1792 – The Year of Fear
La Patrie en Danger (11 July 1792)
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ LA proclaimed state of 8 June 1792 – LA issues decree to emergency as war situation enlist 20000 men from provinces to had become more critical. defend Paris (Federes) because ‐ By end of June, Jacobin invading troops were approaching leader Carnot had demanded capital. This resulted in Louis delaying that Assembly issue pikes to decree in fear that troops would be citizens to protect themselves used against him, causing distrust in against invading forces. the King. ‐ By 11 July, Assembly declared that “the homeland ‐ Louis saw threat this force th is in danger”, all citizens posed. On 13 June, Louis must sacrifice themselves for used his power of veto to stop its defence. Total war! Federes decree. When ‐ La Patrie en Danger decree Girondins threatened and intended to ‘avenge glory’ protested Louis, Roland and and ‘save liberty, fraternity two other Girondin ministers etc.’ were dismissed. Louis still ‐ 1 Aug – Assembly issued held executive power. order for pikes to be made Replaced by the Feuillants. and distributed. Anyone who Journee of June 20th 1792 – Leaders of failed to show open Paris Sections and Cordleiers patriotism was in danger. organized armed demonstration of ‐ Effect? Federes enter Paris Tuilleries, 8000 demanding return of and rule streets. Assembly the Girondin. Significant because SC powerless and this using power of direct democracy by strengthened the SC. invading palace and making demands ‐ War news worsened and upon King. This is not the storming of France faced threat of the Tuilleries! invasion and defeat. This increased threat to the royal ‐ “..clear that with the family, nonjuring clergy, humiliation of 20 June the last remnants of the nobility and vestiges of the royal aura had to anyone who didn’t show been stripped away” open and convincing (Schama) patriotism. ‐ Radical Federe soldiers ruled July 1792 – LA rids passive citizen the streets and refused to divide in NG, sign that they’re leave Paris (national anthem desperate for anyone to join army. formed) Danger increased because it gave SC ‐ Assembly’s weakness gave opportunity to be more radical and strength to SC who reinforced powerful their roles as defenders of the revolution.
10 August 1792
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ On the orders of the ‐ In 6 weeks between fall of the ‐ “The peasantry destroyed the Revolutionary Commune, monarchy and convocation of feudal regime, but Tuilleries Palace stormed on 10 new republican legislative consolidated the agrarian August by 20000 SC,Federes body (the National structure of France” and National Guards from Convention), on 20 Sep 1792, (Lefebvre) Sections. “Power lay not with LA did all that Revolutionary ‐ Under threat of Brunswick the Assembly but with the new Commune wanted. Most manifesto, Paris became more Paris Commune” (Doyle) radical or socially progressive radical. ‐ Tuilleries only had 900 Swiss legislation of whole ‐ 3 Aug – Mayor Petion went Guards, 200-300 Knights of Revolution was passed in this to LA and demanded on Saint-Louis and 2000 National period behalf of 47/48 Sections of Guards. 560 Swiss guards ‐ 23 Aug levee en masse – Paris, that the monarchy be murdered. Assembly decreed all abolished. ‐ Power of SC left Assembly refractory priests leave France ‐ Assembly refused to depose with little choice. No longer within seven days, the King and defeated a possible to pretend that Louis ‘considering that the unrest motion to put Lafayette on could remain constitutional excited in the Kingdom by the trial. monarch, nor could Assembly priests who aren’t under the ‐ 6 Aug – meeting of Parisians pretend that it held power in oath is one of the major and Federes took place in the Paris. New insurrectionary causes of danger to the Champ de Mars and Commune had more influence fatherland”(McPhee) demanded abdication of over the population. Commune ‐ 25 Aug – Assembly took King. Faubourg Saint- not the government of France further action against Antoine, who had led the so compromises required. seigneurialism. Feudal dues sectional movement since Assembly recognized authority abolished without mid July, warned the of Commune while Commune compensation, unless there Assembly that the King must accepted decisions of was a separate legally-binding be deposed or suspended by 9 Assembly. contract to validate them. August, or the Sections ‐ Louis’ monarchy suspended, Significant step forward. would take armed action. Assembly refused to end ‐ Assembly ordered lands of ‐ 9 Aug – Revolutionary monarchy, but imprisoned royal émigrés sold in small lots, Commune established, family in Temple prison where making purchase accessible to replacing the Paris supervised by National Guard, more modest farmers, rather Commune. Made up of under control of Commune. than just to the wealthy representatives of the 48 ‐ Feuillants now seen as traitors bourgeois land holders. In last Sections of Paris and and royalists. session, on 20 Sep 1792, LA controlled the actions of the ‐ 19 Aug – Feuillant leaders passed divorce law which National Guard. Commune arrested,executed. gave women “remarkably also took command of the ‐ Deputies of LA who had been broad grounds for leaving an Federe soldiers from the constitutional monarchists (2/3 unhappy or meaningless provinces stationed in Paris. of the Assembly) went into marriage”(McPhee) hiding. ‐ “was an act of self defence ‐ Caretaker Assembly 300 against dangers, both real and Bloodiest day of the revolution so deputies dominated by imagined” (Rude) far!!! Girondins. Council of 6 ‐ “Royalty, the stake in the ministers including Danton as battle, couldn’t survive the For next 6 weeks, LA is at mercy of Minister of Justice-executive victory of the people” (Furet) the Revolutionary Commune – function. ‐ Simon Schama has seen 10 submitted to demands such as 11 Aug – Under pressure from August as a logical legalizing divorce, abolition of feudal new Revolutionary Commune, progression from the dues without compensation, women’s Assembly set date for its Storming of the Bastille, rights and universal male suffrage. dissolution. provided for arguing that: “It was not an election of National Convention incidental moment in the 10 Aug – Significant because within six weeks. history of the Revolution. It monarchy existed no more, royal Massacre of 500 Swiss guards was, in fact, its logical family placed in the dungeon. SC also consummation. From forced the hand of LA and Royal family fled to Assembly 1789…it had been the Revolutionary Commune (radical, willingness of politicians to working class body) organized Feuillants and constitutional exploit either the threat or the storming of the Tuilleries in one day. monarchists hide/arrested, fact of violence that had given Commune held more power than Assembly now dominated by them the power to challenge representative democracy. Commune 300 Brissotins/Girondins constituted authority. arrested Feuillants (Bailly, Barnave) Bloodshed was not the th 11 August 1792 – Commune forces on 19 Aug, left caretaker assembly unfortunate by-product of with 300 deputies all Left or hand of Legislative Assembly. To be dissolved on 19 September and pave revolution, it was the source unaligned. Executive of 6 was of its energy. The verses of appointed, most radical and socially way for National Convention based on universal male suffrage. the ‘Marseillaise’ and the progressive policies of revolution were great speeches of the put in place (universal male suffrage Paves way for 26 June 1793 – New Girondins had spoken of the etc.), eventually known as the Jacobin Constitution ratified but not patrie ini the absolute poetry constitution. proclaimed of life and death. Perversely, 21st Sep – French republic proclaimed. only if it could be shown that Slavery abolished blood did indeed flow in its defence could the virtues of Universal male the Revolution be shown to suffrage Effect of Aug 10 be worth dying for. Means ‐ Constitutional monarchy Direct elections has become ends. ceased to exist ‐ Assembly had no power Right of subsistence ‐ Doyle characterizes 10 anymore, Commune held it August as a ‘long awaited RIGHT OF instead trial of strength’ between the INSURRECTION ‐ All constitutional monarchists LA and Commune, in which go into hiding, Assembly ‘It was the most bloody journée of the Louis was the chief victim – dominated by Girondins. Revolution [10 August].’ – DMG “It was the bloodiest day of Leads to 23 Aug where Sutherland the Revolution so far, but also refractory priests ordered to one of the most decisive. leave France and ‘Power lay not with the Assembly but Though the King and his seigneurialism finally with the new Paris Commune.’ – family remained unscathed, abolished. William Doyle his authority fell with his ‐ “Louis downfall was also palace..few believed that he cause by the intransigence of would ever sit on the throne most nobles and the logic of again, unless with foreign popular politicization at a aid”. time of dramatic change and crisis. The declaration of war ‐ Norman Hapson said that ‘for and subsequent military the Parisian nobility, it was defeats had made his position the 10 Aug 1792 rather than impossible” (McPhee) 14 July 1789 that marked the ‐ “The popular movement had end of the ancient regime” effectively issued the ultimate challenge to the whole of ‐ Rude and other Marxists Europe; internally, the argue that actions of SC were declaration of war and understandable given threat of overthrow of the monarchy war. radicalized the Revolution” (McPhee) ‐ Schama argues that Aug 10 ‐ “…hastened seigneurial wasn’t a reaction to threat of dispossession” (Furet) defeat. Crowd and politicians used violence to advance themselves.
