Economic Committee of West

African States

Topic A: Improving Energy Production and Access Topic B: Restricting the Financing of Terrorism and Money Laundering

MUNUC 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS

______

Letter from the Chair………………………………………………………….. 3

Letter from the Crisis Director……………………………………………….. 4

History of ECOWAS……..……………………………………………………... 5

Topic A: Improving Energy Production and Access………………....… 7 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….. 7 History of the Problem………………………………………………… 12 Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 18 Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 21 Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 24 Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 26

Topic B: Restricting the Financing of Terrorism and Money Laundering……………………………………………………………………. 27 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….27

History of the Problem………………………………………………… 32 Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 38 Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 41 Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 44 Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 46

Bibliography…………………………………………………………….……. 48

2 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR

______

Dear Delegates,

We are so excited to have you be part of our committee, Economic Community of West African States, for this year’s MUNUC conference! I am Abigail Jackman, and am the chair for this committee. I am a second year at the University of Chicago double majoring in Political Science and Public Policy. Besides MUNUC, I am a chair for ChoMUN, UChicago’s collegiate conference, the scholarship director for my sorority, and an editor for the newspaper. This committee will allow delegates to critical think about two major issues that have always been critical for West Africa and have started being important globally. Delegates will be able to develop ways to promote energy access to the rural areas of West Africa, ensuring not only major cities have energy year round. Additionally, debates about how and where to source this energy will be another critical element of this topic. Our second topic, money laundering financing terrorism, is another issue that has several ways to approach it. With West Africa having some of the most dominant terrorist groups in Africa and the world, finding a solution to eliminate their financial intake is crucial. As money laundering comes in different forms, different solutions will have varying degrees of effectiveness and it is up to the delegates to find one that will have the greatest impacts on these terrorist groups.

Regards,

Abigail Jackman

Chair, ECOWAS

3 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CRISIS DIRECTOR

______

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the Economic Community of West African States, at MUNUC XXXII. My name is Alexander Vinarov, and I will be your crisis director for this committee. I am currently a sophomore at The University of Chicago, planning on majoring in Environmental Science and minoring in History. On campus, I am involved with UChicago’s collegiate conference (ChoMUN), with our Model UN travel team, and with our club tennis team. Delegates will have the unique opportunity to tackle very pressing issues to a region of the world that has been gaining importance. Energy production and access is critical to continued progress in West Africa. With increasing demand and environmental factors, delegates will have their hands full coming up with a comprehensive solution for this topic. Financing of terrorism and money laundering are issues that go hand in hand and are a scourge to the region. Delegates will find that this topic will have to be addressed in such a way that the complexities of criminal enterprises and terrorist organizations are combatted effectively. This committee will also feature a crisis element, which will be used to explore the ramifications of actions taken by delegates throughout the course of the conference. I am very excited to share this weekend with everyone and look forward to lively productive debate.

Sincerely,

Alexander Vinarov

Crisis Director, ECOWAS

4 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 HISTORY OF ECOWAS

______

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established on May 28th, 1975 with the Treaty of Lagos, with a mandate of promoting economic integration across the region and collective self-sufficiency. All fifteen member countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Senegal, and Togo) understood at the time that more progress could be made by working together than staying separate and isolated, and have thus worked hard to promote economic trade, national cooperation, and general development of West Africa. The Treaty was revised in 1993, going even further to foster political integration, and to promote governmental stability with goals of greater economic integration. The stated goals of ECOWAS include the creation of a monetary zone, an economic and monetary union, a community parliament, a community court of justice, and a multilateral armed force. By bringing together over 349 million people from diverse backgrounds and cultures, ECOWAS has the potential to bring about positive impacts and be a role-model for

regional bodies across the world1.

1 "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African States. ECOWAS. 2016. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/about-ecowas/basic-information/.

5 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 TOPIC A: IMPROVING ENERGY PRODUCTION AND ACCESS

______

Statement of the Problem

Introduction to the problem

The world today is changing at a rapid pace. New technologies are being invented, populations are exponentially increasing, and our world is becoming even more interconnected. Yet with these changes come problems that threaten to slow the pace of progress. One major roadblock is resources - more specifically, energy. Energy is needed to help invent and power innovations. Energy is needed to improve the quality of life of people as populations grow. And energy is needed if the world is to continue becoming more interconnected and interdependent. For some, energy is not a constant, but a privilege. And nowhere can this be more evidently seen than in certain regions of the world that have the potential to make large strides in energy production and access.

Energy is essential to everyday life in high-income countries. Energy in the form of electricity is used to heat homes, power cell phones, and run the economy. This is no less true in low-income countries, yet there is a fundamental difference in how energy is integrated into society in these two different types of countries. Generally, high-income countries have levels of energy infrastructure that allow for a greater inputs and outputs, at a sustained rate, whereas low-income countries suffer from insufficient energy production and inadequate energy access for their citizens.

While essential, improving energy production and access has also not always been of critical importance to countries in the region. Many populations are lacking more fundamental access to resources necessary for survival, such as food and water. In Africa, almost half of the continent’s

population lives in water scarce environments2. And in West Africa alone, 13.5% of the population is

2"Conférence “Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges”." Conférence "Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges" | GIS Climat Environnement Société. October 03, 2012. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20160401234042/http://www.gisclimat.fr/manifestation-scientifique/conférence-“water- scarcity-africa-issues-and-challenges”.

6 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 undernourished3. These issues are clearly very pressing and can take precedent over access to electricity, which may seem like a luxury in comparison. However, these issues can go hand in hand with enhanced energy production, and access to facilitating the sourcing, transportation, and storage of food and water. Countries are becoming more conscious of this fact and ECOWAS’

member nations have demonstrated their commitment to this issue going forward4.

In Africa, The World Bank has declared 32 of the 48 nations on the continent to be in an energy crisis, which is defined as any significant bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an

economy5. Yet the continent is flush with energy potential, in the form of both fossil fuels and renewable energy sources. As populations have grown, investment in energy infrastructure, both on the production and the access side, has not kept up. This is what has led to the energy crises faced by governments and people across much of the continent. These are problems that will only be exacerbated by future conditions, from climate change to an ever increasing population, and must be dealt with now before the problems become unsolvable.

The effects of climate change

3"Agriculture and Food Security | West Africa Regional." U.S. Agency for International Development. August 01, 2017. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.usaid.gov/west-africa-regional/agriculture-and-food-security. 4Bara-Hart, Jonathan. "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African StatesECOWAS. May 24, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/ecowas-launches-energy-governance- programme-for-west-africa/. 5"Resources For." Africa - Fact Sheet: The World Bank and Energy in Africa. 2013. Accessed June 25, 2019. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21935594~pagePK:146736~piP K:146830~theSitePK:258644,00.html.

7 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Various aspects of climate change can affect energy production. Changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level, as well as the frequency and severity of extreme events will affect how much energy is produced, delivered, and consumed. Annual temperatures in West Africa are quite high:

the lowest being above 18 °C (64.4 °F) and the maximum being above 40 °C (104 °F)6. The hotter it gets, the more electricity will be needed for cooling systems, such as air conditioning. They will also be needed to power appliances such as stoves, as fueling them with wood would heat up the house even more.

However, climate change also affects the systems that generate energy. As more people need energy and consumption rises, the weak infrastructure that currently exists could be overpowered,

shutting down the systems entirely7. Infrastructures that use water for cooling or to obtain energy are more efficient when the water is cooler. With higher temperatures, the temperature of the water would also increase and make the systems less efficient. Infrastructure near the coast or in countries with heavy and frequent storms are also vulnerable. As the number of floods and intense storms increase, those infrastructure have a higher chance of being damaged or completely wiped out. Power lines that makeup power grids are also at a higher risk of getting damaged with severe storms and flooding, possibly causing blackouts for several countries.

The effects of an increasing population

With a growing population but a constant source of energy, home conditions worsen as they have to live without energy, either because of blackouts from over consumption or they do not have access to it. The most obvious effect of limited energy resources for a growing population is overconsumption. Due to the lack of diverse energy sources, energy would have to come from the same infrastructure that is already being used. However, most of these systems are already weak and provide poor access and more people using it would only deteriorate it further. Indoor air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid biomass for cooking kills around six hundred thousand

people every year, mostly affecting women and young children8. As women and girls are often in

6 "West Africa: Land Use and Land Cover Dynamics." Climate | West Africa. Accessed July 23, 2019. https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/node/157. 7 “Ibid.” 8 Hafner, Manfred, Simone Tagliapietra, and Lucia De Strasser. "The Challenge of Energy Access in Africa." SpringerLink. January 01, 1970. Accessed July 23, 2019. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92219-5_1.

8 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 charge of household management, such as the collection of water and energy sources like wood, they are kept out of school and employment. Ultimately, the lack of growth for efficient energy sources for a growing population will only serve to hinder women empowerment and further

socioeconomic development9.

Significance of energy production and access

Energy production is the act of obtaining sources of energy from natural resources. This includes the production of conventional, alternative, and renewable sources of energy, as well as the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. The production of energy is a vital part of any country’s economy and must be treated as a priority in order for development to occur. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines energy access as “a household having reliable and affordable access to both clean cooking facilities and electricity, which is enough to supply a basic bundle of energy services initially, and then an increasing level of electricity over time to reach

the regional average”10. Having a reliable and sustainable access to energy is key to ensure a better quality of life. Energy production and access are both needed to fulfill the needs of any populace, especially one that is young, diverse, and growing rapidly.

There is a direct correlation between economic growth and electricity supply11. For prolonged economic growth to occur in certain regions of the world, there are certain tangibles that are needed to ensure a smoothly-run economy. According to McKinsey, countries with electrification rates of less than 80% of the population consistently suffer from reduced GDP per capita. Electrification spurs innovation and productivity, which in turn spurs economic growth and development. Thus, the two important metrics that determine whether a country’s energy sector is supporting national development are access to energy (electricity), and how much they are able to produce to meet consumption demands.

9 “Ibid.” 10"Methodology for Energy Access Analysis." IEA. 2017. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.iea.org/energyaccess/methodology/. 11Castellano, Antonio, Adam Kendall, Mikhail Nikomarov, and Tarryn Swemmer. "Powering Africa." McKinsey & Company. February 2015. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/electric-power-and-natural- gas/our-insights/powering-africa.

