed, while thousands of others perished without any form of a trial. This all took place in a one-year period of time.

The Directory and ’s Rise to Power 1. The National Convention drew up the constitution of 1795 by which France was governed until 1799. 2. The legislative Assembly of 750 deputies was divided into two chambers. 3. The Executive became known as the Directory-, which had 5 members. 4. Unfortunately the Directory misruled France while wars continued with England, Austria, and Italy. The economic conditions worsened. 5. Napoleon, who had protected the National Convention< was made commander of the French army fighting Italy in 1796. 6. Campaigns against the Austrians in Italy in 1796-1797 secured for France a claim to the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and Austrian- held territory in northern Italy. 7. Napoleon now set his sights on the conquest of Britain. But he lost his fleet to Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the Nile in 1798. He quickly abandoned his army in Egypt (to escape the shame of defeat) and came back to France to take part in a ‘coup d’etat’ against the Directory.

The Revolutions- the 3 rd phase (1799-1804)

From the Directory to the Consulate The plan was to have three of the five directors resign, and the appointment of Napoleon as head of the government to restore law and order. For appearances only and it was mandated by the constitution, the plan was to be submitted to the Council of Ancients and the Council of 500. But the next day, a new government called the Consulate declared Napoleon as First Consul and two others he appointed.

From Consulate to Empire The Consulate lasted 5 years (1799-1804). In 1804, Napoleon assumed the title- Napoleon I, Emperor of France

What did the French Revolution accomplish? 1. Absolute Monarchy was abolished and the introduction of the Constitution was established. 2. Social structure was permanently altered. New laws concerning the inheritance of estates was changed in that all members of the family were entitled to. Law codes were written to provide for more uniform application of the law. The magistrate was elected. 3. Economically, guilds, which had restricted trade, were eliminated. Internal customs Dues were ended. A uniform of weights and measures was adopted. 4. Church land was sold which added to the number of small, independent landed proprietors (owners). 5. There was a shift in power from the nobility and the clergy to the Bourgeoisie.

Napoleon’s Empire—A Military Despotism

Napoleon Bonaparte- a personal history 1. Born in Corsica (which had been annexed to France). 2. Trained in a French military school. 3. The revolution permitted him to rise quickly in rank due to the death of key officials and officers. 4. He had a small stature and a keen intellect. 5. He was cruel, ambitious, selfish and deceitful. 6. He sacrificed his life for his goals. 7. Married Josephine and later Marie Louise of Austria in order to gain favour and prestige. 8. Tried to impose a Bonaparte dynasty over Europe with a. Himself on the throne of France, Belgium, and Northern Italy. b. His brother Joseph in Spain. c. His brother Louis in Holland. d. Naples, Haiti and Italy went to members of his immediate family. e. His son, born in 1811, received the title of “King of Rome”

Campaigns in Europe 1800-1807 1. 1800 Marengol in Italy dealt a severe blow to Austria, the result was the break up of the coalition between Austria, Russia, and Britain. 2. 1802- Britain, left to fight alone, signed the , and for a year Europe was at peace. 3. 1803- war again, against the third coalition of Britain, Austria, and Russia. 4. 1805- defeated an Austrian army at Ulm. 5. 1805- defeated an army at Austerlitz ( a combined Austrian and Russian army). 6. By treaty, Confederation of the Rhine, the Holy Roman Emperor recognized the independence of Bavaria and Wurtenberg and dozens of other states, which really aided German unification later. 7. 1806- The Battle of Jena where Prussian forces were defeated, and Berlin was occupied. 8. 1807- Friedland (Russian forces were defeated) Peace was achieved with the Czar, Alexander I at Tilsit.

The Continental System and the Peninsular War 1. Nelson’s victory at Trafalgar (1807) deprived Napoleon of control of the sea. Napoleon tried to close ports of Europe to British ships and goods. This caused the smuggling trade to flourish. From 1808-1814, Britain was constantly at war with Napoleon. The Continental system was a failure and a loss of manpower. 2. 1807- Napoleon sent an army to Portugal. In 1808, he placed his brother on the Spanish throne. 3. He married Marie Louise in order to: a. To unite his family with the dynasty of the Hapsburgs. b. To secure an heir to the throne.

The Russian Campaign 1812- In order to punish the Czar for his failure to enforce the Continental system against Britain, Napoleon sent a grand army of 600,000 men to go to Moscow. They reached Moscow on Sept.14, 1814, but the Russian “scorched earth “ policy defeated Napoleon because there was not enough food to feed his army. Winter was coming and the French were not dressed for the Russian winter. As they retreated, the Russians attacked them and few (100,000 soldiers) made it back to Poland. This was a huge blow to Napoleon'’ forces.

Downfall of Napoleon 1. Leipzig 1813- combined forces of Russians, Prussians, and Austrian forces met Napoleon’s hastily gathered army of raw French recruits and Italian conscripts. France was defeated. 2. Wellington and Spain now also advanced from Spain. They converged on Paris and captured it, on March 1814. 3. Napoleon was forced to abdicate. Louis XVIII (1814-1834) was the brother of Louis XVI and succeeded as King of France. 4. Napoleon was given the tiny island of Elba as a sovereign principality. France had to pay him 2,000,000 francs annually. He was to be in exile from France.

The Hundred Days Napoleon landed in Cannes on March 1, 1815, and then in Paris March 20, 1815. This forced King Louis XVIII to flee to Ghent. A four-nation coalition under the command of the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. This time Napoleon was exiled to the tiny island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.

Why Napoleon was a great statesman and Administrator? 1. Established the Bank of France (which got rid of inflation). 2. Balanced the budget through currency reform, honest collection of taxes, and supervision of expenditures. 3. 1801- made the Concordat with the Pope Pius VII. The French government paid the salaries of the clergy. Napoleon nominated the bishop invested by the pope. 4. Code Napoleon- uniform code of civil law for France (civil rights and religious toleration).

Permanent Results of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era 1. Swept away the old feudal restrictions and abuses. It carried the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity throughout Europe. 2. French nationalism increased as well as it was instilled in other European nations who had been dominated by the French. 3. Destroyed absolutism in France. No more divine right monarchies, privileged aristocracy, or authoritarian church rule. 4. Began the unification of Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was abolished. 5. Temporary overthrow of monarchies led to Latin American movement for independence. 6. Fear of . 7. Glorification of war in the “Napoleonic Legend”. 8. Continental Blockade led to outbreak of hostilities between Great Britain and the United States.