‐ Doyle: The 10 Aug was the bloodiest day of the revolution so far, but also the most decisive. [The King’s] authority fell with his palace, [a symbol of the monarchy]”
‐ Hampson: “For Parisian nobility, it was Aug 10, rather than July 14, that marked the end of the Ancien Regime”
THE BRUNSWICK MANIFESTIO
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views Crystallizes all existing, generalised Elizabeth Cross challenges view that 25th July, 1792 fears into a specific, tangible fear that Brunswick Manifesto is great Duke of Brunswick – Commander king involved in gigantic conspiracy. turning point – that fear of foreign of the Austrian Forces Sealed King’s fate, considered proof of enemy as cause of radicalization is treachery of King to bring down much exaggerated. Internal factors 4 months into War revolution. more pressing Led to Storming of Tuilleries on Aug Threatens Paris of ‘ever-memorable 10. Ian Germaine vigorously disagrees. vengeance should harm come to Royal Louis and all moderates in real danger It was fear of foreign enemy and war Family’ , even though royals are that moved revolution from pretending to support war Leads to e violent radicalisation of moderate to extreme radical phase. Intended to frighten French so that no revolution and is CATALYST to Revolutionary Commune and 10th “Proof that the King was the centre of harm would come to Louis and family. August 1792. a vast conspiracy linking foreign tyrants, émigrés, counterrevolutionary Goal to terminate anarchy in interior generals and corrupt politicians” of France, to check attacks on throne Demanded Louis’ freedom – failure (Sutherland) and Church, re-establish legal power, would lead to people being ‘punished give king security and liberty of which by pilitary law, without hope of “As always the ‘day’ had benefitted he is deprived and enable him to pardon’ (Fielding and Horcombe). from an involuntary contribution from exercise legitimate authority. the foe: that was the Duke of Had opposite effect to its intention and Brunswick’s manifesto” brought disaster to Louis, revolutionary prisoners and constitutional monarchists. Gave Marat evidence for Louis’ conspiracies with Austria, so now France despises Louis. Led to: 16 Aug – Prussian forces moved into France, 160km away. 19 Aug – followed by Austrian, 23 Aug, fortress and Longway surrendered, 2 Sep Stronghold of Vendun. When Parisians were threatened by the Duke of Brunswick, bitter malcontents (Marat, Enrages) combined with legislation such as issuing of pikes, encouraged SC to take action. “The SC probably retarded rather than advanced the cause of democracy” (Doyle). Girondins felt same, labeling SC as ignoramuses, creating rift between them.
SEPTEMBER MASSACRES (2 – 6 Sep)
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
3-7 September 1792 – Prisoners 24 August – news reached Paris about massacred by mobs in Paris fortress of Longwy. 2 Sep – Verdun – ‐ Parisian popular movement last fortified town before Paris captured. ‘Panic embraced the city’ was recognized. (F+A) ‐ Blame for slaughter attributed to failure of Roland (Minister News reached Paris that Danton proclaimed notion of total war. for the Interior) and Danton Prussians had invaded France 2 Sep ‘The National Assembly will (Minister of Justice) to and Verdun had fallen on 2 become a committee of war…we intervene. Danton ‘turned a September demand that you join with us to assist blind eye to the violence he Marat and Hebert urged for this sublime movement of the people. clearly knew was about to purge of prisoners and fear We demand that whoever refuses to take place in Paris’ (Schama). and hysteria added to this serve in person be punished with 3 Sep – he was reported as death’ Volunteers rushed to the front saying that the ‘executions leaving Paris virtually undefended - were necessary to appease the significant because patriotism coming people of Paris’ (Schama). Effect? to forefront. War now threatening to ‐ Exposes divide between bring an end to Revolution. Prisoners radical Commune of Paris and Over 1,200 prisoners were might break out. moderate LA. Commune slaughtered by sans-culottes hostile to Assembly’s failure or sentenced to death in Fear, hysteria galvanized people into to end monarchy and bring mock trials action. Demands that royalist officers Louis to trial. Assembly, purged from army; nonjuring priests controlled by the moderate No deputies (especially rounded up,Watch Committees arrest Brissotins/Girondins and Danton) chose to intervene royalist conspirators. “Let the blood of unaligned deputies, horrified and stop massacre. The traitors flow. That is the only way to by blood-lust of SC. SC saw executions were necessary to save the country” Marat radicalising massacres as legitimate appease the people of Paris - revolution! defence of Revolution against Danton enemies, to 2 Sep night: Brissotins/Girondins, people Deputies saw sans-culottes as murderers, while they saw ‐ Armed crowds of SC attack bloody murderers. themselves as defenders of prisons, slaughter for 4 days. Only ¼ butchered actual political the Revolution –sans About 1200-1400 dead in prisoners. “slaughter arranged to look culottes’ power was Paris. like a rough parody of justice’ (Furet). uncontrollable 3 Sep Significant because triggered Sometimes seen as “Second formation of CGS (“let us be terrible ‐ ‘executions were necessary to Revolution’ and so that the people are not so” – appease the people of Paris’ – characterized Terror soon to Danton) Schama occur ‐ No one in power stopped Effect? massacres. ‘The September Massacres was a pre- ‐ “Suspicion bred credulity, emptive strike that arose out of panic.’ and society’s reprobates –Caron couldn’t be presumed unavailable for the purposes ‘The event which more than almost any of prison plotters” (Doyle) other exposed a central truth of the French Revolution: its dependence on organized killing to accomplish political ends.’ – Simon Schama Anyone who defends it is engaging in the scholarly normalization of evil.
Stewart – They were occasioned by fear and hysteria
“It [August 10th 1792] was the bloodiest day of the Revolution so far, but also one of the most decisive. (William Doyle)
“[SM] was the final proof for non juring clergy that the Revolution had become godless and anarchic” (McPhee)
“The SM were a pre-emptive strike that arose out of panic’ (Caron)
WAR – brewing! Revolution radicalizes under threat of war and invasion!
