DOCSLIB.ORG

Download Download

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Download Download Health & Fitness Journal of Canada Copyright ≤ 2017 The Authors. Journal Compilation Copyright ≤ 2017 Health & Fitness Society of BC Volume 10 Sept 30, 2017 Number 3 SPECIAL SERIES Have people always been fat? An historical enquiry. Roy J. Shephard1 Abstract Introduction Objective: Some investigators claim that obesity has Over the past 20 years, much attention always been a feature of human society, but others maintain that obesity was absent from traditional has been focused upon an obesity hunter-gatherer communities. Resolution of this issue is epidemic affecting not only North America, important to prevention and treatment. Can obesity be but also many other developed and avoided by the rigorous daily activity and limited availability of food found in many hunter-gatherer developing nations (GBD 2013 Obesity groups, or is the accumulation of body fat an inevitable Collaboration, 2014; World Health consequence of the human genome? Methods: A Organisation, 2014). Perhaps as a narrative review has gathered available information on eating habits, habitual daily physical activity and body fat consequence of this attention, we tend to accumulation over various historical eras, ranging from regard an excessive accumulation of body the earliest Paleolithic and Neolithic communities to fat as a modern problem, brought about by Victorian society. Results: The success of Paleolithic and Neolithic communities generally depended upon high a combination of over-eating in response levels of daily energy expenditure, and despite the to the wiles of giant commercial food discovery of some obese "Mother Goddess" figurines, distributors, intent to increase our studies of small communities that have maintained a Neolithic lifestyle still show very low levels of body fat. consumption of their products, by With the development of settled societies based upon an industrial automation with ever more agricultural economy, an economic surplus and social sedentary work, and by a progressive stratification allowed the emergence of a growing upper echelon of society that could over-eat and engaged in too reduction of daily energy expenditures in little physical activity. However, the widespread our leisure time. prevalence of obesity across developed societies is a late In exploring the lifestyle of successive 20th century phenomenon, associated with ever- decreasing needs for energy expenditure in daily life, cultures from the Paleolithic world reduced opportunities for deliberate leisure activity in through to Victorian times, this historical mega-cities, the promotion of over-eating and unhealthy review in general supports the thesis that diets by commercial interests, and possibly a greater public acceptance of obesity. Conclusions: Obesity is obesity was the exception rather than the typically an expression of over-eating and inadequate rule during most of antiquity. habitual physical activity. Although there are occasional Nevertheless, it also highlights some pathological causes, an excess of body fat is a health problem that could be resolved quite readily for most seemingly well-documented examples of people by a disciplined return to the dietary and physical gross obesity from the early history of activity patterns of earlier generations. Health & Fitness humankind, a finding that some have Journal of Canada 2017;10(3):3-53. interpreted as evidence that the ability to Keywords: Body Composition; Diet; Lifestyle; Obesity; store fat was an early adaptive feature of Physical activity human evolution (Bray, Bouchard, and James, 2003). We note further that the From 1Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. potential for people to become obese Email: [email protected] generally seems to have followed the Health & Fitness Journal of Canada, ISSN 1920-6216, Vol. 10, No. 3 ∂ September 30, 2017 ∂ 3 Historical Perspective on Obesity transition from a hunter-gatherer society Paleolothic artifacts. Cave art and a small to settled agricultural communities, where number of carved idols have been found an economic surplus allowed social across Europe, from south-western France stratification, and an elite of wealthier to Russia. Many of these items date back to individuals could opt to over-eat and 25,000-30,000 BCE. The cave art has not engage in little physical activity. As we contributed much to arguments about the explore the phenomenon of obesity, it will prevalence of obesity during this era, but become apparent that many of the healers the unearthing of a number of pudgy and physicians of antiquity recognized miniature idols has stimulated much over-eating and a lack of physical activity