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Russian Old Believers in Alaska: Linguistic and Cultural RUSSIAN OLD BELIEVERS IN ALASKA: LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL CONTINUITY OF TRADITIONALIST REFUGEES _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by APRIL R. BASS Dr. Todd VanPool, Dissertation Supervisor DECEMBER 2015 © Copyright by April Bass 2015 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled RUSSIAN OLD BELIEVERS IN ALASKA: LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL CONTINUITY OF TRADITIONALIST REFUGEES presented by April Bass, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Todd VanPool Professor Christine VanPool Professor Mary Shenk Professor Nicole Monnier Without the love, support, understanding, commiseration, jokes, and patience of family and friends I couldn’t have made it through many struggles – certainly not finishing this damn thing. My boys really made this happen, though. Everett, you gave me the stress necklace you made in school last night just to make me feel better. You even taught me how to play with it when I’m feeling extra stressed and checked in with me this morning to see if my stress level had reduced! You are such an incredible boy – you always amaze me. Thank you so much, Everett, for being so thoughtful and patient while I finished this dissertation. Without your help, I wouldn’t have been able to finish writing. I know we’ve had to put off reading your favorite Supercat in the evenings sometimes, and I’ve been working through weekends. But no more! Bring on Splatoon! Kendrick, you don’t even know it yet, but you helped me write chapter seven! After we brought you home, you and I hung out at home for a while. You were brand new. You slept a bunch, so I snuggled you in a Mobi and stood in the kitchen and typed. You bring healing and hope in a way you may never understand, sweet boy. You don’t understand this writing thing, but you know when I’m gone. Don’t worry, it’s over. My sons – together, your light fills the house. Your dancing in the kitchen and your silliness makes my life worthwhile. KISA, tonight is the last night you’ll have to do everything on your own. You have propped me up (and I use that awkward word on purpose) in more ways than most could endure, and yet you persist with unending positivity and truly unconditional love. So many times I’ve wanted to just stop, and you have encouraged me to keep on because you knew I would be disappointed in myself. My gratitude for you and our family together is beyond measure. To the people of SCAK who were so kind to me while I was visiting, I hope I have kept my word to you of anonymity and an ethical portrayal from a researcher. Thank you all for your hospitality. I hope we meet again. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been very fortunate to have been surrounded by several people without whose influential guidance, constructive evaluation, and significant support I would not have finished this project. I have an absolutely exceptional advisor. I am sincerely and especially grateful to Dr. Todd VanPool for many years of direction, encouragement, and support. Not only have you been continually invested in my success as a graduate student, but you also took time to give me great parenting and personal advice, and I am truly appreciative. Dr. Christine VanPool and Dr. Todd VanPool, not only have you had a profound influence on me as professors, but you have also shown me what mentorship means; during my years of coursework, you inspired me, and during the most difficult time of my family’s life, you cared for us. Both of you are dedicated to your students’ academic and personal well-being, which will create in all of us a similar yet all too infrequent educator-mentors. The empowering women on my committee have each been inspiring to me in their own way. Dr. Mary Shenk, Dr. Nicole Monnier, and Dr. Christine VanPool, your scholarship, leadership, feminism, professionalism, motherhood, and criticism have been instrumental in my educational and personal development to this point. As I continue the process of lifelong learning, I will remain genuinely grateful for your influence. Finally, I would like to express my sincere appreciation for the financial support of the University of Missouri College of Arts and Sciences Alumni Grant that allowed me to go into the field. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1 Goals of the Study 2. HISTORY OF THE OLD BELIEVERS .................................................................10 Theological Basis of Old Belief Social Organization of the Old Believers 3. HISTORY OF THE OLD BELIEVERS IN SOUTH-CENTRAL ALASKA ........39 Migration from Russia to the United States Acculturative Pressures in Oregon and Changes to Social Organization Patterns 4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................65 Cultural and linguistic perspectives Consideration of religious and immigration issues 5. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................107 Procedures and metrics 6. ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................................121 Presentation of primary research questions and hypotheses Supporting analysis of quantitative and qualitative data iii 7. DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................175 Implications of hypothesis testing results Speculation of future trends 8. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................200 Broader anthropological implications Avenues of future research APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRE ..............................................................................................218 B. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .................................................................................231 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................233 VITA ................................................................................................................................245 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1. Icon of Jesus, reformed style .................................................................................17 2.2. Traditional Theotokos ............................................................................................17 2.3. Reformed Theotokos ..............................................................................................17 2.4. Depiction of dvoeperstie ........................................................................................19 2.5. Depiction of troeperstie .........................................................................................20 2.6. Icon of Christ, showing dvoeperstie ......................................................................22 2.7. Holy fathers with beards and short hair .................................................................22 2.8. Holy fathers with short hair and beards .................................................................22 2.9. Forcible shaving at court ........................................................................................26 2.10. Diagram of Raskol’niki sects .................................................................................36 3.1. Migration of SCAK OBs .......................................................................................42 3.2. OB family in the 1950s .........................................................................................45 3.3. OB girls occupying their time ...............................................................................45 3.4. Woodburn OB family............................................................................................46 3.5. OB mother and children gardening .......................................................................50 3.6. SCAK men in traditional dress ..............................................................................54 3.7. SCAK family in traditional dress ..........................................................................54 3.8. “Keep Out” ...........................................................................................................55 3.9. SCAK woman in the garden ....................................................................................56 3.10. OCS lessons ...........................................................................................................57 3.11. SCAK boy in t-shirt ................................................................................................58
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