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Political climate moving Prospect of war 27 Aug 1791 – Declaration of Pillnitz. further left. Feuillants still Intended as ‘warning’, but taken as held power no single ‐ French army no condition to direct threat by France, led to calls for powerful Feuillant leader. fight because many officers war. - “[served the forces] with the Radical Jacobins, Cordeliers fled France, emigres. – necessary pretext to prepare the nation ‐ made up ‘left’ Foreign power made no signs for an offensive crusade against the to mount immediate invasion. crowned heads of Europe” (rude) – King and deputies were War with Austria and Prussia
reconciled. – Foreign ‐ “Immediately raised the hopes th monarchs set Louis as and stakes of the counter- ‐ War declared 20 April, example of their own possible revolution” (McPhee) declaration accused Austria of fate if revolution were to granting open protection to spread. – French emigres 20 April 1792 – War against French rebels and of acting demanding action to restore Austria/Prussia. with other nations against monarchy. independence and security of ‐ Royal family wanted war to French people. Robespierre, ‐ War split Girondins and restore monarchy as France’s Marat actively opposed- Jacobins. Girondins military weak. factionalism between condemning SC. ‐ Girdonins wanted war to Factionalism. reveal where King’s true Jacobins and Girondins. sympathies lie, seek out ‐ France went to war with Both Marat and Robes claimed traitors. hopes that oppressed peoples defection of D proof Girondins ‐ Effect? Created situation of of other nations would revolt conspiring to destroy revolution, fear and many immediate against their rulers, Austro- recover privileges under Ancien losses, such as soldiers Prussian alliance would Regime. emigrating, poorly trained and dissolve under pressure of equipped. war. Hoped for short ‐ “War revitalized the popular victorious campaign. With 'War revitalised popular movement' revolution; after the call for untrained officers, volunteer (Peter McPhee) citizens to volunteer to fight soldiers, French army little at a time of worsening hope against Austro-Prussian inflation, the political and army. social demands of working ‐ Louis supported France’s war 'The course of the war was destined to people became insistent and against Austria. only end with revolution' (William harder to deny” (McPhee) . Rev would end, Doyle) ‐ “From that date on [initiation monarchy restored. of war], Parisian and urban Appears to be supporting riots would find a new Rev if supporting war. catalyst – defeat’ (Furet) . If Austria lost, seen as a 'Transformed itself at the popular level ‐ “When things went badly, the true French patriot. Flight into paranoia' (Simon Schama) war had been the pretext for to Varennes no issue. dictatorship. Whej it went . Plotted with Austrians, well, it remained invisible publicly supported war. from the Revolution” (Furet) ‐ Beginning of war disastrous, under command of General Supported by in LA Dumourie. Over 3000 officers emigrated, French army only ‐ Girondins thought war would unite nation. 14000 troops –lacking in training, not well disciplined, ‐ War would destroy both defective equipment, external and internal enemies ammunition short supply. ‐ Hope revolution would spread ‐ King supported war. ‐ Few Jacobins didn’t support. Robespierre feared if French ‐ Brissot and Girondins lost, monarchy restored. If believed in ideal of bringing French won, power would be revolutionary freedoms to in hands of officers of army other oppressed peoples in (e.g. Lafayette) -conservative Europe. Force people to monarchists mostly. choose side of revolution. War emotive spectacle that
takes peoples’ minds off 20 June 1792 –Girondins orchestrated political divisions, unites in first invasion of Tuilleries. SC shared patriotism. Girondins demanded return of Girondin hoped appeal of war would Ministers, more bread, King’s win over independent suspensive veto powers removed. deputies, win more influence, Catholic provinces sending more favours. letters of protest, ‘dress rehearsal’ for second invasion. ‐ “Revolutionary government was much broader than just State of emergency – triggered France repression…it captured the to pass a set of emergency laws and totality of the nation’s war decrees to keep the public adhering to effort and its efforts to subdue ‘revolutionary principles’, eventually opposition at home and win forming The Terror. Justified because the war abroad” (Sutherland) intended to be temporary measure. Needed dictatorial until peace restored, internal/external enemies destroyed – but definition of ‘enemy’ subjective, ‘revolutionary principles’ increasingly adapted to suit Jacobins. Totalitarianism born. “[war] threw the revolution off course” (McPhee) “war revolutionized the revolution” (Reinhard) ‐ Austrian war pivotal in creating atmosphere of fear, resulted in series of violent events, policies. ‐ “war finally destroyed the consensus of 1789 and led directly to the fall of the monarchy, to civil war and the Terror” (Townson)
The Trial and Execution of Louis
Louis’ Mistakes
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ 11 Dec – Claimed to have Instead of working honestly for a just violated sovereignty of settlement of grievances and people and committing inequities, King entered into multitude of crimes in correspondence with foreign powers establishment of tyranny. in an effort to regain his control over ‐ Flight to Varennes, Champ de France. Royal Family tried to escape from France in disguise, but were Mars Massacre, financing detected near border and brought counter revolution used back to Paris. When their against him. correspondence was discovered, it became clear King did not intend to cooperate with Revolution and needed reforms, but instead sought to fight his own people for control of France. This disloyalty to his people justified a conviction for treason and execution by guillotine. Appearing as a natural target for their anger
The Immediate Consequences of Louis’ Trial
FACTS Who, What, Where, Significance Historian’s Views When
21 Jan 1793 –Louis publicly 11 December 1792 – Citizen Louis Capet indicted ‐ Louis’ correspondence executed by guillotine for ‘a multitude of crimes in the establishment of with Austria was tyranny’ and having ‘violated the sovereignty of considered treason 23 Jan – Convention publicly the people’ ‐ 11 Dec 1792 – Louis issued proclamation declaring indicted before National ‘tyrant is no more’. Execution Secret iron chest discovered in November Convention, accused of outraged other monarchies of containing Louis’ correspondence with ‘having committed a Europe, already angry over Austria multitude of crimes in Danton’s declaration of France’s the establishment of [his] intention to expand its borders Louis ‘had’ to be tried as any citizen who Tyranny’ and having and spread Revolution engaged with the enemy, was a traitor along ‘violated the sovereignty throughout Europe. with: of his people’ (MchPhee), including the Execution added to flame of o His Flight to Varennes Flight to Varennes and counter-revolution. Vendee massacre at Champ de people generally conservative, o Champ de Mars Massacre Mars. royalists. No tangible benefits to ‐ Girondins didn’t wish to peasants, sale/redistribution of o Financing counter revolution vote for death of King. Church land benefitting more ‐ 1791 Constitution had affluent bourgeoisies. Inviolability set out in the Constitution declared Louis’ person to could be withdrawn just as it was claimed be ‘sacred and inviable’. Believed best means of Girondins believed that King’s fate decided by deciding his fate by consulting General Will, King should abdicate but referendum. Referendum not suffer death. Michael Adcock “it was the help to restore national resistance by Girondin deputies that so profoundly unity by destroying alienated the people of Paris and undermined the suspicion Paris trying to credibility of the government” dictate to rest of France, honour idea of Jacobins and Cordeliers demanded death sovereignty of people. ‘If the King is not guilty, then ‐ Girondins possibly seen o as royalists, Jacobins and those who have dethroned him are’ Cordeliers wanted – Robespierre immediate execution. Verbal voting – Thanks to Marat Robespierre pointed out with chilling logic to . 387 for execution Convention on 3 Dec that people had judged . 334 against execution King on August 10 and that to hold another 21 January 1793 – Louis Capet is executed ‘formal’ trial was to put the Revolution itself on ‘I die innocent of all the crimes with which trial, for ‘if the King is I am charged. I forgive all those who are not guilty, then those guilty of my death and I pray God that the who have dethroned him blood you are about to shed may never be are’ (Rude). required of France.’ – Louis ‐ “it was the resistance by Girondin deputies that so Significance profoundly alienated the people of Paris and Voting process traumatic. Divisions undermined the deepened between Girondins and credibility of the Montagnards. government’ (Adcock). Decision to execute Satisfied sans-culottes, but more enemies Louis created lasting than friends resulted – foreign monarchs, division between Catholic provinces. 1 February 1793 – Montagnards and France declares war on Grand Coalition Girondins, and Parisians, leaving ‘a terrible legacy of bitterness’ (Adcock15 ‘By executing the king, they had severed France’s Jan – votes took place. last ties with her past, and made the rupture with the Majority regicidal in ancien régime complete.’ – François Furet favour of death penalty. ‐ Jacobins demanded that ‘It was no so much a victory as a challenge… it penalty carried out satisfied the sans-culottes but it made the Revolution immediately. Marat far more enemies than friends and also declared ‘The Republic immeasurably strengthened those who were already is only a house of cards its enemies.’ – William Doyle until the head of the tyrant falls under the axe “His execution satisfied the WSC, but made the of the law’. revolution more enemies than friends” (Doyle) ‐ “The trial of Louis XVI was a reversion to the most criticized aspects of the old regime justice, the inquisitor system and judgement without appeal”(Sutherland)