9 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Current situation

The current situation in Africa is not ideal, and this is reflected in West Africa as well. Some countries suffer from problems in energy production, some suffer from problems with energy access for its citizens, and some suffer from a combination of both problems. These problems are manifestations of a multitude of factors, ranging from political, infrastructural, and other economic causes of energy insecurity. Highlighting the complexity of the issue, electricity access in Ghana has increased 500% between 1991 and 2000, while per capita consumption fell, suggesting that electricity usage was unaffordable. While access in basic terms has increased in Ghana, by IAEA standards and by the anecdote above, the supposed increase in access has not resulted in actual gains by the affected population. This is an example that highlights the complexity of the problem, and the necessity for any solution to be multifaceted. Across the region, many countries are dependent on fossil fuels and expensive imports to meet domestic energy consumption. Thus, it is necessary for more effective methods of obtaining energy to be implemented throughout this region. It is the only solution that will allow the growing population to catch up to the rest of the world.

10 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 History of the Problem

Introduction

When examining the current state of energy production and access in West Africa, it is necessary to look at the historical causes for the current state of affairs. Countries that form ECOWAS have many problems and solutions with roots in the last 150 years of African history. By understanding the context and foundation of the topic and this organization, successful solutions can be created that are specific enough to work for the region, yet comprehensive enough to serve as a guide for other regions facing similar issues around the world.

Colonialism

The historical phenomenon that most significantly shaped West Africa in recent years is the colonization of the region by European countries, beginning in the late 19th century. Imperialist expansion by countries such as France, England, Germany, and Portugal in West Africa was

motivated by political, social, and economic factors12. Politically, Africa served as a natural arena for the spillover from European power politics. Control over colonies add to a country’s prestige and create strategic advantages (in terms of military bases and the projection of power) in conflicts and

negotiations over other European countries13. At the same time, social unrest in Europe was mounting with poverty, unemployment, migration to cities all contributing to this issue. Colonies provided for more job opportunities and the potential to ease overpopulation by sending citizens to

settle newly colonized parts of Africa14. Newly established colonies also offered European powers economic benefits through the opening of new markets, source of raw materials, and other natural

resources to support industrialization back home15. The main impetus and formalization for the exponential growth in colonial activities and the so-called “Scramble for Africa” was the Berlin

12 Iweriebor, Ehiedu E.G. "The Colonization of Africa." Africana Age. 2011. Accessed June 25, 2019. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-colonization-of-africa.html. 13 Collins, Mairi, John Fishburn, Josie James, and Delia Ryan. Imperialism and Race Relations. Edited by H.R. Cowie. Revised ed. Vol. 5. Melbourne: Nelson, 1986. 14 Iweriebor.. 15 Frankema, Ewout, Jeffrey Williamson, and Pieter Woltjer. 2015. “The Commercial Transition and the Commodity Price Boom of 1845-1885”. An Economic Rationale for the African Scramble. National Bureau of Economic Research, May. https://www.nber.org/papers/w21213.pdf

11 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Conference (or West Africa Conference). The conference brought together many European powers and regulated colonization in the region, laying the foundation for wide-reaching effects seen

today16.

In governing their newly acquired colonies, European countries tended to take one of two main approaches: assimilation or indirect rule. Assimilation, an approach favored by the French, led to the establishment of a centralized bureaucratic administrative system. In this system, governance was highly conserved among colonial leaders, while the French government took an active role in

day-to-day administration of its colonies17. This led to Africans having a very small role in governance, usually at a local level with heavy oversight from French colonial leaders. Indirect rule, which was favored by the English, worked with alliances made between colonial leaders and preexisting African leaders and governing institutions. This led to a larger involvement by Africans in affairs on a larger scale, and greater integration of locals in the bureaucracy and managerial

positions18. The types of governments set up in West African colonies and the levels of integration of locals within the governments would eventually have effects that are evident in the modern day.

Decolonization of West Africa began as European powers realized the need to stop overextending themselves and devote political will and resources elsewhere following World War II. This coincided with the emergence of African leaders, who had benefited from colonial educational opportunities

and the knowledge of the political system of the colonial powers19. Additionally, during World War II, a heavier reliance on colonies for troops and other material led to Africans participating in the colonial society more directly, allowing them to acquire more technical knowledge and a deeper

political awareness20. An increase in the population of educated people in colonies, coupled with an increased level of involvement in colonial society during World War II, led to African independence movements in the region.

16 Ajala, Adekunle. "The Nature of African Boundaries." Africa Spectrum 18, no. 2 (1983): 177-89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40174114. 17 Iweriebor. 18 McCaskie, T.C., and John D. Fage. "Western Africa." Encyclopædia Britannica. March 29, 2016. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Africa/Initial-difficulty-of-European-administration. 19 Ajala. 20 LeVine, Victor T. Research in African Literatures 24, no. 1 (1993): 142-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820215.

12 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 By 1975, all ECOWAS countries had become independent from their colonial rulers. However, the coming decades contained several post-colonial conflicts that crippled the region socially, politically,

and economically21. Bloody conflicts such as the Nigerian Civil War and the Liberian Civil Wars, military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso, and the more recent incidents of terrorism in the western

Sahel have led to general instability that has hampered development in the region22. This has set apart West Africa from other regions of the world that have experienced more substantial progress and development since gaining independence.

Mismanagement

Africa needs politicians who strive to better their people to be able to adequately manage its energy. However, that is not always the case. At a meeting of the African Union in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, then Secretary of State Hillary Clinton contended that many African leaders seem more concerned

with staying eternally in power than serving their people23. These leaders who care more about staying in power than their citizens ignore the energy crisis that Africa, especially West Africa, has been facing for decades. While power hungry leaders are ignoring the needs of their citizens, it is much worse when those leaders are corrupt.

Corruption in West Africa can reach levels of gross and egregious theft. Even though corruption has been present in West Africa since its start, there is only one country with anti-corruption laws (Benin) but does not cover all possible corruption. Currently, only the President of the Republic and

members of its government are required to publicly disclose their financial system24. Even with that, no West African country has a corruption perception index higher than 45, the average being in the low 30s. On the index, 100 indicates the least politically corrupt countries and 0 indicates the most

politically corrupt25. In several parts of West Africa, international observers believe that elections are

21 Adebajo, Adekeye. Building Peace in West Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. 22 Annan, Nancy. "Violent Conflicts and Civil Strife in West Africa: Causes, Challenges and Prospects." Stability: International Journal of Security & Development3, no. 1 (2014): 3. doi:10.5334/sta.da. https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.da/ 23 Joseph, Richard. Democracy and Reconfigured Power in Africa. Report. Brookings. 2011. 24 Kulovics, Alexandra. Money Laundering in West Africa: An Analysis. Report. University of Toronto. 2009. 1-121. 25 "Corruption Perceptions Index 2018." Transparency International. 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018.

13 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 subject to vast forms of fraud and corruption26. With the leaders of various West African countries having corrupt agendas or having been dishonestly elected into their position, they have other interests than solving the energy crisis. Another form of corruption within West African leaders is embezzlement. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that between 1960 and

1999, close to $400 billion USD was stashed away in foreign bank accounts by Nigeria leaders27. While most current leaders are doing nothing to help, Africa has struggled starting from their independence.

European imperialists prided themselves on bringing civilization and developing Africa, yet Africa gained almost nothing in terms of infrastructure when they became independent. The infrastructure they had, such as roads or railways, were intended to aide the transportation of raw goods and led straight to the coastline. While Africa won independence, they still relied heavily on Western

countries as their weak economy was based mainly on trade28. Their current energy crisis can even connect back to their independence and the lack of infrastructure. To add to their list of problems, many African leaders had next to no political experience. Even if they came to power with the best intentions, they lacked the knowledge of how to run a country.

Lack of investment

In West Africa, access to electricity is at 52% with shortages up to 80 hours per month. With little help from their leaders, electricity in West Africa is the most costly, being priced at $0.25 US

dollars (USD) per kilowatt-hour. The global average is less than half that price29. On top of that, power tariffs add to the already costly price. Tariffs in Sub-Saharan Africa average $0.13 USD per

kilowatt-hour and is even more for countries dependent on diesel-based systems30. One of the main reasons for the high cost of energy is the lack of infrastructure present in West Africa. The few

26 Ibid. 27 Costa, Antonio Maria. "Nigeria's Corruption Busters." United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/nigerias-corruption-busters.html. 28 Thompsell, Angela. "The Biggest Challenges Faced by African States at Independence." ThoughtCo. April 18, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/challenges-african-states-faced-at-independence-43754. 29"Regional Power Trade in West Africa Offers Promise of Affordable, Reliable Electricity." World Bank. April 20, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/04/20/regional-power-trade-west-africa- offers-promise-affordable-reliable-electricity. 30"Fact Sheet: The World Bank and Energy in Africa." World Bank. 2013. Accessed June 26, 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/.

14 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 infrastructures that are present in West Africa are out-dated and are unable to use cheaper and more efficient methods of energy access. Since the mid 1990s, Africa has received around $600 million USD of public assistance per year and a similar amount from private finance. While the combined $1.2 billion USD seems enough to help transition West Africa to more cost effective methods,

Nigeria alone has an estimated “mean net cost of electricity” of around $1.6 billion USD31. In fact, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that it would take $27 billion USD for 12 years to

achieve universal access in Sub-Saharan Africa32. The math is simple: there is simply too low of investments to maintain, let alone re-create, West Africa’s energy systems.

While efforts have been made to help West Africa’s energy access, most of it has been ineffective. For example, electricity access in Ghana increased 500% between 1991 and 2000, but per capita consumption fell over the same period. This trend suggests that the newly accessible energy was unaffordable for most. Currently, various organizations are working on funding cheap and clean energy for West Africa. While the majority of Africa is still in an energy crisis, the world and even some of African leaders are realizing all options must be cheaper than what already exists. If not, whatever money is spent to establish new expensive systems will be money wasted.

Economic Community of West African States

The Economic Community of West African States was established on May 28th, 1975 with the

Treaty of Lagos, with a mandate of promoting economic integration across the region33. All fifteen member countries understood at the time that more progress could be made by working together than staying separate and isolated, and have thus worked hard to promote economic trade, national cooperation, and general development of West Africa. The Treaty was revised in 1993, going even further to foster political integration, and to promote governmental stability with goals of greater

31Adegoke, Yinka. "The Cost of Electricity Shortages in Africa Is More than Just a Problem of Access." Quartz Africa. October 21, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://qz.com/africa/1431213/africas-electricity-shortages-have-health-and- economic-costs/. 32Corfee-Morlot, Jan, Paul Parks, James Ogunleye, and Famous Ayeni. Achieving Clean Energy Access in Sub-Saharan Africa. OECD Case Study. Financing Climate Futures. OECD. 1-4. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/climate-futures/Achieving-clean-energy-access-Sub-Saharan-Africa.pdf. 33 ECOWAS

15 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 economic integration34. The stated goals of ECOWAS include the creation of a monetary zone, an economic and monetary union, a community parliament, a community court of justice, and a multilateral armed force.

