sign in sign up
<<
Home , Abba Eban, Dan Margalit, Eitan Haber, Lavon Affair, Mordechai Gazit, Rogers Plan

Notes

Introduction

1. Resolution 242, passed by the Security Council on 22 Novem- ber 1967, was in point of fact a British initiative.

Chapter 1

1. Eitan Haber, Today War Will Break Out (: Idanim, 1987) (in Hebrew), pp. 258–9; Reuven Pedatzur, Triumph of Embarrassment: and the Territories after the Six Day War (Tel Aviv: Bitan, 1996) (in Hebrew), p. 28. 2. Israel State Archives, (henceforth ISA)/A–10/6304, Prime Minis- ter’s Files, 9 ; Abba Eban, Memoirs (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1978) (in Hebrew), p. 430; , Service Notebook, vol. 1 (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1979) (in Hebrew), p. 226. 3. Gidon Rafael, Destination Peace: Three Decades of Israeli Foreign Policy (Jerusalem: Idanim, 1981) (in Hebrew), p. 163. 4. Moshe Gilbo’a, Six Years, Six Days: The Origins and History of the Six Day War (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1969) (in Hebrew), p. 259; Shlomo Slonim, Jerusalem in America’s Foreign Policy, 1947–1977 (The Hague, London and Boston, MA: Kluwe Law International, 1988), p. 192. 5. Foreign Relations of the (henceforth FRUS), 1964–1968, Arab– Israeli Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, Harriet D. Schwar (ed.) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2004), p. 509; The National Archives, Kew (henceforth TNA)/Prime Minister’s Office (hence- forth PREM)/13/1621, Foreign Office (henceforth FO) to Tel Aviv, 16 June 1967; TNA/Foreign and Commonwealth Office (henceforth FCO)/17/541, Record of Meeting, 20 August 1967; Frank Brenchley, Britain, the Six Day War and its Aftermath (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), p. 83. 6. Eban, Memoirs, p. 419. 7. Pedatzur, Triumph of Embarrassment, p. 29. 8. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israel Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, p. 457. 9. Anwar el Sadat, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), pp. 179–80; Frank Aker, October, 1973: The Arab–Israeli War (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1985), p. 5. 10. Dan Bavly, Dreams and Missed Opportunities, 1967–1973 (Jerusalem: Carmel, 2002) (in Hebrew), pp. 39–40; Yoram Meital, ‘The Khartoum Conference and Egyptian policy after the 1967 war: re-examination’, Middle East Journal, 54:1 (Winter, 2000), pp. 66–72 11. Shimon Shamir, under Sadat: The Search for a New Orientation (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1978) (in Hebrew), pp. 89–91; Yoram Meital, Egypt’s Struggle for Peace: Continuity and Change, 1967–1977 (Gainsville, FL: University of Florida,

234 Notes 235

1997), pp. 29–30; Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London: Quartet Book, 1981), p. 43. 12. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, pp. 34–5; Nigel J. Ashton, King Hussein of : A Political Life (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 132–3. 13. TNA/FCO17/522, Wilson to Johnson, 15 June 1967; TNA/PREM13/1620, Record of a Telephone Conversation, 7 June 1967, and FO to Certain Missions, 16 June 1967; Eugene V. Rostow, Peace in the Balance: The Future of American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972), pp. 250–5. 14. Lyndon B. Johnson, The Vantage Point: Perspective of the Presidency, 1963– 1967 (New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston, 1971), p. 303; Dan Schueftan, Attrition: Egypt’s Post-War Political Strategy, 1967–1970 (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 1989) (in Hebrew), p. 54; Kenneth W. Stein, Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin and the Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 54. 15. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 159; Vaughn P. Shannon, Balancing Act: US For- eign Policy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003), p. 64. 16. Antoly F. Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Presidents (1952–1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), p. 166; Arkady N. Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), pp. 133–5. 17. Mohrez Mahmoud El Hussini, Soviet–Egyptian Relations, 1945–1985 (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1987), p. 183; Meital, ‘Khartoum Conference’, p. 74; Yezid Sayigh, ‘Turning defeat into opportu- nity: the Palestinian guerrillas after the June 1967 War’, Middle East Journal, 46:2 (Spring, 1992), p. 253. 18. Dobrynin, In Confidence, p. 166; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, p. 53. 19. FRUS, 1964–1968, The 1964–1968, vol. 14, David C. Humphrey and Charles S. Sampson (eds) (Washington, DC: United States Printing Office, 2001), pp. 514–20, 523–32, 545–52; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, pp. 556–63; Judith A. Klinghoffer, Vietnam, and the Middle East: Unintended Consequences (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1999), pp. 182–5. 20. George W. Breslauer, ‘Soviet policy in the Middle East, 1967–1972: unal- terable antagonism or collaborative competition’, in George W. Breuslauer (ed.), Soviet Strategy in the Middle East (Boston, MA: Unwin and Hyman, 1990), pp. 27, 33–4; Jerome Slater, ‘The superpowers and an Arab–Israeli political settlement: the Cold War years’, Political Science Quarterly, 105:4 (1990–91), pp. 567–8. 21. Fred Halliday, ‘The Middle East and the great powers’, in Yezid Sayigh and (eds), The Cold War and the Middle East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 15–19; Mark J. Brandriss, ‘Internal politics and foreign policy in Israel: the search for peace, 1967–1973’ (PhD thesis, , 1983), p. 13; , As I Saw It: A Secretary of State’s Memoirs (London: I. B. Tauris, 1990), pp. 324–5. 22. Mohamed Heikal, Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab–Israeli Peace Nego- tiations (London: Harper and Collins, 1996), p. 148; Galia Golan, Soviet 236 Notes

Policies in the Middle East from World War Two to Gorbachev (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 68–9. 23. David Pollock, The Politics of Pressure: American Arms and Israeli Policy since the Six Day War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), pp. 20–1; Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow, p. 138; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 164–5. 24. Eban, Memoirs, pp. 437–8. 25. Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 47; Pollock, Politics of Pressure, p. 22; Dobrynin, In Confidence, p. 166. 26. See, for example, Moshe Gat, Britain and the Conflict in the Middle East, 1964– 1967: The Coming of the Six Day War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), pp. 8–12, 203–28. 27. ISA/Hez4/1391, Remez to Lourie, 18 October 1967; , The Chariot of Israel: Britain, America and the State of Israel (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), p. 339; Kenneth O. Morgan, Callaghan: A Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 264. 28. TNA/PREM13/1623, FO to Tel Aviv, 17 August 1967; TNA/PREM13/1627, Record of Meeting, 6 November 1967; United States National Archives, Washington, DC (College Park, MD) (henceforth USNA)/RG59/18, Hughes to Acting Secretary, 22 September 1967; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dis- pute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, Louis J. Smith (ed.) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2004), pp. 63–4. 29. TNA/FCO17/541, Meeting with Eban, 15 September 1967; and TNA/FCO17/ 508, Brief by the FO, 15 November 1967. 30. Yossi Melman, Hostile Partnership: The Secret Relations between Israel and Jordan (Tel Aviv: Meitam, 1987) (in Hebrew), p. 70; Pedatzur, Triumph of Embarrassment, pp. 35–7. 31. Bavly, Dreams and Missed Opportunities, p. 41; Yossi Beilin, The Price of Unity: The Labour Party up to the (Ramat Gan: Revivim, 1985) (in Hebrew), pp. 21–2; Chaim Nadal, Between the Two Wars (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 2006) (in Hebrew), p. 27. 32. , New Map, Different Relations (Tel Aviv: Sifriat Ma’ariv, 1969) (in Hebrew), pp. 55; Ha’aretz, 10 August 1967; Ma’ariv, 10 August 1967. 33. TNA/PREM13/1624, Record of a Meeting, 6 November 1967. 34. Debates, vol. 50, 30 October 1967 (in Hebrew). 35. Pedatzur, Triumph of Embarrassment, p. 110; Ma’ariv, 15 August and 8 Octo- ber 1967. 36. Shlomo Aronson, Conflict and Bargaining in the Middle East: An Israeli Perspec- tive (Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins University, 1978), p. 87; Ha’aretz, 26 September 1967. 37. FRUS, 1964–1968, The Arab–Israeli Crisis, 1967, vol. 19, pp. 940–3. 38. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 42; Michael Barnett, Dialogues in Arab Politics: Negotiations in Regional Order (New York: Colombia University Press, 1998), pp. 166, 170. 39. ISA/Hez4/1391, Remez to Jerusalem, 2 October 1967; TNA/Cabinet Min- utes (henceforth CAB)128/42/3, 55th Conclusions, 14 September 1967, and 63rd Conclusions, 2 November 1967. Notes 237

40. Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 54; Avraham Sela, Unity within Conflict in the Inter- Arab System: The Arab Summit Conferences, 1964–1982 (Jerusalem: Magnus, 1983) (in Hebrew), pp. 75–8. 41. Mohamed Heikal, Road to Ramadan (London: Collins, 1996), pp. 53–4. 42. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, pp. 973–6. 43. ISA/Hez4/1391, Record of Conversation, 15 October 1967; FRUS, 1964– 1968, Arab–Israeli Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, pp. 930, 940; George Brown, In My Way: The Political Memoirs of Lord George Brown (London: Penguin Books, 1971), p. 233. 44. ISA/A8/8161, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 5 September 1967; Yohanan Katz, The Dove that Failed (Tel Aviv: Yaron Golan, 2006) (in Hebrew), pp. 35–6; Ha’aretz, 4 September 1967. 45. ISA/A9/8161, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 14 Novem- ber 1967. 46. ISA/A8/8161, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 5 September 1967; Eban, Memoirs, p. 439; Amnon Sella and Yael Yishai, Israel the Peaceful Belligerent, 1967–1979 (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1986), p. 11. 47. Knesset Debates, vol. 50, 30 October 1967. 48. Pedatzur, Triumph of Embarrassment, p. 112. 49. Aharon Bregman, Israel’s Wars 1947–1973 (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 261; Trevor Dupuy, Elusive Victory: The Arab–Israeli Wars, 1947–1974 (New York: Harper and Collins, 1978), p. 349; Mustafa Kabahah, The as Reflected in Egyptian Sources (Tel Aviv: Yad Tabenkin, 1994) (in Hebrew), pp. 56–60; see reports in Ha’aretz,9and 16 July and 5, 13 and 22 September 1967. 50. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 148. 51. Eban, Memoirs, p. 445. 52. ISA/Hez3/4156, Foreign Ministry Summary of our Activities, 5 and 11 November 1967. 53. Moshe Gat, ‘Britain and Israel before and after the Six Day War, June 1967: from support to hostilities’, Contemporary British History, 18:1 (Spring, 2004), pp. 60–1; Gernot Klantschnig, ‘Oil, the and sterling reserves: economic factors determining British decision-making during the 1967 Arab–Israeli crisis’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 14:3 (September, 2003), p. 132. 54. TNA/FCO17/1169, Minute by the FO, 22 June 1967, and Minute by Trip, 26 June 1967; Sydney D. Bailey, The Making of Resolution 242 (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1985), p. 242; Lord Caradon, ‘A plan for the Middle East’, in John Norton Moore (ed.), The Arab–Israeli Conflict, vol. 2 (Princeton, NJ: Press, 1974), p. 1109; Lord Caradon et al., UN Security Council Resolution 242: A Case Study in Diplo- macy (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1981), pp. xi and 252; , View from the UN (London: David and Charles, 1977), pp. 292–3. 55. For the full text of Resolution 242, see Moore, The Arab–Israeli Conflict, vol. 2, pp. 802–3. 56. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 29. 57. Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 56. 238 Notes

58. Ibid., p. 54; Laura M. James, ‘Military political means/ends: the Egyptian decision-making in the War of Attrition’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 93. 59. Hisham Sharabi, ‘Interview with Lord Caradon’, Journal of Studies, 5:3–4 (Autumn 1975–Winter 1976), pp. 145–6; Lord Caradon, ‘A plan for the Middle East’, p. 1111. 60. Ensio Siilasvuo, In the Service of Peace in the Middle East, 1967–1979 (London: Hurst and Company, 1992), pp. 74–5. 61. Abba Eban, ‘The Six Day War: opportunities not a solution’, Skirah Hodshit, 11:4 (May, 1987) (in Hebrew), p. 16. 62. Thant, View from the UN, p. 299; Saadia Touval, ‘Mediators in the Arab– Israeli conflict’, in Benyamin Neuberger (ed.), Diplomacy and Confronta- tion: Selected Issues in Israel’s Foreign Relations, 1948–1978 (Tel Aviv: Open University, 1984) (in Hebrew), p. 356. 63. See Andrew Kydd, ‘ “Which side are you on?” Bias, credibility and mediation’, American Journal of Political Science, 47:4 (October, 2003), pp. 597–607. 64. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 198. 65. Alfred J. Atherton Jr, ‘The Soviet role in the Middle East: an American view’, Middle East Journal, 39:4 (Autumn, 1985), p. 693. 66. In 1955, in an intelligence debacle that the Israelis dubbed ‘Esek Bish’ (An Unfortunate Business) and was called in English the ‘Lavon Affair’, Egypt arrested four Israeli agents. In 1964, Wolfgang Lotz and his wife, Waltraud, were charged and found guilty of spying for Israel. For an Israeli perspective on the POW exchange, see Meir Amit, Head On (Or Yehuda: Hed Artzi, 1999) (in Hebrew), pp. 249–54. 67. USNA/RG59/1804, Hughes to Secretary, 5 January 1968; Siilasvuo, In the Service of Peace, p. 79. 68. Maurice Couve de Murville, Une Politique Étrangére, 1958–1969 (: Librairie Plon, 1971) (in French), pp. 472–5; Daniele Caviglia and Massimiliano Cricco, La diplomazia italiana e gli equilibri mediterranei: la politica mediorientale dell’Italia dalla guerra dei Sei Giorni al conflitto dello Yom Kippur (1967–1973) (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2006) (in Italian), p. 27. 69. USNA/RG59/1806, Handly to Sisco, 1 March 1968; David A. Korn, Stale- mate: The War of Attrition and Great Power Diplomacy in the Middle East, 1967–1970 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), p. 142; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 55. 70. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 80–6, 91. 71. See Zaki Shalom, ‘Traumatic pre-1967 war experience and its implications for Israel’s foreign policy decision-making in the post-war period’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 74–6. 72. Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 78–9; Korn, Stalemate, p. 142; Saadia Touval, The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1948–1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 143–4. 73. TNA/FCO17/43, Washington to FCO, 16 February 1968; USNA/RG59/1806, Handly to Sisco, 1 March 1968, and Rusk to , 25 October 1968. 74. TNA/FCO/17/48, Cairo to FCO, 6 June 1968. 75. Caviglia and Cricco, Diplomazia italiana, p. 42. Notes 239

76. See Thant, View from the UN, p. 299; also Avi Shlaim and Avner Yeniv, ‘Domestic politics and foreign policy in Israel’, International Affairs, 56:2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 242–5, 248. 77. Brenchley, Britain, p. 108; USNA/RG59/1809, Rusk to Tel Aviv, 2 Febru- ary 1968. 78. TNA/FCO17/43, Washington to FCO, 16 February 1967; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 84. 79. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, p. 98. 80. Ibid., pp. 56–8, 68. 81. Ibid., pp. 58–60. 82. Ibid., pp. 150 and 320; TNA/FCO17/52, FCO to Washington, 1 April 1968. 83. USNA/RG59/1806, Rusk to Tel Aviv, 12 February 1968, and 5 March 1968; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 158, 180, 187–90, 211–12. 84. USNA/RG59/1806, Rusk to Tel Aviv, 5 March 1967; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab– Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 211–12. 85. USNA/RG59/1806, Rusk to Tel Aviv, 5 March 1967; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 211–12. 86. Ibid., pp. 80–6, 311–12. 87. Ibid., pp. 85–6. 88. ISA/A10/8161, Meeting of the Foreign and Defence Committee, 23 Jan- uary 1968. 89. Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water’s Edge and Beyond: The Limits of Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1991), p. 91. 90. Ibid., pp. 95–5; Douglas Little, ‘The making of a special relationship: the United States and Israel, 1957–1968’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25:4 (November, 1993), p. 579. 91. The USA had repeatedly asked Israel not to start large-scale military opera- tions since these would inevitably sabotage the peace process. Israel ignored the American request. On 21 March, the IDF entered Kafr Karameh in Jordan, the headquarters of the Palestinian National Liberation Movement (), where Israeli ground troops backed by tanks, artillery and air- craft fire, found themselves battling not only Palestinian guerrillas but the Jordanian army as well. The result was 130 and 60 Jordanian soldiers dead. Following Operation Karameh, President Johnson wrote to Eshkol, protesting that such operations not only threatened to dam- age their shared hope for peace but also risked undermining their two countries’ international standing as well. See Tom Segev, ‘It began in Karameh’, Ha’aretz, 21 March 2008; Amirav Moshe, ‘Remember Opera- tion Karameh’, Ha’aretz, 11 January 2008; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 181; Sayigh, ‘Turning defeat into opportunity’, p. 265; and W. Andrew Terril, ‘The political mythology of the ’, Middle East Journal, 55:1 (Winter, 2001), pp. 91–2. 92. FRUS, 1964–1968, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, p. 487; Abraham Ben Zvi, Lyndon B. Johnson and the Politics of Arms Sales to Israel: In the Shadow of the Hawk (London: Frank Cass, 2004), p. 311. 93. USNA/RG59/1811, Davis to Rostow, 29 June 1968; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 181. 240 Notes