“…a climax to the whole Revolution…this day, not 22 Sep 1792, founded the Republic, or at least sacralised it” (Sutherland)
War with the Grand Coalition
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
Vendee Rebellion ‐ Execution of Louis caused 24 Feb 1793 – convention ordered diplomatic relations between conscription of 300000 extra men into Motives France and other European Revolutionary army. Triggered powers suspended. reaction in Vendee region. Against Revolution ‐ Signalled inevitably of ‐ Levy s met with protests and escalation in the war. Wanted return to monarchical riots throughout France, ‐ European powers felt rule revolution had to be crushed general hostility to before it spread conscription of young men, Fuelled by ‐ Feb 1793 – France declared other accumulated grievances, war on Britain, Holland and both religious and political. Civil Constitution of the Spain who joined Led to Vendee Rebellion 10-16 March Clergy and Clerical Oath Austria/Prussia to form 1793 – population of Vendee region (people of Vendee were Grand Coalition. France resistant to direction from Paris. When staunchly Catholic – 90% of surrounded by enemies CCC issued July 1790, area remained local priests refused to take determined to overturn staunchly loyal to old religion, with Clerical Oath) Revolution. Fears of counter 90% of local priests refusing to take ution of Louis XVI revolution traitors within Cherical Oath, in Nov 1790. Exec France made it increasingly (people of Vendee were problematic to criticize 9 Oct 1791 – LA informed of armed generally conservative and actions of self-proclaimed uprisings in Vendee. Influenced royalists) ‘patriots’ like the SC. passing of further decree in November, ‐ “The declaration of war had requiring nonjuring priests to take the Revolution had not brought an immediate and long- Civic Oath. about any tangible benefits to lasting impact on the course the peasants of the revolution. It raised the ‐ Priests who refused to take (sale/redistribution of Church stakes. Political disputes now Oath ‘deemed suspect of land benefited wealthy took on a life and death revolt against the law and of bourgeois) character” (Popkin) sinister intent toward the Patrie’ (Stewart). Disturbed Trigger: Decree for a levy of loyal Catholics, believed the 300,000 men Pope should govern Church, loyal to priests, practices of A rebellion that was Catholic religion. organized along military ‐ Trigger for outright rebellion lines. By April, approx 20- was military levee of Feb 40,000 rebel forces. 1793. Decree would take young men of Vendee away. Furet – it pitched revolutiona and Those supported Revolution ancient regime against one another in exempt. open country. ‐ Each commune to produce quota of conscripts, men chosen by lot ‐ Action began mid March 1793. In Nantes, Poitiers, La Rochelle and Angers, citizens challenged National Convention
The Terror
The Reasons for Terror – legal response and solution to the deteriorating political situation since the fateful year of 1792. Suppress counter revolutionaries and religious freedom, economic benefits to the SC, yet was also used to suppress the SC when they demanded too much (such as more bread and better wages). Systematic use of fear to try and achieve control, seen as a necessary response to a political situation. Enforced by revolutionaries in order to save France FACTS Who, What, Where, Significance Historian’s Views When Who were its victims? ‐ 1793- response to War 19 September 1792 – Legislative Assembly with Grand Coalition. dissolved Peasants in Vendee – Everyone to work 20 September 1792 – National Convention Schama slams uniformly to save Marxist argument France. Notion of France established, Battle of Valmy won as a nation is taking 22 September 1792 – Year I of French Nobles, émigrés, shape. Republic. Political transition from absolute refractory priests ‐ Girondin supporter, monarchy to no monarchy completed. General Dumouriez 2,639 deaths in Paris traitor to France, 19 November 1792 – Decree of Fraternity abandoning Revolution, 16,594 recorded feeling to Austria. ‘to extend fraternal feelings and aid to all overall ‐ Girondins, seen as peoples who may wish to regain their conspirators with liberty’ Greer says 41,000 France’s enemies. When deaths France had won war Basically justified their now offensive with Battle of Fleurus in war against foreign monarchs by taking Chaunu says Vendee June 1794, no reason to over their lands genocide – claims continue. Led to National Convention Composition. 500,000 rebel deaths Thermidor. – Gough says Girondins held “right” 200,000 more realistic figure. Leaders: Brissot, Roland Used to crush… Marissa Linton argues Represented bourgeois, conservative, wealthy Girondins inevitable -rulers were too landowners, factory owners who lived outside young, inexperienced. - The ‐ Linked to defection of Paris French went almost overnight General Demouriez, from being an absolute Federalist - favoured decentralised power military defeats, rising monarchy to a political system rather than centralised power in hands of tensions in South/West. in which the will of the people Convention ‐ Accused by Marat - replaced that of the king. In being ‘criminal Did not support SC the absence of traditions of accomplices of Royalty’ parliamentary rule, the French ‐ Demanding he be fell back on abstract brought to trial, principles. backfired. ‘collective Jacobins and their allies held “left” dictator for the Marxists like Soboul see terror Leaders: Robespierre, Danton, Marat, Girondins’ (Schama) necessary, temporary Desmoulins ‐ Journee of 31 May – 2 response to fear –way for working people of Paris to end June; expulsion of 22 Represented “common man” ,“general will” feudal regime. Girondins. of people Why? Fleeing of ‐ Lefebvre, Rude, Soboul - General D, showed that Supported Sans-culottes, “direct democracy” terror desperate response to Girondins could be war, inflation, conscription, traitors as well. Linked Strong, centralised government constant hunger of sans- G to military defeats, culottes antirevolutionary behavior. New challenges: Furet says Terror built-in. ‐ 13 March Vergniaud Jacobins were originators of demands Revolution to o War modern totalitarianism. end,labeling SC “idlers”, . Battle of Valmy 20,000 denouncing them. Darnton - violence not only more men volunteering ‐ Failed trial of Marat 24 response of Jacobins, tried to create Republic of virtue. April. o Trial of Louis XVI ‐ Girondin ignored SC Doyle ‘Inspiring and demands for price o New principles of Republic ennobling, the prospect of control until Commune the French revolution is also threatened to revolt moving and appalling: in against Convention. ‘Not only was the Republic proclaimed, but all citizens every sense, a tragedy’. ‐ Girondin made majority were, for the first time in modern history, granted of Committee of Twelve equal political rights: the old distinctions between Chaunu - Jacobin terror the which first met on 21 ‘active’ and ‘passive’ citizens- so dear to the watershed event of modern May 1793, given task to investigate Commune, ‘constitutionalists’ of 1789-91-was swept aside, and history – defining cultural arresting Hebert. every adult male was henceforth eligible to vote in all revolution, Stalininist Russia, ‐ 15 April – Commune of local, departmental and national elections.’ – George Khmer rouge in Cambodia. Paris calls for Girondin Rudé deputies to be expelled “The terror was a political from Convention. 'This day founded the new republic' (DMG Sutherland) weapon…infinitely more ‐ 31 May – 2 June – anti repressive than anything the Girondin riots, ancient regime had ever seen” reinforced by 75000 (Gough) from NG, demand tax on 'The king had been a problem for the revolution from “The central purpose of the rich, maximum purging its beginnning' (David Jordan) Terror was to institute the of 30 Girondin deputies, emergency and draconian creation of SC army measures necessary at a time ‐ “They had learned of military crisis” (McPhee) wisdom from past 'Had severed France's ties with her past' (Francois experience [Jacobins]; Furet) “As a response to pressure unlike Girondin from the SC for total solutions opponents, they were to total problems…and as a able to use popular reaction to the exigency of movement to promote 'Created far more enemies than friends' (William Doyle) war, rebellion and counter their political ends, they revolution…The machinery of had no intention of Terror was fashioned in an allowing its direction to atmosphere of patriotic pass into other hands exaltation, suspicion and either to the Enrages or violence” (Worrall) Hebert” (Rude) ‐ “The Girondins and their friends in the ministry became victims of the doctrine of the internal enemy, as others had in early crisies…The Girondins were victims of their own moderation” (Sutherland) By end of 1793/April 1794 ‐ Provincial, federalist town revolts crushed ‐ Food supplies better. CPS pushed grain prices back up (reaction to Hebertists), peasants produce more. Armee revolutionaries transported grain across France. ‐ Assignant rose in value 45%. ‐ Transformation of religion, church relics melted into military items. ‐ Push Spanish, British and Austria off French soil by end of 1793.
Legislations and Machinery of Terror – By early 1793, the organizations which administered the Terror were being put into place.