Conclusion

Many different factors have led to the current social, political, and economic climate in West Africa today. History must be closely examined, both successes and failures, in order to chart a successful path forward for West Africa. The spectre of colonialism and conflict is present in the region, but great strides have been made to lay the foundation for progress on many fronts, including the improvement of energy production and access. The current situation in West Africa on this issue is not rosy, but there are reasons to be optimistic. ECOWAS member nations must be in order to continue to develop the region.

34 Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "What Countries Are Members of ECOWAS?" ThoughtCo. June 21, 2019. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/economic-community-west-african-states-ecowas-43900.

16 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Past Actions

Introduction

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established on May 28, 1975

through the treaty of Lagos35 with the vision of elevating their member states through their resources and the creation of opportunities under a sustainable environment. To achieve their vision, ECOWAS has various sectors and subcommittees that specialize in specific areas to alleviate various struggles and crises West Africa has been facing. With those sectors and sub-committees, many have been created specifically to address the energy crisis in West Africa and efforts are only growing stronger. While there are several different subcommittees, sectors, and outside organizations providing aid or resources to solve the West African energy crisis, they rarely work alone. Instead, it is common for several committees and/or organizations to collaborate together and combine their efforts, research, and resources together.

Department of Energy

One of these sectors is the Department of Energy. The department was created to ensure coordination and harmonization of member states policies and programs in the field of energy. To

35 ECOWAS

17 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 accomplish this, the department works with the member states and other development partners to

improve energy production, distribution, and utilization within the region36.

In 2013, the department initiated the emergency electrical energy supply programme of Conakry with three other emergency programs adopted. The three programs were: the emergency programme for electrical energy supply to Grand Banjul, the emergency programme for the supply

of electrical energy to Freetown, and the special programme for Mali37. The emergency programme for electrical energy supply to Grand Banjul gave $32.90 million USD used to the rehabilitation and maintenance of the means of production, purchase of fuel, capacity, reparation, implementation, supervision and monitoring evaluation. The programme for Freetown gave $21.8 million USD used to maintain their current power plant, purchase fuel, purchase pre-paid meters for revenue improvement, and urgent rehabilitation of the transport and electrical energy distribution network. The special programme for Mali allocated $54.2 million USD for fuel and rehabilitation of the means

of production and electricity networks of the liberated zones38.

West African Power Pool (WAPP)

The West African Power Pool (WAPP) was created in 1999 and is a cooperation go the national electric companies in Western Africa which functions under ECOWAS. They strive to integrate the national power systems into a unified regional electricity market. The purpose of that is with the ultimate goal of providing, both short term and long term, a regular and reliable energy at competitive cost for citizens within the ECOWAS region.

Improving the Energy Governance in West Africa (AGoSE-AO)

On May 22, 2018 in Abuja, Nigeria, ECOWAS collaborated with the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) and the European Union (EU) to launch the regional program Improving the Energy Governance in West Africa (AGoSE-AO). This program would allow the region to meet all the challenges faced when trying to have universal access to energy and sustainable energy in West

36 ECOWAS "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African StatesECOWAS. 2016. Accessed July 07, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/ecowas-sectors/energy/. 37 Boddy-Evans. 38 Boddy-Evans.

18 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Africa39. This is an effort to achieve the three objectives of the UN’s initiative “Sustainable Energy for All” or SEforALL for 2030. The three objectives are: ensure universal access to modern energy services, doubling energy efficiency, and doubling the share of renewable energy. This program will also harmonise national, legislative, and regulatory frameworks in order to promote investments in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and universal access to modern energy.

39 Bara-Hart, Jonathan. "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African States.ECOWAS. May 24, 2018. Accessed July 07, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/ecowas-launches-energy-governance- programme-for-west-africa/.

19 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions

Grid Integration

Integrating power grids among neighboring countries is an effective way of increasing energy access

and allowing for a more efficient distribution of electricity to places where it is needed40. This has already been seen in ECOWAS initiatives such as the West African Power Pool (WAPP) and other regional pools around Africa. Across the continent as a whole, it has been projected that regional integration with power pools could save over $40 billion in capital spending, and save consumers

almost $10 billion per year by 204041. Grid integration will make power systems more resilient, as it will spread out and therefore ease the burden of unexpected energy shortages and disruptions across the region. Consumption of energy will also become more affordable with countries being

able to benefit from the least costly resources present in the region42. Yet, one unintended side effect of a grid integration crossing countries is vulnerability. If one part of the grid becomes

damaged or faulty, it could cause failure in the rest of the connected grid as well43. The most obvious barrier to grid integration is cooperation. To have a grid that crosses country’s borders, those countries must agree to work together in forming an integrated grid. For example, there is no guarantee that a richer country would agree to grid integration if it has to carry most of the financial burden for the poorer countries.

Rural Electrification

Sub-Saharan Africa has an average grid access rate of around 20%44. The majority of the people who do have access to the grid live in urban areas. For those who live in rural areas, electricity can be hard to come by, and electrifying those areas can be difficult for governments. Specifically within the

40 Niyimbona, P., Mr. The Challenges of Operationalizing Power Pools in Africa. Presentation. Economic Commission for Africa, United Nations. Cairo, Egypt, 2005. 41 Castellano, Antonio, Adam Kendall, Mikhail Nikomarov, and Tarryn Swemmer. "Powering Africa." McKinsey & Company. February 2015. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/electric-power-and-natural- gas/our-insights/powering-africa. 42 The World Bank. "Regional Power Trade in West Africa Offers Promise of Affordable, Reliable Electricity." World Bank. April 20, 2018. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/04/20/regional-power-trade- west-africa-offers-promise-affordable-reliable-electricity. 43 Kemp, John. "The Pros and Cons of 'super-grids'." The Sydney Morning Herald. November 17, 2012. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/the-pros-and-cons-of-super-grids-20121117-29ihl.html. 44Castellano, 2019.

20 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 territory of ECOWAS, The World Bank estimates that the initial cost of connecting a household in

the region to the grid could reach over $1,000, a generally prohibitive sum45. For universal access, it

is an estimated $640 billion USD46. This is an amalgamation of electrifying consumers across the region, with costs differing widely depending on the ease of accessing them. In Africa as a whole, 15% of the rural population lives within ten kilometers of a substation, meaning that they could be

electrified at a relatively low cost47. For people that live in areas considered isolated or remote from the grid (41%), they would have to be reached by more expensive means, through a combination of

potentially both on and off-grid technologies (such as solar panels)48. Costs associated with electrification of rural areas might be more effective on a large scale, through regional programs that

take advantage of lower capital costs when they buy cross-country grid connections49. While it may be difficult and expensive, it could solve several other problems West Africa currently faces. For example, research shows that electrifying rural areas has the possibility to reduce respiratory

diseases50.

Diversification of Energy Sources

Despite poor electrification rates, sub-Saharan Africa is rich in natural resources that have the potential for great power-generation. Including solar energy, there is an estimated 10 terawatts of

potential capacity51. In West Africa specifically, countries have the potential to/are already accessing

hydroelectric, solar, wind, coal, natural gas, oil, and biomass energy sources52. As an example with a less-traditional energy source, biomass, researchers believe that biomass produced from agricultural

waste could meet the electricity needs of 16 south eastern African countries53. Harnessing diverse

45 Sanchex, Pedro E., and Christopher Saunders. Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet. Report no. PIDISDSC22358. ECOWAS. Washing., D.C.: World Bank, 2018. 1-17. 46 Peters, Jörge, and Maximiliane Sievert. Impacts of Rural Electrification Revisited: The African Context. Vol. 23. De Boeck Supérieur, 2010. 47 Foster, Vivien, and Cecili Briceño-Garmendia. Africa's Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation. Agence Française De Développement, 2010. 48Corfee-Morlot,, 2019. 49 The World Bank. "Regional Power Trade in West Africa Offers Promise of Affordable, Reliable Electricity." World Bank. April 20, 2018. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/04/20/regional-power-trade- west-africa-offers-promise-affordable-reliable-electricity. 50Peters, 2010. 51Castellano, 2019. 52The World Bank. African Development Indicators. 1997. 53 Bhattacharyya, Subhes C. "Energy Economics: Concepts, Issues, Markets and Governance." International Journal of Energy Sector Management6, no. 1 (2011): 1-538. Accessed July 18, 2019.

21 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 sources of energy will be key to increasing energy production in West Africa, ensuring reliable access and supply for consumers in the region. However, the upfront cost of harnessing such resources will, initially, be expensive. In 2017, the average cost to install solar systems ranged from a little over $2,000 USD per kilowatt for large-scale systems to almost $3,700 for residential systems. Wind

comes in around $1,2000 to $1,7000 kilowatt per hour54. For comparison, a natural gas system costs around $1,000 per kilowatt.

Privatization

Government entities may not be able to provide the sole solution to this topic. Private entities, and/or a combination of public and private entities may be able to provide more effective ways of increasing production of energy, while spreading access and keeping costs low for consumers. Historically, it has been difficult for Africa to attract investments from the private sector. To spur investments and development, it may be helpful for governments and organizations to provide long- term commitments, clear regulations, and legislation that aids in the management of risk in this area

of infrastructure creation and maintenance55. There are also downsides to privatization, as with any of the aforementioned solutions. There is always the potential for price increases if the market is not profitable, and the potential for rural areas to be ignored if the risk is high and large upfront

54 "Barriers to Renewable Energy Technologies." Union of Concerned Scientists. December 20, 2017. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/renewable-energy/barriers-to-renewable-energy. 55Castellano, 2019.

22 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 investments are needed56. Benefits will have to be examined with the detriments in crafting comprehensive solutions.

Conclusion

The topic of improving energy production and access in West Africa is complex and nuanced. It must be approached from multiple directions in order to be addressed appropriately. In order to do so, delegates must overcome the variety of obstacles relating to the topic, and come up with comprehensive solutions that work in tandem to accomplish ECOWAS’ goal of promoting economic integration across the region.

