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U·M·I University Microfilms International a Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. U·M·I University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. M148106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Order Number 930033'1 The polltfcs of memory: Creating self-understandings in postwar Japan Masters, Patricia Lee, Ph.D. University of Hawaii, 1992 V·M·I 300 N.ZeebRd. AnnArbor, MI48106 THE POLITICS OF MEMORY: CREATING SELF-UNDERSTANDINGS IN POSTWAR JAPAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIII IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE AUGUST 1992 BY Patricia Masters Dissertation Committee: Deane Neubauer, Chairperson Michael Shapiro Manfred Henningsen Kathy Ferguson Victor Kobayashi iii \ © Copyright 1992 by Patricia Masters All Rights Reserved iV' AC KNOWLED GMENTS Dissertations, like all texts, are created out of relationships-­ of ideas, of thoughts, of people. Many people have contributed to this dissertation in ways that are difficult to describe and to articulate, but I feel that much of this creation is due to their individual contributions to my thinking and to my life. First, I would like to acknowledge my committee members who persevered with me to see this work to completion, and always supported me with great good humor. Deane· Neubauer, as chair of my dissertation committee, inspired and gently pushed and encouraged my writing, believing that it could be done. Mike Shapiro stimulated me intellectually and introduced me to a different way of thinking, and to language, both through his own beautiful articulations and through those of others. Manfred Henningsen first introduced me to the possibilities of this project, sent me to Pearl Harbor, reminded me to use less jargon, and really cared about what this work on memory is and could be. Kathy Ferguson gave to me her clarity and her way of thinking about things which is rich and full and real, and allowed for diff'erences .tn- ideas and.. ways of speaking about them. Phyllis Turnbull acted as proxy for Kathy at the final defense and contributed her own beautiful thoughts and suggestions and close reading. Victor Kobayashi offered his artist's mind and his vast knowledge, particularly about Japanese film, and his presence is felt the greatest in the chapters which survey film and its place in Japanese culture. v Others at the University of Hawaii have been helpful and have influenced the writing of this dissertation as well, including Patricia Steinhoff, whose critical mind and deep understanding of Japanese people enlightened me on several occasions; Peter Manicas, whose inquisitiveness and sharp insights led me to questions I had not considered; Lee Siegel who showed me magic and whose laughter and style made me think it was possible for me to write about this subject; and Fumi Nitta, who lent me a book on how to survive a dissertation and took time to listen to my fears. People at the East West Center supported me both intellectually and emotionally including Tu Weiming, David Wu, Geoff White, Betty Buck, and Wimal Dissayanake. While I was living in Japan during my field research from 1988 to 1990, many people contributed to my understanding and to my well­ being. I benefitted greatly from the suggestions of Tsurumi Shunsuke, especially regarding tenko and thought control. I also cherish the input and friendship of Ueno Chizuko, whose work on feminism and the sense of self was tremendously helpful. I appreciated the evenings spent with Vic and Nancy Koschmann and our reading group which greatly enriched my thinking and approach. I also value the friendship of Elizabeth Harrison and her family, and Beth1s insights and knowledge of Japan. Friends in Japan helped to keep my spirits up and that helped me to remember the import of this work: Joshua Smilowitz, Keith Wilson, Cora Guss, Rita Kubiak, Venetia Stanley-Smith, Steve Suloway, Henry Mittwer, Masao and Masaye Horiike, Elizabeth and Ken Marcure, and Nagai-san, my greatest friend in Japan. vi Others in my life have contributed so much to me and to my work that they should be acknowledged as well: Dorothy Nyswander, my 97-year-old friend and model; A. T. Ariyaratne, whose movement inspires me to better things; William Aizenstat, the first teacher to really make a difference in my life. My colleagues and companions also deserve to be recognized for