94. TNA/FCO17/44, New York to FCO, 12 March 1968; TNA/FCO17/45, Minute by Eastern Department, 10 May 1968; ISA/A11/8161, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 13 March 1968; and ISA/A12/8161, 21 May 1968. 95. TNA/FCO17/44 Cairo to FCO, 18 March 1968, and 3 April 1968; TNA/FCO17/47, Minute by Walker, 15 March 1968; Abba Eban, Personal Witness: Israel through My Eyes (New York: Putman’s Sons, 1992), p. 472. 96. TNA/FCO17/47, Cairo to FCO, 3 April 1968; Brenchley, Britain, p. 110; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, pp. 56–7. 97. TNA/FCO17/57, FCO to Tel Aviv, 3 May 1968. 98. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 414–15; TNA/FCO17/59, Tel Aviv to FCO, 16 . 99. Ibid., Tel Aviv to FCO, 26 August 1968; Brenchley, Britain, pp. 114–15. 100. TNA/FCO17/59, Tel Aviv to FCO, 16 September 1968; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 465, 468; Brenchley, Britain, pp. 115–16. 101. TNA/FCO17/59, Tel Aviv to FCO, 16 September 1968. 102. Although Riad was quick to put an end to the questions-and-answers ses- sion, he initiated a second such round in October 1968. Was Israel prepared to implement the Security Council’s decision, he asked? Was it willing to withdraw from all of the land that it had conquered following its aggressive actions of 5 June? But just as Riad’s questions had not changed, so too had Israel’s answers remained the same. Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 89. 103. USNA/RG59/1812, State Department (henceforth SD) to Ball, 31 July 1968; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute,1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 411–14, 419–420; TNA/FCO17/52, Washington to FCO, 18 July 1968; ISA/A12/7043, Talks between Eshkol, Ball and Sisco, 15 July 1968. 104. USNA/RG59/1812, SD to Tel Aviv, 14 September 1968; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 449–98. 105. Touval, ‘Mediators in the Arab–Israeli dispute’, p. 356; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, p. 416; ISA/A12/7043, Talks between Eshkol, Ball and Sisco, 15 July 1968. 106. ISA/A1/7058, Eshkol to Johnson, 4 and 9 August 1968. 107. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 481–5. 108. , Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1981– 1999 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), p. 348; Kenneth M. Pollack, at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991 (Lincoln, NE, and London: Univer- sity of Nebraska Press, 2002), pp. 91–2; Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1978) (in Hebrew), p. 513; Schueftan, Attrition, pp.133–5. 109. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 196; Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 349. 110. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 196; James, ‘Military political means’, p. 96. 111. On 21 of August 1968, the Soviets, who opposed the liberal reforms of Alexander Dubcek, the Czech leader, ordered their forces across the border into Czechoslovakia with the aim of bringing the renegade coun- try back into the communist fold. See Karen Dawisha, The Kremlin and the Prague Spring (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 319–40; Galia Golan, Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia: The Dubcek Era, 1968–1969 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 239–45. 112. During the presidential elections both the Republican candidate, , and the Democrat, Hubert Humphrey, declared themselves in Notes 241

favour of selling American military aircraft to Israel. As polling day drew near, Johnson, in a bid to help his fellow Democrat, authorised the sale of USA jets to Israel, issuing a statement to this effect on 9 October. The deal itself was signed on 7 November. See FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dis- pute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 548–9; Bard, The Water’s Edge, pp. 201–4; Ben Zvi, Lyndon B. Johnson, p. 119; Steven L. Spiegal, The Other Arab–Israeli Con- flict: Making America’s Middle East Policy from Truman to Reagan (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 164. 113. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 478–82; TNA/FCO/17/1169, Minute by the FCO, 22 June 1970. 114. USNA/RG59/1805, SD to Tel Aviv, 22 November 1968; FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 522–7. 115. FRUS, 1969–1976, Soviet Union, vol. 12, p. 7; P. J. Vatikiotis, Conflict in the Middle East (London: Allen and Unwin, 1971), p. 190. 116. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 740–5; FRUS, 1969–1976, Soviet Union, vol. 12, p. 12; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 95; Moore, Arab–Israeli Conflict, vol. 2, pp. 1086–8; Lawrence L. Whetten, Canal War: Four Power Conflict in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), pp. 68–9; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 229–30. 117. USNA/RG57/1817, SD to Tel Aviv, 8 January 1968; TNA/FCO17/712, Text of US Reply, 15 January 1968; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 230. 118. USNA/RG59/1817, 8 and 9 January 1968; FRUS, 1969–1976, Soviet Union, vol. 12, p. 6; TNA/FCO17/712, Text of US Reply, 15 January 1968. 119. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 593–4; Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 90–1; B. Richard Parker, The Politics of Miscalculation intheMiddleEast(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 131–3. A month earlier, in October 1968, Eban drafted a nine-point plan, which he then handed over to Jarring to pass on to Egypt. It called for a conclusion of a peace treaty; mutually recognised and secure bound- aries; miscellaneous security arrangements; open borders; a guarantee of free passage through the Straits and Suez Canal; a solution to the Palestinian refugee problem; regional cooperation; clarifying the future of Jerusalem; and finally mutual recognition of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all of the region’s nation-states. All of this was to be embedded in a nego- tiated peace treaty. Focusing specifically on the plight of the , Eban suggested that all interested parties – Israel, the Arab States, as well as those supplying aid to the Palestinians – should meet up and for- mulate a five-year plan to resolve the problem. Riad rejected Eban’s plan, which did not mention the word ‘withdrawal’ even once. Egypt, Riad said, demanded a total Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Arab lands, for which in return it was willing to declare an end to the state of war. As for granting Israel passage through the Straits, that would be subject to finding a satis- factory solution to the Palestinian refugee problem. See USNA/RG59/1811, Hart to Rusk, 19 October 1968; Brenchley, Britain, pp. 118–19; Eban, Memoirs, p. 451. 120. FRUS, 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, pp. 667–70; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 91; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 60; Mordechai Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy and the Quest for Peace (London: Frank Cass, 2002), p. 92; I. William Zartman, ‘The failure of diplomacy’, in B. Richard Parker (ed.), 242 Notes

The October War: A Retrospective (Gainsville, FL: University of Florida Press, 2001), p. 40. 121. TNA/FCO/17/43, Minute by FCO, 15 January 1968.

Chapter 2

1. William B. Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict since 1967 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2001), pp. 61–6; Dan Tschirgi, The American Search for Middle East Peace (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1989), p. 57; Salim Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate: the Nixon administration and the Arab–Israeli conflict’, in Nigel J. Aston (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Super- powers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 36; Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (London: Allen Lane, 2007), p. 172; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 246. 2. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 59; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 152; Tschigri, American Search, p. 56; , The White House Years, vol. 1 (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1980) (Hebrew edn), pp. 371–5. 3. USNA/RG59/1821, Rogers to Moscow, 23 June 1969; Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 172; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, p. 57; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 37. 4. ISA/Hez2/4780, Rabin to Jerusalem, 14 March 1969; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 135; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 63. 5. New York Times, 19 December 1968, in George Lenczowski, American Pres- idents and the Middle East (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), pp. 119–20. 6. Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 150–1. 7. USNA/RG59/1834, Memorandum of Conversation, 15 April 1969. 8. ISA/Hez2/4/156, Discussion on Israel–US Relations, 16 May 1969; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 246. 9. Korn, Stalemate, pp. 150–1; Touval, The Peace Brokers, p. 150. Harbouring a great deal of respect for General de Gaulle, Sisco claims, Nixon did not want to insult the French president by dismissing his suggestion outright. See Zartman, ‘The failure of diplomacy’, p. 27. 10. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Memorandum for Kissinger, 8 May 1969; Korn, Stalemate, pp. 151–2. 11. USNA/RG59/1837, Memorandum for the President, 11 July 1969; Abdel Magid Farid, Nasser: The Final Years (Reading: Ithaca, 1994), p. 136. 12. TNA/CAB128/44/1, Conclusion of 24 April 1969; USNA/RG59/1821, Rogers to Moscow, 23 June 1969; David A. Korn, ‘US–Soviet Negotiations of 1969 and the Rogers Plan’, Middle East Journal, 44:1 (Winter, 1990), p. 39. 13. USNA/RG59/1837, SD to Tel Aviv, 17 June 1969. 14. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 66; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, pp. 387–8. 15. TNA/CAB128/44, Cabinet Conclusion, 12 March 1968. 16. USNA/RG59/1820, Hughes to Acting Secretary, 23 May 1969; Ya’akov Bar- Siman-Tov, Israel, the Superpowers and the War in the Middle East (New York: Preager, 1987), p. 150. In Arabic the war was called Harb Istinzaf, meaning Notes 243

the ‘War of Blood-Letting’. See Mustafa Kabahah, War of Attrition, pp. 15 and 29. 17. Farid, Nasser, p. 135; Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 196. In his memoirs Sadat acknowledged that the Soviet Union had opposed the War of Attri- tion. Happy to reap what rewards they could from the continued low-level tension in the area, the Soviets were averse to any further deterioration in the situation along the Arab–Israeli front, fearing that it might segue into a superpower confrontation. This is at odds with Hussini’s assertion that Nasser would never have gone to war unless he had been assured of Soviet support. It also debunks his claim that it was the Soviets who pushed Egypt into war in the first place, hoping to give a further boost to their presence in the country. El Hussini, Soviet–Egyptian Relations, p. 184; Breslauer, ‘Soviet policy in the Middle East’, pp. 32–4. 18. Dayan, Story of My Life, pp. 513–15; Dupuy, Elusive Victory, p. 361. 19. Farid, Nasser, pp. 135–6; Ya’akov Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing: Israel deep penetration air raids in the War of Attrition, 1969– 1970’, Journal of Contemporary History, 19:3 (1984), p. 550; Laura M. James, Nasser at War: Arab Images of the Enemy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 150; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 64; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 135; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 106. See also Kabahah, War of Attrition, p. 15. 20. USNA/RG59/1834, SD to Tel Aviv, 2 April 1969. 21. USNA/RG59/1819, SD to Tel Aviv, 15 March 1969; USNA/RG59/1820, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 5 May 1969; TNA/FCO17/943, Washington to FO, 15 March 1969. 22. USNA/RG59/1819, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 15 March 1969. 23. TNA/FCO17/749, Washington to FCO, 20 March 1969; Touval, Peace Brokers, pp.151–2. 24. TNA/FCO/17/947, Record of Conversation, 13 June 1969. 25. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Prime Minister Meir to President, 15 May 1969. 26. Beilin, Price of Unity,p.53;MeronMedzini,The Proud Jewess: and the Vision of Israel, A Political Biography (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1990) (in Hebrew), p. 361; Brandriss, ‘Internal politics’, p. 107. 27. Tschirgi, American Search, pp. 60–1. 28. TNA/FCO17/947, Record of Conversation, and FCO to Tel Aviv, 13 June 1969. 29. USNA/RG59/1819, SD to Tel Aviv, 15 March 1969. 30. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, 17 June 1969; Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, p. 175. 31. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, 13 June 1969. 32. The months between March and July 1969 saw 75 Israeli soldiers killed and 270 wounded. Egypt did not release its casualty figures, although these were in all likelihood higher than Israel’s. Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 350; Schueftan, Attrition, p. 195. 33. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 516. 34. Avi Shlaim and Raymond Tanter, ‘Decision process, choice and conse- quences: Israeli deep penetration bombing in Egypt, 1970’, World Politics, 30:4 (July, 1978), p. 496; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 516. 244 Notes

35. USNA/RG59/1820, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 5 May 1969; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 248. 36. Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 154; Ha’aretz, 8 September 1969. 37. James, ‘Military political means’, p. 499; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 516. 38. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Rogers to Nixon, 1 May 1969; ISA/Hez2/156, Rogers before the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, 27 March 1969, and San Francisco to Washington, 30 June 1969. 39. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Saunder to Kissinger, 8 May 1969; TNA/ FCO17/1169, Minute by the FCO, 22 June 1970; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 390. 40. Sisco had already made both these points once before, during his previous round of meetings with Dobrynin. See USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Sisco– Dobrynin Meeting, 9 June 1969. 41. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, SD to Moscow, 12 June 1969; USNA/RG59/ 1837, Memorandum for the President, 20 June 1969; Korn, Stalemate, p. 155; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 391. 42. USNA/RG59/1837, Memorandum for the President, 20 June 1969; USNA/RG59/1821, Rogers to Moscow, 23 June 1969; and USNA/RG59/1836, Rogers to Nixon, 30 June 1969; Korn, Stalemate, p. 156; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 391. 43. Farid, Nasser, p. 138; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 38. 44. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, SD to Tel Aviv, 23 June 1969. 45. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Meetings with Soviets, 15 July 1969, and Talks with Soviets, 17 July 1969. 46. Ibid. 47. USNA/RG59/1837, Memorandum for the President, 21 July 1969; Korn, ‘US–Soviet negotiations’, p. 45; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 392. 48. Farid, Nasser, p. 139; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 66. 49. On 8–9 September, the Israeli army launched a combined land, sea and air operation, targeting Egyptian naval vessels, army observation points and camps, as well as radar installations. Faced with the sight of a landscape and seascape littered with sunken ships, pulverised military facilities, breached defences and over 100 dead, Nasser did not hesitate to fire his chief of staff, General Ismail Ali. See Dayan, Story of My Life, pp. 516–617; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 137; Shlaim and Tanter, ‘Decision process’, p. 486. 50. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 66; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 191. 51. TNA/FCO17/749, Record of Conversation, 18 September 1969; Bar-Siman- Tov, Superpowers, p. 155; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 253. 52. ISA/Hez1/5969, Rabin to Jerusalem, 26 April 1969; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 392; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 252. 53. TNA/FCO17/749, Record of Conversation, 10 July 1969. 54. USNA/RG59/1839, Rogers to Nixon, 10 September 1969. 55. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, pp. 393–4. 56. ISA/A7/7064, Meir’s Visit, 8 October 1969; Medzini, The Proud Jewess, p. 365; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 479; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 191–2. See also Le Monde, 12 December 1969. 57. Richard M. Nixon, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (London: Arrow, 1979), p. 479. See also Le Monde, 12 December 1969. 58. Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 184; Nixon, Memoirs, p. 479. Notes 245

59. Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 157; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 138; Rostow, Peace in the Balance, p. 273; Zartman, ‘The failure of diplomacy’, p. 28; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 252. 60. Farid, Nasser, p. 136. 61. James, ‘Military political means’, pp. 99–100; Korn, Stalemate, pp. 158–9. 62. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 67–8; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 110. 63. USNA/RG59/1839, SD to Tel Aviv, 16 October 1969. 64. ISA/Hez1/5968, Rabin to Jerusalem, 31 October 1969; USNA/RG59/1840, Memorandum of Conversation, 17 November 1969. 65. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 479. 66. USNA/RG59/1839, SD to Tel Aviv, 16 October 1969, and Tel Aviv to SD, 17 October 1969; and USNA/RG59/1840, Sisco to Rogers, 15 Decem- ber 1969. 67. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Rogers to Nixon, 16 November 1969. 68. Moore, The Arab–Israeli Conflict, pp. 1024–33; Dan Margalit, Message from the White House: The Rise and Fall of the National Unity Government (Tel Aviv: Otpaz, 1971) (in Hebrew), pp. 230–6. 69. USNA/RG59/1840, SD to Tel Aviv, 19 December 1969; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 68. 70. For the results of the Rabat Summit, see Sela, Unity within Conflict, pp. 91–5; Avi Shlaim, Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War And Peace (London: Penguin Books, 2007), p. 117. 71. USNA/RG59/2063, Sisco to Rogers, 10 January 1970, and Rogers–Stewart Talks, 29 January 1970. 72. USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 30 January 1970. 73. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 263; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 192. 74. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 1, p. 401; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 263. 75. ISA/Hez7/4183, Eban–Rogers Talks, 17 December 1969; Rabin, Service Note- book, vol. 1, p. 265. 76. Pollock, Politics of Pressure, p. 65; Ha’aretz, 23 December 1969. 77. USNA/RG59/1840, New York to SD, 12 December 1969. 78. Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 159; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 264. 79. Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 159; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 192. 80. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 192. 81. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Memorandum for the President, 27 Decem- ber 1969. 82. Ibid., Memorandum for Kissinger, 26 December 1969. 83. USNA/RG59/1840, Sisco to Rogers, 15 December 1969. 84. Ibid., 15 December 1969. 85. Ibid., SD to Tel Aviv, 19 December 1969; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 265. 86. ISA/Hez3/4156, Washington to Jerusalem, 23 December 1969; and ISA/Hez7/4283, New York to Jerusalem, 17 December 1969; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 264. 87. Several historians have accused Kissinger of playing a key role in the failure of the Rogers Plan, in as much as it was Kissinger who persuaded Nixon not to endorse the plan publicly. Their point being that had the president put the full weight of his authority behind the Rogers Plan, Israel would have had no choice but to accept it. But although Kissinger undoubtedly had a 246 Notes

great deal of influence over Nixon, the charge that the plan collapsed solely as a result of Israel’s hostility towards it completely ignores the part played by the Soviet Union and Egypt in its failure. The two were no less opposed to the Rogers Plan than was Israel, despite it going a considerable way towards meeting their demand for a total Israeli withdrawal. See Jussi M. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Pol- icy (Oxford: Macmillan, 2004), pp. 94–5; Lenczowski, American Presidents, p. 123; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 69; Tschirgi, American Search, p. 66; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 39. See also Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 152–3. 88. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Memorandum for Kissinger, 26 Decem- ber 1969. 89. Eban, Memoirs, p. 459. 90. USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 6 March 1970. 91. Tschirgi, American Search, p. 65. 92. USNA/RG59/2063, Rogers to Yost, 9 January 1970; and USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 30 January 1970. 93. Rabin Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 271. 94. USNA/RG59/2063, Sisco–Dobrynin Meeting, 22 January 1970; Riad, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 114. 95. TNA/FCO17/737, Washington to FCO, 24 December 1969. 96. TNA/FCO17/132, Record of Anglo-American Talks, 29 January 1970; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 138. 97. USNA/RG59/Nixon File/653, Memorandum for Kissinger, 9 January 1970; Korn, Stalemate, p. 164. 98. USNA/RG59/2063, Sisco–Dobrynin Meeting, 22 January 1970. 99. Ibid., Rogers to Yost, 9 January 1970; and USNA/RG59/2050, Rogers to Cairo, 13 January 1970. 100. ISA/Hez7/4283, Rabin to Jerusalem, 6 January 1970; Yossi Goldstein, Rabin: ABiography(Tel Aviv: Schoken, 2006) (in Hebrew), p. 216. 101. USNA/RG59/2064, SD to Cairo, 21 February 1970; TNA/FCO17/132, Washington to FCO, and Anglo-American Talks, 29 January 1970. 102. USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 5 January 1970.

Chapter 3

1. Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 345; Breslauer, ‘Soviet policy in the Middle East’, pp. 35–7. 2. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 517. 3. George W. Gawrych, The Albatross of Decisive Victory: War and Policy between Egypt and Israel in the 1967 and 1973 Arab–Israeli Wars (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), p. 114. 4. Eban, Memoirs, p. 459; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 271–2. 5. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 254. 6. Shlaim and Tanter, ‘Decision process’, p. 490. 7. Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing’, pp. 555–6; David Downing and Gary Herman, War without End, Peace without Hope: Thirty Years of the Arab–Israeli Conflict (London: New English Library, 1978), p. 198; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 68; Margalit, Message from the White House, pp. 43–4. Notes 247

8. TNA/FCO17/1199, Minute by Tripp, 5 February 1970; USNA/RG59/20/50, Memorandum of Conversation, 7 June 1970; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 145. 9. Le Monde, 15 January 1970. 10. Davar, 16 January 1970. 11. Korn, Stalemate, p. 184; Margalit, Message from the White House, p. 59. 12. TNA/FCO17/769, Tel Aviv to FCO, 19 January 1970; USNA/RG59/2050, Sisco to Rogers, 7 January 1970, and Middle East Situation, 19 January 1970. See also Le Monde, 15 and 20 January 1970. 13. TNA/FCO17/1132, Record of Anglo-American Talks, 29 January 1970; USNA/RG59/2050, Sisco to Rogers, 7 January 1970. 14. Korn, Stalemate, p. 181; Shaheen Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat: Decision Making and Foreign Policy (1970–1972) (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994), p. 66; The Times (London), 10 February 1970. 15. USNA/RG59/2050, Richardson to Cairo, 21 February 1970. 16. Mordechai Gazit, The Peace Process, 1967–1973: Efforts and Contacts (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1983), p. 29; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 273–4. 17. USNA/RG59/2050, Barbour to SD, 10 January; Korn, Stalemate, p. 183; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 145. 18. TNA/FCO17/1132, Anglo-American Talks, and Washington to FCO, 29 Jan- uary 1970. 19. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, p. 179; Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (New York: Summit Books, 1983), p. 217. 20. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 69. 21. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 195; Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 191. 22. TNA/FCO17/1132, Washington to FCO, 20 February 1970. 23. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 276 and 279; see also TNA/FCO/171132, Washington to FCO, 20 February 1970. 24. Dima Adamski, Operation Kavkaz: Soviet Intervention and Israeli Intelligence Failure during the War of Attrition (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 2006) (in Hebrew), pp. 72–2; Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 152. 25. Ha’aretz, 27 July 1970. 26. Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing’, p. 554. 27. USNA/RG59/2064, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 2 and 13 February 1970; and USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 4 February 1970; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 276. 28. Parker, Politics of Miscalculation, p. 152; Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The myth of strate- gic bombing’, pp. 554–5; Margalit, Message for the White House, pp. 41–2. 29. Heikal, Road to Ramadan, pp. 83–7; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 119. It has been claimed that it was Nasser’s intention all along to get the Soviets to intervene directly in the Arab–Israeli conflict, convinced that once this happened, the Americans would be left with no choice other than to put additional pressure on Israel in order to retain the global balance of power. And this is more or less what happened, so that in this respect at least, the War of Attrition worked to plan. See Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 69l; see also Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 124. 30. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 153; Kabahah, War of Attrition, pp. 104–5. 248 Notes

31. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 479. 32. Adamski, Operation Kavkaz, pp. 7, 85–9. 33. USNA/RG59/2064, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 2 February 1970. 34. USNA/RG/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 4 February 1970. 35. USNA/RG59/2064, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 13 February 1970. 36. Margalit, Message from the White House, pp. 61–2; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 193 and 196; Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing’, p. 556. 37. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 479; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 587. 38. USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 4 February 1970. 39. TNA/FCO17/1132,Washington to FCO, 20 February 1970; ISA/Hez7/4248, Washington to Jerusalem, 2 February 1970; Henry Laurens, Paix et Guerre au Moyen-Orient: L’Orient Arab et le Monde de 1947 a Nos Jours (Paris: Armand Colin, 1999) (in French), p. 270. 40. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 587; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 71. 41. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 121. 42. USNA/RG59/2064, SD to Tel Aviv, 2 February 1970; and USNA/RG59/2050, SD to London, 13 February 1970; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 121. 43. USNA/RG59/2050, SD to Bonn, 11 February 1970, and SD to Cairo, 21 February 1970. 44. Ibid., SD to Cairo, 21 February 1970. 45. USNA/RG59/2064, SD to Moscow, 10 February 1970. 46. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 589. 47. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 152; Korn, Stalemate, pp. 190–1. Moscow’s deci- sion to send to Egypt SA-3 missile installations manned by Soviet person- nel, plus several Soviet air squadrons needs to be seen in the context of the Cold War conflict, since this decision was not only a product of regional but also global considerations. The missiles were originally intended to coun- terbalance the threat posed by NATO forces and especially the USA forces’ presence in the Eastern Mediterranean. In this sense, Nasser’s request was timely since having already decided to station some Soviet units in Egypt, Moscow could now claim that it was simply coming to its client’s defence. See Dima Adamski, ‘Zero hour for the Bears: inquiring into the Soviet deci- sion to intervene in the Egyptian–Israeli War of Attrition, 1969–1970’, Cold War History, 6:1 (2006), p. 115. For a figure on the Soviet forces in Egypt at the time, see Ariel Vitan, ‘The Soviet military presence in Egypt, 1967–1972: a new perspective’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 8:3 (September, 1995), p. 552. 48. Fred Wehling, Irresolute Princes: Kremlin Decision-Making in the Middle East (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 69; Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat,p.57. 49. USNA/RG59/2051, Memorandum of Conversation, 20 March 1970; TNA/CAB128/45, Cabinet Conclusions, 26 April 1970. 50. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, SD to Moscow, 12 March 1970; and USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Memorandum for Kissinger, 8 April 1970. 51. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 594. 52. USNA/RG59/2052, Sisco to Davis, 9 April 1970; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 281–2. 53. Bar-Simon-Tov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing’, p. 559. 54. USNA/RG59/2062, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 11 April 1970; Korn, Stalemate, pp. 198–9. Notes 249

55. Ibid. 56. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 480; Bar-Simon-Tov, Superpowers, p. 172. 57. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 199; Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile: The Soviet–Egyptian Influence Relationship since the June War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 115. 58. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 200; USNA/RG59/2051, Tel Aviv to SD, 23 March 1970. 59. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Memorandum for Kissinger, 8 April 1970. 60. USNA/RG59/2051, SD to London, 26 March 1970; USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Memorandum for Kissinger, 8 April 1970. 61. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, SD to Moscow, 1 April 1970. 62. Ibid. 63. USNA/RG59/2052, Rogers to London, 8 April 1970; Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 198. 64. ISA/Hez9/6854, Rabin to Jerusalem, 28 April 1970; USNA/RG59/2052, Memorandum for Kissinger, 5 May 1970. 65. Ibid., Rogers to London, 8 April 1970; Nixon, Memoirs, p. 480. 66. USNA/RG59/2062, Tel Aviv to SD, 15 April 1970. 67. Ibid.; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 69; Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 176; Heikal, Road to the Ramadan, pp. 91–2. 68. USNA/RG59/2062, Tel Aviv to SD, 15 April 1970; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 69; Bar-Siman-Tov, Superpowers, p. 176; Heikal, Road to the Ramadan, pp. 91–2. 69. USNA/RG59/2053, Memorandum of Conversation, 15 May 1970. See also TNA/FCO17/1135, Anglo-American Talks, 18 November 1970. 70. Heikal, Road to Ramadan, pp. 91–2. 71. Korn, Stalemate, p. 241; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 288. 72. ISA/Hez/A25/7041, Jerusalem to Washington, 15 April 1970; and ISA/Hez1/7311, Meeting between Meir and Sisco, 16 April 1970; USNA/RG59/2052, Tel Aviv to SD, 15 April 1970. ‘Israeli military strategy’, Sisco would tell Shmuel Segev, writing for the Israeli daily Ma’ariv, ‘has been infinitely successful, but Israel’s political policy was bankrupt.’ See USNA/RG59/2050, Memorandum of Conversation, 6 March 1970. 73. Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 129. 74. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 154. 75. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 518; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 154; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 69. Following Nasser’s speech, Israel approached Romania, ask- ing it to pass on to Egypt a note suggesting that the two countries embark on unconditional, direct negotiations. The note opened by pointing out that just as the Arabs believed that Israel, hungry for land, was bent on expanding its territorial dominions by force of arms, so the Israelis were convinced that the Arabs were aiming at nothing less than their country’s destruction. Both [mis]conceptions, the note went on, should and could be put to the test. That said, and without committing itself to anything in advance, Israel was ready to put forward and discuss any possible solution to the myriad problems besetting the two sides. Nasser doubted whether the note was meant seriously. Refusing to take it at face value, he was con- vinced that it was a trap designed to lure him into making contact with Israel. And were he foolish enough to answer it, the whole affair would be 250 Notes

leaked to the papers, leaving Egypt isolated and Israel free to impose on Egypt a settlement of its own liking. See Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 155. 76. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 69. 77. USNA/RG59/2052, Memorandum for Kissinger, 5 May 1970; and USNA/RG59/2063, Record of Conversation, 15 May 1970. 78. USNA/RG59/2053, Memorandum of Conversation, 15 May 1970; Davar, 20 September 1970. 79. Ba-Mahaneh (In Camp; Israeli weekly army magazine), 14 April 1970. 80. Margalit, Message from the White House, p. 110. 81. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Golda to Nixon, 27 April 1970; ISA/Hez9/ 6854, Jerusalem to Washington, 28 April 1970. 82. USNA/RG59/2052, Tel Aviv to SD, 19 April 1970. 83. Ibid., Rogers to London, 1 May 1970; and USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/653, Memorandum to Kissinger, 8 April 1970; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 597. 84. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/H-30, Memorandum for the President, 10 June 1970. 85. Ibid. 86. USNA/RG59/2052, Rogers to Nixon, 7 May 1970. 87. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 289. 88. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 273; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 290–1. 89. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 273; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 290–1. 90. Korn, Stalemate, pp. 202–3; Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 375. 91. Rafael, Destination Peace, p.203. 92. The furious reaction to the Goldman Affair, a mixture of disstress, anger and resentment, was indicative of the prevailing mood in Israel. It all began when Nachum Goldman, the president of the (mainly active in the USA), apparently received an invitation to meet Nasser in Cairo, but was instructed to turn the invitation down, since as an Israeli citizen he could not have any dealings with the enemy. It is hard to say how much truth, if any, there was in the story, which became public on 5 April. Incensed at what seemed to be a missed opportunity to bring the War of Attrition to an end, the Israeli press rounded on the government, pillorying it for refusing to look into this faintest of faint cracks in the so far solid wall of Arab hatred. A number of 18-year-olds about to be drafted into the army penned Meir a letter, reproaching her for having spurned this chance to make peace. Seeing how the government had failed in its duty to its citizens by leaving no stone unturned in the search for peace, these six-formers wrote, they found it impossible to do their duty by the govern- ment and serve in the country’s armed forces. See Victor Shem Tov, ‘Golda’s missed opportunities: thirty years to the Yom Kippur War – aviewfromthe Cabinet table’, Kivunim Hadashim, 10 (2004) (in Hebrew), pp. 226–7; Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy, p. 79; Gad Ya’acobi, Grace of Time: An Autobiography (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Chemed, 2002) (in Hebrew), p. 87. 93. Knesset Debates, vol. 59, 26 May 1970. 94. USNA/RG59/2053, Memorandum of Conversation, 3 June 1970. 95. Ibid., Memorandum of Conversation, 2 June 1970. 96. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/H-30, Memorandum for the President, 15 June 1970. Notes 251

97. Ibid., Memorandum for the President, 9 June 1970. 98. Ibid.; see also Sisco’s report in: TNA/FCO17/1175, Washington to FO, 26 June 1970. 99. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/H-30, Memorandum for the President, 15 June 1970. 100. Margalit, Message from the White House, pp. 237–9. 101. Ibid., p. 237. 102. USNA/RG59/2054, Tel Aviv to SD, 19 June 1970. 103. Ibid. 104. USNA/RG59/2065, Rogers to Nixon, 20 June 1970. 105. Ibid. 106. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 292. 107. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 293–4; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 205. 108. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 294. 109. Knesset Debates, vol. 58, 29 June 1970. 110. USNA/RG59/2064, SD to Kissinger, 29 June 1970; Knesset Debates, vol. 58, 29 June 1970. 111. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Meir to Nixon, 1 July 1970. 112. Ibid. 113. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 607. 114. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 71. 115. Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 145; Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 95; Sadat, In Search of Identity, pp. 198–9; Wehling, Irresolute Princes, pp. 90–1. 116. Farid, Nasser, p. 176; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 156; Pollock, Politics of Pressure, p. 77; Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 144–5. 117. USNA/RG59/2067, Riad to Roger, 22 July 1970; Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 148–9. 118. See, for example, Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 611; James, ‘Mili- tary political means’, p. 103; Farid, Nasser, p. 176; Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 95; Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 144–5. 119. USNA/RG59/2054, Memorandum of Conversation, 23 July 1970. 120. USNA/RG59/2954, Tel Aviv to SD, 24 July 1970. 121. USNA/RG59/2067, Rogers to Tel Aviv (UAR Response), 23 July 1970. 122. Ibid., Rogers to Barbour, 23 July 1970. 123. Ibid. 124. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 521; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 296; Korn, Stalemate, p. 254; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 74. 125. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, pp. 607–8. 126. Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 192; Gazit, Peace Process, p. 47. 127. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Meir to Nixon, 29 November 1970; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 526. 128. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 266; Ze’ev Shiff, Phantom over the Nile: The Story of the Israeli Air-Crops (Haifa: Shikmona, 1970) (in Hebrew), p. 227. 129. Knesset Debates, vol. 58, 4 August 1970; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 521. 130. USNA/RG59/2067, Rabin to Rogers, 4 August 1970. 131. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 74; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 522. 132. Raphael Israeli, Man of Defiance: A Political Biography of (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985), p. 23; USNA/RG59/2068, Sisco to Roger,15 August 1970. 252 Notes

133. Ezer Weizman was to write in his memoirs that letting Egypt get away with its gross violations of the 1970 cease-fire agreement had been a terrible mis- take. Rather than wait for the Americans to do something, Israel should have blown up the Egyptian missile installations. By failing to do so, it played directly into Egypt’s hands, preparing the way for the Yom Kippur War. See Ezer Weizman, On Eagles’ Wings (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1975) (in Hebrew), pp. 310–14. See also record of conversation between Meir and Harold Wilson, the British prime minister, TNA/FCO17/1345, Record of Conversation, 4 November 1970. 134. USNA/RG59/2055, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 14 August 1970. 135. ISA/Hez2/4287, Jerusalem to Washington, 24 August 1970; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 302–5. 136. USNA/RG59/2055, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 17 August 1970; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 303. 137. USNA/RG59/2054, Memorandum of Conversation, 23 July 1970. 138. USNA/RG59/2055, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 14 August 1970. 139. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 482. 140. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 615. 141. Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 195. 142. Nixon, Memoirs, p. 482; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, pp. 305–6. 143. USNA/RG59/2055, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 14 and 17 August 1970. 144. Ibid. 145. Ibid., SD to Tel Aviv, 19 August 1970. 146. Ibid., Johnson to Tel Aviv, 28 August 1970; ISA/Hez2/4287, Argov to Jerusalem, 27 August 1970; Amos Perlmutter, Military and Politics in Israel, 1967–1977 (London: Frank Cass, 1978), p. 57; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 209. See also Eban’s statement to the Knesset, Knesset Debates, vol. 50, 25 August 1970. 147. USNA/RG59/2068, Sisco to Rogers, 31 August 1970. 148. Ibid., Rogers to Cairo, 3 September 1970. 149. Ibid. 150. USNA/RG59/2056, Memorandum of Conversation, 17 November 1970; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 618. 151. USNA/RG59/2069, Rogers to Algiers, 18 September 1970; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 173. Riad made the same point during a meeting with Sir Alec Douglas-Home, telling the British foreign minister that Egypt had every right to act as it did. See TNA/FCO17/1181, Record of Conversation, 22 October 1970. In his memoirs, Heikal wrote that Egypt began to repair the damage to its defence systems the moment that the cease-fire came into force. See Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 157. Ashraf Ghorbal insisted that all that Egypt did was rotate its defensive missiles within the designated zone. See Zartman, ‘Failure of diplomacy’, p. 34. 152. USNA/RG59/2055, Rogers to Amman, 9 September 1970. 153. Ashton, King Hussein, pp. 143–4. 154. On 6 September, members of the PFLP hijacked a Pan Am jumbo jet en route from Amsterdam to New York, and ordered it to fly to and then Cairo, where, after first evacuating the plane, they blew it up. On the same day the PFLP hijacked a second American airliner, this time belonging to TWA, and a Swissair DC8. Both aircrafts, along with their 400 passengers and crew were flown to Jordan, where on 9 September they were joined Notes 253

by a third hijacked plane, BOAC flight 775 from Bahrain to London. See Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, pp. 316–25; Ashton, King Hussein, pp. 145. 155. Nixon, Memoirs, pp. 483–5. 156. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, pp. 640–1. 157. Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 164–5; Ashton, King Hussein, p. 150; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 638; Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, pp. 326–8. 158. Moshe Zak, ‘Israel–Jordan negotiations’, Washington Quarterly, 8:1 (Winter, 1985), p. 170; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 311. 159. USNA/RG59/2056, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 21 September 1970; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 82; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 2, p. 649. 160. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 1, p. 314. 161. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 233; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 43. 162. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 86. 163. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, pp. 1312–13. 164. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 325–6. 165. Ibid. 166. USNA/RG59/2056, SD to Tel Aviv, 21 September 1970, and Rogers to Tel Aviv, 29 October 1970. 167. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/49, Tel Aviv to SD, 10 September 1970; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 209–10. 168. Ya’acobi, Grace of Time, p. 94. 169. USNA/Nixon Files/494, Memorandum for Kissinger, 26 January 1971; Ya’acobi, Grace of Time, p. 94. Shortly before Dayan’s speech, the British ambassador, Sir Ernest John Ward Barnes, reported that Gad Ya’acobi, deputy secretary of the Labour Party and a member of Dayan’s inner cir- cle, had proposed a way out of the current diplomatic stalemate. Ya’acobi suggested that Israel and Egypt sign a new cease-fire agreement to with- draw from the Canal and establish a demilitarised zone separating their two armies. Ya’acobi, the ambassador noted, spoke of an Israeli retreat of some 20 to 30 kilometres east of the Canal. The ambassador then noted that the idea of an Israeli pullout was gradually gaining acceptance within Israeli military circles. See TNA/FCO17/1161, Tel Aviv to FO, 20 September 1970. 170. Eban, Memoirs, p. 467. 171. See Eban’s conversation with the British ambassador, TNA/FCO17/200, FCO to Tel Aviv, 16 December 1970. 172. USNA/Nixon Files/494, Memorandum for Kissinger, 16 November 1970; USNA/RG59/2056, Tel Aviv to SD, 26 November 1970. 173. USNA/Nixon Files/756, Meir to Nixon, 29 November 1970. 174. Ibid., Nixon to Meir, 3 December 1970; ISA/A7/7066, 3 December 1970; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 227. 175. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 525. 176. USNA/RG59/57, SD to Tel Aviv, 17 December 1970. 177. USNA/RG59/2071, Rogers to Cairo, 22 December 1970.

Chapter 4

1. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 85; Shamir, Egypt under Sadat,p.91. 2. Ibrahim A. Karawan, ‘Identity and foreign policy: the case of Egypt’, in Shibley Telhami and Michael Barnett (eds), Identity and Foreign Policy in 254 Notes

the Middle East (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2002), p. 182. 3. William Burns, Economic Aid and American Foreign Policy towards Egypt (Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1985), pp. 176–7; El Hussini, Soviet–Egyptian Relations, p. 184; Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 115; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 169. 4. USNA/RG59/2071, Rogers to Cairo, 19 January 1971; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 182. 5. ISA/Hez2/4288, Eban to London, 12 January 1971. 6. Ibid.; USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/746, Memorandum for Kissinger, 13 Jan- uary 1971. 7. USNA/RG59/2071, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 27 January 197; TNA/FCO 17/1459, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 13 January 1971; ISA/Hez4/4248, Rabin to Jerusalem, 15 January 1971; and ISA/Hez2/4288, Ben Aharon to Jerusalem, 13 Jan- uary 1971. 8. ISA/Hez2/4288, Jerusalem to Washington, 17 January 1971; and ISA/Hez4/4284, Washington to Jerusalem, 20 January 1971; USNA/RG59/ 2072, Memorandum for the President, 5 February 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1314. 9. USNA/RG59/2072, Memorandum for the President, 5 February 1971. 10. USNA/RG59/2071, Rogers to Cairo, 19 January 1971; and USNA/RG59/2072, Rogers to Tel Aviv 1971; and USNA/RG59/2072, Memorandum for the President, 5 February 1971; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 88. 11. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 208. 12. ISA/Hez7/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 4 February 1971; Riad, Struggle for Peace, pp. 177–8; Gad Ya’acobi, On the Razor’s Edge (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1989) (in Hebrew), p. 75. 13. Newsweek, 22 February 1971; see also Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 116; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, pp. 85–6; Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy, pp. 93–4; Rubinstein, Red Star, p. 137; Anwar el Sadat, ‘Where Egypt stands’, For- eign Affairs, 5:1 (October, 1972), p. 120; ISA/Hez4/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 10 February 1971. 14. TNA/FCO17/455, Cairo to FCO, 11 February 1971; Sadat, ‘Where Egypt stands’, p. 120. 15. Several of Sadat’s critics accused him of repackaging and presenting Dayan’s ideas as his own. See Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 164. 16. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/494, Memorandum for Kissinger, 26 January 1971; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, p. 59; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1316. 17. ISA/Hez4/4248, Rabin to Jerusalem, 15 January 1971; USNA/Nixon Files, 494, Memorandum for Kissinger, 26 January 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1316, Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 327; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 232–3; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge,p.69. 18. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 327. 19. At a meeting with Dayan during the latter’s visit to Washington in Decem- ber 1970, Kissinger told the Israeli defence minister that the United States had no particular interest in reopening the Canal. However if Israel was in favour of the Canal reopening for business, thinking that this might pre- vent another flare-up along the Egyptian–Israeli front, the United States Notes 255

would certainly not oppose such a step. See Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 327; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 236. 20. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 89; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 328; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 236; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 18. 21. Knesset Debates, vol. 59, 9 February 1971; see also Micheal I. Handel, The Diplomacy of Surprise: Hitler, Nixon, Sadat (Cambridge, MA: Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 1981). 22. USNA/RG59/2073, SD to Cairo, 13 February 1971. 23. Ibid.; ISA/Hez4/5984, Jerusalem to Washington, 19 April 1971. 24. ISA/Hez7/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 10 February 1971. 25. Kurt Waldheim, ‘The search for peace in the Middle East: the Waldheim Report’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 2:4 (Summer, 1973), pp. 202–3; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle,p.90;Dayan,Story of My Life, p. 525; USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/ H-31, Memorandum for the President, 25 February 1971. 26. ISA/Hez7/4288, New York to Jerusalem, 11 February 1971; Rafael, Destina- tion Peace, p. 229. 27. Ma’ariv, 15 February 1971. 28. ISA/Hez7/4288, New York to Jerusalem, 11 February 1971; Ma’ariv, 14 February 1971. This was not strictly true. Given a free hand to pursue his mission as he saw fit, it was Jarring himself who decided to restrict his role to that of a simple go-between. See Chapter 1, pp. 29–30. 29. USNA/RG59/2027, Tel Aviv to SD, 9 February 1971. 30. Ibid. 31. USNA/RG59/2070, Tel Aviv to SD, 12 February 1971; Shem-Tov, ‘Golda’s missed opportunities’, p. 228. 32. USNA/RG59/2073, SD to Tel Aviv, 14 February 1971. 33. Waldheim, ‘Search for peace’, pp. 203–4; Gazit, Peace Process, p. 65; USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/H-31, Memorandum for the President, 25 Febru- ary 1971. 34. Newsweek, 22 February 1971. 35. ISA/Hez2/4829, New York to Jerusalem, 12 March 1971. 36. USNA/RG59/2073, Cairo to SD, 16 February 1971; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 188; USNA/RG59/2073, Cairo to SD, 16 February 1971. 37. USNA/RG59/2073, Cairo to SD, 16 February 1971. 38. See Shamir, Egypt under Sadat, pp. 93–4. 39. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 330. 40. For a summary of Eban’s television and radio interviews, see ISA/Hez2/7024, 21 February 1971. According to Moshe Dayan, it was Israel’s military resolve and not the Rogers–Riad correspondence that had ultimately persuaded Egypt to agree to sign a peace treaty. See Ma’ariv, 12 March 1971. 41. USNA/RG59/2073, SD to Tel Aviv, 18 and 23 February 1971. 42. Ibid., SD to Tel Aviv, 18 February 1971. 43. ISA/Hez8/4288, Rabin to Jerusalem, 24 February 1971; USNA/RG59/2073, SD to Cairo, 22 February 1971; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 333. 44. Waldheim, ‘The search for peace’, pp. 204–5; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 230. 45. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 334. 46. ISA/Hez2/4289, Washington to Tel Aviv, February 1971 (no exact date). 256 Notes

