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Although commercial and government mapmakers benefi ted from ever wider paper-making machines, the market for large sheets of high-grade paper was domi- nated by book manufacturers, who typically printed signatures of sixteen, thirty-two, or sixty-four pages on P the same sheet. The substantial growth in newspaper circulation in the late nineteenth century followed the Pan American Institute of Geography and History. development of steam-powered rotary web presses that See Societies, Cartographic: Latin America printed directly onto a continuous roll (web) of news- print, manufactured inexpensively from wood pulp. Un- til the rise of online cartography in the 1990s, news and Paper. Paper’s importance throughout the twentieth weather maps distributed on cheap, acidic newsprint, century as a medium for reproducing, disseminating, which readily yellowed, outnumbered all other carto- and storing cartographic information is matched only graphic images. by its neglect in the literatures of practical cartography Paper for printing maps was typically ordered in com- and post-Enlightenment map history. Hundreds of ar- paratively small lots according to specifi cations that re- ticles have addressed the future of the paper map, but its fl ected the intended use. Aeronautical and nautical charts, transport medium seems to have eluded scholarly scru- for instance, had to accommodate frequent annotation, tiny, except among archivists and librarians concerned and paper for the latter had to resist humidity. Military with preservation (McIlwaine 1990). This short entry maps intended for fi eld use were printed on waterproof offers a few general insights about the kinds of paper paper, whereas paper for atlases and double-sided map used in map printing as well as structural changes in the sheets had to be relatively opaque. Because most sheet paper industry between 1900 and 2000 that would have maps were printed on only one side of the paper, map- affected the papers used to print maps. making agencies could cope with wartime shortages by By 1900, the paper used for printing maps as well as printing new maps on the back of obsolete stock. for map drawing was entirely machine made. The most Salient trends in the pulp and paper industry have af- signifi cant breakthrough occurred around the beginning fected the quality and durability of the high-grade paper of the nineteenth century when papermakers in England used for map printing. For example, the need for a siz- and France learned to make paper in continuous rolls ing agent to resist water penetration was a key concern. rather than in individual sheets. The brothers Sealy and Maps intended for outdoor use require a highly perma- Henry Fourdrinier, who ran a stationery business in nent size, such as melamine formaldehyde, which was London, cut the manufacturing time from three months common in both 1900 and 2000, but a wider variety of to one day with a multistage machine that converted materials was in use at century’s end. In 1900 the paper a slurry of rag or wood fi bers into a dry roll of uni- might also have been coated with animal glue, a very formly thick paper, which was then cut into individual robust coating. sheets (Munsell 1876, 60–61). Machine speed increased Throughout the century, paper for indoor maps was progressively throughout the nineteenth and twentieth produced using a mixture of hardwoods and softwoods centuries, and paper manufacturers experimented with in roughly a 40:60 ratio. Hardwoods provide opacity, numerous improvements to the technical processes for smoothness, and resiliency, whereas softwoods provide preparing, pressing, chemically modifying, and drying tensile strength and resistance to tearing along folds. If the pulp and for bleaching and coating the paper to a folded map were to be opened and closed repeatedly, meet buyers’ requirements for whiteness, opacity, thick- the paper would typically contain even more softwood ness, smoothness, weight, tolerance for folding, and re- and perhaps some long plant fi bers. In 1900 most pa- sistance to heat, sunlight, and humidity (Libby 1962). per manufactured in the United States was made in the Paris Peace Conference (1919) 1049 Northeast from species such as black spruce and maple Munsell, Joel. 1876. Chronology of the Origin and Progress of Paper using the sulfi te process, which produces bright, hard, and Paper-Making. 5th ed. Albany: J. Munsell. Weeks, Lyman Horace. 