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views ‐ Ideology of the Terror Committee of General Security – est. 2 ‐ Execution of Louis, war with summarized by Danton : “Let Oct 1792 Coalition, emergence of [the Convention] be terrible, counter revolution in Vendee in order that the people are Maintain internal security, pursuit furthered atmosphere of not so” (Furet). Committee of of suspected counter- suspicion. General Security -police revolutionaries, supervise ‐ Oct 1792 – in response to Sep agency to bring traitors to treatment of suspects. Fouche Massarcres, Committee of justice. most important member, ran General Security established. ‐ 11 March 1793, extensive network of spies. By Intended ‘to replace the Revolutionary Tribunal -trial mid-1794, CGS part of opposition supreme tribunal of the and execution of suspects.Oct to Robespierres, CPS. Fouche people’s vengeance’ 1793, hearings three days to involved in downfall of (Bosher), reference to limit defence. Robespierre, 9-10 Thermidor Year revolutionary jounrees, ad ‐ After Law of Prairial (10 II (27-28 July 1794) hoc, para-legal peoples’ June 1794), only penalty courts - mass slaughter in death. Verdicts by majority Committee of Public Safety – est. 6 prisons months before. vote after secret deliberations. April 1793 ‐ 5 Sep 1793 – National ‐ (on law of prairial) “The Convention declared “Let Supervise government ministers. notorious law that created a Terror be the order of the Elected deputies of Convention. 9 murder machine” day”. Concept of Terror as a moderate deputies, 7 from Plain. (Sutherland) government policy, political Robespierre joined July 1793, ‐ Position of representative-en- instrument born. Convention more radical. mission -March 1793. Local no powers, Constitution Executive emergency government agents for Committee of suspended. Executive in wartime Public Safety and Committee decisions by CPS. July 10 1793 Danton dropped of General Security, enforcing from CPS. Four elements to new dictatorship of Paris. “None ‐ Population divided in 2 – state: return of economic played a bigger role in loyal citizens and counter regulation, massive mobilization terrorizing the nation than the revolutionaries seen as of military resources, reabsorption representative-en-mission” traitors deserving of death. into state powers of punitive (Bosher). violence, replacement of ‐ Creation of Watch spontaneous politics by program Committees for arresting Top- Committee of Public Safety – of official ideology. Committee of 12 suspects. ‐ Committee of Public Safety - Main terrorist legislation was Law of 2nd - 6 April.12 members to control Suspects, 17 September 1793. Human, conduct of war , maintaining Committee of General Security –apply legal rights outlined in Declaration of military supplies - control legislation of terror –police body. 1789 removed. Very wide powers of economically, politically. Formed October 1792 in response to arrest, defined ‘suspects’ in very broad ‐ Law of Frimaire (4 Dec Sep Massacres “to replace the supreme terms, sweeping powers to ruling 1793), Consolidated earlier tribunal of the people’s vengeance” Committees, making ‘Terror the order legislations regarding terror (Danton). of the day’.“Practically anybody might into one document. Outlined fall foul of such a sweeping law” Representatives on mission (deputés role, authority of Convention, (Doyle) en mission) sent to 83 provinces, CPS, CGS, Commune. To political watchdogs of Convention. limit power of ‘fanatics’, such The Suspect law? as Hebert, reps-en-mission, Relied on local Jacobins, sans- SC. “intended to restrain the ‐ Decree allowing all suspected culottes, sans-culottes militia Armee Terror, rather than entrench people to be placed under revolutionarrie established 9 Sep 1793 it” (Doyle). Schama agrees “it custody. “With a city potent was intended to restrain the with rumour and suspicion,
ability of fanatics to take law the LOS was designed to in their own hands’. Terror quell such insecurity” now orderly. “also marked a (McPhee). “Popular complete reversal of the movement was being principles of 1789” bureaucratized” Sutherland. (Townsend) ‐ Simon Schama
Law of Frimaire intended to restrain ability of revolutionary fanatics to take law into own hands
William Doyle Supports Schama’s view
Terror now “orderly”, contained rather than spontaneously brutal
Duncan Townson
Law of Frimaire “marked the complete reversal of the principles of 1789”
Law of Frimarie “Terror was now to be orderly” (Doyle)
Law of Prairial (June 1794- vague crimes. Accused no representation. Undoing of Robespierre
Law of General Maximum (29 Sept 1793) – set rates for bread, other goods, services, wages. Coincided with Law Against Hoarding, punishable by death.
Revolutionary Tribuna, 11 March 1793 –quicken trial, execution of suspects.
Decree on Revolutionary Government – 10 Oct 1793. Suspension of 1793 Constitution, placed all government organizations under control of CPS.
16 Oct – Execution of Marie Antoinette and Bailly
30 Oct – Execution of Girondinist leaders (Brissot, Verginiaud). Triumph of Jacobins
“The institutional machinery for the revolutionary dictatorship was now set in place so that the chaotic brutalities of the street mobs could be replaced by the systematic machinery of state punishment” (Schama)
Terror in Vendee and Federalist Towns
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Schama points out that Terror ‐ 1 Aug 1793 – Committee of Federalist Revolts “selective in its geography”, PS -subdue rebellion in 90% of executions in only 20 Vendee, 30000 soldiers Motives of 86 departments, “all of marched to subdue 20000- Fighting for federal system of these areas, excepting 40000 rebels. Rep-ens- government Paris…were war zones”. mission authorized mass ‐ 170000-200000 deaths in drowning – “republican o One central government,rules Vendee, March- August 1793. baptisms” (Schama). with several state ‐ Terror against Federalist ‐ 70% deaths in Terror in governments, each with own towns (June-Dec 1793), Vendee, 80-90% being laws as established under response to death of Girondin peasants, in defence of Constitution deputies. (Bordeaux, Lyon, traditional way, beliefs. Toulouse, Marseilles). Set up ‐ 24 Feb 1793 –levy 300000 o Rejected centralisation of own Popular Commission of 18-40 yo men conscripted. power into hands of great Public , locals reject Paris 90% priests refusing to take Committees (CPS, CGS) dictatorship, sentencing 30 cherical oath. “the last Jacobins to death. Believing a bastion of the Ancien regime” Supported Revolution Parisian based revolution. (Furet). Wanted to purge Jacobin for Fuelled by ‐ no tangible benefit for creating a dictatorship. Vendee. Reduced trade due to war ‐ Reprisals from Paris swift. ‐ “It pitched Revolution and Federalist town of Lyon Ancien regime against each Angered by arbitrary nature starved into submission. 26 other in open country” (Furet) of government in Paris, power people guillotined per day. By of S-C April 1794, 2000 murdered in Lyon alone. occurred in birthplaces of ‐ 'The revolution had torn 30 May 1793 – revolt breaks out in many Girondin deputies Lyon. society to pieces' (Francois Furet) Trigger: Arrest of Girondin Vendee, Convention 1 Aug – orders to subdue rebellion in deputies (2 June 1793) ‐ Vendee made. 2/3 of 5000 rebels representative Jean-Baptiste killed. Course of events Carrier authorised drowning of 2000 rebels in River Loire Mitraillades at Lyon when portable guillotine seen as too slow. 8713 deaths in o 12 October 1793 – CPS Vendee in 3 month period. declares Lyon be destroyed ‐ “Only a restoration of the old o August to October 1793 – regime could revive the guillotine 26 people/day community. Thus the anti- revolution became the o By April 1794 – 2000 people counter-revolution” killed (Sutherland) Negotiantisme in Bordeaux
o 104 guillotined in Bordeaux o 1082 killed in Toulon Noyades at Nantes
o 2000 to 4800 drowned
Schama slams Marxist contention that bourgeoisie were beneficiaries of revolution –principal victim. Incentive for formation of CPS month after Vendee rebellion (April 1793). By Sep 1793, suspended Convention.
Political Terror
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views “The central purpose of the Terror was ‐ to institute the emergency and draconian measures necessary at a time of military crisis.” (Peter McPhee)
‘The terror was a utopian project that forced people into ideal forms' (Francois Furet)
“it was the counter revolution and the mixed emotions of panic, outrage and fear that it aroused which fostered a willingness to believe that enemies were omnipresent” (Tackett)
'Terror was merely 1789 with a higher body count' (Simon Schama)
'Centralised and organised violence' (Simon Schama)
Economic Terror
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Journee of 4-5 Sep 1793 “Maximum Price Law” passed by
incited by Roux demanding Convention under pressure of SC to fix ‐ Levee en Mass 23 August bread and higher wages. prices of grain. 1793 – conscription of Members of revolutionary 300000. By Spring 1794, Commune - crowd should Form of economic terror because 5000 workers making 700 march on Convention to under it, peasants suffered greatly, guns/day, 6000 workshops demand immediate fixed price of bread lower than the cost making gun powder. mobilization of army to go of production. “divided common ‐ Meanwhile problems of price into countryside to discover people against each other” (Rees). rises. By mid August, evil hoarders, impound food Peasants forced not to hoard in fear of assignat fallen to only 22% of for delivery to Paris. When being executed under Law of Suspects. its face value, drought programme carried out on 5 Initially worked – SC fed, currency reduced grain supply to Paris Sep, disastrous news of rose %26 by Dec 1793, but as Lewis by 3/4 . capitualation of Port of points out: “These armees drove the ‐ Roux - Rev exploited by Toulon to British. Questions Republic to the edge of anarchy as profiteers for own selfish of prices, supplies, they marched to sell the message of the ends. People again as conveniently forgotten. Issue SC revolution to a bewildered, hostile famished as under the ancient of price control wasn’t countryside”. regim. Declared war on addressed until 29 Sep, passed Law of General Maximum economic traitors. Hoarders, This journee is reason terror became speculators punished by death put price limit on large range of foods, services. official policy. Convention e no longer and if government refused to willing to bow to SC or Revolutionary instigate these penalities, Commune. people should launch new round of massacres against ‘blood suckers’. ‐ Roux, 25 July read an address adopted by two of the more radical Sections and the Cordleiers. ‘You have done nothing for the happiness of the people. For four year only the rich have profited from the Revolution…Under the Old Regime, it would never have been permitted for basic commodities to have been sold at three times their value” ‐ Schama - Roux “hit upon an essential truth”. Rev no practical benefits to people whose active support had allowed it to succeed. ‐ “Much of their anger was a reaction against the unpredictable operation of the ‘free’ market. They still held the traditional mind-set which saw in price rises and shortages a ‘famine plot’” (F/A). Wanted a more interventionist government policy to control prices of essential goods. ‐ “first clear-cut class issue since ’89… While lack of food was nothing new in Paris, Revolution had given Parisians new spirit to resent it, to insist upon remedy for it. For the first time the revolutionaries of the street corner seriously challenged the revolutionaries of the assembly” (Thompson) ‐ As 1793 progressed, Enrage programme of death penalty to hoarders etc. widely accepted at Cordeliers and in Revolutionary
Dechristianisation – Revolutionaries believed Catholicism betrayed the revolution.