47. Ibid. It is worth noting that Shlaim got the sequence of events wrong: Rabin’s telegram was sent after the Israeli government replied to Jarring and not before this, as Shlaim states in his book. See Avi Shlaim, Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat ‘Aliat Gag, 2005) (in Hebrew), p. 295. 48. ISA/ Hez8/4288, New York to Jerusalem, 6 March 1971; Gazit, Peace Process, pp. 66–8. 49. ISA/Hez8/4288, New York to Jerusalem, 6 March 1971; TNA/FCO17/1499, Record of Conversation, 4 March 1971. 50. ISA/Hez8/4288, Paris to Jerusalem, 4 March 1971, Telegram nos 37 and 41. 51. TNA/FCO17/1464, Cairo to FCO, 1 March 1971; Sadat, ‘Where Egypt stands’, pp. 120–1; Shamir, Egypt under Sadat, p. 95; Ma’ariv, Statement by the Egyptian Government, 1 March 1971. 52. USNA/RG59/2074, Memorandum for the President, 1 March 1971. 53. USNA/RG59/2070, Scenario for Seeking to Break the Impasse in the Middle East, 9 March 1971, and Rogers to Tel Aviv, 19 March 1971; Craig A. Daigle, ‘The Russians are going: Sadat, Nixon and the Soviet presence in Egypt’, MERIA, 8:1 (March, 2004), p. 4. 54. Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 389; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 339. 55. ISA/Hez2/4829, Rabin to Eban, 6 March 1971; USNA/RG59/2074, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 19 March 1971; TNA/FCO17/1499, Tel Aviv to FCO, 15 March 1971. 56. ISA/Hez8/4288, Jerusalem to Washington, 2 March 1971; USNA/RG59/2073, Tel Aviv to SD, 2 March 1971, nos 819–20. 57. The Times, 13 March 1971; Ma’ariv, 14 March 1971. Three days after her interview with The Times, Meir, speaking to the Knesset, repeated her claim that ‘the much longed for peace could only be achieved through nego- tiations between Israel and its neighbours; negotiations that were to be unconditional and free of diktats’, with Israel rejecting ‘any attempt by anyone to prescribe our borders’. Somewhat at odds with the gist of her Times interview, this backpedalling was probably the result of several fac- tions in the coalition making their feelings known in no uncertain terms about her incursion into the realm of map-making. See Knesset Debates, vol. 60, 16 March 1971; Ma’ariv, 14 March 1971. 58. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 92; Ha’aretz, 3 March 1971. 59. USNA/RG59/2073, Sadat to Nixon, 5 March 1971. 60. Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 165–6; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 90; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 92. 61. Ha’aretz, 7 March 1971; Ma’ariv, 8 March 1971. 62. USNA/RG59/2073, Sadat to Nixon, 5 March 1971; TNA/FCO17/1405, Washington to FCO, 9 March 1971; ISA/Hez2/4289, Washington to Jerusalem, 6 March, 1971; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 338; Rafael, Destination Peace, pp. 235–6. 63. USNA/RG59/2074, Memorandum for the President, 9 March 1971. 64. ISA/Hez2/42/89, Washington to Jerusalem, 6 March 1971; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 339; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, pp. 106 and 180. 65. ISA/Hez2/4289, Rabin to Jerusalem, 6 March 1971. 66. Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p.104. Notes 257

67. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 341; see also an interview with Eban in Ha’aretz, 9 April 1971. 68. USNA/RG59/2074, Rogers to Tel Aviv, 19 March 1971; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 342. 69. Ibid., pp. 342–3; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 97. 70. Public Relations Office, ‘The special arrangement to reopen the Canal’, in David Altman (ed.), Excerpts from a Series of Lectures Given by Moshe Dayan, MK: Arab–Israeli Relations (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, 1975) (in Hebrew), no pages. 71. Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 526; Eban, Memoirs, p. 469; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 110. 72. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 345. 73. Ibid., pp. 346–7. 74. USNA/RG59/2074, Cairo to SD, 17 March 1971. 75. ISA/Hez2/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 2 April 1971; TNA/FCO17/1492, Cairo to Tel Aviv, 6 April 1971; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 93; Yehoshua, Raviv, ‘Early attempts to reach an interim agreement between Egypt and Israel, 1971–1972’, Ma’arakhot, 243–4 (April–May, 1975) (in Hebrew), p. 8. 76. ISA/Hez2/7024, Jerusalem to Ottawa, 2 May 1971; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 348; Public Relations Office, ‘Special arrangement’. 77. ISA/Hez2/7024, Washington to Jerusalem, 15 April 1971; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 90; Ma’ariv, 20 April 1971. 78. ISA/Hez4/5987, Jerusalem to Washington, 19 April 1971; Heikal, Secret Channels, pp. 1167–8; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 90; Eban, Memoirs, p. 470; Kissinger, White House Years, p. 1318; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 327. 79. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 348. 80. Ibid.; Ya’acobi, Grace of Time, p. 98. 81. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 349. 82. USNA/RG59/2076, Origins of the Concept of an Interim Agreement, no date; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 238. 83. Ibid., p. 238. 84. ISA/Hez2/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 2 April 1971; USNA/RG59/2075, Steiner to Sisco, 22 April 1971; and USNA/RG59/2076, Origins of the Con- cept of an Interim Agreement, no date; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 167; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 91. 85. TNA/FCO17/1485, Record of Conversation, 27 April 1917. 86. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 239; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 91. 87. ISA/Hez2/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 6 May 1971; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 94. 88. Daigle, ‘The Russians are going’, pp. 6–7; Riad, Struggle for Peace, p. 201; USNA/RG59/2076, Origins of the Concept of an Interim Agreement, no date. See also Newsweek, 13 December 1971. 89. Ma’ariv, 7 May 1971. 90. ISA/Hez3/7024, Rogers’ Visit, 9 May 1971. 91. ISA/Hez7/4783, First Meeting, 6 May 1971; USNA/RG59/2075, Washington to London, 12 May 1971. 92. ISA/Hez3/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 9 May 9171; TNA/FCO17/1490, Tel Aviv to FCO, 10 May 1971. 258 Notes

93. ISA/Hez3/2074, London to Jerusalem, 18 May 1971; Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 527; Eban, Memoirs, p. 470; Ya’acobi, Grace of Time, p. 99. 94. USNA/RG59/2075, SD to London, 12 May 1971. It has been suggested that Dayan, rather than fight his corner, abandoned his proposals the moment that Meir’s opposition to them became clear. See Eban, Memoirs, p. 470; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 239; Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 296; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 47. 95. USNA/RG59/2075, SD to London, 12 May 1971. 96. ISA/Hez4/5978, Gazit to Eban, 1 August 1971; USNA/RG59/2075, SD to London, 12 May 1971; and USNA/RG59/2076, Origins of the Concept of an Interim Agreement, no date; Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, pp. 95–6; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 350–1. 97. ISA/Hez3/7024, Jerusalem to Washington, 10, 13 and 20 May 1971; USNA/RG59/2076, Cairo to SD, 1 June 1971; Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy, p. 96. See also Egypt’s six-point restatement of its position to the European Coun- cil, which had met on 11 May in order to discuss the reopening of the Canal. See Ma’ariv, 12 May 1971. 98. Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat, p. 74; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 170; Arthur J. Klinghoffer, Israel and the Soviet Union: Alienation or Reconciliation (Boul- der, CO: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 99–100; Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 255; TNA/FCO17/1400, Record of Conversation, 14 September 1971. In his memoirs, Sadat would complain that the Soviets, without bothering to explain why, had typically refused to supply Egypt with the weapons that they had previously promised it, preferring, as was their wont, to remain as ‘silent as the grave’. See also Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1320. 99. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 240; Ha’aretz, 31 May 1971. 100. Daigle, ‘The Russians are going’, p. 9. 101. USNA/RG59/2076, Cairo to SD, 1 June 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1321. 102. ISA/Hez9/7311, Conversation between Rabin and Sisco, 9 and 29 June 1971. The Egyptian document had been drafted with the help of Donald Bergus, the American representative in Egypt. As news of this leaked to the press, Israel immediately pounced on it as evidence of a USA–Egyptian conspiracy. Bergus however had acted on his own initiative and not at the behest of the State Department. Kissinger nevertheless claims that although he had received no explicit instructions to help Egypt, Bergus had been inspired to do what he did by the prevailing mood in the upper echelons of the American administration. See Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1320, USNA/RG59/2076, SD to Tel Aviv, 29 June 1971; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 47; Newsweek, 13 December 1971. 103. ISA/Hez9/7311, Prime Minister’s Remarks and Instructions, 10 May 1971. 104. Meital, Egypt’s Struggle, p. 95. 105. ISA/Hez9/7311, Prime Minister’s Remarks and Instructions, 10 May 1971. See also ISA/Hez4/5987, Rabin to Jerusalem, no date. 106. TNA/FCO17/14194, Minute by Parsons, 30 September 1971. See also the conversation between Rogers and Riad in USNA/RG59/2076, SD to Cairo, 29 September 1971. 107. TNA/FCO17/1501, Tel Aviv to FCO, 13 July 1971; Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 301. 108. ISA/Hez9/7311, Gazit to Rabin, 21 June 1971. Notes 259

109. ISA/Hez3/7024, Rogers’ Visit, 8 May 1971; and ISA/Hez9/7311, Rabin to Gazit, 6 and 25 June 1971. Israel asked the USA to furnish it with 82 Skyhawks and 42 Phantom jets in 1971–72, and with a further 25 Skyhawks and 36 Phantom jets in 1973–74. See USNA/RG59/2076, Sisco to Rogers, 14 July 1971; ISA/Hez7/4783, Second Meeting, 7 May 1971. 110. ISA/Hez9/7311, Washington to Jerusalem, 23 June 1971. 111. Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 139; Ma’ariv, 23 June 1971. There have been claims that it was Rogers who, during his meeting with Sadat, suggested that 1971 become the ‘Year of Decision’, the Egyptian president simply adopt- ing the phrase. See USNA/RG59/2078, SD to Washington, 21 January 1973; TNA/FCO93/235, Cairo to FCO, 20 March 1973. 112. USNA/RG59/2076, Washington to Tel Aviv, 29 June 1971. 113. Ibid. 114. TNA/FCO17/1501, Minute by Parson, 25 June 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1325. 115. Daigle, ‘The Russians are going’, p. 10; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 172; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 93. 116. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/H-031, Memorandum for the President, 26 and 28 June 1971. 117. USNA/RG59/2076, Sisco to Roger, 14 July 1971. 118. Ibid.; Daigle, ‘The Russians are going’, p. 116. 119. USNA/RG59/2074, Sisco to Rogers, 14 July 1971; TNA/FCO17/1400, Record of Conversation, 14 September 1971; ISA/Hez2/7301, Gazit to Halevi, 13 August 1971. The State Department considered inviting the Egyptian prime minister, Mahmoud Fawzi, to Washington in the hope that he might offer a few more concessions, thus allowing more pressure to be put on Israel to do likewise. See USNA/Nixon Files/H-031, 26 June 1971. 120. USNA/RG59/Lot Files59/25, Nixon to Rogers, 26 May 1971. 121. Daigle, ‘The Russians are going’, p. 11; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 47; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1321; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 148. 122. USNA/RG59/2076, Sisco to Rogers, 14 July 1971; ISA/Hez7/7301, Second Meeting, 7 May 1971. See also an interview with Dayan broadcast on Israeli radio on 8 July, in which the defence minister pointed out that by placing Israel in an impossible position, the tactic of withholding from it aircraft supplies had become an immense stumbling block in the way of serious negotiations. See Raviv, ‘Early efforts’, p. 10. 123. Ma’ariv, 25 July 1971. 124. ISA/Hez2/7302, Meir–Sisco Meeting, 2 August 1971. 125. ISA/A6/7029, Meir–Sisco Meeting, 30 July 1971; USNA/RG59/2076, Meir– Sisco Meeting, 31 July 1971. 126. ISA/Hez2/7302, Sisco’s Reports, 1 August 1971, and Meir–Sisco Meeting, 2 August 1971; and ISA/Hez2/7301, Gazit to Eban, 1 August 1971; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 241. 127. TNA/FCO17/1581, FCO to Tel Aviv, 3 December 1971; Ha’aretz, 3Septem- ber 1971. 128. USNA/RG59/2076, Sisco–Meir Meeting, 31 July 1971; ISA/Hez2/7301, Meir– Sisco Meeting, 30 July 1971. 260 Notes

129. USNA/RG59/2076, Sisco–Meir Meeting, 31 July 1971; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 241. 130. ISA/Hez2/7301, Rabin to Gazit, 13 August 1971. 131. USNA/RG59/2076, Rogers to Bergus, 13 August 1971. 132. TNA/FCO17/1400, Record of Conversation, 14 September 1971; TNA/ FCO17/1399, Douglas-Home to Rogers, 15 September 1971; and TNA/FCO17/1469, Record of Conversation, 28 September 1971. 133. Ibid., 28 September 1971. 134. USNA/RG59/2058, Memorandum of Conversation, 14 October 1971. 135. USNA/RG59/2078, Secretary–Prime Minister Meir Meeting, 2 Decem- ber 1971. 136. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 354. See also the conversation between Rabin and Sisco, USNA/RG59/2076, SD to Tel Aviv, 15 September 1971. 137. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Meir to Nixon, 17 September 1971. 138. Ibid. 139. Ibid. 140. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1321. 141. Ibid.; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 355–6. 142. USNA/RG59/2078, Rogers to Ottawa, 29 October 1971; Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat,p.73;Ha’aretz, 5 October 1971; Raviv, ‘Early attempts’, p. 10. 143. USNA/RG59/2076, SD to Cairo, 29 September 1971; TNA/FCO17/1494, Minute by Parson, 20 September 1971. 144. USNA/RG59/2076, SD to Cairo, 29 December 1971. 145. USNA/RG59/2058, Rogers to Bergus, 6 and 7 October 1971. 146. Ibid., Rogers to Bergus, 8 October 1971; TNA/FCO17/1486, Washington to FCO, 2 November 1971. 147. TNA/FCO17/1494, Cairo to FCO, 8 October 1971. See also Meir’s speech to the Knesset, in Knesset Debates, vol. 62, 26 October 1971. 148. TNA/FCO17/1486, Washington to FCO, 2 November 1971. 149. Knesset Debates, vol. 62, 26 October 1971; Ha’aretz, 7 October 1971; USNA/RG59/2078, SD to Tel Aviv, 6 November 1971. 150. USNA/RG59/2058, Rogers to New York, 14 October 1971. 151. Ibid. 152. USNA/RG59/2079, Meeting with President Sadat, 19 November 1971; TNA/FCO17/1495, Cairo to FCO, 19 November 1971. 153. USNA/RG59/2078, Cairo to Washington, 13 and 19 November 1971. 154. Ibid. 155. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 173. 156. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 230. 157. USNA/RG59/2078, Cairo to Washington, 13 November 1971. 158. At a meeting with Gromyko in September 1971, Kissinger observed that all this quibbling over just how far Israel was to pull back its forces was besides the point. What was really significant was that Israel had actually agreed to withdraw. Nor, he added, was it the time to determine the shape and con- tents of the final settlement. Gromyko disagreed on both counts, arguing that there could be no preliminary Israeli withdrawal without formulating, and in the context of a final treaty, a precise timetable fixing the next phase of the Israeli retreat, this time back to the 4 June boundaries. In conversa- tion with Nixon, Gromyko promised that the Soviet Union would withdraw its forces from Egypt once an overall settlement had been reached. See also Notes 261

Dobrynin’s talks with Kissinger in early November 1971. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1324; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 356. 159. Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 211. 160. TNA/FCO17/1650, Tel Aviv to FCO, 7 February 1972; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 94; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1325; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 367; Spiegel, The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict, p. 211; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 48. 161. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1325. According to the White House chief of staff, Alexander Haig, Rogers had not been made privy to the pres- ident’s decision beforehand. Nor was this the only time that the secretary of state had been kept out of the loop. Perhaps the most flagrant example of the White House’s habit of keeping Rogers in the dark was the fact that he was not told of Nixon’s invitation to China in February 1972. See Israeli Cable Television, Channel 8, Interview with Haig, 10 May 2009. 162. Aaron David Miller, The Much Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for an Arab–Israeli Peace (Tel Aviv: Yediot Aharonot, 208) (in Hebrew), p. 141; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 93. 163. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 364 and 367; Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy, p. 97. 164. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 173; Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat,p.73.AviShlaim argues that Meir’s concessions came much too late to be of any use. He maintains that had they been made six months earlier, they would probably have led to a breakthrough in the negotiations for an interim agreement. As it was, by the time that Meir submitted her proposals, Sadat had hard- ened his position. This claim is completely unfounded. Sadat had always, ever since he first raised the possibility of an interim agreement, insisted that it was merely the initial stage in the implementation of Resolution 242 as the Arabs defined it. See Shlaim, Iron Wall, p. 302. See also Gazit, Israeli Diplomacy,p.97. 165. TNA/FCO17/1581, FCO to Tel Aviv, 3 December 1971; Ma’ariv, 3 December 1971; Israeli Broadcasting Authority, Israeli Television, 14 January 1972. 166. David Hearst and Irene Deeson, Sadat (London: Faber and Faber, 1981), pp. 125–6; ‘Speech to the Arab Nation’, Ma’ariv, 14 January 1971. 167. Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 157. 168. TNA/FCO17/1650, Tel Aviv to FCO, 22 March 1972. 169. TNA/FCO17/1495, Cairo to FCO, 26 November 1971; and TNA/FCO17/1581, Record of Conversation, 29 November 1971. 170. ISA/A12/7038, New York to Jerusalem, 6 February 1971; TNA/FCO93/235, Cairo to FCO, 20 March 1973. 171. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 1973; Sadat, ‘Where Egypt stands’, p. 122; TNA/ FCO17/1636, Anglo-French Talks, 10 February 1972; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 368.