56 Eberhardt, Anton, Alix Clark, Njeri Wamukonya, and Katherine Gratwick. Power Sector Reform in Africa: Assessing the Impact on Poor People. Report no. 306/05. ESMAP. 2005. 1-200.

23 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Bloc Positions

Foreign Direct Investment

In the past year, foreign direct investment in Africa has risen 11%, but in West Africa specifically, investment decreased 15%, with Nigeria and Ghana causing the majority of the decline. While sometimes problematic, foreign direct investment can be beneficial if used correctly, and can

increase productivity growth overall57. Currently, the main investment centers in West Africa are

Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Senegal58. Other countries in the region lack investments of the same magnitude due to a variety of factors, including political instability, security issues, and economic restrictions. These hurdles must be overcome, if foreign direct investment is to increase in West Africa and spur growth and development.

Autonomy

For ECOWAS to promote economic integration, there will need to be a degree of autonomy that is relinquished by member-states, in exchange for greater cooperation and the benefit of the organization as a whole. Autonomy in general is an issue that countries differ widely, as it depends on the political, social, and economic factors in each country. Countries such as Guinea, Togo, and Burkina Faso, have been described as having some autocratic tendencies, and might be opposed to relinquishing authority to another party. Countries such as Benin, Senegal, and Niger, which have been described as more democratic countries, might be more open to relinquishing autonomy in

return for regional stability and other benefits59. These factors, among others, must be considered in committee when crafting solutions that require changes in the autonomy of countries.

Sources of Energy

57 Havranek, Tomas, and Zuzana Irsova. Which Foreigners Are Worth Wooing? A Meta-Analysis of Vertical Spillovers from FDI. Working paper. William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan. 2010. 0-36. 58 Zhan, James X., and Richard Bolwjn. World Investment Report 2019. Report. Special Economics Zones, United Nations Conference in Trade and Development. 2019. 59 Halperin, Morton H., Joseph T. Siegle, and Michael M. Weinstein. 2010. The democracy advantage: how democracies promote prosperity and peace. New York: Routledge.

24 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Energy production in every ECOWAS country has the room to increase. Yet not all countries have access to the same natural resources, let alone the same capacity to produce energy from those natural resources. Countries like Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana are oil producers with moderate reserves and mainly consume energy in the form of fossil fuels. Countries like Mali and Cabo Verde also consume fossil fuels for the majority of their energy needs, but do not have any fossil fuel reserves, and thus rely on imports. Other countries, like Guinea and Sierra Leone, get the majority of

their energy from hydroelectric power60. For energy access to improve, production of energy must increase from all possible sources. Yet not all countries have the same capacity or economic resources for increased production, and this must be taken into account. Lower-income countries will need infrastructure to increase access to energy sources they may have. Countries that produce and/or consume a majority of their energy in the form of fossil fuels will need to work to diversify their energy sources, as this is beneficial in terms of political independence, economic growth, and

environmental protection61. For some countries, this will align against their national policies, or their current best interests. All of these factors must be accounted for during debate in committee in forming solutions that are agreeable to all member countries.

60 CIA "The World Factbook." Central Intelligence Agency. February 01, 2018. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/. 61 Ream, Mary-Katherine. "When It Comes to Energy, Countries Should Mix It up." ShareAmerica. May 06, 2015. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://share.america.gov/diversifying-energy-sources-boosts-security/.

25 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Glossary

Assimilation: the process of adapting or adjusting to the culture of a group or nation, sometimes non-voluntarily.

Berlin Conference: a conference where 14 countries gathered to decide how to divide parts of Africa and regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period.

Biomass: a renewable energy source from living or recently living plant and animal materials which can be used as fuel.

Energy crisis: any significant bottleneck or lack in the supply of energy resources to an economy.

Energy production: the act of obtaining sources of energy from natural resources. Includes: the production of conventional, alternative, and renewable sources of energy, and the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted.

Electrification: the action or process of charging something with electricity.

GDP per capita: a measure of a country’s economic output that accounts for its number of people. It divides the country’s gross domestic production (GDP) by its total population.

Indirect rule: a system of government of one nation by another in which the governed people retain certain administrative, legal, and other powers.

Mean net cost of electricity: the amount of money that gets spent on sources for energy

Power grids: a network of power lines and associated equipment used to transmit and distribute electricity over a geographical area.

26 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 TOPIC B: RESTRICTING THE FINANCING OF TERRORISM AND MONEY LAUNDERING

______

Statement of the Problem

Introduction to the problem

The presence of terrorism and organized crime has always been an issue for West Africa. As their attacks have grown in numbers and in complexity, a popular source of funding has been money laundering, a process that disguises original illegal origins of money by making the proceeds appear

to have come from a legitimate source62. Since money laundering is designed to evade authorities, it

has become one of the main sources for terrorist groups to disguise their funds 63. Due to the nature of money laundering, exact statistics are not available. Yet, various organizations have run studies or used other known aspects of underground economic activity to estimate the magnitude of money laundering. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) conducted a study in 2009 and

determined that money laundering amounted to 2.7% of the global GDP, or $1.6 trillion USD64. This aligns with an estimate given in 1998 by the International Monetary Fund of being somewhere between two and five percent. At the time, the lower figure was roughly equivalent to the total

economic output from Spain65.

There are three main steps of money laundering: placement, layering, and integration66. Placement is simply placing the illegally obtained funds into the financial system. This is the most crucial step for the launderers and anti-money laundering (AML) organizations as this is where launderers are

most vulnerable in being caught67. While the exact method of placement vary between every

62 ICA “What Is Money Laundering?” ICA, n.d. https://www.int-comp.org/careers/your-career-in-aml/what-is-money- laundering/. 63 Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada. “What Is Terrorist Financing?” What is Terrorist Financing, August 16, 2019. https://www.fintrac-canafe.gc.ca/fintrac-canafe/definitions/terrorist-terroriste-eng. 64 FATF. “What Is Money Laundering?” Money Laundering - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2008. https://www.fatf- gafi.org/faq/moneylaundering/. 65“Ibid.” 66 Kulovics, 2009. 67 About Business Crime Solutions Inc. "Money Laundering: A Three Stage Process." About Business Crime Solutions - Money Laundering: A Three-Stage Process. 2017. Accessed July 24, 2019. https://www.moneylaundering.ca/public/law/3_stages_ML.php.

27 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 launderer, the main method is dividing a large sum of money into smaller groups and putting them into the financial systems in different ways. The different ways include (but are not limited to) loan

repayment, gambling, currency smuggling, currency exchanges, and blending funds68.

The second step, layering, is the most complex and often entails international movement of funds. The main goal of this step is to remove the illegal origins of the money. The most common way of doing this is through constant movement and exploiting loopholes or discrepancies in legislation and

taking advantage of delays in judicial or police cooperation69.

The final step, integration, is returning the money to the launderer and making the source of it seem to be legitimate. One of the most common methods is making the money appear to be normal

business earnings70.

Financing and Laundering

68 “Ibid.” 69 FATF, 2008. 70 Banerjee, Ronjoit. "Methods and Stages in Money Laundering." Money Laundering in the EU. Accessed July 24, 2019. https://people.exeter.ac.uk/watupman/undergrad/ron/methods and stages.htm.

28 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Before terrorist organizations have funds to be laundered, they must be acquired. They are generally acquired through three main avenues: legitimate sources, criminal activity, and state sponsors. The legitimate sources of funding that terrorists receive range from charities and businesses, to types of self-funding (employment, savings, and social welfare payments). These types of funding are generally more challenging to track as they appear legitimate. Criminal activities that terrorist organizations typically take part in include arms trafficking, money laundering, kidnap-for-ransom, extortion, racketeering, and drug trafficking. At all levels, use of criminal activity within terrorist organizations can range from low-level fraud to major organized crime. The third main source of financial support for terrorist organizations come from the use of safe havens, the existence of failed states, and the support from state sponsors. Favorable and/or lax conditions in certain countries foster an environment where terrorist organizations can grow and

develop unabated71.

In West Africa, there are mainly two types of terrorist organizations operating in the region. There are organizations that are based in and carry out operations in the region, and groups that are not

based in but derive financing from their activities in the region72. Both types of terrorist organization require the laundering of money to move around their illicit incomes in, out of, and within the region. Because of the distinct nature of these two types of terrorist organizations, a multifaceted approach may be needed, opposed to a historical singular approach to combat these organizations. Money laundering in these two instances take several different forms.

As most of the borders in West Africa are porous and not well secured, there are ample areas in

which border crossings can be made to physically move assets across the region73. Weapons, hard currency, and other valuable assets can be easily moved from one country to another in West Africa,

71 FATF. “Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies.” Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies. Paris, France, 2008. 72FATF. “Terrorist Financing in West Africa.” Terrorist Financing in West Africa. Paris, France, 2013. 73 FATF. “Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies.” Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies. Paris, France, 2008.

29 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 without much in the way of oversight, which dramatically enhances the ability of terrorist

organizations to launder their ill-gotten gains74.

Additionally, terrorist organizations are using non-profit organizations (NPOs) to help facilitate money laundering, and even operations. As a case study, a purported charity called the Afghan Support Committee was shut down by the US government in 2002 for ties to Al-Qaeda. It was supposed to be giving money to widows and orphans in Afghanistan, but instead was used to funnel

money to Al-Qaeda operatives75. Because NPOs have both public trust, access to funds, cash- intensive, and have a large number of beneficiaries, they can be vulnerable to exploitation by terror

networks76. And because many NPOs have a global presence, with potential reach in insecure and conflict-affected areas, terrorist organizations have exploited seemingly innocent organizations to

spread influence and money in, out of , and within West Africa77.

Trade can also play a significant role in the sourcing of funds for terrorist organizations. Fraudulent trade-based practices, including false invoicing of imports and exports, allow criminal organizations

74 Lartey, Zaquiah. “Money Laundering in West Africa and Its Implications for Sub-Regional Security.” Money Laundering in West Africa and Its Implications for Sub-Regional Security, 2016. 75 The Role of Charities and NGO's in the Financing of Terrorist Activities, The Role of Charities and NGO's in the Financing of Terrorist Activities § (2002). 76 FATF, 2008. 77 CGCC. “To Protect and Prevent Outcomes of a Global Dialogue to Counter Terrorist Abuse of the Nonprofit Sector.” To Protect and Prevent Outcomes of a Global Dialogue to Counter Terrorist Abuse of the Nonprofit Sector, 2013.