discussion. The most famous of these as twin causes, and that they proposed as relics is the Venus of Willendorf, a small staples of treatment a regimen that statuette found near Krems, in Lower embraced a moderation of food intake, Austria (Stéphen-Chauvet,1936). This accompanied by regular and vigorous particular artifact is characterized by physical activity. pendulous breasts and marked abdominal obesity (Figure 1). Paleolithic and Neolithic communities Bray et al. (2003) listed a number of Paleolithic era. similar Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts The Paleolithic era, also known as the that archeologists had discovered in digs Old Stone Age, was marked by the over at least 8 sites in Europe. The idols fashioning of tools formed from chipped were carved from ivory, limestone, stone and antlers. This phase of history serpentine or terracotta. All appeared to extended from some 2.5 million years ago represent to about 10,000 BCE. Given the lack of very obese Figure 1: The Venus of written records, inferences about the women. Bray Willendorf: a grossly obese likelihood of obesity in Paleolithic et al. (2003) historical artifact discovered communities have been limited to a cited the in Austria. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleol knowledge of the economy and a study of earlier ithic#/media/File:Wien_NHM_Venus cave art and occasional artifacts. verdict of the _von_Willendorf.jpg Paleolithic economy. The economy of French the Paleolithic people was based upon the physician hunting of wild animals and birds, fishing, Hautin and the gathering of berries, nuts and (1939): "The roots. In most habitats, this would likely women have implied a life of hard physical labour, immortalized with the sharing of what was a rather in stone age limited amount of food among members of sculpture the community. Inferences are supported were fat; by 20th century studies of communities there is no that have maintained a Neolithic lifestyle other word (below). The available resources would for it." Bray hardly have predisposed to the et al. development of obesity, an argument themselves supported by measurements of body fat concluded content in communities still following the "That obesity Neolithic way of life (below). was known in Health & Fitness Journal of Canada, ISSN 1920-6216, Vol. 10, No. 3 ∂ September 30, 2017 ∂ 4 Historical Perspective on Obesity this early period is evident from Stone Age fruits, vegetables, underground tubers, artifacts." More recently, Josza (2012) has and, in some parts of Africa, honey. In reinforced this viewpoint; in a study of general, game was scarce, and the photos or copies of 100 Paleolithic statues, traditional sharing of the proceeds of the 97 of which were of women, he noted that hunt among the whole community 24 were skinny, 15 of normal weight, and reduced the likelihood of individual over- 51 were overweight or obese. eating. Moreover, the physical energy Nevertheless, there is no good expenditures demanded by many types of evidence that either these chubby idols or hunting were extremely high, militating some of the slim athletic statues of male against obesity. deities were in any way representative of Neolithic artifacts. Caricature-like the Paleolithic population. Episodes of representations of an obese Mother starvation make obesity an unlikely Goddess continued into the Neolithic era. occurrence (Colman, 1998). The figurines One example of such idols was found at with their exaggerated female sexuality Catalhöyük, a proto-city that flourished in are more likely to have been idealized southern Anatolia, around 5500 BCE. A primordial female deities, fertility clay figurine featured a naked woman goddesses or more general symbols of the seated between two lions. Her hips, belly bounty of the earth; some authors have and breasts are exaggerated, and the even suggested that they were a form of genital areas are marked by a triangular Stone Age pornography (Beller, 1977; decoration; possibly she was in process of Gimbutas, 1991; Guthrie, 2006; Stone, giving birth at the time of the sculpture 2012). (Figure 2). Again, there is no strong reason to suppose that such representations of a Neolithic era. Mother Goddess figure were in any way The Neolithic era or New Stone Age began around 10,000 BCE, and in various Figure 2: Woman of Catalhöyük, parts of the world it continued to 4500- Turkey, from about 6000 BCE. 2000 BCE, ending with the introduction of Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seated_Wom copper, bronze, and iron tools. The an_of_%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk Neolithic economy was generally similar to that of the Paleolithic people. A few obese artifacts have again been discovered from