Chapter 5

1. ISA/Hez9/4292, New York to Jerusalem, 22 April 1972. 2. Gawrych, Albatross, pp. 131–2; Ma’ariv, 14 January 1972. 3. USNA/RG59/2079, Memorandum of Conversation, 1 March 1972; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 94. 262 Notes

4. USNA/RG59/2078, Memorandum of Conversation, 11 January 1972; TNA/FCO17/1650, Tel Aviv to FCO, 7 February 1972; Ma’ariv,6and 21 January 1972. 5. TNA/FCO17/1643, Washington to FCO, 28 January 1972. 6. USNA/RG59/2078, SD to Cairo, 21 January 1972. 7. Ibid. 8. ISA/Hez9/5294, New York to Jerusalem, 22 April 1972; USNA/RG59/2078, SD to Cairo, 21 January 1972. 9. ISA/Hez9/5294, Rabin to Jerusalem, 5 May 1972. 10. USNA/RG59/2058, Rogers to Green, 12 February 1972. 11. Ibid. 12. USNA/RG59/2079, Cairo to SD, 18 June 1972. 13. Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1326. 14. Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 371. 15. ISA/Hez9/5294, New York to Jerusalem, 12 April 1972. 16. USNA/RG59/2079, Memorandum of Conversation, 25 February 1972. 17. Ibid., Sisco–Ghorbal Conversation, 8 March 1972. 18. ISA/Hez4/4285, Jarring’s Move at the Beginning of May, 14 May 1972. 19. USNA/RG59/2058, SD to Tel Aviv, 28 February 1972; ISA/Hez4/4285, Jarring’s Move at the Beginning of May, 14 May 1972. 20. USNA/RG59/2079, Memorandum of Conversation, 25 February 1972; and USNA/RG59/2058, SD to Tel Aviv, 28 February 1972. 21. ISA/Hez9/5294, Rabin to Jerusalem, 5 and 27 July 1972. 22. Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 158. 23. ISA/Hez4/5294, Washington to Jerusalem, 27 April 1972; TNA/FCO17/1636, Anglo-French Talks, 10 February 1972; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1328; Sadat, In Search of Identity, pp. 226–7. 24. See, for example, Ma’ariv, 27 April and 2 May 1972. In this connection it is worth mentioning that Bergus had told Washington that he had received information from a very reliable source that Sadat had every intention of launching an offensive along the Suez Canal sometime between 15 April and 15 May. And when approached directly, the source confirmed that this was indeed true. But Washington tended to dismiss this as being one more instance of Sadat sounding off in order to impress his listeners or that he was using a bit of disinformation. Bergus took it no more seri- ously, assuming that even if it were true, Sadat would change his mind, ‘When he focuses more clearly on the consequences of military action’: USNA/RG59/2079, Cairo to SD, 5 April 1972. 25. Ibid., SD to Cairo, 11 May 1972. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. ISA/Hez9/5294, Nixon to Meir, 21 June 1972; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, pp. 1327–8. 29. Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat, p. 72; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 95; Gawrych, Albatross, p. 132. See also Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1333. 30. USNA/RG59/2079, Cairo to SD, 18 June 1972; Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat, p. 73; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 173; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 247. 31. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 227. Notes 263

32. ISA/Hez9/5294, New York to Jerusalem, 27 April 1972, and Washington to Jerusalem, 5 May 1972; TNA/FCO17/1739, Record of Conversation, 8 June 1972. 33. ISA/Hez9/5294,Washington to Jerusalem, 13 June 1972; USNA/RG59/2079, Cairo to SD, 18 and 21 June 1972. 34. Ayubi, Nasser and Sadat, pp. 75–7; J. D. Glassman, Arms for the Arabs: The Soviet Union and the War in the Middle East (Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins University, 1975), pp. 94–5; Sadat, In Search of Identity, pp. 226–7; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, p. 63; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1333; ISA/Hez9/5294, Washington to Jerusalem, 25 and 27 July 1972. 35. Mohamed Abdel Ghani Gamasy, The October War (Cairo: American Uni- versity in Cairo Press, 1993), p. 149; Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, p. 1332; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co., 1982), p. 637; Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 230; Yevgeny Primakov, Russia and the Arabs: Behind the Scenes in the Middle East from the Cold War to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 2009), p. 390. 36. See ISA/Hez9/52, Washington to Jerusalem, 27 July 1972; Ma’ariv,25July and 1 August 1972. 37. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 174. 38. The United States had informed Sadat, by way of , of Kissinger’s policy plans as early as May 1971 and added that their implementation depended on Egypt distancing itself from its Soviet allies. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 95; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 49; Hearst and Deeson, Sadat, pp. 138–9. Following the Soviet expulsion, Brezhnev sent Nixon a telegram claiming that by evacuating its forces from Egypt, Moscow had fulfilled its part of the bargain that Kosygin had proposed back in Septem- ber 1971, so that it was now up to the United States to play its part and persuade Israel to withdraw from the Occupied Territories. There was little point responding to such nonsense, Kissinger wrote, other than to say that the United States would look into the matter. See Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, pp. 1334. See also Chapter 4, note 148 in this book. 39. USNA/RG59/2060, Tel Aviv to SD, 21 August 1972. 40. ISA/Hez9/5294, Evron to Director General of Israeli Ministry of For- eign Affairs, 28 July 1972; USNA/RG59/2079, Cairo to SD, 20 July 1972; Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Jr, Egyptian Politics under Sadat: The Post-Populist Development of an Authoritarian–Modernizing State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 48. 41. William Bundy, A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Pres- idency (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), p. 428; Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, p. 459; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 49; Edward R. Sheehan, The Arabs, Israelis and Kissinger: A Secret History of American Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Reader’s Digest Press, 1976), p. 23; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy,p.66. 42. After months of negotiations, Kissinger and the North Vietnam negotia- tor, Le Duc Tho, at long last concluded a cease-fire agreement, signed on 27 January 1973. See Kissinger, White House Years, vol. 3, pp. 1334–5. 43. Ibid.; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 174. 44. ISA/Hez9/5294, Washington to Jerusalem, 28 July 1972. 264 Notes

45. USNA/RG59/2060, SD to Cairo, 31 July 1972 and SD to Tel Aviv, 7 August 1972; ISA/Hez9/5294, Washington to Jerusalem, 4 August 1972. 46. USNA/RG59/2060, SD to Cairo, 31 July 1972; TNA/FCO17/1644, Washington to FCO, 17 August 1972. 47. ISA/Hez1/5296, Washington to Jerusalem, 23 August 1972; and ISA/A1/ 8163, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 25 February 1973; Ma’ariv, 12 July 1972. 48. TNA/FCO17/1644, Cairo to FCO, 8 August 1972. 49. USNA/RG59/2060, Tel Aviv to SD, 21 August 1972. 50. ISA/Hez9/5294, Washington to Jerusalem, 27 July 1972; Eban, Memoirs, p. 473; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 379; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 247. Sadat wrote in his memoirs that although no one seemed to believe that having expelled the Soviet troops from Egypt he would then go to war, the truth of the matter was that he had begun preparing for war the instant that the Soviets left. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 232; Ezer Weizman, The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 1981), p. 67; Hearst and Deeson, Sadat, p. 138. 51. Knesset Debates, vol. 64, 26 July 1972. 52. Lester A. Sobel, Palestinian Impasse: Arab Guerrillas and International Terror (New York: Facts on File, 1977), pp. 118–21. 53. TNA/FCO17/1652, Minute by Parsons, 20 December 1972. 54. USNA/RG59/2060, Tel Aviv to SD, 21 August 1972. 55. Eban, Memoirs, pp. 473–4. 56. Ma’ariv, 8 September 1972. 57. Ibid., 22 and 29 August 1972. 58. Bundy, Tangled Web, p. 428; Bregman, Israel’s Wars, p. 70. 59. TNA/PREM13/1764, Nixon–Heath, Record of Discussion, 2 February 1973; Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 175; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, p. 380. 60. USNA/RG59/2081, Memorandum for the President, 12 December 1972. 61. USNA/RG59/2083, Telegram nos 24477–8, Cairo to SD, 29 January 1973. See also TNA/FCO93/234, Minute by Craig, 19 February 1973. 62. USNA/RG59/2083, Telegram no. 2477, Cairo to SD, 29 January 1973. 63. ISA/Hez2/5296, Gordon to UN Mission, 2 March 1973; ISA/Hez2/5357, Jerusalem to Goren, 18 March, 1973; TNA/FCO93/235, New York to FCO, 27 February 1972; Heikal, Road to Ramadan, p. 201; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 99. 64. TNA/PREM13/1764, Record of Discussion, 2 February 1973; ISA/A1/7052, Dinitz to Gazit, 12 April 1973. 65. TNA/PREM13/1764, Record of Discussion, 2 February 1973. 66. TNA/FCO82/307, Record of Conversation, 10 May 1973; ISA/HezA1/8163, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 23 January 1973. 67. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 99; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 383–5; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 51. 68. See the conversation between the Egyptian foreign minister and the USA representative in Cairo, USNA/RG59/2080, Cairo to SD, 23 February 1973; C. Richard Thornton, The Nixon–Kissinger Years: Reshaping America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Paragon House, 1989), p. 220. 69. Dallek, Nixon to Kissinger, p. 461. Notes 265

70. USNA/RG59/25, Kissinger’s Record, Memorandum of Conversation, 20 May 1973, Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 176; Heikal, Road to Ramadan, pp. 202–3; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, pp. 51–2; Quandt, Peace Process, p. 99. 71. Newsweek, 9 April 1973; see also Le Monde, 5 April 1973. 72. Bundy, Tangled Web, p. 433; Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 238. 73. USNA/RG59/2082, Memorandum of Conversation, 21 and 23 March 1973; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 250. According to Rabin, Meir had acceded to Kissinger’s request to consider separating the question of sovereignty from that of security. See Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 390–1. 74. ISA/A12/7038, Nixon–Meir Meeting, 1 March 1973. 75. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 99; Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 386 and 390–1. 76. Ibid., p. 391; Yaqub, ‘The politics of stalemate’, p. 52. 77. See USNA/RG59/2080, Tel Aviv to SD, 15 February 1972. 78. The Watergate Affair, one of the most dramatic episodes in USA history, ended with Nixon, now facing almost certain impeachment, resigning from office in August 1974. It also led to the indictment and conviction of sev- eral White House officials. For the Watergate Affair see Keith W. Olson, Watergate: The Presidential Scandal that Shook America (Lawrence Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2003), pp. 43–102. 79. TNA/FCO93/235, Cairo to FCO, 20 March 1973; Sheehan, Arabs, p. 25; Ya’acobi, Razor’s Edge, p. 171. 80. Sadat, In Search of Identity, p. 238; Thornton, Nixon–Kissinger Years, p. 228. 81. Newsweek, 9 April 1972; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 250; Sheehan, Arabs, p. 26. 82. Heikal, Secret Channels, p. 178; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, pp. 67–8. See also Le Monde, 2 May 1973. 83. TNA/FCO93/234, Minute by Parsons, 1 January 1973; and TNA/FCO22/307, Record of Conversation, 10 May 1973. See also Nadal, Between the Two Wars, p. 110. 84. ISA/A1/7052, Dinitz to Gazit, 12 April 1973. 85. ISA/A1/7051, Gazit to Dinitz, 13 May 1973; and ISA/Hez5/5975, The Egyptian Initiative, 9 May 1973. 86. USNA/RG59/25, Records of Henry Kissinger, Memorandum of Conversa- tion, 20 May 1973. 87. Ibid. 88. USNA/NPMP/HAKO/132, Memorandum of Conversation, 13 August 1973. 89. USNA/RG59/25, Records of Henry Kissinger, Memorandum of Conversa- tion, 20 May 1973. 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid.; TNA/FCO17/234, Washington to FCO, 7 September 1973. 92. USNA/Nixon Files/HAKO/132, Memorandum for the President, 2 June 1973. 93. USNA/Nixon Files/HAKO/75, Memorandum for the President, 23 June 1972; Bundy, Tangled Web, p. 429; Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, We all Lost the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 165 and 176; Carol I. Saivetz, ‘Superpower competition in the Middle East and the collapse of détente’, in Odd Arne Westad (ed.), 266 Notes

The Fall of Détente: Soviet–American Relations during the Carter Years (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997), p. 77. 94. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, pp. 493–4. Israel’s Ambassador to Washington noted that unlike the statement issued at the end of the that made no mention of Palestinian rights, this one did; a sign that the American administration had come to realise that there would be no solu- tion to the Middle East conflict without addressing the Palestinian refugee problem. Nixon raised the question of Palestinian rights once again in his Note to Congress, 3 May 1973. See ISA/Hez4/4285, 2 May and 25 June 1973. 95. ISA/Hez9/5295, Washington to Jerusalem, 18 June 1973. 96. Following San Clemente, Rogers presented Nixon with another memoran- dum in which he suggested ways of getting the political process moving. He had no better luck this time around, with Nixon once again ignoring his secretary of state’s efforts. See USNA/RG59/2081, Memorandum for the President, 28 June 1973. 97. TNA/FCO17/234, Washington to FCO, 7 September 1973. 98. Ibid. 99. ISA/Hez3/7289, Comay to Lourie, 22 May 1973. 100. TNA/FCO93/249, Heath to Douglas-Home, 12 June 1973. 101. ISA/HezA4/8163, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 27 March 1973; Eban, Memoirs, pp. 482–3; Ma’ariv, 1 June and 24 July 1973; Time Mag- azine, 20 July 1973. In stark contrast to these public pronouncements, in May 1973, at a meeting with the Israeli General Staff convened to assess the overall military situation, Dayan warned that Israel must take into account the possibility of war breaking out during the second half of the summer of 1973; an exclusively Syrian and Egyptian venture, he was confident that this time Jordan would stay out of the fighting. See Nadal, Between the Two Wars, p. 116. 102. ISA/A5/8163, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 16 May 1973; Nadal, Between the Two Wars, pp. 110 and 126. 103. Ibid., pp. 119–23. 104. USNA/RG59/2081, Memorandum of Conversation, 27 September 1973; Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 260. 105. Knesset Debates, vol. 67, 11 April 1973. 106. Time Magazine, 30 July 1973; Ma’ariv, 1 June 1973. 107. Rafael, Destination Peace, p. 260. 108. Lebow and Stein, We all Lost the Cold War, p. 175; Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, p. 306. 109. USNSA/RG59/Nixon Files/HAKO/135, Memorandum of Conversation, 10 September 1972; TNA/FCO93/234, Washington to FCO, 7 September 1973.

Conclusion

1. USNA/RG59/Nixon Files/756, Memorandum for the President, 27 Decem- ber 1969. 2. In an interview in 1987, Sadat’s widow, Jehan, claimed that ‘those who insisted that Sadat had sought a genuine peace, prior to 1973’ had got it Notes 267

wrong. ‘Sadat’s goal’, she stated, was ‘to get a cease-fire and nothing else. Sadat not only needed another war, but he needed to win it in order to come to the negotiating table as Israel’s equal. My husband was a man of peace, but as an Arab leader he would not, could not, negotiate with Israelis from a position of weakness or inferiority.’ Yediot Aharonot, 6 November 1987. 3. ISA/A4/8163, Meeting of Foreign and Defence Committee, 27 March 1973. 4. For more details see Interim Agreement between Israel and Egypt, 4 September, 1975, available at: http://www.knesset.gov.il/process/docs/egypt_ interim_eng.htm; see also Rabin, Service Notebook, vol. 2, pp. 480–1; Stein, Heroic Diplomacy, p. 217. 5. Eban speech quoted in The Times, 17 December 1970. Bibliography

Primary sources

Israel State Archives (ISA), Jerusalem Foreign and Defence Committee Foreign Office Correspondence, 1967–73 Prime Minister’s Office The National Archives (TNA), Kew CAB 128 Cabinet Minutes CAB 129 Cabinet Memoranda FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office, General, 17, 39, 93 PREM Prime Minister’s Office, 13, 15 United States National Archives (USNA), Washington, DC (College Park, MD) General Records of Department of State (SD), Record Group 59: 1967–73: Pol. 2020–2028 Lot Files, Office of William P. Rogers Nixon Presidential Material Records of Henry Kissinger

PhD theses

Brandriss, Marc G., ‘Internal politics and foreign policy in Israel: the search for peace, 1967–1973’ (PhD thesis, Columbia University, 1983) Hussein, Mohammed Ali, ‘The war and peace of President Sadat: a study in Egypt’s foreign policy towards Israel, 1970–1981’ (PhD thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science, 1987) Mork, Hulda Kjeang, ‘The : a study of the UN effort in the Middle East, 1967–1971’ (PhD thesis, University of Oslo, 2007) Rikard, Ehnsio, ‘Bias and objectivity in the historiography of the Arab–Israeli con- flict: a case study of the time period, 1967–1974’ (PhD thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies, London University, 2006)

Published documents

Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1964–1968, The Soviet Union, vol. 14, David C. Humphrey and Charles S. Sampson (eds) (Washington, DC: United States Printing Office, 2001) Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Crisis and War, 1967, vol. 19, Harriet D. Schwar (ed.) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2004)

268 Bibliography 269

Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1964–1968, Arab–Israeli Dispute, 1967–1968, vol. 20, Louis J. Smith (ed.) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2004) Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1969–1976, Soviet Union, January 1969–October 1970, vol. 12, Erin R. Mahan (ed.) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2006) Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1969–1976, Soviet Union, October 1971–May 1972, vol. 14, David C. Geyer et al. (eds) (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2006) Rogers, William P., ‘A lasting peace in the Middle East: an American view’, Department of State Bulletin, 62, January (1970)

Official Publications

Knesset Debates (Israeli Parliamentary Debates), vols 49–67 (1967–73) (in Hebrew)

Newspapers and weekly journals

English Newsweek The Times (London) Time Magazine

French Le Monde

Hebrew Ba-Mahaneh Davar Ha’aretz Ma’ariv Yediot Aharonot

Media

Cable Television, Israel Channel 8 (10 May 2009)

Memoirs

Amit, Meir, Rosh Be-Rosh (Head On) (Or Yehuda: Hed Artzi, 1999) (in Hebrew) Brown, George, In My Way: The Political Memoirs of Lord George Brown (London: Penguin Books, 1971) Bull, Odd, War and Peace in the Middle East: The Experiences and Views of a U.N. Observer (London: L. Copper, 1976) Couve de Murville, Maurice, Une Politique Étrangère, 1958–1969 (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1971) (in French) 270 Bibliography

Dayan, Moshe, Avnei Derekh (Story of My Life) (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1978) (in Hebrew) Dobrynin, Anatoly, F., In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (1952–1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995) Eban, Abba, Pirkei Haiyim (Memoirs) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1978) (in Hebrew) Eban, Abba, Personal Witness: Israel through My Eyes (New York: Putman’s Sons, 1992) Fahmi, Ismail, Negotiating for Peace in the Middle East (London: Croom Helm, 1983) Gamasy, Mohamed Abdel Ghani, The October War (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993) Gromyko, Andrei, Memories, trans. by Harold Shukman (London: Hutchison, 1989) Haber, Eitan, Ha-Yom Tifrots Milhama (Today War Will Break Out) (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1987) (in Hebrew) Johnson, Lyndon B., The Vantage Point: Perspective of the Presidency, 1963–1967 (New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston, 1971) Kissinger, Henry, Shnotai Ba-Bayit Ha-Lavan (The White House Years), vols 1–3 (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1980) (Hebrew edn) Kissinger, Henry, Years of Upheaval (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co., 1982) Meir, Golda, My Life (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975) Nixon, Richard M., The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (London: Arrow, 1979) Rabin, Yitzhak, Pinkas Sherut, 2 vols (Service Notebook) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1979) (in Hebrew) Rafael, Gideon, Be-Sod Le’ummim: Shloshim Shnot Mediniyut Huts, Mabat Mi- Bifenim (Destination Peace: Three Decades of Israeli Foreign Policy) (Jerusalem: Idanim, 1981) (in Hebrew) Riad, Mahmoud, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London: Quartet Book, 1981) Rusk, Dean, As I Saw It: A Secretary of State’s Memoirs (London: I. B. Tauris, 1990) Sadat, Anwar el, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1978) Shevchenko, Arkady N., Breaking with Moscow (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984) Siilasvuo, Ensio, In the Service of Peace in the Middle East, 1967–1979 (London: Hurst and Company, 1992) Thant, U, View from the UN (London: David and Charles, 1977) Weizman, Ezer, Lekha Shamayim, Lekha Arets (On Eagles’ Wings) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1975) (in Hebrew) Weizman, Ezer, The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 1981) Ya’acobi, Gad, Hesed Ha-Zeman: Pirkei Otobiografya (Grace of Time: An Autobiog- raphy) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Chemed, 2002) (in Hebrew)