30 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 to disguise laundering as business transactions. This is done through the purchasing and transferring of commodities through seemingly legitimate business or humanitarian organization, and then the eventual sale of those commodities for cash. An added layer of difficulty with monitoring this type of financing is that it hides the assets in plain sight, by disguising assets as legitimate and by using

respected companies to accomplish the transfer of them78.

A major source of income for terrorists around the world, but especially those that operate in West Africa, is drug trafficking. The region has been well-documented as a stopping point of illegal narcotics flowing from South America to Europe. Drug trafficking in particular is seen as a lucrative method of obtaining income for terrorist organizations, with increasing demand in Europe and relatively low border security and governmental regulations dealing with the flow of contraband in

and out of West Africa79.

78 FATF, 2008. 79 “Ibid.”

31 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 History of the Problem

Introduction

Contemporary organized crime in West Africa is believed to have emerged in the 1970s80. Contemporary organized crime arose from rising oil prices during that decade, the delinking of the dollar from gold, and high inflation. While contemporary organized crime may have started in the 1970s, forms of organized crime is believed to have existed before. Within 50 years, organized crime has risen and created numerous problems. Some experts believe that the rise of organized crime comes from the pre-existing conditions in West Africa while others have different theories as to how organized crime has reached the rates it has.

Deprivation and poverty

About three quarters of the African population live on less than $2 a day. Half of the population lives

on less than $1.25 per day81. For many living on this income, organized crime is the only way to get an adequate amount of money, fast. While crime continues to rise, Africa’s GDP continues to decline. GDP per capita in sub-Saharan Africa has declined by 0.8% per annum over the 1975-2002, while the majority of the world saw an increase. This trend does not go unnoticed, as a South African President Thabo Mbeki has argued that “poverty is not only expressed in shortage of food,

shelter and clothing. It is also expressed ... in high levels of crime”82.

Where there is poverty there is also income inequality. The World Bank argues that relative deprivation “breeds social tensions as the less well-off feel dispossessed when compared to wealthier people,” and thus, “the poor seek compensation and satisfaction by all means, including

committing crimes against both poor and rich”83. Specifically in Nigeria, five of their wealthiest people have a combined wealth of $29.9 billion- more than the country’s total 2017 budget, while

80 UNODC. “Transnational Organized Crime in the West African Region.” Transnational Organized Crime in the West African Region, 2005. 81 Global Growing. “Facts.” global growing, 2014. http://global-growing.org/en/content/fact-7-about-three-quarters- african-population-live-less-2-half-population-less-125-day. 82 le Pichon, Thibault. “Crime and Development in Africa.” Crime and Development in Africa, 2005. 83 Global Growing, 2014

32 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 about 60 percent of Nigerians live in poverty, earning less than $1.25 a day84. Especially if individuals believe themselves to be victims of social injustice, they may be compelled to disobey laws or seek revenge on those profiting.

Military regimes

Corruption in Africa has also been exacerbated by the rise of military regimes across the continent. Stephen Ellis, an author who studied Africa’s military regimes, says that the military regime of General Babangida (1985-1992) in Nigeria “marked a transformation in Nigeria’s already notorious

corruption, turning it into a generalized instrument of government”85. Under this regime, unemployment rates soared, food prices increased significantly, and numerous user fees for

education and health services were imposed86. He also restructured the government, giving himself and his appointees more power while blocking out others, mainly Christians. As a result, heated controversy and anti-government demonstrations arose in northern cities by Christians.

One reason why military regimes are thought to be the origin for African organized crime is the unpopularity of the regimes and the effects that resulted from them. In Togo, the first West African country to experience a military coup in 1963, Togolese soldiers demobilized the French colonial

armies87. As a result, Togo faced a rise in unemployment due to many refusing to join the Togolese army. The overall reaction to the coup was one of great disapproval, manifested by vociferous verbal attacks on the junta and international ostracism of the new government until it had legitimated itself through national elections. This also could have been motivated by civilian governments facing insecurity with the presence of military regimes in their country or in

neighboring countries and wanting to maintain their authority88.

Throughout history, the response of West African countries to an unwelcoming authority has often been violent. As it started from the first military regime in West Africa and continues to the present,

84 Ighbor, Kingsley. “Closing Africa's Wealth Gap.” United Nations. United Nations, March 2018. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2017-march-2018/closing-africa’s-wealth-gap. 85 Ellis, Stephen. This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organized Crime. London: Hurst Publishers, n.d. 86 U.S. Library of Congress. “The Babangida Government.” The Babangida Government, n.d. 87 Japhet, M. “Military Coups and Military Regimes in Africa.” African Journal of Military Studies8, no. 4 (1978): 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5787/8-4-756. 88 Ellis, 2017

33 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 many believe organized crime is a response to the group’s distrust or hatred towards the current authority.

Ineffectual government

One of the most popular theories to explain the rise in organized crime is weak government. Guinea- Bissau has one of the weakest governments as they are still recovering from a civil war that

happened from June 7th, 1998 to May 10, 199989. Although it lasted less than a year, 655 people were killed and more than 0.35 million dollars were displaced. However, the end of the civil war was not the end of armed conflict. In November 23, 1999, another conflict arose between the government and rebel forces which lasted over a year.

As a result of what seems to be constant conflicts, the Guinea-Bissau government has little power when dealing with organized crime. In 2007, Guinea-Bissau authorities seized 635 kilogrammes of smuggled drugs, yet the traffickers managed the escape with the other 2.5 tons of smuggled drugs.

Due to the lack of resources provided to the police, they were not able to pursue them90. The United Nations Office on Drug Control Executive Director Antonio Maria Costa lamented the poor policing by stating “it is regrettable that the rest of the consignment was not intercepted, but hardly surprising as the police are woefully ill-equipped and often do not even have enough gasoline to

operate their vehicles”91.

Even in countries with stronger and more stable governments, there is weak legislation and government infrastructure which is ineffective against organized crime. Many governments are focused on addressing other issues their countries face, such as unemployment and disease

outbreaks92. As a result of these issues which have been deemed more important or urgent by the government, organized crime often gets overlooked. Because of this, many West African countries fail to have high-security prisons. Even the existing legislation in the strongest governments give

89 Kiprop, Joseph. “What Happened During The Guinea-Bissau Civil War?” World Atlas, May 16, 2018. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-happened-during-the-guinea-bissau-civil-war.html. 90 Mutume, Gumisai. “Organized Crime Targets Weak African States | Africa Renewal.” United Nations. United Nations, July 2007. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2007/organized-crime-targets-weak-african-states. 91 Kiprop, 2018 92 Achebe, Nwando, and Samuel Adu-Gyamfi. “Problem of Independent West African States.” In West African Senior School Certificate Examination, 2018.

34 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 fines of about $570 or one year of prison. For smugglers who make millions off of their efforts, this

fine or one year in jail is inconsequential and does nothing to prevent their efforts93.

Current Situation

Despite gains across the region, corruption remains an issue in West Africa. In 2018, Transparency

International's Corruption Perceptions Index placed sub-saharan Africa as its lowest scoring region94. However, in West Africa specifically, there has been some improvements due to greater efforts to combat the problem. Senegal and Ivory Coast, both ECOWAS member states, have improved their rankings in Transparency International’s index since 2012. In those two countries, improvements can

mainly be attributed to political stability and the will of governments to make the issue a priority95. With corruption still a problem and trust in government entities still low, tackling deadlier problems regarding terrorism and its sources of funding are exponentially harder. This can be seen in many different ways, including lax border security, an ineffective judiciary system, toothless government

bureaucracies, and graft in military institutions96.

Porous borders have been recognized as a significant problem in the region. It has allowed smugglers and terrorist organizations to move supplies, arms, and money across West Africa, facilitating their operations and increasing the difficulty of law enforcement and defense personnel. This can be attributed to both a lack of resources invested into border security in the region, resulting in gaps in security/surveillance coverage, as well as the ability to bribe border guards at an

alarming frequency97. An example of this was in Nigeria, where an arms smuggler was arrested by security operatives, and confessed to not only directing arms to Boko Haram, but funneling proceeds from sales to the terrorist group, as well as being connected to terrorist groups operating outside Nigerian borders. This is one example, out of many, that highlight the issues facing countries in the

93 Kiprop, 2018 94 Micah, Eddy. “Sub-Saharan Africa Needs to 'Take the Corruption Bull by the Horns': DW: 29.01.2019.” DW.COM, January 29, 2019. https://www.dw.com/en/sub-saharan-africa-needs-to-take-the-corruption-bull-by-the-horns/a- 47282807. 95 “Ibid”. 96 OECD. “Terrorism, Corruption and the Criminal Exploitation of Natural Resources.” Terrorism, Corruption and the Criminal Exploitation of Natural Resources, 2017. 97 “Ibid”

35 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 region98. According to Transparency International’s Government Defence Anti-Corruption Index, no country in Africa received a grade above a D (on an A-F scale) in 2015, with the majority of West

African states receiving an E, for a very high corruption risk99. With more money being funneled into anti-terrorism fighting, there is a greater risk of the money being mismanaged. This can manifest in many ways, including soldiers not being paid in full, soldiers being poorly equipped (and money being spent on items that are ineffective for their mission), and soldiers’ promotions being tied to

bribes100. A clear example of this is in Nigeria, where recent investigation into corruption allegations going back a decade unearthed a scheme where senior military officials plundered nearly $5.5 billion meant for equipping, supplying, and paying soldiers that were fighting Boko Haram in the country’s northeast. This only demonstrates the inherent need for corruption to be tackled in West African countries, in order for money laundering, and eventually terrorist operations, to be eliminated.