this period, but studies of continuing Neolithic communities provide more direct evidence on levels of habitual physical activity and the resulting accumulation of body fat. Neolithic economy. In some areas, dogs, sheep, and goats were domesticated, and groups began to experiment with the cultivation of crops. But many Neolithic communities maintained a hunter- gatherer lifestyle. Some populations had access to animal protein such as caribou or fish, but for many the diet was based upon Health & Fitness Journal of Canada, ISSN 1920-6216, Vol. 10, No. 3 ∂ September 30, 2017 ∂ 5 Historical Perspective on Obesity representative of the body build of the Alacalufe Indians, 7.9 mm; for general female population. Australian aboriginals, 7.0-9.1 mm; for Direct evidence of habitual physical Arctic Indians, 5.7-6.7 mm; for Inuit from activity and body composition.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Higher Laws" "Higher
    tcny n<,rt IIInl J J A BENEFACTOR OF HIS RACE: THOREAU'S "HIGHER LAWS" AND THE HEROICS OF VEGETARIANISM ROBERT EPSTEIN grasped and lived by is the law which says: "Follow your own gen­ Berkeley, California ius"--be what you are, whether you are by your own nature hunter, or Was Thoreau a vegetarian or not? There wood chopper, or scholar. When you are several answers to this question. have become perfect you will be perfect; but only if you have If dietary practice is to be the sole learned to be, all along, what at criterion for judging, then Thoreau cannot be each manent you were. (pp 84-5) considered a vegetarian, since, by his own account, he ate fish and meat (though the Echoing Thoreau, the eminent psycholo­ latter rarely). gist, Carl G. Jung once wrote: Yet, despite this fact, Thoreau espoused I had to obey an inner law which a vegetarian ethic. So, his practice does was :irr\posed on me and left me no not suffice as a criterion for judging the freedanfreedom of choice. Of course I did extent of his vegetarianism. Consequently, not always obey it. How can anyone he has been criticized numerous times, e.g. live without inconsistency? (1965, by Wagenknecht, 1981, Garber, 1977, Jones, p. 356) 1954, for being inconsistent. How consistent was he in adhering to the vegetarian ideal? What we need to do in Thoreau scholarship-­ The question is not easy to answer. We must particularly regarding his dietary views--is ask: consistent from whose point of view? put aside our judgments of inconsistency The notion of consistency cannot always and (which frequently represent a defense against easily be objectively detennined,determined, because the areas of conflict in us) and attempt to un­ critic's own biases distort that which is derstand Thoreau franfrom within his own frame of ref~ence.[l] being viewed, in this case Thoreau's vegetar­ The question with which we ianism.
    [Show full text]
  • Fruitlands Shaker Manuscript Collection, 1771-1933
    THE TRUSTEES OF RESERVATIONS ARCHIVES & RESEARCH CENTER Guide to Fruitlands Shaker Manuscript Collection, 1771-1933 FM.MS.S.Coll.1 by Anne Mansella & Sarah Hayes August 2018 The processing of this collection was funded in part by Mass Humanities, which receives support from the Massachusetts Cultural Council and is an affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities. Archives & Research Center 27 Everett Street, Sharon, MA 02067 www.thetrustees.org [email protected] 781-784-8200 The Trustees of Reservations – www.thetrustees.org Date Contents Box Folder/Item No. Extent: 15 boxes (includes 2 oversize boxes) Linear feet: 15 Copyright © 2018 The Trustees of Reservations ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION PROVENANCE Manuscript materials were first acquired by Clara Endicott Sears beginning in 1918 for her Fruitlands Museum in Harvard, Massachusetts. Materials continued to be collected by the museum throughout the 20th century. In 2016, Fruitlands Museum became The Trustees’ 116th reservation, and the Shaker manuscript materials were relocated to the Archives & Research Center in Sharon, Massachusetts. In Harvard, the Fruitlands Museum site continues to display the objects that Sears collected. The museum features three separate collections of significant Shaker, Native American, and American art and artifacts, as well as a historic farmhouse that was once home to the family of Louisa May Alcott and is recognized as a National Historic Landmark. OWNERSHIP & LITERARY RIGHTS The Fruitlands Shaker Manuscript Collection is the physical property of The Trustees of Reservations. Literary rights, including copyright, belong to the authors or their legal heirs and assigns. RESTRICTIONS ON ACCESS This collection is open for research. Some items may be restricted due to handling condition of materials.