Secondary sources

Books Adamski, Dima, Mivtsa’ Kavkaz: Ha-Hit’arevut Ha-Sovietit Ve-Ha-Hafta’a Be- Milhemet Ha-Hatashsha (Operation Kavkaz: Soviet Intervention and Israeli Bibliography 271

Intelligence Failure during the War of Attrition) (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 2006) (in Hebrew) Ajami, Fouad, The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practise since 1967 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972) Aker, Frank, October, 1973: The Arab–Israeli War (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1985) Altman, David (ed.), Keta’im Le-’Iyun Be-Sidrat Harts’aot Shel Haver Ha-Knesset Moshe Dayan: Yahasei Yisra’el–‘Arav (Excerpts from a Series of Lectures Given by Moshe Dayan, MK) (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, 1975) (in Hebrew) Aronson, Shlomo, Conflict and Bargaining in the Middle East: An Israeli Perspective (Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978) Ashton, Nigel J., King : A Political Life (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2008) Ashton, Nigel J. (ed.) The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Ayubi, Shaheen, Nasser and Sadat: Decision Making and Foreign Policy (1970–1972) (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994) Bailey, Sydney D., The Making of Resolution 242 (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1985) Bailey, Sydney D., Four Arab–Israeli Wars and the Peace Process (London: Macmillan, 1990) Bar-Joseph, Uri, The Watchman Fell Asleep: The Surprise of Yom Kippur and its Sources (New York: State University of New York Press, 2005) Bar-Siman-Tov, Ya’akov, Israel, the Superpowers and the War in the Middle East (New York: Preager, 1987) Bard, Mitchell Geoffrey, The Water’s Edge and Beyond: The Limits of Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1991) Barnett, Michael, Dialogues in Arab Politics: Negotiations in Regional Order (New York: Colombia University Press, 1998) Bavly, Dan, Halomot Ve-Hizdammenuyot She-Huhmetsu, 1967–1973 (Dreams and Missed Opportunities, 1967–1973) (Jerusalem: Carmel, 2002) (in Hebrew) Beattie, Kirk K., Egypt during the Sadat Years (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000) Beilin, Yossi, Mehiro Shel Ihud: Mifleget Ha-‘Avoda ‘Ad Milhemet Yom Ha-Kippurim (The Price of Unity: The Labour Party up to the Yom Kippur War) (Ramat Gan: Revivim, 1985) (in Hebrew) Ben Zvi, Abraham, Lyndon B. Johnson and the Politics of Arms Sales to Israel: In the Shadow of the Hawk (London: Frank Cass, 2004) Bowen, Jeremy, Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2005) Brands, Henry W., The Wage of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995) Brecher, Michael, Decisions in Israel’s Foreign Policy (London: Oxford University Press, 1974) Bregman, Aharon, Israel’s Wars, 1947–1973 (London and New York: Routledge, 2002) Brenchley, Frank, Britain, the Six Day War and its Aftermath (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005) 272 Bibliography

Breslauer, George W., Soviet Strategy in the Middle East (Boston, MA: Unwin and Hyman, 1990) Bulloch, John, The Making of a War: The Middle East from 1967–1973 (London: Longman, 1974) Bundy, William, A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998) Burkett, Eleanor, Golda Meir: The Iron Lady of the Middle East (London: Gibson Square, 2008) Burns, William, Economic Aid and American Foreign Policy towards Egypt (Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1985) Caradon, Lord et al., UN Security Council Resolution 242: A Case Study in Diplomacy (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1981) Caviglia, Daniele and Massimiliano Cricco, La diplomazia italiana e gli equi- libri mediterranei: la politica mediorientale dell’Italia dalla guerra dei Sei Giorni al conflitto dello Yom Kippur (1967–1973) (Italian Diplomacy and Mediterranean Balances: Italian Middle East Policy from the Six Day War to the Yom Kippur War, 1967–1973) (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2006) (in Italian) Confino, Michael and Shimon Shamir (eds), The U.S.S.R. and the Middle East (Toronto and Jerusalem: Halsted Press Book, 1973) Dallek, Robert, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998) Dallek, Robert, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (London: Allen Lane, 2007) Dawisha, Karen, The Kremlin and the Prague Spring (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) Dayan, Moshe, Mapa Hadasha, Yahasin Aherim (New Map, Different Relations) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1969) (in Hebrew) D’Balance, Edgar, The Electronic War in the Middle East, 1968–1970 (London: Faber and Faber, 1974) Downing, David and Gary Herman, War without End, Peace without Hope: Thirty Years of the Arab–Israeli Conflict (London: New English Library, 1978) Dowty, Alan, Middle East Crisis: US Decision-Making in 1958, 1970 and 1973 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, CA, and London: University of California, 1984) Dupuy, Trevor, Elusive Victory: The Arab–Israeli Wars, 1947–1974 (New York: Harper and Collins, 1978) El Hussini, Mohrez Mahmoud, Soviet–Egyptian Relations, 1945–1985 (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1987) Enderlin, Charles, Paix ou Guerre: Les Secrets de Négociations Israélo–Arabes, 1917– 1995 (Peace or War in the Middle East: The Secrets of Arab–Israeli Negotiations, 1917–1995) (Paris: Fayard, 2004) (in French) Farid, Abdel Magid, Nasser: The Final Years (Reading: Ithaca, 1994) Finklestone, Joseph, Anwar Sadat: Visionary who Dared (London: Frank Cass, 1996) Fraser, Thomas G., The USA and the Middle East since World War Two (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 1989) Fraser, Thomas G., The Arab–Israeli Conflict, 3rd edn (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) Freedman, Robert O., Soviet Policy towards the Middle East since 1970 (New York: Praeger, 1982) Frenandez-Armesto, Felipe, Sadat and His Statecraft (London: Kensal Press, 1982) Garthoff, Raymond L., Détente and Confrontation: American Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994) Bibliography 273

Gat, Moshe, Britain and the Conflict in the Middle East, 1964–1967: The Coming of the Six Day War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003) Gawrych, George W., The Albatross of Decisive Victory: War and Policy between Egypt and Israel in the 1967 and 1973 Arab–Israeli Wars (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000) Gazit, Mordechai, The Peace Process, 1967–1973: Efforts and Contacts (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1983) Gazit, Mordechai, Israeli Diplomacy and the Quest for Peace (London: Frank Cass, 2002) Geres, Fawaz, The Superpowers and the Middle East: Regional and International Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994) Gilbo’a, Moshe, Shesh Shanim, Shisha Yamim: Mekoroteha Ve-Koroteha Shel Milhemet Sheshet Ha-Yamim (Six Years, Six Days: The Origins and History of the Six Day War) (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1969) (in Hebrew) Glassman, J. D., Arms for the Arabs: The Soviet Union and the War in the Middle East (Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975) Golan, Galia, Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia: The Dubcek Era, 1968–1969 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973) Golan, Galia, Soviet Policies in the Middle East from World War Two to Gorbachev (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) Goldschmidt, Jr, Arthur, Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation State (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004) Goldstein, Yossi, Eshkol: Biyografya (Eshkhol: A Biography) (Jerusalem: Keter, 2003) (in Hebrew) Goldstein, Yossi, Rabin: Biyografya (Rabin: A Biography) (Tel Aviv: Schoken, 2006) (in Hebrew) Green, Stephen, Taking Sides: America’s Secret Relations with a Militant Israel, 1948–1967 (London: Faber and Faber, 1984) Hadar, Leon T., Quagmire: America in the Middle East (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 1992) Haldeman, H. R., The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York: Berkeley Books, 1994) Hall-Cathala, David, The Peace Movement in Israel, 1967–1987 (Oxford: Macmillan, 1990) Handel, Michael I., The Diplomacy of Surprise: Hitler, Nixon, Sadat (Cambridge, MA: Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 1981) Hanhimäki, Jussi M., The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (Oxford: Macmillan, 2004) Hearst, David and Irene Deeson, Sadat (London: Faber and Faber, 1981) Heikal, Mohamed, Road to Ramadan (London: Collins, 1975) Heikal, Mohamed, Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab–Israeli Peace Negotia- tions (London: Harper and Collins, 1996) Hersh, Seymour, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (New York: Summit Books, 1983) Hinnebusch, Jr, Raymond A., Egyptian Politics under Sadat: The Post-Populist Devel- opment of an Authoritarian–Modernizing State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) Israeli, Raphael, Man of Defiance: A Political Biography of Anwar Sadat (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985) 274 Bibliography

James, Laura M., Nasser at War: Arab Images of the Enemy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) Kabahah, Mustafa, Milhemet Ha-Hatashsha Be-Re’ei Mekorot Mitsriyim (The War of Attrition as Reflected in Egyptian Sources) (Tel Aviv: Yad Tabenkin, 1994) (in Hebrew) Kalb, Marvin and Bernard Kalb, Kissinger (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1974) Kass, Ilana, Soviet Involvement in the Middle East: Policy Formulation, 1966–1973 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1978) Katz, Yohanan, Ha-Yona She-Kashla (The Dove that Failed) (Tel Aviv: Yaron Golan, 2006) (in Hebrew) Khorany, Bahgat and Ali E. Hillel Dessouki, The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984) Khouri, Fred J., The Arab–Israeli Dilemma (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1985) Kissinger, Henry, Diplomacy (New York: Touchstone Book, 1994) Klinghoffer, Arthur, J., Israel and the Soviet Union: Alienation or Reconciliation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985) Klinghoffer, Judith A., Vietnam, Jews and the Middle East: Unintended Consequences (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1999) Korn, David A., Stalemate: The War of Attrition and Great Power Diplomacy in the Middle East, 1967–1970 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992) Kriesberg, Louis, International Conflict Resolution (New Haven, CT, and New York: Yale University Press, 1992) Kunz, Diane B. (ed.), The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decades: American Foreign Rela- tions during the 1960s (New York and London: Colombia University Press, 1994) Lall, Arthur, The UN and the Middle East Crisis, 1967 (New York and London: Colombia University Press, 1968) Laquer, Walter, The Road to War: The Origins and the Aftermath of the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1967–1968 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969) Laurens, Henry, Paix et Guerre au Moyen-Orient: L’Orient Arab et le Monde de 1947 aNosJours(Peace and War in the Middle East: The Arab East and the World of 1945 to Our Days) (Paris: Armand Colin, 1999) (in French) Lebow, Richard Ned and Janice Gross Stein, We all Lost the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994) Lenczowski, George, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer- sity Press, 1987) Lenczowski, George, American Presidents and the Middle East (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990) Linden, Anres, Security and Recognition: A Study of Change in Israel’s Doctrine (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 1979) Lippman, Thomas W., Egypt after Nasser: Sadat, Peace and the Making of Prosperity (New York: Paragon House, 1989) Little, Douglas, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003) Madermott, Anthony, Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak: A Flawed Revolution (London: Croom Helm, 1998) Ma’oz, Moshe, Yisra’el–Surya: Sof Ha-Sikhsukh? (Israel–: End of the Conflict?) (Or Yehuda: Sifriyat Ma’ariv, 1996) (in Hebrew) Bibliography 275

Margalit, Dan, Sheder Meha-Bayit Ha-Lavan: ‘Aliyata Ve-Nefilata Shel Memshelet Ha-Likud Ha-Le’ummit (Message from the White House: The Rise and Fall of the National Unity Government) (Tel Aviv: Otpaz, 1971) (in Hebrew) Medzini, Meron, Ha-Yehudiya Ha-Ge’a: Golda Meir Ve-Hazon Yisra’el: Biyografya Politit (The Proud Jewess: Golda Meir and the Vision of Israel, A Political Biography) (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1990) (in Hebrew) Meital, Yoram, Egypt’s Struggle for Peace: Continuity and Change, 1967–1977 (Gainsville, FL: University of Florida, 1997) Melman, Yossi, Shutfut ‘Oyenet: Ha-Ksharim Ha-Sodiyim Beyn Yisra’el Le-Yarden (Hostile Partnership: The Secret Relations between Israel and Jordan) (Tel Aviv: Meitam, 1987) (in Hebrew) Mikaïl, Barah, La Politique Américaine au Moyen-Orient (Paris: Dallos/Iris, 2006) (in French) Miller, Aaron David, Ha-Arets Ha-Muvtahat Me’od: Ha-Mirdaf Ha-Matmid Shel America Aharey Shalom Ba-Mizrah Ha-Tikhon (The Much Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for an Arab–Israeli Peace) (Tel Aviv: Yediot Aharonot, 2008) (in Hebrew) Moore, John Morton (ed.), The Arab–Israeli Conflict, 3 vols (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press: 1973–74) Morgan, Kenneth O., Callaghan: A Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) Morris, Benny, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–1999 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999) Nadal, Chaim, Bein Shtei Ha-Milhamot (Between the Two Wars) (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 2006) (in Hebrew) Nedava, Yosepf, Sikhsukh Yisra’el–‘Arav (The Arab–Israeli Conflict) (Ramat Gan: Revivim, 1983) (in Hebrew) Neuberger, Benyamin (ed.), Diplomatya Be-Tsel Ha-Imut: Sugyot Nivharot Be-Yahasei Ha-Huts Shel Yisra’el, 1948–1978 (Diplomacy and Confrontation: Selected Issues in Israel’s Foreign Relations, 1948–1978) (Tel Aviv: Open University, 1984) (in Hebrew) Olson, Keith W., Watergate: The Presidential Scandal that Shook America (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2003) Parker, B. Richard, The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993) Parker, B. Richard, The October War: A Retrospective (Gainsville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2001) Pedatzur, Reuven, Nitsahon Ha-Mevukha: Mediniyut Yisra’el Le-Ahar Milhemet Sheshet Ha-Yamim (The Triumph of Embarrassment: Israel and the Territories after the Six Day War) (Tel Aviv: Bitan, 1996) (in Hebrew) Perlmutter, Amos, Military and Politics in Israel, 1967–1977 (London: Frank Cass, 1978) Peterson, Tore T., The Decline of the Anglo-American Middle East, 1961–1969: A Willing Retreat (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2006) Pollack, Kenneth M., Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991 (Lincoln, NE, and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002) Pollock, David, The Politics of Pressure: American Arms and Israeli Policy since the Six Day War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982) Primakov, Yevgeny, Russia and the Arabs: Behind the Scenes in the Middle East from the Cold War to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 2009) 276 Bibliography

Quandt, William B., Peace Process; American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Con- flict since 1967 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2001) Rabinovich, Itamar and Haim Shaked (eds), The Middle East and the United States: Perceptions and Policies (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1980) Ramet, Pedro, Sadat and the Kremlin (Santa Monica, CA: Seminar on Arms Control and Foreign Policy, 1980) Riech, Bernard and Arnon Gutfeld, Artsot Habrit Ve-Hasikhsukh Ha-Yirae’li– ‘Aravi (The USA and the Arab–Israeli Conflict) (Tel Aviv: Ma’archot, 1977) (in Hebrew) Rosman, Miriam, La et Israël, 1947–1970: De la Création de L’État d’Israël au Départ de Vedettes de Cherbourg (France and Israel, 1947–1970: From the Foun- dation of the State of Israel to the Departure of the Vessels of Cherbourg) (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2009) (in French) Rostow, Eugene V., Peace in the Balance: The Future of American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) Rothkofp, David, Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2005) Rubinstein, Alvin Z., Red Star on the Nile: The Soviet–Egyptian Influence Relationship since the June War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977) Saunders, Harold H., The Other Walls: The Arab–Israeli Peace Process in Global Perspective (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985) Sayigh, Yezid and Avi Shlaim (eds), TheColdWarintheMiddleEast(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) Scheonbaum, David, The United States and the State of Israel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) Schueftan, Dan, Hatashsha: Ha-Astrategya Ha-Mediniyit Shel Mitsrayim Ha-Nasserit Be-‘Ikvot Milhemet 1967 (Attrition: Egypt’s Post-War Political Strategy, 1967– 1970) (Tel Aviv: Ma’arachot, 1989) (in Hebrew) Schulzinger, Robert, Henry Kissinger: Doctor of Diplomacy (New York: Colombia University Press, 1989) Sella, Amnon and Yael Yishai, Israel the Peaceful Belligerent, 1967–1979 (Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1986) Sela, Avraham, Ahdut Be-Tokh Perud Ba-Ma’arakhet Ha-‘Aravit: Ve’i’dot Ha-Pisga Ha- ‘Araviyot (Unity within Conflict in the Inter-Arab System: The Arab Summit Conferences, 1964–1982) (Jerusalem: Magnus, 1983) (in Hebrew) Sela, Avraham, The Decline of the Arab–Israeli Conflict: Middle East Politics and the Quest for Regional Order (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998) Shamir, Shimon, Mitsrayim Be-Hanhagat Sadat: Ha-Bikush Aharey Oryentatsya Hadasha (Egypt under Sadat: The Search for a New Orientation) (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1978) (in Hebrew) Shannon, Vaughn P., Balancing Act: US Foreign Policy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003) Sheehan, Edward R., The Arabs, Israelis and Kissinger: A Secret History of American Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Reader’s Digest Press, 1976) Shiff, Ze’ev, Knafayim Me’al Ha-Sues: Sipuro Shel Heiyil Ha-Avir Be-Milhemet Ha- Hatashsha (Phantom over the Nile: The Story of the Israeli Air-Corps) (Haifa: Shikmona, 1970) (in Hebrew) Bibliography 277

Shlaim, Avi, Kir Ha-Barzel: Yisra’el Ve-Ha-‘Olam Ha-‘Aravi (The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World) (Tel Aviv: Sifriyat ‘Aliyat Gag, 2005) (in Hebrew) Shlaim, Avi, Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace (London: Penguin Books, 2007) Slonim, Shlomo, Jerusalem in America’s Foreign Policy, 1947–1977 (The Hague, London and Boston, MA: Kluwe Law International, 1988) Sobel, Lester A., Israel and the Arabs: The October 1973 War (New York: Fact and File, 1974) Sobel, Lester A., Palestinian Impasse: Arab Guerrillas and International Terror (New York: Facts on File, 1977) Spiegel, Steven L., The Other Arab–Israeli Conflict: Making America’s Middle East Policy from Truman to Reagan (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1985) Spiegel, Steven L., Conflict Management in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992) Stein, Kenneth W., Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin and the Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, 1999) Stockman-Shomron, Israel (ed.), Israel, the Middle East and the Great Powers (Jerusalem: Shikmona Publishing Co., 1984) Taylor, Alan R., The Superpowers and the Middle East (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991) Telhami, Shibley and Michael Barnett (eds), Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002) Thornton, C. Richard, The Nixon–Kissinger Years: Reshaping America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Paragon House, 1989) Tibi, Bassam, Conflict and War in the Middle East, 1967–1991: Regional Dynamic and Superpowers (London: Macmillan, 1993) Touval, Saadia, The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1948–1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982) Treverton, Gregory (ed.), Crisis Management and the Superpowers in the Middle East (Westmead: Gower Publishing Company, 1981) Tschirgi, Dan, The American Search for Middle East Peace (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1989) Vassiliev, Alexei, Russian Policy in the Middle East: From Messianism to Pragmatism (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1993) Vatikiotis, P. J., Conflict in the Middle East (London: Allen and Unwin, 1971) Waterbury, John, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983) Wehling, Fred, Irresolute Princes: Kremlin Decision-Making in the Middle East (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997) Westad, Odd Arne (ed.), The Fall of Détente: Soviet–American Relations during the Carter Years (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997) Whetten, Lawrence L., Canal War: Four Power Conflict in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974) Wilson, Harold, The Chariot of Israel: Britain, America and the State of Israel (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981) Woods, Randell, LBJ: Architect of American Ambition (New York and London: Free Press, 2006) Ya’acobi, Gad, Kehut Ha-Se’ara (On the Razor’s Edge) (Tel Aviv: Idanim, 1989) (in Hebrew) 278 Bibliography