it is they who made the show all worth it: David Smith, Carol Murry, Caroline Sinavaiana, Claudia Shay, Megan Ward, Doug Herman, Owen Wrigley, John and Eiko, Penny Levin, Doug Hamamatsu, Candy Lutzow, Rod Fukino and Jan Crocker. Also, Steven and Zoe and the Makibaka Sisters, Mila Garcia, Susan Maley, and Linda Engelberg (the Librarian). Ricardo Neumann, John Casey, Allan and Machid and Martine, Ned Powers, Gary and Linda, Phil and Liz, Bill Callahan and Sumalee, and my kids: ll Justin, Kim, and Doug for II rah ing me on and for putting up with half a mom. To Miss Kato (Kiriyama)-Iku, who taught me Japanese in high school and taught me about Japanese people and her family; And finally, to the memory of my mother and father, this work is dedicated with affection, respect, and remembrance. Funds from the Crown Prince Akihito Scholarship, The East West Center, The Pacific Asian Scholarship, and the James K. Yonemura Scholarship have enabled me to conduct research and to carry out the writing of this work. I am indebted to them for their trust in my project and in me. vii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the creation and use of memory in the period called Showa (1926-1989) in the place called Japan. It takes, as its point of departure, an understanding of memory, and particularly social memory, as something which is constructed and, therefore, political. To the extent that memory is linked to self-understanding, the significance of this study lies in the introduction of a certain kind of relationship between the constitution of memory--one kind of memory to the exclusion of others--and politics. Since much of what we know in the present is shaped by our understandings of the past, and much of our self-understanding comes from the historical events which inform us, the production and control of memory is of some importance. By examining how memory is constructed, what is silenced, who gets to remember, and what is forgotten, this study seeks to arrive at an understanding of the ways in whieh Japanese people have submitted to and negotiated their sense of memory, of self, and of self-understanding, particularly in postwar Japan. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv ABSTRACT vii PART I. SENSUAL MEMORIES. 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: MEMORY IN THE REALM OF THE SENSES .• . 2 Imagining Japan ••.•.. 7 Fragrant Memories •..• 7 The Politics of Memory 14 CHAPTER II SITES OF MEMORY .•...• 18 Japan: Sacred Places/Symbolic Landscapes. • . 22 The Constellation of Ise, Kyoto, and Tokyo. 26 Yasukuni, Uyoku, and the Valorizing of Memories . • • . • • . • . • . • 30 Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and the Politics of Atonement . • • • . • . • . • • . • . • 38 CHAPTER III ANOTHER WAY OF SEEING: PEARL HARBOR AS MEMORY .•.• .• .••• 51 The Interviews .••. 52 Results of the Interviews 59 CHAPTER IV SOUNDS OF SILENCE •.•• 78 "The Politics of Censorship in Showa Japan".• 82 Japan and the Modern Age: The Administration of Silence .• •. ..• 84 Taisho • • . • . •.. 92 Minobe Case. ••. 93 Showa .•.• 94 Tenko •..•.•.. 97 Oyako Donburi ....• •••• 100 Relationship Between Censorship and Politics of Memory •..•.•.•. 101 ix CHAPTER V TASTES OF WAR AND OTHER UNPALATABLE MEMORIES ..... 103 PART II. TEXTUAL MEMORIES . 128 CHAPTER VI INTRODUCTION: MEMORY AS TEXT . 129 CHAPTER VII SCRIPTING THE IMPERIAL BODY 133 The Emperor of the Clouds •. 134 Name/No Name •.....•.. 139 The Emperor Has No Name •..•.•. 140 Chi: Blood, Land, Father, Mother's Milk and Knowledge ...•••.••• 151 The Constitution of the Emperor/The Emperor of the Constitution .•... 159 Imaging Hirohito •...•••.•... 166 CHAPTER VIII SHOWA AND THE SOCIAL PRACTICE OF FORGETTING. 177 The Ienaga Case ...•••• 183 CHAPTER IX FILMIC VISIONS, MANGA MADNESS, AND OTHER WRITINGS OF THE PAST . 195 Filmic Images 200 Manga Madness 210 APPENDICES . 222 Appendix A. Japanese Remembrances of Pearl Harbor . 222 Appendix B. Barefoot Gen •..• 225 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 241 PART I SENSUAL MEMORIES 2 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: MEMORY IN THE REALM OF THE SENSES The world is a sensual place. We can easily be taken back to a childhood memory by a whiff or a flash or a taste. A sense may be neutralized temporarily but that only serves to heighten it and the others momentarily denied.
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