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views 13 March 1794 – Arrest of ultra radical Enforced through Festival of ‐ 10 August 1793 – Start of Herbertists. Hebertists wanted Reason and Supreme Being. Cult of Reason, religions continuation and expansion of Terror - worshipping God abolished. called SC to attack Convention for not Replacing old religious being radical enough. symbols with new revolutionary iconography. Herbertists guillotined on March 24, Destruction of anything CPS elimated critics who felt related to Church, seen as Revolution wasn’t radical enough. destroying anything related to Government lost support from SC. Ancien regime. Commune CPS closed Cordleier club (Hebert stopped clerical salaries. “For member), disband armee many ordinary people, revolutionaries (armies of SC), recall dechristianisation was the reps-en-mission from provinces to. aspect of terror which most affected them” (Rees), Following this, Danton/Desmoullins considering France is 96% and followers executed 5-6 April 1794. Catholic. “Danton’s death marked the ‐ Catalyst for perpertrators of inauguration of the Republic of Virtue” Terror turning against each (Doyle) other. People constantly distracted with own concerns, such as dealing with food. ‐ New calendar, ignored Sundays, church festivals. ‐ Led by the radical “Ultras” by Hebert.
The Thermidorian Reaction – period after the fall of the Jacobins
Fall of Robespierre 26-27 July 1794 (9-10 Thermidor Year II)
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
Deputies of Convention and Why? May-June 1794 Cult of Supreme committees didn’t feel safe as Being, new religion as part of legislation passes threatened them. ‐ Law of 22 Prairial Republic of Virtue. Deliberate attempt Moderate deputies rejected R’s belief ‐ Created secret police bureau to destroy Christianity. he could build moral, just society of surveillance under CPS, Festival of Supreme Being 8 June through killing. SC supported underminding CGS (April) 1794. Convention, not R. ‐ Convention members thought they were next (Speech on 8 10 June 1794 – Law of 22 Prairial, ‐ Victory of French in battle of Thermidor, 26 July) anyone could be accused of crimes Fleurus (26 June 1794) ‐ 23 July – New rates for wages against revolution. Accused weren’t showed no more need for set allowed to be represented by defense executions. ‐ 24 July – R condemns both counsel, involved two extremes: either Committees R executed 28 July 1794. suspect was freed or given death ‐ “The speech to the penalty. Due to attempted Convention on 26 July with assassination of Robespierre (May 25) its vague threat to unnamed deputies provided the ‐ Executions increased in motivation for reaction” number. Over 50% of people (McPhee) guillotined in Paris March 1793 - August 1794 killed in June/July 1794. ‐ Historians agree Law of 22 Prairial ultimate cause of Robespierre’s overthrow.
White Terror and End of SC
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
“The WT was a punitive response of Aug – White terror begins, targeting Convention purged army political and social elites to the Jacobins. Royalists carrying out officers suspected of Jacobin controls and fears they had revenge attacks on Jacobins in 1794. leanings, abolished Law of undergone” (McPhee) By end of 1795, 2000 murdered in Maximum and declared void vendee. Constitution of 1793. ‐ Revenge for excesses of Guillotined reps-en-mission, Terror, anyone actively 12 November 1794 – Jacobin club July 1794- 31 May 1795, associated with it. closes. Terror dismantled, Jacobin ‐ “WT was a punitive response 8 Dec 1794 – Girondist deputies club closed. 75 Girondin of political and social elites to deputies released from the controls and fears they expelled from National Convention in 1793 reinstated. prisons. had undergone” (McPhee) Terror started to wind down during 24 Dec – Maximum price law RP synonymous for terror Thermidorian reaction, replaced by repealed, SC hit hard by this economic Gangs beat up SC White Terror retribution. change. France harshest winter in a ‘responsible’ for killing century. relatives. , wealthy made ‐ 1 August 1794 – Law of 22 return to France. Praitial repealed. Watch Cost of living doubled in 1795 (worse ‐ “The dangerous chaos of committees remained than winter of 1788), starvation, dechristianisaion seems to operational for 1 month after hypothermia, suicide common across have been one of the most R’s execution. poor. important factors pushing the CPS towards taking a firmer ‐ 5 August 1794 – Mass release 1795 of political prisoners. grip on the government of the Convention - all detainees Feb-July – Revolutionary war in country” (Doyle) who didn’t come under ‐ “…a desire to smite the jurisdiction of law of suspects Europe winds down. counterrevolution, to set free. Revolutionary undermine it totally by Committees, reps-en-mission April – Bread riots in Paris. Cost of suppressing its religious to give grounds for arresting living doubled expression; and to create the suspects. 1 April – Journee of 12 Germinal Year new order” (Sutherland) ‐ 10 Aug – Revolutionary III. SC demanding “Bread and tribunal reorganized. Constitution of 1793”, failed, defeated Suspects now provided with by national guard. Convention rending legal defence. away from radical to more ‐ 11 Aug – Executive powers conservative rule. 40000 SC arrested. removed from CPS. 20 May – Journee of 1 Prairial. Another 10000 SC arrested. SC demonstrations quelled again by NG. Marked end to political influence of poor – severe punishments imposed upon sans-culottes. “This date should mark the end of the Revolution; its mainspring had been broken” (Lefebvre). Marked the end of the SC as a revolutionary movement! Revolutionary Tribunals abolished 31 May
Directory and Constitution of the Year III
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views Convention writes new Constitution - McPhee – The Constitution of 1795 22 Aug 1795 – Constitution of Year guarantee main features of principles pulls the revolution back into its III passed – end of convention and of 1789. Ensure dictatorship original course, trimming it back to the start of DIRECTORY. Triumph of impossible, no return to monarchy or sort of revolution the bourgeois could bourgeois values. popular sovereignty. Key change- comfortably live with. Content: Directory. Return to Constitution of 1791. Consisted of 2 Chambers George Rude S-C were once more ‐ Indirect voting, no promise of (Council of 500 all 30+ who initiated disarmed and disenfranchised political equality, no way to legislation, council of Ancients all 40+ resolve conflict between L who objected/approved bills, but Soboul - Directory…[corresponded] to and E, councils could couldn’t change them. Executive the needs and interests of the paralyze Directory by not directory - 5 esteemed men ,rotated bourgeoisie” passing laws. presidency every 3 months , ‐ Two-Thirds Decrees (two responsible for internal and external Simon Schama - Violence continued to thirds of new councils filled diplomacy in military affairs, law determine the political direction of the with deputies from enforcement). state, far more than did elections. The convention, 108000-205000 revolution brought little in the way of accepted) Year III amended 1791 from ‘all men political change. are free and equal in rights’ to ‘the Legislative Assembly rights and DUTIES of man and citizen’ Furet Thermidorean period “brought as response to anarchy. Fraternity only failure” Bi-cameral (two house) National banned as it signified a dangerous Assembly established sympathy for SC. Marissa Linton argues inevitable because rulers too young, Lower house: Council of Five Marxists (Lefebvre, Rude and Soboul) inexperienced. - The French went Hundred - terror was desperate response to war, almost overnight from being an inflation, conscription and constant absolute monarchy to a political Upper house: Council of system in which the will of the people Elders hunger of SC”. replaced that of the king. In the Furet - Jacobins were originators of Executive Assembly absence of traditions of parliamentary modern totalitarianism. rule, the French fell back on abstract 5-man executive Directory principles. (i.e. they had no idea what Changes revolution brought about: they were doing. With a king, they may Voting rights ‐ Feudal dues, privilege not have liked it, but they understood Limited under new constitution abolished 1789, women’s the order of things. The DORMAC was rights 1791-92, universal Only wealthy males could vote – manhood suffrage 1792, too abstract etc.) excluded much of middle class, urban abolition of slavery in French workers,peasants colonies 1794. 'the revolution retraced its steps. It reopened the discution about the • Year III amended 1791 clause declaration of rights, the sovereignty from ‘ all men are free and of the people, representation. It sought “The revolution had lost its innocence equal in rights’ to ‘the rights to write a document which would and the me who now ruled France were and DUTIES of man and render imposible any return to the hardened pragmatists” (McPhee) citizen’. revolutionary government, which it branded "anarchy", the lawless regime, • Fraternity is a loathsome “If year II was the year of SC, the Year and finally to bring 1789 to an end by word – signifies a III-V were the years of the popular a republic governed by reason and dangerous sympathy for the counterrevolution. For that reason property-ownership' (Furet) sans-culottes. alone, the Revolution itself wasn’t over” (Sutherland). • Gone - egalitarian spirit, hostility to wealth, 1 Aug – Law of Prairial removed. Robespierre’s cult of virtuous 5 Aug – All prisoners who eren’t under simplicity. LOS could be freed and all committees • Rather than positive had to give legitimate reasons for sentiments of Liberty, arrest. 3500 set free by end of equality and fraternity, Thermidor. (all 1794) directors swear an ‘Annual Oath of Hatred’ to all forms of ‘royalty and anarchy’. 5 October 1795 - Insurrection of 13 Vendemiaire Year IV Monarchists rally people, attempt coup. Rebels defeated by troops lead by Napoleon Bonaparte. Signalled shift in balance of power – power now in hands of military.