Terrorist attacks are a growing problem for ECOWAS member countries. There are three main terror groups operating within the group’s borders: Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Boko Haram (otherwise known as Islamic State in West Africa or ISWA), and Jama’a Nusrat ul-Islam wa al-

Muslimin (otherwise known as Nurat al-Islam or JNIM)101. In 2019 alone (until early August), there

have been nearly 200 terror attacks in ECOWAS states, with over 2300 dead and over 600 injured102. These attacks took place in Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria, with the majority occurring

in Nigeria and Mali103. From each of the three main terrorist groups operating in the region, each have been blamed for deadly attacks this year. In January, AQIM claimed an attack in Mali that killed

10 UN Peacekeepers from Chad and wounded at least 25104. Also in January, ISWA or Boko Haram killed 6 Nigerian soldiers and injured 14 in a raid on a village that led to the seizure of 4 military

98 FATF, 2008. 99Abbas, Tehmina. “Government Defense Anti-Corruption Index.” Government Defense Anti-Corruption Index. Transparency International UK, 2016. 100 “Ibid” 101 U.S. Department of State. “Country Reports on Terrorism 2017.” Country Reports on Terrorism 2017, 2018. 102 The Religion of Peace. “List of Killings in the Name of Islam: 2019.” The Religion of Peace, 2019. https://www.thereligionofpeace.com/attacks/attacks.aspx?Yr=2019. 103 “Ibid” 104 Reuters. “Al Qaeda: Chad Peacekeepers' Murder Backlash for Renewed Ties with Israel.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com, January 20, 2019. https://www.jpost.com/International/Ten-UN-peacekeepers-killed-in-attack-in-northern- Mali-578079.

36 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 vehicles105. In March, JNIM was reported to have temporarily seized an army base in central Mali,

killing 16 Malian soldiers and stealing arms106.

Additionally, several foreign entities have presences in the region. Through the African Union, ECOWAS has organized a military mission called African-led International Support Mission to Mali

(AFISMA) to support the Malian government against Islamist rebels in northern Mali107. The United Nations has a Peacekeeping operation in Mali (MINUSMA), as well as two Political Missions and Good Offices Engagements: one in Guinea-Bissau (UNIOGBIS) and one in West Africa and the Sahel

(UNOWAS)108. Furthermore, due to its historical connection to the region, France has deployed 4,500 soldiers in Operation Barkhane, spread across Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mauritania, and Chad

(the last two not being ECOWAS countries) to combat insurgency in the region109.

105 Kano. “Six Nigerian Troops Killed in Boko Haram Raid.” Gulf Times, January 19, 2019. https://www.gulf- times.com/story/619677/Six-Nigerian-troops-killed-in-Boko-Haram-raid. 106 Rahman, Abdur, and Alfa Shaban. “Gunmen Raid Mali Military Camp, 16 Soldiers Killed.” Africanews. Africanews, March 17, 2019. https://www.africanews.com/2019/03/17/gunmen-raid-mali-military-camp-16-soldiers-killed//. 107 Peacaue “Peaceau.” Peaceau, July 1, 2013. http://www.peaceau.org/uploads/afisma-transfers-it-authority-to- minusma-01-july-2013.pdf. 108 UN. “United Nations Peace Operations.” United Nations Peace Operations, 2019. https://www.unmissions.org/#block-views-missions-political-missions. 109 ECRF. “Mapping Armed Groups in Mali and the Sahel.” Operation Barkhane - Mapping armed groups in Mali and the Sahel, May 2019. https://www.ecfr.eu/mena/sahel_mapping/operation_barkhane#.

37 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Past Actions

The Economic Community of West African States has recognized the issue of restricting the financing of terrorism and money laundering, and has taken steps to tackle it both as a bloc, and with other supranational organizations. Further strengthening existing and adding new policies will be an important priority for the body, and thus past lessons, both positive and negative, must be taken into account before moving forward.

GIABA

The Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA) is an institution within ECOWAS “responsible for facilitating the adoption and implementation of Anti-

Money Laundering (AML) and Counter-Financing of Terrorism (CFT) in West Africa”110. It was founded in 1999, and includes all ECOWAS members (with the addition of Sao Tome and Principe). Within the adoption and implementation of AML and CFT standards, the organization has five main goals: protect banking and financial systems, coordinate measures combating money laundering and terrorist financing, assist in the fulfillment of international conventions and resolutions, increase cooperation among member countries, and determine the effectiveness of measures that the

organization has taken111.

EIMS

110 GIABA. “GIABA's Mission.” GIABA, 2012. https://www.giaba.org/. 111 EAG. “Inter Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA).” Eurasian Group, 2017. https://eurasiangroup.org/en/inter-governmental-action-group-against-money-laundering-in-west-africa-giaba.

38 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 The ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS) was a strategy set forth by ECOWAS members to confront growing and multifaceted challenges to its maritime domain. Out of the 15 countries that make up ECOWAS, twelve border the Atlantic Ocean, and the remaining three landlocked countries are linked by maritime inland waterways, lakes, and rivers. The maritime ecosystem in the region supports the majority of the West African population through employment, energy, trade, transport, and food. The strategy is broad-reaching and encompasses areas of concern such as pollution, coastal erosion, rise in sea level, and criminal acts at sea. The criminal acts that are most common, are piracy, armed robbery at sea, smuggling, drug/human trafficking, illegal fishing, and illegal migration. Many of these crimes are linked to transnational crime groups, that involve money

laundering and have links to terrorism112.

FATF

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an intergovernmental body that was established in 1989 to “set standards and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory, and operational measures for combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the integrity of the

international financial system”113. Because of the way the Task Force is structured, it works to create the necessary political will to affect national legislative and regulatory reforms relating to its mission. FATF has created a set of recommendations that are widely recognized as the international standard for combating money laundering, financing of terrorism, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The standards are revised every couple of years, most recently in 2012, to stay relevant. Additionally, FATF monitors the progress of its members in implementing the recommendations, reviews money laundering and terrorist financing techniques and counter-measures, promotes the adoption and implementation of appropriate measures globally, and works with other international organizations to identify national-level vulnerabilities with the aim of protecting the international

financial system from misuse114.

112 ECOWAS. “ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS).” ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS), 2014. 113 FATF. “Who We Are.” Who we are - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2019. https://www.fatf- gafi.org/about/whoweare/. 114 FATF. “What Do We Do.” What we do - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2019. https://www.fatf- gafi.org/about/whatwedo/.

39 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 OCWAR-M

Organized Crime: West African Response to Money Laundering and The Financing of Terrorism (OCWAR-M) is a project financed by the European Development Fund in 2015 to achieve the

reduction of money laundering and the financing of terrorism in the ECOWAS region115. The specific stated objective is for GIABA and ECOWAS member states to effectively implement AML/CFT measures of acceptable international standards in order to improve regional operational capacity. This is proposed to be accomplished through the provision of technical support to conduct national assessments on money laundering and terrorist financing (ML/TF) risks, mutual evaluations of member states to determine the effectiveness of AML/CFT systems and their technical compliance with international standards, and the strengthening of coordination and capacity building of

stakeholders involved in AML/CFT operations116. The goal is for this project to be implemented between 2018 and 2022, with the following expected results:

“Result 1: ML/TF risks are well understood by ECOWAS MS and actions better coordinated domestically to combat money laundering, terrorist financing and proliferation.

Result 2: ECOWAS MS are able to achieve a high level of compliance and are implementing effective and robust AML/CFT regimes in line with international standards.

Result 3: Domestic and international cooperation facilitating information sharing and the delivery of quality financial intelligence are improved as well as the capacity of competent authorities that pursue actions against criminals and their assets.

Result 4: GIABA's own operational capacity is better understood and managed by its officers

and accepted by ECOWAS MS.”117.

115 EEAS. “Organized Crime: West African Response to Money Laundering and The Financing of Terrorism (OCWAR – M).” EEAS, January 7, 2019. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/56225/organized-crime-west- african-response-money-laundering-and-financing-terrorism-ocwar-–-m_mk. 116 Expertise France. “Organized Crime: West African Response to Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism (OCWAR-M).” cDiscussion.com, January 23, 2019. https://www.cdiscussion.com/offre-d-emploi/?details- job=1046133&share. 117 EEAS, 2019

40 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions

Robotic Process Automation

Robotic process automation (RPA) is an anti-money laundering process that utilizes artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning capabilities. The biggest advantage RPA offers is its ability to

process high-volumes of data with a far greater speed and accuracy than manual processing118. With RPA, banks or governments would be able to process the majority of their accounts, or any accounts that bring up red flags, and investigate accounts potentially involved in money laundering.

However, since AI and RPA are newer advancements, not every system is successful. A recent study

done in business today shows that 30-50% of RPAs initially failed119. The same study also showed that not all failures happened instantly. Instead, some seemed to be promising in the beginning but ultimately failed to deliver accurate results. They are also less adaptable than humans are as they function based off of being programmed a specific way. Any small change in the interface or data

could break the RPA120.

Know Your Client

An anti-money laundering technique used when the laundered money is first being introduced to the system is Know Your Client (KYC). The KYC is a form that provides detailed information of the

person trying to invest or deposit money121. On the form, it details the client’s risk tolerance,

investment knowledge, and financial positions which must be supported by valid documents122. The

118 Matrix IFS. “Applying Robotic Process Automation in AML & FIU Operations - Matrix-IFS.” Matrix IFS, March 1, 2019. https://matrix-ifs.com/applying-robotic-process-automation-in-aml-fiu-operations/. 119 Das, Goutam. “Robotic Process Automation Failure Rate Is 30-50%, Says EXL CEO Rohit Kapoor.” Business Today, January 2, 2018. https://www.businesstoday.in/sectors/bpo/robotic-process-automation-failure-rate-indian-bpo- business-process-outsourcing-exl-ceo-rohit-kapoor/story/267187.html. 120 Bloomberg, Jason. “Why You Should Think Twice About Robotic Process Automation.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, November 6, 2018. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbloomberg/2018/11/06/why-you-should-think-twice-about- robotic-process-automation/#551ba62c5fe1. 121 Chen, James. “Know Your Client (KYC).” Investopedia. Investopedia, August 28, 2019. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/k/knowyourclient.asp. 122 Flatirons. “Know Your Customer.” Flatirons Solutions, 2018. https://www.flatironssolutions.com/solutions/business- process-digitization/know-your-customer/.

41 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 documentation and details of the client allows banks to have a better idea of the client and their money before allowing them to deposit any money.

With an increase of documentation requires the increase in storage. As the documents must be valid while the individual is a client, clear and accurate records are essential to this process. The most

common method is photocopies123. As access to energy can be difficult for West Africa, not every business would be able to keep photocopies. While it is possible for those businesses to manually store them, investments would have to be made to have the space and equipment to store them.

Stricter laws

As it has been discussed earlier, some current laws do nothing to deter from money laundering124. New laws could include harsher punishments for money laundering, enforcing banks and companies to be more aware of potential money launders, or require new regulations that would make money laundering more difficult.

The most obvious downside of new laws is the possibility of them being ignored. With Africa and

West Africa having some of the highest rates of terrorist groups and crime125, strict laws alone seem ineffectual. As corruption is another problem, there is the question of if these new laws would accurately be enforced.