    [Show full text]
  • CATALOGUE of NEW ENGLAND FRUIT and ORNAMENTAL TREES, Shrubs, Evergreens, Roses, Vines, &C., Cultivated & for Sale by R.R
    1 (African-American) Boone, C.C., M.D. LIBERIA as I KNOW IT. Richmond, Virginia, 1929, Copyrighted 1929. 152 pages. Halftone portraits of author, wife, children, views of Liberia, White House, Sueh Industrial Mission, Providence Church, Lott Carey grave, baptism, students, &c. 8 x 5.5", gold lettered blue cloth. Cloth bit soiled, few pages tanned, else VG. Owner name: 'Rev. Isaac T.D. Ross, Jan. 1931' on pastedown. 26 years in Congo & Liberia as medical missionary, pastor of Providence Baptist Church, after graduation from Shaw University. $150.00 2 (African-American) Edwards, William J. TWENTY-FIVE YEARS in the BLACK BELT. Boston: Cornhill Company, copyright, 1918. xvii,143 pages. Halftone portrait, 8 plates of Snow Hill Normal & Industrial Institute, Snow Hill, Alabama, trustees, graduates, teachers, rural log cabin, house of graduate. 7.5 x 5", gold lettered red cloth. Spine rubbed, cloth bit soiled, small smudge 2pp, 1 leaf edge crease, VG. Edwards graduated Tuskegee Institute, founded Snow Hill to improve conditions for rural Alabama African-Americans. $50.00 3 (African-American) The Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Virginia. RELIGIOUS FOLK SONGS of the NEGRO. New edition. Arranged by the Musical Directors of The Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute, from the original edition by Thomas P. Fenner. Hampton: Institute Press, 1920. vi, 180 pages. 8.5 x 5.5", maroon cloth. Worn, soiled, creased, upper hinge reglued, fair. 'Property of Mr. J.B. Lucas, Grinnell Iowa' on blank. $15.00 4 (Agriculture) The NATIONAL FARMER'S and HOUSEKEEPER'S CYCLOPAEDIA. A Complete & Ready Reference Library for Farmers, Gardeners, Fruit Growers, Stockmen & Housekeepers, containing a large fund of useful information, facts, hints & suggestions, in the various departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Live Stock Raising, Poultry Keeping, Bee Keeping, Dairy Farming, Fertilizers, Rural Architecture, Farm Implements, Household Management, Domestic Affairs, Cookery, Ladies' Fancy Work, Floriculture, Medical Matters, &c.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction Eating Bodies in the 19Th Century
    Introduction Eating Bodies in the 19th Century In 1900, the Thomas Edison Company produced a silent gag film called The Gator and the Pickaninny, depicting a theatrical scene in which a black child is fishing on a water shore. An alligator crawls up behind him and eats the child up; soon after, a man runs up, cuts open the alligator, and pulls the child out whole. Celebration ensues. On one level, this film does not stray far from the features we can expect from the American popular entertainment of the era, with its broad racist humor— signaled by the very term “pickaninny”— and its vaudevillian gag and dance routines. However, if we approach the film on another level, asking about the eating motif around which the film turns, it presents us with a puzzle: how does a film of a black child being eaten become legible to audi- ences in the early twentieth century? More than solely an insight into racist images in the period, this idea— of the edible and delicious black subject— reveals something larger about the relationship between eating and racial identity, between bodies inscribed with the marks of race and food. Through readings of material culture— novels, chapbooks, poetry, cookbooks, and visual culture— this book examines the social and sym- bolic practices through which eating and food cultures inform the pro- duction of racial difference and other forms of political inequality. This is not, however, entirely a project about food. Rather, in Racial Indigestion I contribute to the growing field of food studies by examining eating; I uncover and analyze cultural texts and moments during which acts of eat- ing cultivate political subjects by fusing the social with the biological, by imaginatively shaping the matter we experience as body and self.