1916. A History of Paper-Manufacturing in the and somewhat weaker paper. In 2000 virgin (nonrecy- United States, 1690–1916. New York: Lockwood Trade Journal. cled) paper was made using the kraft process, in which Wilson, William K. 2001. “Manufacture of Paper for War Maps and the pulp needs more bleaching but is stronger and less Other Applications.” In A Century of Excellence in Measurements, troublesome for the machinery. The major reason for the Standards, and Technology: A Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST demise of the sulfi te process was the cost and pollution Publications, 1901–2000, ed. David R. Lide, 66–68. [Gaithersburg]: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and associated with the recovery of the pulping chemicals— Technology. problems solved with the modern kraft mill, which is a closed system that can be run with little air or water emissions. With the kraft process, the industry was able Paradigms. See Academic Paradigms in Cartography to pulp southern pines, but these species were not used in printing grades and found their forte in packaging grades. Paris Peace Conference (1919). The United States Perhaps the most signifi cant difference between 1900 entered World War I by declaring war on Germany on and 2000 is the amount of recycled fi ber used in print- 6 April 1917. That month a committee composed of ing. In 1900 little fi ber was recycled, but by century’s end Colonel Edward Mandell House, Sidney Edward Mezes about 50 percent of the fi ber was recycled. Even so, be- (House’s brother-in-law), Walter Lippmann, and David cause recycled fi ber is weaker than virgin material, high- Hunter Miller began peace preparations. Lippmann, as er-quality map papers often contained no recycled fi ber. secretary, directed the project, known as the Inquiry, A second major change concerns the internal sizing which began at the New York City Public Library. On and fi llers used in the paper. In 1900 the internal size 10 November 1917, the work was transferred to the was an alum/rosin system, which required a pH of 4.5 third fl oor of the American Geographical Society, which to 5.0 to function properly. Achieving this pH required held a very fi ne collection of books and maps. The treating the stock with sulfuric acid, which attacks the work began to founder, and Lippmann was replaced by glycosidic bond in the cellulose molecule so that these Mezes, president of the City College of New York, who papers eventually become very brittle. In 1900 clay was also had trouble structuring this newly created intellec- the principal fi ller added to the pulp. In the 1970s syn- tual apparatus. Meanwhile, Cyrus C. Adams and John thetic sizing agents allowed the use of calcium carbon- Storck gave time to the acquisition and drafting of maps ate as the fi ller, which produced a stronger paper at a thought to be needed. Early in June 1918 Storck wrote lower cost. In addition, the paper was now buffered at and released “Guide of the Map Program,” indicating a moderately alkaline pH. Even though the air contains that the Inquiry had advanced its mapping program sulfur dioxide, which is detrimental to paper, it is neu- very little. tralized by the calcium carbonate so that the paper is In August, Isaiah Bowman, who was put in charge now permanent. of “the running of men, money, and plans,” promptly Although a clay coating could be used together with established a Research Committee comprising Charles calcium carbonate to provide a smooth fi nish, the exact Homer Haskins, James Thomson Shotwell, Allyn Ab- ingredients were usually a trade secret. All maps are not bott Young, and himself (Martin 1980, 82). Shortly the same, and the papermaker can design a special grade thereafter, Mark Sylvester William Jefferson returned of paper containing a mixture of specifi c species and addi- from his Inquiry investigation of the German popula- tives to meet the product’s needs. As with most products, tions in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. Bowman, who had there is always a trade-off between cost and quality. once been an undergraduate at Michigan State Normal Mark Monmonier and John H. Cameron School, Ypsilanti, where Jefferson taught, placed his for- mer teacher in charge of the cartographic program. Jef- See also: Drafting of Maps: Drawing Media; Map: Printed Map; Re- ferson had the remarkable ability to simplify complexity, production of Maps: Reproduction of Maps by Printing to inspire ingenuity of cartographic expression, and to Bibliography: display such manual dexterity with economy of line that Biermann, Christopher J. 1996. Handbook of Pulping and Papermak- his leadership, long hours, and indefatigable fascination ing. 2d ed. San Diego: Academic Press. Cameron, John. 1989. “‘Making Book’ on Permanent Paper.” Chapter with the enterprise insured success for the mapping ef- One: The AIChE Magazine for Students 3, no. 2:19–22. fort. Furthermore, Jefferson had both a marked linguis- Libby, Clarence Earl. 1962. “History of Pulp and Paper.” In Pulp and tic capacity and an advanced knowledge of the geog- Paper Science and Technology, 2 vols., ed. Clarence Earl Libby, raphy of Europe gained through fi eldwork, publication 1:1–19. New York: McGraw-Hill. of a number of articles, and Notes on the Geography McIlwaine, John. 1990. “Preservation and Storage.” In Information Sources in Cartography, ed.