The Roles and Ideas of Leaders – encouraged people to take action.
Robespierre
FACTS Who, What, Where, Significance Historian’s Views When
‐ Joined CPS July 26th - savage acts of Terror already Rude – The ‐ ‘Incorruptible’, due to perpetrated. Danton head of CGS from Sep 1792, complicit revolution’s principles on in Sep Massacres. “The institutions of the Terror had been outstanding leader, integrity,virtue. created long before Robespierre joined the government on at every stage of its ‐ political paranoia 26th July 1793” (Lewis) creative years, and weak point in his ‐ Jacobin republic. Had enemies in convention. Jacobins rule the first champion leadership. in paranoid atmosphere. Afraid of losing credibility, losing of democracy and Early Days war, of each other. people’s rights. This is his main ‐ Advocated power of “They are worried about being misled by people with platitudes on claim to greatness. people (General Will) their lips and corruption in their hearts” (Linton) Attacked social Doyle and Hayden ‐ “We should seek to understand, but not exonerate what people are distinctions between - Both a terrorist capable of when fear and strong beliefs drive them forward” (Linton) “active” and and an ideologue,- “passive” citizens. R equated terror with virtue. given to abrupt or ‐ Elected assembly extreme solutions. inviolable Prairial law is key catalyst for R’s downfall. ‐ Condemned death Linton – He “A butchery of innocent and guilty alike…which cannot be excused penalty encapsulated what on the grounds of national defence because France was by this time ‐ Advocated abolition was best and worst safe” (Aulard) of slavery, political about the rights of women. Terror not necessary, considering France’s victory at Battle of revolution..a Fleurus (26 June 1794), which ended threat of Austrian toops on tireless advocate Later French soil –no more foreign troops in France as threat. for liberty and equality, yet to ‐ against war, believed France should focus defend these on enemy within. Robespierre making enemies because:- principles, was prepared to adopt ‐ Republic of virtue, equated terror with 1. SC angry due to loss of ultra-radical terror. virtue. leaders, such as Hebert. Jourdon – France ‐ Cult of Surpreme 2. Didn’t like checks placed on direct democracy by Law of Frimaire was a Republic Being built and ‐ Machinery and because limited power of fanatics. 3. R and CPS forced to cut wages by strengthened on legislations of Terror piles of corpses. – heads CPS (July 50% (Wage Maximum) to save 1793) Parisian manufacturing businesses. Needed munitions for war efforts, Jones in McPhee Constant paranoia at ‘enemies’ 4. Law of Prairial passed with very little (and advocated by that lurked at doors of discussion. Very vague, made Mcphee) – He Convention brought about his everyone potential enemy of didn’t destroy the eventual downfall. revolution. revolution, the 5. CGS wanted more influence. Reps- revolution ‐ 26 July 1794- R en-mission recalled to Paris under destroyed him. attacks deputies of Law of Frimaire, CPS worried about “For R, the Convention, hinting at own necks. bloodiness was widespread 6. Supporters of Indulgents (Danton) abstract, like the conspiracy against resented e continuation of terror, political system: liberty but refusing to Danton well liked. the guillotine was name anyone. 7. Cult of Surpreme Being – R fed by his moral ‐ 27 July 1794 – attempted to impose cult of ‘virtue preachings” (Furet) Deputies start and reason’, forcing French to attacking him, not worship nature, reason and nation. 8th allowing him to June – R ordered Festival of speak, arrest him. Surpreme Being, showed how ill minded he was.
Danton
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Liked due to relatable ‐ Many agree he was one of the ‐ President of Cordeliers Club, disheveled appearance, driving forces in overthrow of elected to Paris Commune of powerful oratory. While monarchy and establishment 1790, member of National Hebert fought for acceleration of the Republic. Convention and Committee in Terror, Danton argued for ‐ “A less bloody image than of Public Safety. slowing down Robespierre” (Furet) ‐ Tribune of revolution in times ‐ Sought sense of normality in of war –daring speech turned Convention, thought going tide of war, Sep 1792. too far; Revolutionary ‐ Oversees Committees of Government saw this as direct Surveillance – one of key attack, leading to Convention architects of government by voting to bring Danton and Terror. Desmoullins to be executed ‐ Justifies state of terror, (dead on 5th April 1794) burdens of leadership – let us because undermining be terrible so the people are authority. “This marked a new not so phase of the Terror, where people would die for their potential as much as for specific crimes” (Doyle)
Marat
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Assassinated by Charlotte “More revolutionary than the ‐ Urged people to kill traitors Corday (13 July 1793) , revolution itself” and “more useful to during period of Sep considered catalyst to Terror the Jacobins after he was dead because Massacres. Marat demanded with his denunciations of he was transformed into a martyr for “Let the blood of traitors Girondins, grain hoarders and the Republic of virtue” (Adcock) flow. That is the only way to royalist conspirators. save the country”. ‐ Killed him in retribution, sees “M was the personficiation of the ‐ Revolutionary martyr, him responsible for Girondin , Revolution’s excesses’ (McPhee) exacerbates Federalist terror. sees him as e reason for ‐ Believed in popular violence calamities “More useful after his death” (Adcock) and executions. ‐ Created paranoid atmosphere, ‐ Writer of his own newspaper “…amid the lurid ceremonies of accusations of conspiracy , “The Friend of the People” grain hoarding. Equated mob Mrat’s death, there was a clear lesson: . Called for King’s violence with patriotism, so if treason and assassins were execution after his Flight everywhere, moderation was urban workers encouraged to to Varennes (20 June take action against rich counterrevolutionary and unremitting 1791) bourgeois, fuelling their suspicion and vigilance were patriotic . Called for deputies who anger. He gave them reason to duties” (Sutherland) caused Champ de Mars be angry. Massacre to be held ‐ His death established martyr responsible (17 June of liberty, used as propaganda 1791) tool against plots that had . Encouraged Sep destroyed him. Massacres (1792) . Influenced Fall of Girondins (1793)
SC
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ Actions of SC not solely ‐ SC radicalize August 10 and ‐ Early 1793 – Girondins lost motivated by political goals, the Sep Massacres. power to Montagnards. Had also economically. come to power both because ‐ Petitions to Convention on 22 In 1792 of battle with e Feuillants and and 24 Feb 1793 to set call for war against Austria in maximum on prices Learned language of political 1792. accompanied by attacks on debate through Cordeliers ‐ In LA, Brissotins/Girondins food stores. Like bread riots especially. Learned violence united with Jacobins in of 1789 and grocery riots of was swift way of achieving condemnation of ‘royalist’ 1792, led mainly by women political ends. commitment of Feuillants to desperate to feed families. constitutional monarchy. ‐ Popular action had its base Pushed revolution forward ‐ By early 1793, rebellion in hunger and economic throughout 1792 – through Vendee, expansion of war suffering, with difference Paris Commune, journee of into five-front struggle th between survival and 20 June, dress rehearsal for against Coalition and starvation so minute that any journee of 10 August, 1792. condemnation of Sep small change in grocery Massacres earned Girondins prices critical. Currency ‐ “They tended to see hatred of SC. dropped to only 50% of face everything in B/W… and to ‐ supporters of federalism, value. Coinage rare, difficult believe any rumour against a weakening of power of to get. Food requisitioning for man who had fallen from central government, the army, blockade of ports popular favour” (Hampson) strengthening of local by British navy created ‐ Aug 10, sep massacres and government authorities. shortages of foodstuffs, cause expulsion of Girondins. ‐ Opposed ‘direct democracy’ commodity prices to rise. ‐ “Evident that popular opinion of SC, attacking them as of those whom as individuals ‐ Food crisis of Feb 1793 anarchists, accusing Jacobins intensified conflict between formed the main body of of being ‘levellers’ (reducing Girondins and SC. revolutionary crowds – was, all people to common level). in large part, molded by the ‐ Girondins blamed Marat for ‐ inciting violence and Roux direct experience of the SC and Enrages for preaching themselves” (Rude) violence. ‐ “In the 18 months between ‐ SC lost power when leaders, August 1792 and early 1794, such as Marat, Hebert and the political participation of Danton, executed. Parisian working people reached its zenith” (McPhee) ‐ “The revolutionary government, was a political concept cobbled together under pressure from supporters of direct democracy” (Furet) ‐ “Popular initiative created an extraordinary force for republican ‘regeneration’ (McPhee)