    [Show full text]
  • Alcott Family Papers 1814-1935
    The Trustees of Reservations – www.thetrustees.org THE TRUSTEES OF RESERVATIONS ARCHIVES & RESEARCH CENTER Guide to Alcott Family Papers 1814-1935 FM.MS.T.1 by Jane E. Ward Date: May 2019 Archives & Research Center 27 Everett Street, Sharon, MA 02067 www.thetrustees.org [email protected] 781-784-8200 The Trustees of Reservations – www.thetrustees.org Box Folder Contents Date Extent: 6 boxes Linear feet: 3 lin. ft. Copyright © 2019 The Trustees of Reservations ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION PROVENANCE Transcendental manuscript materials were first acquired by Clara Endicott Sears beginning in 1918 for her Fruitlands Museum in Harvard, Massachusetts. Sears became interested the Transcendentalists after acquiring land in Harvard and restoring the Fruitlands Farmhouse. Materials continued to be collected by the museum throughout the 20th century. In 2016, Fruitlands Museum became The Trustees’ 116th reservation, and these manuscript materials were relocated to the Archives & Research Center in Sharon, Massachusetts. In Harvard, the Fruitlands Museum site continues to display the objects that Sears collected. The museum features four separate collections of significant Shaker, Native American, Transcendentalist, and American art and artifacts. The property features a late 18th century farmhouse that was once home to the writer Louisa May Alcott and her family. Today it is a National Historic Landmark. These papers were acquired by a combination of purchases and donations up through the 1980s. OWNERSHIP & LITERARY RIGHTS The Alcott Family Papers are the physical property of The Trustees of Reservations. Literary rights, including copyright, belong to the authors or their legal heirs and assigns. CITE AS Alcott Family Papers, Fruitlands Museum. The Trustees of Reservations, Archives & Research Center.
    [Show full text]
  • Fifty Years of Food Reform
    No.ffy. FIFTY YEARS OF FOOD REFORM A HISTORY OF THE VEGETARIAN MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND. From 1ts Incept1on 1n 1847, down to the close of 1897: WITH INCIDENTAL REFERENCES TO VEGETARIAN WORK IN AMERICA AND GERMANY. BY ; CHARLES W. FORWARD, WITH UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. Percy Bysshe Shelley. MDCCCXCVIII. LONDON : THE IDEAL PUBLISHING UNION, LTD., MEMORIAL HALL, FARR1NGDON STREET. MANCHESTER : THE VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, 9, PETER STREET. (L- THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY 127291II AVTOR. LENOX ANT) TIU'TN FOl NDATIONS P 1941 L ffff^fv^^f^^ffmvvvvrfv X . .- «fflo i • ' I■ ' 1 t ,1,1 H B ■ i lis rWr ^^Ml 14* 19 QJ L' ■ ■^«iwri » Inter1or of Northwood V1lla. [The Room where the Vegetarian Society was founded in 1847.) Northwood V1lla, Ramsgate. {.Hydropathic Infirmary and Restdence 0/ Mr. W. Horscll, in 1847. Now (1897) a Sea-sUe Home for Boys in carnation with the Ragged School Un1on. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED (BY KIND PERMISSION) TO MY FRIEND AND FELLOW-WORKER IN THE CAUSE OF VEGETARIANISM, ARNOLD FRANK HILLS, WHOSE HIGH IDEALS, UNFAILING EXAMPLE, AND INEXTINGUISHABLE ENTHUSIASM, HAVE INSPIRED MYSELF /■ AND MANY OTHERS •; [■. WITH RENEWED FAITH AND ENERGY, • AND DEEPENED THE CONVICTION THAT' THE TRIUMPH OF VEGETARIANISM, WHICH HE HAS DONE SO MUCH TO PROMOTE, IS DESTINED TO BRING WITH IT A REIGN OF" PEACE, GOODWILL, AND UNIVERSAL HAPPINESS WHICH MANKIND HAS. BEEN VAINLY SEEKING THROUGHOUT PAST AGES. PREFACE. HE task of writing a historical survey of the Vegetarian Move ment in England is one which I did not seek, and I should not have undertaken had I foreseen the difficulties it entailed.