Articles and chapters in books Adamski, Dima P., ‘Zero hour for the Bears: inquiring into the Soviet decision to intervene in the Egyptian–Israeli War of Attrition, 1969–1970’, Cold War History, 6:1 (2006) Adamski, Dima P., ‘How American and Israeli intelligence failed to estimate the Soviet intervention in the War of Attrition’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–73 (London: Routledge, 2007) Allon, Yigal, ‘Israel: the case for defensible borders’, Foreign Affairs, 55:1 (October, 1976) Anderson, Richard D., ‘Competitive politics and Soviet policy towards the Arab– Israeli dispute, 1971–1972’, in Steven L. Spiegal, Conflict Management in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992) Ashton, Nigel J., ‘The Cold War in the Middle East’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Atherton, Jr, Alfred J., ‘The Soviet role in the Middle East: an American view’, Middle East Journal, 39:4 (Autumn, 1985) Bar-Siman-Tov, Ya’akov, ‘The myth of strategic bombing: Israel deep penetration air raids in the War of Attrition, 1969–1970’, Journal of Contemporary History, 19:3 (1984) Barnett, Michael and Jack S. Levy, ‘Domestic sources of alliances and : the case of Egypt’, International Organisation, 45:3 (Summer, 1973) Ben-Ami, Meir, ‘Hamesh shanim shel nissayonot tivukh ba-shikhsukh ha-‘Aravi– Yisra’eli’, (Five years of mediation efforts in the Arab–Israeli conflict), Skirah Hodshit, 12, (1972) (in Hebrew) Breslauer, George W., ‘Militants, moderates and centrists: Soviet perspectives on the Arab–Israeli conflict, 1971–1981’, in George W. Breslauer (ed.), Soviet Strategy in the Middle East (Boston, MA: Unwin and Hyman, 1990) Breslauer, George W., ‘Soviet policy in the Middle East, 1967–1972: unalterable antagonism or collaborative competition’, in George W. Breslauer (ed.), Soviet Strategy in the Middle East (Boston, MA: Unwin and Hyman, 1990) Caradon, Lord, ‘A plan for the Middle East’, in John Norton Moore (ed.), The Arab-Israeli Conflict, vol. 2 (Prinecton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974) Daigle, Craig A., ‘The Russians are going: Sadat, Nixon and the Soviet presence in Egypt’, MERIA, 8:1 (March, 2004) Dessouki, Ali E. Hillal, ‘The primacy of economics: the foreign policy of Egypt’, in Bahgat Korany and Ali E. Hillal Dessouki, The Foreign Policies of the Arab States: The Challenge of Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984) Eban, Abba, “Arubot ve-aggadot be-mivhan’ (When guarantees and myths are put to the test), Molad (June, 1969) (in Hebrew) Eban, Abba, ‘Milhemet Sheshet Ha-Yamim: hizdammnuiyot lo pitaron’ (The Six Day War: opportunities not a solution), Skirah Hodshit, 11:4 (May, 1987) (in Hebrew) Friedgut, Theodore H., ‘The Soviet Union in the Middle East: regional policies of a maturing global power, 1945–1974’, in Israel Stockman-Shomron (ed.), Israel, the Middle East and the Great Powers (Jerusalem: Shikmona Publishing Co., 1984) Bibliography 279

Gat, Moshe, ‘Britain and Israel before and after the Six Day War, June 1967: from support to hostilities’, Contemporary British History, 18:1 (Spring, 2004) Gazit, Mordechai, ‘Egypt and Israel: was there a peace opportunity missed in 1971?’, Journal of Contemporary History, 32:1 (January, 1997) Gillon, Dan, ‘The prospect for the Jarring talks’, World Today, 27:2 (February, 1971) Ginor, Isabella and Gideon Remez, ‘The origins of a misnomer: the expulsion of the Soviet advisers from Egypt in 1972’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Golan, Galia, ‘The Cold War and Soviet attitude towards the Arab–Israeli conflict’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Gur, Mordechai, ‘Milhemet Sheshet Ha-Yamim: hirhurim aharey ’esrim shana’ (The Six Day War: reflections after twenty years), Ma’arakhot, 309 (July–August, 1972) (in Hebrew) Halliday, Fred, ‘The Middle East and the great powers’, in Yezid Sayigh and Avi Shlaim (eds), The Cold War and the Middle East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) Hanhimäki, Jussi M., ‘ “Dr Kissinger” or “Mr Henry”? Kissingerology, thirty years and continuing’, Diplomatic History, 27:5 (2003) Heyka, Mohammed, ‘War and peace in the Middle East’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 1:1 (August, 1971) Hudson, Michael C., ‘To play the hegemon: fifty years of US policy towards the Middle East’, Middle East Journal, 50:3 (Summer, 1996) James, Laura M., ‘Military political means/ends: the Egyptian decision-making in the War of Attrition’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Karawan, Ibrahim A., ‘Identity and foreign policy: the case of Egypt’, in Shibley Telhami and Michael Barnett (eds), Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2002) Khalidi, Ahmed S., ‘The War of Attrition’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 3:1 (Autumn, 1973) Klantschnig, Gernot, ‘Oil, the Suez Canal and sterling reserves: economic fac- tors determining British decision-making during the 1967 Arab–Israeli crisis’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 14:3 (September, 2003) Korn, David A., ‘US–Soviet negotiations of 1969 and the Rogers Plan’, Middle East Journal, 44:1 (Winter, 1990) Kydd, Andrew, ‘ “Which side are you on?” Bias, credibility and mediation’, American Journal of Political Science, 47:4 (October, 2003) Little, Douglas, ‘The making of a special relationship: the United States and Israel, 1957–1968’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25:4 (November, 1993) Little, Douglas, ‘Fool’s errand: America in the Middle East, 1961–1969’, in Diane B. Kunz (ed.), The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decades: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (New York and London: Colombia University Press, 1994) Maoz, Zeev, and Allison Astorino, ‘Waging war, waging peace: decision-making and bargaining in the Middle East conflict, 1970–1973’, International Studies Quarterly, 36:3 (1992) 280 Bibliography

Meital, Yoram, ‘The Khartoum Conference and Egyptian policy after the 1967 war: re-examination’, Middle East Journal, 54:1 (Winter, 2000) Public Relations Office (Merkaz Ha-Hasbara), ‘Ha-hesder ha-meyuhad le-ftehat Ha-Te’ala’ (The special arrangement to reopen the Canal), in David Altman (ed.), Keta’im Le-‘Iyun Be-Sidrat Harts’aot Shel Haver Ha-Knesset Moshe Dayan: Yahasei Yisra’el–‘Arav (Excerpts from a Series of Lectures Given by Moshe Dayan, MK: Arab–Israeli Relations) (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, 1975) (in Hebrew) Quandt,William B., ‘The Middle East conflict in US strategy, 1970–1971’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 1:1 (Autumn 1971) Rabin, Yitzhak, ‘Mediniyut ha-bitahon Ha-Yisra’elit aharey Milhemet Sheshet Ha-Yamim’ (Israel’s security policy after the Six Day War), Skirah Hodshit,3–4 (1978) (in Hebrew) Raviv, Yehoshua, ‘Nissayonot mukdamim le-haggiya le-hesder meyuhad beyn Mitsrayim le-Yisra’el, 1972–1973’ (Early attempts to reach an interim agreement between Egypt and Israel, 1972–1973), Ma’arakhot, 243–4 (April–May, 1975) (in Hebrew) Rehavi, Saul, ‘Sadat haya zakuk le-‘od milhama: hahmatsat hizdammenut le- shalom – sihot Kissinger–Ismail (Sadat needed another war: a missed oppor- tunity for peace – the Kissinger–Ismail talks), available at: http://goldameir.org. il (accessed 2005) (in Hebrew) Sadat, Anwar el, ‘Where Egypt stands’, Foreign Affairs, 5:1 (October, 1972) Safran, Nadav, ‘Israel politics since the 1967 war’, Current History,60(January, 1970) Saivetz, Carol I., ‘Superpower competition in the Middle East and the collapse of détente’, in Odd Arne Westad (ed.), The Fall of Détente: Soviet–American Relations during the Carter Years (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997) Sayigh, Yezid, ‘Turning defeat into opportunity: the Palestinian guerrillas after the June 1967 war’, Middle East Journal, 46:2 (Spring, 1992) Shalom, Zaki, ‘Traumatic pre-1967 war experience and its implications for Israel’s foreign policy decision-making in the post-war period’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Shamir, Simon, ‘Egypt’s reorientation towards the U.S.: factors and conditions of decision-making’, in Itamar Rabinovitz and Haim Shaked (eds), The Middle East and the United States: Perceptions and Policies (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1980) Sharabi, Hisam, ‘Interview with Lord Caradon’, Journal of Palestine Studies,5:3–4, (Autumn 1975–Winter 1976) Shem-Tov, Victor, ‘Ha-hahmatsot shel Golda: Milhmet Yom Kippur aharey shloshim shana – tatspit mi-shulhan ha-memshala’ (Golda’s missed opportu- nities: thirty years to the Yom Kippur War – a view from the Cabinet table), Kivunim Hadashim, 10 (2004) (in Hebrew) Shlaim, Avi, ‘Failure in national intelligence estimates: the case of the Yom Kippur War’, World Politics, 28:3 (April, 1976) Shlaim, Avi and Raymond Tanter, ‘Decision process, choice and consequences: Israeli deep penetration bombing in Egypt, 1970’, World Politics, 30:4 (July, 1978) Bibliography 281

Shlaim, Avi and Avner Yeniv, ‘Domestic politics and foreign policy in Israel’, International Affairs, 56:2 (Spring, 1980) Singer, G. A., ‘Brit Ha-Mo’atsot Ba-Mizrah Ha-Tikhon acharey ha-yetsiya Mi- Mitsrayim’ (The Soviet Union in the Middle East following the Soviet exodus from Egypt), Skirah Hodshit, 8 (1972) (in Hebrew) Skjebaek, Kjel, ‘The UN Secretary-General and the mediation of international disputes’, Journal of Peace Research, 28:1 (1991) Slater, Jerome, ‘The superpowers and an Arab–Israeli political settlement: the Cold War years’, Political Science Quarterly, 105:4 (1990–91) Terril, W. Andrew, ‘The political mythology of the Battle of Karameh’, Middle East Journal, 55:1 (Winter, 2001) Touval, Saadia, ‘Metavvekhim ba-sikhsukh Ha-‘Aravi–Yisra’eli’ (Mediators in the Arab–Israeli conflict), in Benyamin Neuberger (ed.), Diplomacy and Confronta- tion: Selected Issues in Israel’s Foreign Relations, 1948–1978 (Tel Aviv: Open University 1984) (in Hebrew) Vitan, Ariel, ‘The Soviet military presence in Egypt, 1967–1972: a new perspec- tive’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 8:3 (September, 1995) Waldheim, Kurt, ‘The search for peace in the Middle East: the Waldheim Report’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 2:4 (Summer, 1973) Wheelock, Thomas, ‘Arms for Israel: the limits of leverage’, International Security, 3:2 (Fall, 1978) Yaniv, Avner and Fabian Pascal, ‘Doves, hawks and other birds of a feather: the distribution of Israeli parliamentary opinion on the future of the Occupied Territories, 1967–1977’, British Journal of Political Science, 10:2 (April, 1980) Yaqub, Salim, ‘The politics of stalemate: the Nixon administration and the Arab– Israeli conflict’, in Nigel J. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–1973 (London: Routledge, 2007) Zak, Moshe, ‘Israel–Jordan negotiations’, Washington Quarterly, 8:1 (Winter, 1985) Zartman, I. William, ‘The failure of diplomacy’, in B. Richard Parker (ed.), The October War: A Retrospective (Gainsville, FL: University of Florida Press, 2001)

Internet http://goldameir.org.il/ http://www.mfa.gov.il/ United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine (UNISPAL), available at: http://domino.un.org Cease-fire Agreement, 7 August 1970 General Assembly, ‘Situation in the Middle East’, 4 November 1970 Report by the Secretary General, 4 November 1971 Index

Abu Zabal, 86, 88 Arab terrorism, 203 Al-Ahram,72 Arab world, 1–3, 5, 8, 12, 14, 21, , 86 23–4, 36, 38, 42, 46, 51, 53, 67, Algeria, 12, 231 70–1, 73, 75, 88, 93, 104, 107–8, Ali, Ismail, 244 n. 49 138, 153, 198, 207, 209, 217, Allon, Yigal, 12, 19, 21, 44, 60, 90, 219, 221 148, 161, 187 Arabs, 1, 6, 8, 11–12, 14–15, 17–18, Allon Plan, 20 21–3, 26, 23–33, 35, 37–8, 40, American initiative, 76, 71 42–6, 49, 52, 54, 58, 60, 67–70, American public, 45, 106, 161, 168 73–7, 110, 129, 142, 148, 150–1, Amin, ‘Abdul Mun’im, 140–2 172, 182, 185–6, 204, 211, Amsterdam, 252 n. 154 216–20, 231, 249 n. 75 Arab armies, 9, 22, 216 Arafat, Yasser, 126 Arab chiefs of state, 73 Argov, Shlomo, 92, 123 Arab coalition, 2, 11 Aswan, 96 Arab countries, 48, 67, 73, 86, 183, Atherton, Alfred J., 123 186, 230 Auschwitz, 119 Arab defeat, 1, 12, 217 Arab embargo, 58–9 Bahrain, 253, n. 154 Arab extremism, 18, 37, 66, 78 Ball, George, 42 Arab funds, 26 Banias River, 20 Arab–Israeli conflict, 1–2, 8, 12–15, 18, Bar-Lev, Haim, 44, 62, 105, 108 27–9, 31, 33, 35–6, 40, 45–8, 59, Bar-Lev Line, 44, 84, 108, 156, 187 65, 70, 78–9, 87, 89, 107, 117, Barbour, Walworth, 88, 99, 106, 119, 123, 133, 142, 145, 149, 164, 117–18, 123, 131, 143–4, 151, 185, 196, 214, 218–19, 221, 201, 209 223–4, 230, 247 n. 29 Barnes, Ernest John Ward, 253 n. 169 Arab–Israeli cooperation, 9 Beam, Jacob, 95, 97, 106, 115, 125 Arab lands, 2, 5, 11–12, 22, 28, 32–3, Beeley, Harold, 33 35, 40, 47, 49, 51, 116, 136, 139, Begin, Menachem, 60, 119 145–6, 151, 153, 161, 168, 174, Beirut, 252 n. 154 211–12, 214–15, 219, 221 Ben-Natan, Asher, 149 Arab leaders, 22, 33, 70, 115, 129, 153, Bergus, Donald, 95, 105, 115, 140, 159, 217 145, 158, 183–4, 200, 258 n. 102, , 129 262 n. 24 Arab neighbours, 17 Organization (BSO), Arab policies, 14, 23 128, 201 Arab solidarity, 87 Brezhnev, Leonid, 116, 190, 195–6, Arab states, 8, 17–18, 21–3, 26, 28, 34, 213–14, 228, 263 n. 38 47, 57, 62–4, 69, 74–5, 77, 87, 91, Britain, 1, 12, 17–18, 22, 26, 49, 57, 97, 118, 146, 154, 215, 217, 230, 59, 79, 91, 149, 177, 219 241 n. 119 Brown, George, 47

282 Index 283

Cairo, 33, 35, 46, 49, 55, 64, 81, 83, 233, 241 n. 119; see also Golda 86, 90, 95–6, 99, 115, 129, 137, Meir; Yitzhak Rabin 151, 163, 166, 188, 190, 197, 228 Egypt’s defence, 44 Canal see Suez Canal Egyptian Air Force (EAF), 86 Caradon, Lord, 26–8 Egyptian airspace, 96, 99, 105, 107 Carmel, Moshe, 60 Egyptian Armed Forces, 14, 23, 37, 86, cease-fire line (1949), 20, 32, 48, 58, 139, 159, 195, 198, 201, 229 63, 72 Egyptian commandos, 44 China, 53, 190, 208, 215, 261 n. 161 Egyptian initiative, 142 Clausewitz dictum, 230 Egyptian–Israeli settlement, 6, 55, 153, Cold War, 2–3, 12, 15, 29, 221 231 Congress (USA), 45, 60, 74, 82, 111, Egyptian media, 59 266 n. 94 Egyptian National Assembly, 72, 139, Czech arms deal 142, 166 (Czechoslovakian–Egyptian Arms Egyptian public, 62 Deal), 197 Egyptian violations, 124, 126 Czechoslovakia, 45, 240 n. 111 Eilat, 76, 79, 149 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 13, 25, 54 El-Arish, 139, 163 Dayan, Moshe, 8–10, 20, 61, 82, 86, Elazar, David, 216 108, 119, 122, 125, 130, 141, 148, Eshkol, Levi, 9–11, 18–20, 24, 36, 158, 166, 187, 201–2, 206, 39–40, 59–60, 239 n. 91; arms 216–17, 231, 253 n. 169, 254 n. delivery, 37–8, 43; attitude 19, 255 n. 40, 259 n. 122, 266 n. towards Nasser, 43 101; arms delivery, 174; ‘Five Fist Europe, 205 Plan’, 19; interim agreement, 131, 140, 156–7, 165; Soviet Union, Faisal, Saudi King, 209 90, 97, 105–6; see also Abba Eban; Fawzi, Mahmoud, 54, 57, 259 n. 119 ; Golda Meir Foreign Office (British), 25, 56, 169, de Gaulle, Charles, 55 210 Dead Sea, 20 Four Power Forum, 55–8, 61–2, 74, 82, deep-penetration bombing (strategic 138, 200, 222 bombing), 85–91, 94, 97, 107–10, France, 25, 55, 57, 79, 91, 149, 219 119, 121, 224–5 Defense Department (USA), 38, 172 Gaddafi, Muammar, 67 Dinitz, Simcha, 211, 216, 217–18 , 6, 9, 20, 23, 47, 68, 72, Dobrynin, Anatoli, 14, 46, 55–6, 62–3, 79–81, 95–6, 100, 152, 202 80–1, 96, 99–100, 106, 109–10, , 22 115, 122, 125, 193, 222, 261 n. Ghaleb, Mohammed Murad, 181, 190, 158 200 Douglas-Home, Alec, 197, 215–16 Ghorbal, Ashraf, 87, 95, 190–1, 196 Dubcek, Alexander, 240 n. 111 Giddi and Mitla passes (Sinai), 131, 141, 161, 171, 173–4, 179, 185, East Jerusalem, 10, 15, 202 193, 202, 209 Eban, Abba, 10–12, 16, 19–21, 29, Glassboro, 15 35–6, 39–43, 47, 58–60, 76, 78–9, , 1, 6, 9–11, 20, 23, 31, 93, 106, 108, 131, 143–4, 146, 76, 79, 152, 202, 220 148–51, 155–6, 175, 177, 182, Goldberg, Arthur, 16, 26 187, 193–4, 197, 202–3, 215–16, Goldman, Nachum, 250 n. 92 284 Index government of Israel (GOI) see Israeli Israeli borders, 6, 79, 132 government Israeli Cabinet, 39, 157 great powers, 192, 196 Israeli diplomacy, 11 Gromyko, Andrei, 16, 46, 63, 65, 95, Israeli Foreign Office, 194, 217 97, 106, 115, 260 n. 158 Israeli government (government of Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat), 23–4 Israel; GOI), 41–2, 45, 49, 64, 73, Gush Etzion, 20 75–7, 87–8, 95, 105, 107–8, 114, 117, 123, 126, 130, 133, 141, 144, Habash, George, 126 146–8, 150–1, 155, 160–1, 174, Haig, Alexander, 261 n. 161 179, 181, 185, 194, 201, 204, Hanoi, 42 206, 216, 220, 223–4, 226, 231; Hashemite Kingdom, 126; see also see also Moshe Dayan; Abba Eban; Hussein, King of Jordan; Jordan Levi Eshkol; Golda Meir; Yitzhak Heath, Edward, 175, 203, 216 Rabin , 19 Israeli initiative (19 June), 12, 19, 24 Heikal, Mohamed Hassanein, 27, 54, Israeli intelligence, 122 90, 187–8, 195 Israeli morale, 108, 120 (Israel), 10, 19 Israeli press, 209 Herut–Liberals Bloc (Gahal) 85, 119 Israeli public, 8, 75, 108, 201 Hilwan, 86 Israeli security, 31, 74, 132 Hitler, 43 Israeli settlement, 19 Hod, Motti, 37 Israeli–Soviet confrontation, 108 Holy Places, 68 Israeli withdrawal, 14, 25–6, 28, 40, Humphrey, Hubert, 80, 240 n. 111 45, 48, 54, 56–7, 63–6, 70–2, 76, Hussein, King of Jordan, 12, 126–9, 81–2, 95–6, 99–100, 102–3, 204 112–13, 116, 119–20, 137, 145, 147–8, 151, 157–60, 165–6, Idris I, King, 67 169–71, 174, 179, 205, 207, India, 26, 187, 195 211, 213–14, 222–3, 227, Indo-Pakistan War, 195 246 n. 87 Interim Agreement (Settlement), 157–9, 161, 163–5, 169, 174, Jarring, Gunnar (UN Special Envoy), 176–9, 181–5, 188, 190–1, 29–31, 34–7, 39–42, 44, 47, 195, 202–3, 208–9, 211, 213, 49–51, 60, 62, 65, 71, 80, 100, 227 109, 111–12, 117–18, 120, Iraq, 12, 204, 231 123–4, 130–3, 135, 137–40, Irbid, 127 142–50, 152, 155, 159, 162, 176, Ismail, Hafez, 190, 196–7, 203, 180–1, 183, 188, 192–5, 200–1, 205–13, 218, 229 215, 220, 241 n. 119, 255 n. 28, Ismailia, 25, 86, 157, 165 256 n. 47 Israel Air Force (IAF), 37, 61, 66, 86, Jenin, 19 88, 99, 109, 116, 119, 132, 172, Jerusalem, 6, 9, 10, 18, 20, 22, 32, 187 35–6, 52, 58, 68, 74, 76–7, 79, (IDF), 1, 9, 19, 102, 137, 152, 168, 176, 227, 231, 25, 58, 61, 84, 101, 108, 114, 241 n. 119 160, 162, 170, 216–17, 233, Jewish land, 20 239 n. 91 Jewish people, 9 Israel Workers’ List (Rafi), 10 Jewish state, 8 Israeli aggression, 11, 26, 150, 153 Jews, 45 Index 285