Fall of Girondins
FACTS Who, What, Where, When Significance Historian’s Views
‐ War breaking out between Expulsion of Girondins – May/June ‐ Flight of General Dumouriez radical Montagnards , 1793. First time force used against 5-6 April 1793. Girondin deputies. elected assembly. SC significant ‐ Dumouriez - strong supporter ‐ March 13 – Girondins influence over political decisions. of Brissot’s plans for war attacked radicals, demanding Guillotining of leaders showed that no with Austria, appointed violence be restrained, Rev one safe. Minister for Foreign Affairs brought to end in order to in King’s Girondin ministry give people peace, to preserve ‐ Anti Girondin riots instigated 1792. gains of revolution. by Marat from 31 May – 2 ‐ Hoped war end Revolution, Characterised SC as ‘idlers’, June. restore Louis. Commanded condemned lawlessness of ‐ Insurrectionary Committee French army at Valmy 20 journees, highlighted danger formed 28 May, militia of Sep 1792, saving Paris by of continuing revolution. 30000 SC raised. defeating Prussians, critical ‐ For Montagnard leaders ‐ Demanding for Girondin turning point in war. Goal declaration of war against deputies to be expelled, CO12 was to save France itself. them. In attacking SC and be dissolved, grain control. ‐ D wanted to defeat Austria by direct democracy, attacking Reinforced by 75000-100000 separating from Prussia. power base and Paris itself. National Guardsmen, guarded Wanted to use s military Words would appeal to those exits so no deputy could force to bring order back to who saw Paris as too radical, leave. revolutionary Paris, bring who were against bloodshed , ‐ Convention under siege by back monarchy. who wished political SC. Convention little choice ‐ March 1793, troops in structures to became but to concede. Belgium, defeated Austrians, decentralized. ‐ Girondins reaping hailed as hero. Committee of ‐ Girondins became linked with consequences of abandoning General Defence received D. principle that representative letter on 15 March from him of people immune from suggested he wished to Trial of Marat arrest. No deputy in restore constitutional Convention safe, “the ‐ Conflict reflected in e arrest monarchy. revolution had begun to and trial of Marat. He called ‐ Robespierre confiscated all devour its own children” on people to attack deputies public money, property of (F/A). Belgian Church of Convention, esp. Girondins ‐ Robespierre determined not calling them ‘criminal Expulsion of the Girondins to let D set up s own state. By accomplices of royalty’ April, following D’s defeat ‘enemies of liberty and 'Girondins were victims of their own by Austrians, D began equality’ (Schama) moderation' (DMG Sutherland) negotiations for armistice, ‐ Girondins demand he be attempted to persuade troops brought to trial – poor tactic Reasons for Girondin’s loss of favour to desert France, join Allied because Marat was leader of with S-C powers, march to Paris to SC and revolutionary loyalty overthrow Convention. They was unchallengeable in their Supported decentralisation of refused, D joined Austrians, eyes. power – opposed “direct his treason helped bring down ‐ 24 April 1793 – Marat Girondins. acquitted, supported saw as democracy” of S-C spectacular triumph. ‐ Schama described failed Did not support actions of S- C – saw them as savage Historians’ Opinions impreachment of Marat as ‘a collective disaster for the “drinkers of blood” – Why were the S-C to hostile to the Girondins’. In ignoring condemned September Girondins? immunity to prosecution of Massacres deputy of National Counter-revolution in Convention, Girondins Formed Commission of Vendee, federalist revolt destroyed principles, created Twelve to investigate actions o Intensified fear, suspicion precedent used by enemies of Paris Commune o Girondins federalists against them. suspected as traitors ‐ Misread public mood, which Defection of General Economic strain saw Marat as hero, them as Dumouriez (23 April 1793) o Soboul: S-C hostile potential traitors. towards those who had ‐ Ignored Paris Commune’s Had not turned economic more S-C hated demands for price control on situation around wealthier classes grain. Formed majority of Assignat had dropped to 50% Girondins provoked S-C members on Commission of o of its face value o Doyle: “The sans-culottes Twelve set up by Convention wanted their enemies to investigate actions of Expanded war into five-front silenced at whatever cost” Commune. struggle against Coalition o Doyle: The Girondins ‐ In mid May Commission “repeatedly invited the arrested some members of Impeached Marat, popular provinces to march on the commune (such as Hebert). figure with S-C (Marat was capital and destroy it” Girondins threatened them acquitted on 24 April 1793) o Girondins set up declaring “if these extremists Committee of Twelve to are allowed to have their way Federalist Revolts June 1793 investigate actions of and the principle of national Paris Commune representation suffers, Paris ‐ Rebellions emerging from David Jordan: It was all will be annihilated” (Hibbert). trading cities, such as Robespierre ‐ Declaring Convention at war Bordeaux, Toulouse ,Lons. with Paris Commune, SC. Simon Schama: execution of Bordeaux once France’s s sections and SC Girondins was with nature of ‐ Pari second busiest port, but due demanded for arrest of Revolution itself to war and British blockade, Girondins, threatening to take trade disappeared. Birthplace matters into own hands. 33/48 of Girondist politics. sections supported petition. ‐ Arrest of Girondin deputies 2 15 April, Girondin deputies June 1793 triggered these expelled. Federalist revolts. ‘Popular Commission of Public Safety’ Dominant voices in Paris Commune set up, urged people to reject included ‘men of August 10’ – Danton rules of Paris and establish and Marat, with Robespierre also own National Convention to accusing G for being involved with march onto Paris and restore D’s treason. constitutional government. 26 May – Robespierre called on people ‐ Federalist Revolts were about to rise up in anger against ‘corrupt conflict between centralized deputies’ (Doyle) and declared his own power and lack of local stand against them. autonomy. Angered by arbitrary nature of government in Paris, power of SC and damage done to trade by war with Coalition. ‐ 12 October 1793 – Committee of Public Safety declared that Lyons should be destroyed. ‐ On the night of the 29-30 November, a month after 29 of Girondin deputies expelled from national Convention executed in Paris, 200 merchants arrested , 104 were guillotined. Suspected crime using Revolution to become rich. ‐ “There was a tremendous scene (expulsion of Girondins) where for the first time there appeared the confrontation between national representation and direct democracy personified in the brute force of the poorer classes and their guns” (Furet) ‐ “The Girondins quarrel with Paris was paralyzing the entire course of public affairs, if not endangering the very existence of the convention” (Doyle)