Regulating cryptocurrency

Since cryptocurrency is not controlled by any central authority and can make it harder to find the

origins of the money126 it is a common tool in money laundering schemes. Regulating how or what cryptocurrencies are able to be used could reduce the amount of money laundered. Regulations

123 Viswanathan, Vigil. “5 Ways to KYC Your Customer.” Veri5Digital, May 14, 2019. https://veri5digital.com/veri5-blog/5- ways-to-kyc-your-customer/. 124 Achebe, 2018 125 le Pichon, 2005 126 Rosic, Ameer. “What Is Cryptocurrency? [Everything You Need To Know!].” Blockgeeks, September 13, 2018. https://blockgeeks.com/guides/what-is-cryptocurrency/.

42 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 could include a ban for banks accepting cryptocurrency, reduce the amount of protection given to

cryptocurrency transactions, or allow only the government to distribute cryptocurrency127.

The difficult part of this is knowing how to regulate cryptocurrency. As cryptocurrency began 10

years ago128, research is still being done on how exactly it works. To be able to regulate it and make sure there is not an easy “back door” that launders can access, West African countries would need to put together a research or monitoring task force. For this to happen, as cryptocurrency is not common knowledge, enough qualified people would have to be found and enough money would have to be allocated to make these individuals want to work for such a purpose.

127 Library of Congress. “Regulation of Cryptocurrency Around the World.” Library of Congress, June 1, 2018. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/cryptocurrency/world-survey.php. 128 Ledger. “How It All Began: A Brief History On Bitcoin & Cryptocurrencies.” Ledger, March 20, 2019. https://www.ledger.com/how-it-all-began-a-brief-history-of-bitcoin-cryptocurrencies/.

43 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Bloc Positions

Foreign aid and alliances

In the past, foreign help has been beneficial to combating terrorism. Countries that have a stronger military or more resources disposable to combat terrorist have shown to decrease acts of terrorism

in regions where they are present129. However, that decline is only present while troops from that country are present. When the number of U.S forces present in West Africa significantly decreased

in 2017, there was a rise in bombings, massacres, kidnappings and attacks130. The increase of violent attacks were not centralized around regions that were previously protected by the U.S. Terrorists continued their attacks in Cote d’Ivoire, Benin, Togo, and Ghana, all of which were previously

untouched by extremist violence131. While the idea of foreign help might sound good, the results of them moving out could create more damage than there was before. Because of this, countries such as Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, and Ghana, who have a stronger military and lower rates of organized crime in comparison to other West African countries may be more against foreign aid. Countries that have a weaker military or a rate of organized crime that they alone are unable to combat would be more willing to have foreign aid, such as Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria.

Digital resources

With the internet and technological advances, it becomes easier for launders to finance organized crime online when there are no measures in place. Putting online boundaries that makes it harder to launder or easier to spot who is laundering could make it more difficult. To install these new barriers, it would take time and money- which some countries do not have. With many countries facing several issues at once, investing money to an online barrier that could still be gotten around may not be a priority for some of the less wealthy countries. Liberia, Togo, Niger are three of the poorest

countries in Africa132 and investing a large portion of their GDP could not be well received. Countries

129 Institute for Economics and Peace. “Global Terrorism Index: 2016.” Global Terrorism Index: 2016, 2016. 130 Schmitt, Eric. “Where Terrorism Is Rising in Africa and the U.S. Is Leaving.” The New York Times. The New York Times, March 1, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/africa/africa-terror-attacks.html. 131 “Ibid.” 132 Nag, Oishimaya Sen. “Poorest Countries In Africa.” WorldAtlas, December 6, 2017. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/poorest-countries-in-africa.html.

44 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 like Nigeria, Ghana, and Cote d’Ivoire, who already have infrastructures in place and have more

money to spend133, could see a drastic improvement by implementing online laundering restrictions.

133 Charles, Abrokwa. “Top 20 Richest Countries In Africa - IMF & World Bank Latest Data.” The Business Alert, August 16, 2019. https://thebusinessalert.com/richest-country-africa/.

45 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Glossary

Blending funds: using a legitimate cash focused business to commingle dirty funds with legitimate sales receipts.

GDP: the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.

GDP Per Capita: a measure of a country's economic output that accounts for its number of people. It divides the country's gross domestic product by its total population.

Launderers: those that engage in the act of money laundering.

Maritime Domain: all areas and things of, on, under, relating to, adjacent to, or bordering on a sea, ocean, or other navigable waterway, including all maritime-related activities, infrastructure, people, cargo, and vessels and other conveyances.

Money Laundering: a financial transaction scheme that aims to conceal the identity, source, and destination of illicitly-obtained money.

Organized Crime: self-perpetuating associations of individuals who operate, wholly or in part, by illegal means and irrespective of geography. They constantly seek to obtain power, influence, and monetary gains.

Racketeering: an organized criminal act usual committed through extortion or coercion in which the criminal act is some form of substantial business, or a way to earn illegal money either regularly, or briefly but repeatedly.

Social Welfare Payments: an amount of money paid by the government that provides assistance to individuals and families in need.

46 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Terrorism: the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective.

47 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Bibliography

Abbas, Tehmina. “Government Defense Anti-Corruption Index.” Government Defense Anti- Corruption Index. Transparency International UK, 2016.

About Business Crime Solutions Inc. "Money Laundering: A Three Stage Process." About Business Crime Solutions - Money Laundering: A Three-Stage Process. 2017. Accessed July 24, 2019. https://www.moneylaundering.ca/public/law/3_stages_ML.php.

Achebe, Nwando, and Samuel Adu-Gyamfi. “Problem of Independent West African States.” In West African Senior School Certificate Examination, 2018.

Adebajo, Adekeye. Building Peace in West Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.

Adegoke, Yinka. "The Cost of Electricity Shortages in Africa Is More than Just a Problem of Access." Quartz Africa. October 21, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://qz.com/africa/1431213/africas- electricity-shortages-have-health-and-economic-costs/.

Agriculture and Food Security | West Africa Regional." U.S. Agency for International Development. August 01, 2017. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.usaid.gov/west-africa-regional/agriculture- and-food-security.

Ajala, Adekunle. "The Nature of African Boundaries." Africa Spectrum 18, no. 2 (1983): 177-89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40174114.

Annan, Nancy. "Violent Conflicts and Civil Strife in West Africa: Causes, Challenges and Prospects." Stability: International Journal of Security & Development3, no. 1 (2014): 3. doi:10.5334/sta.da. https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.da/

Banerjee, Ronjoit. "Methods and Stages in Money Laundering." Money Laundering in the EU. Accessed July 24, 2019. https://people.exeter.ac.uk/watupman/undergrad/ron/methods and stages.htm.

48 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Bara-Hart, Jonathan. "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African StatesECOWAS. May 24, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/ecowas-launches-energy-governance-programme-for-west-africa/.

"Barriers to Renewable Energy Technologies." Union of Concerned Scientists. December 20, 2017. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/renewable-energy/barriers-to- renewable-energy.

Bhattacharyya, Subhes C. "Energy Economics: Concepts, Issues, Markets and Governance." International Journal of Energy Sector Management6, no. 1 (2011): 1-538. Accessed July 18, 2019.

Bloomberg, Jason. “Why You Should Think Twice About Robotic Process Automation.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, November 6, 2018. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbloomberg/2018/11/06/why-you-should-think-twice-about- robotic-process-automation/#551ba62c5fe1.

Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "What Countries Are Members of ECOWAS?" ThoughtCo. June 21, 2019. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/economic-community-west-african-states- ecowas-43900.

Castellano, Antonio, Adam Kendall, Mikhail Nikomarov, and Tarryn Swemmer. "Powering Africa." McKinsey & Company. February 2015. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/electric-power-and-natural-gas/our-insights/powering-africa.

CGCC. “To Protect and Prevent Outcomes of a Global Dialogue to Counter Terrorist Abuse of the Nonprofit Sector.” To Protect and Prevent Outcomes of a Global Dialogue to Counter Terrorist Abuse of the Nonprofit Sector, 2013.

Charles, Abrokwa. “Top 20 Richest Countries In Africa - IMF & World Bank Latest Data.” The Business Alert, August 16, 2019. https://thebusinessalert.com/richest-country-africa/.

49 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Chen, James. “Know Your Client (KYC).” Investopedia. Investopedia, August 28, 2019. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/k/knowyourclient.asp.

CIA "The World Factbook." Central Intelligence Agency. February 01, 2018. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/.

Collins, Mairi, John Fishburn, Josie James, and Delia Ryan. Imperialism and Race Relations. Edited by H.R. Cowie. Revised ed. Vol. 5. Melbourne: Nelson, 1986.

"Conférence “Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges”." Conférence "Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges" | GIS Climat Environnement Société. October 03, 2012. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20160401234042/http://www.gisclimat.fr/manifestation- scientifique/conférence-“water-scarcity-africa-issues-and-challenges”.

Corfee-Morlot, Jan, Paul Parks, James Ogunleye, and Famous Ayeni. Achieving Clean Energy Access in Sub-Saharan Africa. OECD Case Study. Financing Climate Futures. OECD. 1-4. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/climate-futures/Achieving-clean-energy-access-Sub- Saharan-Africa.pdf.

"Corruption Perceptions Index 2018." Transparency International. 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018.

Costa, Antonio Maria. "Nigeria's Corruption Busters." United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/nigerias-corruption- busters.html.

Das, Goutam. “Robotic Process Automation Failure Rate Is 30-50%, Says EXL CEO Rohit Kapoor.” Business Today, January 2, 2018. https://www.businesstoday.in/sectors/bpo/robotic-process- automation-failure-rate-indian-bpo-business-process-outsourcing-exl-ceo-rohit- kapoor/story/267187.html.

50 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 EAG. “Inter Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA).” Eurasian Group, 2017. https://eurasiangroup.org/en/inter-governmental-action-group-against- money-laundering-in-west-africa-giaba.

Eberhardt, Anton, Alix Clark, Njeri Wamukonya, and Katherine Gratwick. Power Sector Reform in Africa: Assessing the Impact on Poor People. Report no. 306/05. ESMAP. 2005. 1-200.

ECOWAS "Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)." Economic Community of West African StatesECOWAS. 2016. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.ecowas.int/about- ecowas/basic-information/.

ECOWAS. “ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS).” ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS), 2014.