Johnson, Lyndon B., 3–4, 13, 15, 21, Lod Airport, 201 23, 25, 30, 35–6, 38, 43, 45, 48, London, 253 n. 154 51, 57, 63, 67, 239 n. 91 Lotz, Wolfgang and Waltraud, Jordan, 1–2, 8–9, 12, 21–2, 29, 36, 238 n. 66 39–40, 47, 52, 68, 74–7, 112, 126–9, 152, 154, 204, 219, Ma’ariv, 202 225, 239 n. 91, 252 n. 154; Malawi, 26 see also Hussein, King of Malta, 127 Jordan Jordan River, 9, 19, 20, 152 Meir, Golda, 60–1, 66, 72, 75, 80, 84, Jordan Valley, 19–20 90, 93, 99, 103, 106, 115, 117–19, 122–3, 129–30, 137, 141–2, 148, Kafr Karameh, 239 n. 90 151–2, 156, 158, 160, 164–5, Kantara, 25, 44, 157, 165 168–70, 173, 175–7, 179, 187, Kashmir conflict, 29 190, 193, 201–2, 204, 206, 208, Khartoum, 21–3, 28, 33, 37, 40, 43, 210–11, 218, 223–4, 227, 250 n. 219 92, 256 n. 57, 261 n. 164; arms Khartoum Conference Summit, 21–4, delivery, 67, 69, 132, 178, 182, 33, 48, 55, 82, 219 184, 195, 209; relations with Khartoum Resolutions, 22, 24, 39 Nixon, 77, 132, 185; Rogers Peace Kissinger, Henry, 4, 53, 69, 70, 72–3, Initiative, 108–9, 112–14, 120; 77, 79, 93, 95, 97, 106–7, 110, Rogers Plan, 76–7, 144, 164, 185; 115, 118, 128–30, 155–6, War of Attrition, 59, 86; see also 160–1, 167, 171, 173, 177, Moshe Dayan; Abba Eban; 179, 184–5, 192, 195, 199, 203, Richard M. Nixon; William P. 205, 210, 212–15, 217–18, 221, Rogers; Joseph Sisco 229–30, 233, 245 n. 87, 253 n. Melvin, Laird, 107, 123 169, 254 n. 19, 258 n. 102, Middle East, 1–3, 12–13, 15, 24–30, 260 n. 158; arms to Israel, 11, 37–8, 45, 47, 51–60, 62, 64, 66–7, 172, 209; sovereignty–security 69–70, 78, 83, 88–91, 93–4, 96, formula, 206–7; Soviet Union, 52, 100–2, 104–5, 110, 117, 121, 124, 56, 111; see also Hafez Ismail; 127–9, 132, 136, 146–9, 152–3, Richard M. Nixon; William P. 156, 162, 164, 177, 179, 182–3, Rogers 193, 195–6, 198–201, 203–6, 214, Knesset (Israeli Parliament), 20, 217, 220–2, 225, 229–30, 266 n. 24, 109, 114, 142, 158, 201, 94 256 n. 57 Middle East settlement, 12, 17, 214 Kol, Moshe, 60 Middle Eastern states, 13 Kosygin, Alexei, 15–17, 25, 35, 91–5, Mitla Pass see Giddi and Mitla passes 263 n. 38; see also Soviet Union Moscow, 14, 16–17, 25, 29–30, 45–6, Kremlin, 14–15, 71, 198 48, 56, 63, 71, 83, 90, 94–7, 99, 101–2, 106, 109–10, 115–16, 121, Latin American countries, 26 127–8, 153, 163, 167, 182, 184, Lavon Affair, 238 n. 66 187, 190–1, 193, 195–6, 198, 222, Le Monde,86 263 n. 38 , 9, 127, 154; Lebanese coast, Moscow Summit, 190, 195–6, 228, 127 266 n. 94 Liberals (Israeli party), 10, 19 Movement for Greater Israel, 20 , 67 Munich Olympic Games, 201–2 286 Index

Naga Hammadi, 44 Henry Kissinger; William P. Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 1–5, 8, 13–14, Rogers; State Department 27–8, 32, 34–5, 37, 43–5, 48–9, 54–6, 61–3, 65, 67, 69, 71, 75, 80, Occupied Territories, 2–4, 10, 15, 19, 85, 87–9, 91, 93, 95–6, 99, 22, 28, 32, 34, 36, 38–9, 42, 46, 114–17, 129, 133, 135–6, 139, 49, 54–5, 60, 63, 66, 69–70, 80–1, 146, 157, 162, 169, 186–7, 219, 91, 95, 101–4, 107, 116–17, 119, 222–6, 243 n. 17, 244 n. 49, 247 134, 139–40, 145, 153, 158, 161, n. 29, 249 n. 75, 250 n. 92; arms 196, 220, 222, 225–6, 263 n. 38 shipments, 90; Khartoum October War of 1973 (Yom Kippur Conference Summit, 21–3; War), 6, 232, 252 n. 133 military option, 11–12; Occupied oil, 209–10, 216–17 Territories, 11, 22, 31, 39; oil embargo, 12 relations with the USA, 30, 36, Pakistan, 29, 187 101–5, 109; Rogers Peace Palestine Liberation Organization Initiative, 110–11; violations of (PLO), 12–13, 126–9, 132, 225 cease-fire, 121–2, 124; War of Palestinian guerrillas, 239 n. 91 Attrition, 57–8, 66, 86; see also Palestinian National Liberation Mahmoud Riad; Joseph Sisco Movement (Fatah), 239 n. 91 National Religious Party (Israel), 10, 19 Palestinian refugees, 9, 31, 35, 77, 79, National Security Council (USA) 146, 152, 205, 241 n. 119, 266 n. (NSC), 69, 72 94; Palestinian refugee problem, National Unity coalition, 10 27, 33–4, 36, 55, 63, 68, 71, 74, National Unity Government, 113, 119 102, 116, 118, 136, 138, 145–7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization 151, 153, 202, 207, 223, 241 n. 119 (NATO), 248 n. 47 Palestinian rights, 266 n. 94 New Jersey, 15 Palestinians, 22, 116, 126, 140, 214–15 New York, 40, 56, 61, 180, 222 Parker, Richard, 92 New York Times, 210 Pennsylvania, 54 Newsweek, 139, 145, 208, 210 Pentagon, 107 Nicosia, 39 Phantom jets, 37–9, 43–4, 67, 69, 72, Nigeria, 26 85, 91, 97, 107, 111–13, 115–16, Nile River, 44 119, 177–8, 182, 184, 190, 210 Nimeiri, Jaafar, 67 Podgorny, Nikolai, 167 Nixon, Richard M., 4, 26, 51, 53, 55–7, Popular Front for the Liberation of 62, 64–5, 68, 73, 75, 80, 82, 94–9, Palestine (PFLP), 126, 252 n. 154 104–8, 110–11, 114–15, 122–3, Port Said, 44 127–8, 132–3, 138, 142, 148, proximity talks, 180, 186, 200–1 151–4, 158, 161, 167, 172–4, 177–9, 183–4, 190, 192, 195–6, Rabat Summit (Conference), 73, 75, 87 199, 203–6, 208–9, 213–14, Rabin, Yitzhak, 8, 42–3, 47, 58, 64, 220–2, 225, 227–9, 240 n. 111, 79–80, 86, 89, 90, 92–4, 98, 108, 246 n. 87, 260 n. 158, 261 n. 161, 117, 120, 123, 127–8, 130, 133, 263 n. 38, 266 n. 94; relations 137, 144, 151, 155, 157–8, 160, with Meir, 60–1, 185; Rogers 166, 168, 171, 176, 179, 182, 188, Peace Initiative, 113, 118; Rogers 190–1, 193–5, 211, 218, 256 n. 47; Plan, 69–70, 74–5, 77; superpower arms delivery, 72, 97, 99, 122, confrontation, 54; War of 177; deep-penetration bombing, Attrition, 59–60, 89; see also 61, 67, 85, 87; interim agreement, Index 287

141–2, 157–7, 177, 193; peace Sabri, Ali, 162–3 with Egypt, 146–9; Rogers Peace Sadat, Anwar, 5, 11, 90, 129, 131, Initiative, 113–14, 119; Rogers 135–6, 138–42, 144, 149–50, 152, Plan, 72–3, 75–6, 78, 85; see also 154–8, 160–4, 166–77, 181–4, Moshe Dayan; Abba Eban; Golda 188, 190–1, 195–6, 201–2, 204–5, Meir 207–8, 210–11, 213–16, 218, Ras Muhammad, 139, 163 225–31, 243 n. 17, 261 n. 164, Raviv, Moshe, 92 262 n. 24, 266 n. 2; arms Red Army, 201 shipments, 153, 195, 198; ‘Fog Resolution 242 (UN), 27–37, 39, 41–2, Speech’, 189; peace with Israel, 46–7, 54–5, 73–4, 80–1, 95, 102, 145–6; proximity talks, 180, 186; 108–9, 118–20, 136–40, 142, 145, Soviet expulsion, 197–9, 203; 151, 155, 162, 169–70, 174–5, ‘Year of Decision’, 170, 187, 228; 181, 191, 194, 196, 200, 215, 220, see also Mohammed Murad 225, 228, 261 n. 164 Ghaleb; Hafez Ismail; Mahmoud Rhodes, 39, 65, 100 Riad Rhodes model (style, formula), 63–4, Sadat, Jehan, 266 n. 2 71–2, 78, 80–1, 100, 109 San Clemente Summit, 213–14 Riad, Mahmoud, 17, 33, 35, 39–42, 49, Sapir, Pinhas, 60 63, 72–3, 81, 105, 112, 116–17, Saudi Arabia, 21, 263 n. 38 124–5, 127, 136, 140, 144–6, 150, Saudis, 210 153, 169, 180, 200, 221, 240 n. Scranton, William, 54, 57 102, 241 n. 119, 255 n. 40 Second World War, 96 Richardson, Elliot L., 78 Shapira, Haim Moshe, 93 Rogers, William P., 52–3, 56, 58–9, Sharm el-Sheikh, 6, 24, 32, 47, 49, 52, 63–4, 66, 68–75, 77–9, 81, 98–100, 63, 68, 76, 79–81, 95–6, 100, 140, 107, 109–13, 116–18, 120, 123–5, 143, 149, 152, 161, 193, 202, 206 129, 133, 136, 138–9, 142, 147, Sidqi, Aziz, 198 149–51, 154, 156, 161–7, 169–72, Siilasvuo, Ensio, 29 174, 176, 178–9, 181–4, 186, Sinai Interim Agreement, 232 188–9, 192–3, 195, 203–5, 208, Sinai oil fields, 21 221–3, 227–8; 255 n. 40, 261 n. Sinai passes see Giddi and Mitla passes 161, 266 n. 94; American strategy, , 1, 9–11, 13, 24, 31, 51, 62, 67; arms to Israel, 173, 44, 47–8, 54–5, 81–2, 145, 151, 177, 191; proximity talks, 180, 158, 163, 183, 187, 192, 202, 200–1; see also Henry Kissinger; 206–7, 211, 213, 220, 223, 227–9, Richard M. Nixon; Joseph Sisco; 232–3 State Department Sisco, Joseph, 26, 42–3, 52, 54–6, 58, Rogers Peace Initiative, 4, 84, 98, 62, 64–6, 73–5, 77–8, 80–2, 87–8, 112–19, 126, 133, 144 92, 94–6, 100–4, 106, 110, Rogers Plan, 4, 62–4, 66, 68–82, 85, 118–19, 124, 137, 141–4, 147, 95–6, 98, 100, 102, 109, 111, 150–1, 154–9, 161, 163, 165–6, 113–14, 120, 133, 134, 136, 141, 168, 170–1, 173, 175–6, 178, 180, 143–6, 148, 163–4, 176, 179, 185, 182–3, 185–6, 188–91, 195–7, 194, 223–4, 245 n. 87 216, 222, 227; see also Richard M. Romania, 249 n. 75 Nixon; William P. Rogers; State Rome, 200 Department Rostow, Eugene, 42, 46 Six Day War (June 1967 War), 1, 9, 13, Rusk, Dean, 20, 36, 48–9, 51, 63, 71 16, 22, 33, 43, 61, 126, 230 288 Index

Skyhawk, 37–8, 67, 69, 72, 97, 111–12, Suez Canal, 1, 4, 5, 9, 18, 23–6, 30–1, 116, 184 35, 40, 44, 47–8, 50, 55, 57, 61–3, Soviet Union, 2–3, 5, 12, 25, 28, 35, 66–8, 71, 76, 82, 85, 101, 105–6, 37, 46–8, 50–3, 57, 61, 63, 65–9, 108–9, 115–17, 120, 130–1, 71, 79–80, 82–3, 85, 88, 90–2, 139–43, 153–66, 168–82, 185, 96–9, 101, 103, 105, 115, 117, 187, 193, 201–2, 205–7, 209, 211, 122, 125, 127, 131, 133, 136, 153, 215, 222–5, 227–8, 232, 241 n. 163, 170, 174, 182–3, 186, 188, 119, 262 n. 214 193–4, 197–8, 204, 215, 219, Syria, 1–2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14, 21–3, 29, 37, 221–3, 225–6, 229, 243 n. 117, 81, 96, 100, 108, 118, 127–8, 204, 260 n. 158; arms shipments to 219, 230 Egypt, 14, 95–6, 99, 104, 167, 182, Syrian forces, 210 190, 195, 197–8; friendship treaty, 167–8, 184; intervention in the Tekoah, Yosef, 39, 143, 145 conflict, 96, 106–8, 110–11, 119, Thant, U, 23, 27, 29, 143, 149–50 133, 225; invasion of The Times (London), 152 Czechoslovakia, 45; Rogers Peace Tho, Le Duc, 263 n. 42 Initiative, 110; Rogers Plan, 63, Two Power talks, 55–6, 59, 222 65, 71, 80; threat, 92, 95, 113; troops, 5, 97–8, 105–6, 188, 199, United Nations (UN), 13, 18, 26, 41, 201–3, 229, 264 n. 50; weapons, 49, 55, 102, 117, 124, 141, 175, 11, 97, 100, 104–5, 107; see also 179–80, 215, 222; Charter, 24, 27; ; Anatoli forces, 13, 47, 63, 140, 143; Dobrynin; Andrei Gromyko; General Assembly, 10, 16, 27, 49, 154, 177, 179; Security Council, SS Eilat, 25, 44 16, 23, 26–8, 33–6, 39, 41, 43, 46, State Department (USA), 20, 46–8, 49, 109, 138, 152, 154, 213, 215, 51–3, 56–7, 60, 63–7, 69, 71, 73–8, 220, 240 n. 102 81–2, 88–9, 92–4, 100–1, 109, United Nations Special Envoy see 112, 114, 117, 122–6, 129–30, Gunnar Jarring 133, 135, 144, 150–1, 154–5, 161, United Nations Truce Supervision 166, 168, 170, 172, 176–9, 182–5, Organization (UNTSO), 29 190–2, 195, 199, 201, 204–5, 208, United States, 1–3, 12–13, 15–18, 20, 214, 217, 221–2, 225, 228, 258 n. 22, 25–6, 30, 35–7, 42–3, 45, 47–8, 102, 259 n. 119; see also William 50–62, 64, 66–70, 72–9, 81–2, 85, P. Rogers; Joseph Sisco 88–90, 92–4, 102–4, 109, 112, Sterner, Michael, 183 114–18, 120–1, 123–9, 132–3, Stewart, Michael 59 136, 138–9, 141–2, 144–5, 147–8, Straits of Tiran, 9, 13, 15–16, 18, 26–7, 150–2, 154, 156–8, 160, 162, 164, 31–2, 34, 52, 64, 68, 71, 81, 100, 166, 170–80, 183, 185–6, 191–4, 140, 147, 151, 207, 222–3, 241 n. 196, 200, 204–13, 215, 218–19, 119 221–3, 226, 228, 230, 232; aircraft Strategic Arms Limitation Talks shipments to Israel, 37–8, 45, 100, (SALT), 208 102, 104, 107, 111, 119, 128, strategic bombing see 132–4, 167, 173, 176–8, 184, 187, deep-penetration bombing 189–91, 195–6, 208, 210; relations Sudan, 67 with China, 190, 195, 208; Suez, 25 relations with Egypt, 102, 104, Suez Campaign, 13, 17, 31, 222 138, 162, 167; Soviet Union, Index 289

15–16, 55–6, 64–5, 81, 93–5, 106, 195–6, 199, 205–8, 211, 213, 216, 109–10, 118, 195–6, 213–14; see 222, 230, 259 n. 119, 262 n. 24 also Henry Kissinger; Richard M. Washington Summit, 213 Nixon; William P. Rogers; Joseph Watergate Scandal (Affair), 209, 214, Sisco; State Department 265 n. 78 United Workers’ Party (Mapam), 19 Weizman, Ezer, 61–2, 86, 90, 252 n. 133 Vietnam, North, 130, 199, 263 n. 62; West Bank, 1, 6, 9–11, 18–20, 23, 31, South, 30, 32, 208 47, 74, 76, 82, 158, 202, 220 Vietnam War, 53, 55, 208 White House, 77, 96, 122, 168, 190, Vinogradov, Vladimir, 65, 125, 197 199, 204, 206–7, 228, 230, 265 n. 78 Waldheim, Kurt, 193 Wilson, Harold, 12 War of Attrition, 4, 57–8, 60–2, 65–7, Workers’ Party of the Land of Israel 84, 86, 94–5, 101, 103–4, 117, (), 11, 19 119–21, 133, 135, 141, 187, 189, World Jewish Congress, 250 n. 92 198, 222, 243 n.17, 247 n. 29, 250 n. 92 Warsaw Pact, 90 Ya’acobi, Gad, 253 n. 169 Washington, 3, 14–17, 20, 25, 37, 42, Yost, Woodruff Charles, 74–7, 81 45, 48, 52, 56, 61, 64, 67, 69, 76–7, 82, 85, 88, 92, 99–101, Zeira, Eli, 216 103–4, 109, 114, 117, 123, 125, Zionist state, 16, 34, 70, 104, 136, 231; 136, 140–1, 158, 161, 168, 174–5, crony, 71–2; enemy, 8; foe, 87; 177, 180, 184–5, 187, 189–90, forces, 110