    [Show full text]
  • Bulletin of the History of Medicine May-June,1951: Vol 25 Iss 3
    BULLETIN OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE PilflAN or THE American Association of the History op Medicine I hMVCRSiTt Johns Hopkins Institute of the History of Medicine 30 1951 Founded by Henry E. Sigerist Editor—OwsEi Temkin 'SgBARV foujME XXV MAY-JUNE, 1951 Number 3 CONTENTS Main Articles In Memory oj Jtdim Pagel On the Hundredth Anniversary of Julius Pagel’s Birth, 29 May 1851: Henry E. Sigerist. 208 Julius Pagel and the Significance of Medical History for Medicine: Walter Pagel. 207 The History of Fibroadenosis of the Breast: Archibald L. Goodall. 226 Sir Thomas Browne, M, D., William Harvey, and the Metaphor of the Circle: Frank Livingstone . Huntley . 286 The Role of Surgery in the Rise of Modem Medical Thought: Owsei Temkin . 248 The Founding of the New Orleans Marine Hospital: William E. Rooney. 260 The Three McLane Doctors of Morgantown: Simon B. Chandler. 269 The First Woman Dentist: Lucy Hobbs Taylor, D. D. S. (1888-1910): Ralph W. Edwards . 277 Homer’s Syndrome, an American Discovery: Bruno Kisch . 284 Medico-Historical News and Activities Announcements . 289 Book Reviews. 292 THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS BALTIMORE 18, MARYLAND BULLETIN OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE OKGAN OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE AND THE JOHNS HOPKINS INSTITUTE OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE Editor—OwsEi Temkin Manuscripts, review copies of books, and correspondence relating to the publication of papers should be addressed to The Editor, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1900 E. Monument St., Baltimore 5, Md. Contributors of articles will receive 25 reprints without covers free of cost.
    [Show full text]
  • A Cross-Cultural Perspective
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives Vegetarian Foodways A Cross-cultural Perspective Joanna Maria Michalowska Master’s Thesis Department of Social Anthropology UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2008 2 Summary Vegetarian foodways are relatively universal – identifiable in different parts of the world and in different local contexts. However, owing to the particularities of these local contexts, vegetarian foodways are also culturally specific. I use the empirical example of vegetarianism in Japan on the one hand in order to both illustrate the transnational vegetarian foodways and show them in a context different from the original Western one. On the other hand, vegetarian foodways in Japan serve as an example of a distinct local variant of the transnational phenomenon. In addition, Japan has significantly contributed to the development of the transnational vegetarian foodways by means of the spread to the West of Zen Buddhism, macrobiotics and more general holistic attitudes to food and health, as well as certain foods. I start by presenting developments in modern Western foodways concerning the consumption of meat and attitudes to it, and within these developments, the advancement of vegetarianism as a dietary option, a lifestyle and a social movement. I point out Japan’s contribution to these developments and identify the main tenets of the transnational vegetarian ideology resulting from the meeting of ‘West’ and ‘East’: compassion for all living beings, human health and vitality of vegetarian food, and concern about the natural environment. I proceed to present vegetarianism in Japan through a series of contextualised empirical examples consisting of a vegetarian organisation and four individuals operating in Japanese society.