ECRF. “Mapping Armed Groups in Mali and the Sahel.” Operation Barkhane - Mapping armed groups in Mali and the Sahel, May 2019. https://www.ecfr.eu/mena/sahel_mapping/operation_barkhane#.

EEAS. “Organized Crime: West African Response to Money Laundering and The Financing of Terrorism (OCWAR – M).” EEAS, January 7, 2019. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/56225/organized-crime-west-african- response-money-laundering-and-financing-terrorism-ocwar-–-m_mk.

Ellis, Stephen. This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organized Crime. London: Hurst Publishers, n.d.

Expertise France. “Organized Crime: West African Response to Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism (OCWAR-M).” cDiscussion.com, January 23, 2019. https://www.cdiscussion.com/offre- d-emploi/?details-job=1046133&share.

"Fact Sheet: The World Bank and Energy in Africa." World Bank. 2013. Accessed June 26, 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/.

51 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 FATF. “Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies.” Money Laundering & Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment Strategies. Paris, France, 2008.

FATF. “What Do We Do.” What we do - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2019. https://www.fatf- gafi.org/about/whatwedo/.

FATF. “What Is Money Laundering?” Money Laundering - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2008. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/faq/moneylaundering/.

FATF. “Who We Are.” Who we are - Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2019. https://www.fatf- gafi.org/about/whoweare/.

Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada. “What Is Terrorist Financing?” What is Terrorist Financing, August 16, 2019. https://www.fintrac-canafe.gc.ca/fintrac- canafe/definitions/terrorist-terroriste-eng.

Flatirons. “Know Your Customer.” Flatirons Solutions, 2018. https://www.flatironssolutions.com/solutions/business-process-digitization/know-your-customer/.

Foster, Vivien, and Cecili Briceño-Garmendia. Africa's Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation. Agence Française De Développement, 2010.

Frankema, Ewout, Jeffrey Williamson, and Pieter Woltjer. 2015. “The Commercial Transition and the Commodity Price Boom of 1845-1885”. An Economic Rationale for the African Scramble. National Bureau of Economic Research, May. https://www.nber.org/papers/w21213.pdf

GIABA. “GIABA's Mission.” GIABA, 2012. https://www.giaba.org/.

Global Growing. “Facts.” global growing, 2014. http://global-growing.org/en/content/fact-7-about- three-quarters-african-population-live-less-2-half-population-less-125-day.

52 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Hafner, Manfred, Simone Tagliapietra, and Lucia De Strasser. "The Challenge of Energy Access in Africa." SpringerLink. January 01, 1970. Accessed July 23, 2019. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92219-5_1.

Halperin, Morton H., Joseph T. Siegle, and Michael M. Weinstein. 2010. The democracy advantage: how democracies promote prosperity and peace. New York: Routledge.

Havranek, Tomas, and Zuzana Irsova. Which Foreigners Are Worth Wooing? A Meta-Analysis of Vertical Spillovers from FDI. Working paper. William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan. 2010. 0-36.

ICA “What Is Money Laundering?” ICA, n.d. https://www.int-comp.org/careers/your-career-in- aml/what-is-money-laundering/.

Ighbor, Kingsley. “Closing Africa's Wealth Gap.” United Nations. United Nations, March 2018. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2017-march-2018/closing-africa’s-wealth- gap.

Institute for Economics and Peace. “Global Terrorism Index: 2016.” Global Terrorism Index: 2016, 2016.

Iweriebor, Ehiedu E.G. "The Colonization of Africa." Africana Age. 2011. Accessed June 25, 2019. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-colonization-of-africa.html.

Japhet, M. “Military Coups and Military Regimes in Africa.” African Journal of Military Studies8, no. 4 (1978): 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5787/8-4-756.

Joseph, Richard. Democracy and Reconfigured Power in Africa. Report. Brookings. 2011.

Kano. “Six Nigerian Troops Killed in Boko Haram Raid.” Gulf Times, January 19, 2019. https://www.gulf-times.com/story/619677/Six-Nigerian-troops-killed-in-Boko-Haram-raid.

53 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Kemp, John. "The Pros and Cons of 'super-grids'." The Sydney Morning Herald. November 17, 2012. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/the-pros-and-cons- of-super-grids-20121117-29ihl.html.

Kiprop, Joseph. “What Happened During The Guinea-Bissau Civil War?” World Atlas, May 16, 2018. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-happened-during-the-guinea-bissau-civil-war.html.

Kulovics, Alexandra. Money Laundering in West Africa: An Analysis. Report. University of Toronto. 2009. 1-121.

Lartey, Zaquiah. “Money Laundering in West Africa and Its Implications for Sub-Regional Security.” Money Laundering in West Africa and Its Implications for Sub-Regional Security, 2016.

Ledger. “How It All Began: A Brief History On Bitcoin & Cryptocurrencies.” Ledger, March 20, 2019. https://www.ledger.com/how-it-all-began-a-brief-history-of-bitcoin-cryptocurrencies/.

le Pichon, Thibault. “Crime and Development in Africa.” Crime and Development in Africa, 2005.

LeVine, Victor T. Research in African Literatures 24, no. 1 (1993): 142-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820215.

Library of Congress. “Regulation of Cryptocurrency Around the World.” Library of Congress, June 1, 2018. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/cryptocurrency/world-survey.php.

Matrix IFS. “Applying Robotic Process Automation in AML & FIU Operations - Matrix-IFS.” Matrix IFS, March 1, 2019. https://matrix-ifs.com/applying-robotic-process-automation-in-aml-fiu- operations/.

Micah, Eddy. “Sub-Saharan Africa Needs to 'Take the Corruption Bull by the Horns': DW: 29.01.2019.” DW.COM, January 29, 2019. https://www.dw.com/en/sub-saharan-africa-needs-to- take-the-corruption-bull-by-the-horns/a-47282807.

54 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 McCaskie, T.C., and John D. Fage. "Western Africa." Encyclopædia Britannica. March 29, 2016. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Africa/Initial-difficulty-of- European-administration.

"Methodology for Energy Access Analysis." IEA. 2017. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.iea.org/energyaccess/methodology/.

Mutume, Gumisai. “Organized Crime Targets Weak African States | Africa Renewal.” United Nations. United Nations, July 2007. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2007/organized-crime- targets-weak-african-states.

Nag, Oishimaya Sen. “Poorest Countries In Africa.” WorldAtlas, December 6, 2017. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/poorest-countries-in-africa.html.

Niyimbona, P., Mr. The Challenges of Operationalizing Power Pools in Africa. Presentation. Economic Commission for Africa, United Nations. Cairo, Egypt, 2005.

OECD. “Terrorism, Corruption and the Criminal Exploitation of Natural Resources.” Terrorism, Corruption and the Criminal Exploitation of Natural Resources, 2017.

Peacaue “Peaceau.” Peaceau, July 1, 2013. http://www.peaceau.org/uploads/afisma-transfers-it- authority-to-minusma-01-july-2013.pdf.

Peters, Jörge, and Maximiliane Sievert. Impacts of Rural Electrification Revisited: The African Context. Vol. 23. De Boeck Supérieur, 2010.

Rahman, Abdur, and Alfa Shaban. “Gunmen Raid Mali Military Camp, 16 Soldiers Killed.” Africanews. Africanews, March 17, 2019. https://www.africanews.com/2019/03/17/gunmen-raid-mali-military- camp-16-soldiers-killed//.

55 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 Ream, Mary-Katherine. "When It Comes to Energy, Countries Should Mix It up." ShareAmerica. May 06, 2015. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://share.america.gov/diversifying-energy-sources-boosts- security/.

"Regional Power Trade in West Africa Offers Promise of Affordable, Reliable Electricity." World Bank. April 20, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/04/20/regional-power-trade-west-africa-offers- promise-affordable-reliable-electricity.

"Resources For." Africa - Fact Sheet: The World Bank and Energy in Africa. 2013. Accessed June 25, 2019. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21935594~ pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:258644,00.html.

Reuters. “Al Qaeda: Chad Peacekeepers' Murder Backlash for Renewed Ties with Israel.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com, January 20, 2019. https://www.jpost.com/International/Ten-UN- peacekeepers-killed-in-attack-in-northern-Mali-578079.

Rosic, Ameer. “What Is Cryptocurrency? [Everything You Need To Know!].” Blockgeeks, September 13, 2018. https://blockgeeks.com/guides/what-is-cryptocurrency/.

Sanchex, Pedro E., and Christopher Saunders. Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet. Report no. PIDISDSC22358. ECOWAS. Washing., D.C.: World Bank, 2018. 1-17.

Schmitt, Eric. “Where Terrorism Is Rising in Africa and the U.S. Is Leaving.” The New York Times. The New York Times, March 1, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/africa/africa-terror- attacks.html.

The Religion of Peace. “List of Killings in the Name of Islam: 2019.” The Religion of Peace, 2019. https://www.thereligionofpeace.com/attacks/attacks.aspx?Yr=2019.

56 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32 The Role of Charities and NGO's in the Financing of Terrorist Activities, The Role of Charities and NGO's in the Financing of Terrorist Activities § (2002).

The World Bank. "Regional Power Trade in West Africa Offers Promise of Affordable, Reliable Electricity." World Bank. April 20, 2018. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/04/20/regional-power-trade-west-africa-offers- promise-affordable-reliable-electricity.

Thompsell, Angela. "The Biggest Challenges Faced by African States at Independence." ThoughtCo. April 18, 2018. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/challenges-african-states- faced-at-independence-43754.

UN. “United Nations Peace Operations.” United Nations Peace Operations, 2019. https://www.unmissions.org/#block-views-missions-political-missions.

UNODC. “Transnational Organized Crime in the West African Region.” Transnational Organized Crime in the West African Region, 2005.

U.S. Department of State. “Country Reports on Terrorism 2017.” Country Reports on Terrorism 2017, 2018.

U.S. Library of Congress. “The Babangida Government.” The Babangida Government, n.d.

Viswanathan, Vigil. “5 Ways to KYC Your Customer.” Veri5Digital, May 14, 2019. https://veri5digital.com/veri5-blog/5-ways-to-kyc-your-customer/.

"West Africa: Land Use and Land Cover Dynamics." Climate | West Africa. Accessed July 23, 2019. https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/node/157.

Zhan, James X., and Richard Bolwjn. World Investment Report 2019. Report. Special Economics Zones, United Nations Conference in Trade and Development. 2019.

57 Economic Committee of West African States | MUNUC 32