    [Show full text]
  • Berliner Militärärzte Im Labor Von 1870-1895
    Aus dem Institut für Geschichte der Medizin Zentrum für Human- und Gesundheitswissenschaften der Medizinischen Fakultät Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin DISSERTATION Berliner Militärärzte im Labor von 1870-1895 zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor rerum medicarum (Dr. rer. medic.) vorgelegt der Medizinischen Fakultät Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin von Frank-Peter Kirsch aus Gotha Gutachter: 1. Prof. Dr. Volker Hess 2. Prof. Dr. Thomas Schnalke 3. Prof. Dr. Heinz Schott Datum der Promotion: 22. Juni 2009 Operativer Eingriff um 1900 Fotoarchiv St. Hedwig-Krankenhaus „Yesterday is history – Tomorrow is a mystery – Today is a gift” (Anna Eleanor Roosevelt) Inhaltsverzeichnis 1. Einleitung.................................................................................................................. 7 1.1. Stand der Forschung und Materialien...................................................................... 10 1.2. Gang der Darstellung............................................................................................... 14 2. Militärmedizinische Ausbildung und Labor……………………………………16 2.1. Institutionen und Einrichtungen in Berlin............................................................... 16 2.2. Das Militärsanitätswesen in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts..................... 28 2.3. Klinischer Unterricht an der Charité........................................................................ 30 2.4. Soziale Herkunft der Militär- und Zivilärzte, Aufnahmebestimmungen........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Quality of Mercy: Organized Animal Protection in the United States 1866-1930
    CHAPTERI "THEYOUGHT TO BE THEOBJECTS OF OURBENEVOLENT REGARDS": THEANTE CEDENTSOF ORGANIZED ANIMALPROTECTION INTHE UNITED ST A TES Is it not sufficientfor man to absorb the useful labors and livesof the inferior creation, without superaddiogexcessive anguish. wantand misery? Whenhis own cup of suffering is fulland overflowing. desperateresort to revolutionsometimes rids him of his crueltormentors and taskmasters. But of the inferior animals, generations aftergene rations sufferand expire without any chanceof reliefor redress, unless it begranted by the generosityand justice of man. - Julius Ames,The Spirit of Humanity( 1835) When the anti-crueltymovement in the United States coalesced during the 1860s, it tookroot in a society in which the animal protectionimpulse already had some currency. Beforethe Civil War, some Americans gave their attention to the mistreatment of animals as a social problem, exploring its religious, moral, and legal dimensions. Although no sustained effortsto prevent cruelty to animals ensued, these Americans explored some of the same issues that would lead a later generation to found animal protectionsocieties. A handfulof American thinkers, forinst ance, joined their European contemporaries in settling upon animals' capacity for suffering as the decisive reason for according them better treatment. Nineteenth century Evangelicalism's embrace of Old Testament admonitions on the moral duty to treat animals well reinforced such concern. During the sameperiod, the kindness-to animals-ethic gained recognition as a critical constituent of childhood socialization. In addition, persistent dissatisfactionwith the 14 IS public mistreatment of animals leda number of states to pass statutes that prohibited acts of cruelty. Finally, concernfor animals was tied to several social movements of the antebellum period.
    [Show full text]
  • Naturopathic Historical Reference
    Naturopathic Historical Reference Naturopathic Historical Reference Acknowledgements The World Naturopathic Federation (WNF) greatly appreciates the participation of naturopathic educational institutions in providing the details required for this WNF Naturopathic Historical Reference: Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine (CCNM), Canada; Collège Européen de Naturopathie Traditionnelle Holistique (CENATHO), France; Centro Andaluz de Naturopatía (CEAN), Spain; Naturopatska Sola (SAEKA), Slovenia; Wellpark College of Natural Therapies, New Zealand. This initiative was led by the Naturopathic Roots Committee with the following members including Heilpraktiker / naturopaths / naturopathic doctors (ND): Tina Hausser, Heilpraktiker, Naturopath - Chair (Spain) Dr. Iva Lloyd, ND (Canada) Dr. JoAnn Yánez, ND, MPH, CAE (United States) Phillip Cottingham, ND (New Zealand) Roger Newman Turner, ND (United Kingdom) Alfredo Abascal, Naturopath (Uruguay) © World Naturopathic Federation July 2017 (date provisional) All rights reserved. Publications of the World Naturopathic Federation can be obtained from our website at www.worldnaturopathicfederation.org. Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WNF publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to [email protected] All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Naturopathic Federation to verify the information in this report. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the Copyright 2017 1 www.worldnaturopathicfederation.org interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Naturopathic Federation be liable for damages arising from its use. Printed in Canada. Introduction: The following chart and naturopathic historical timeline is an overview of some of the key individuals that have contributed to the philosophies, theories and principles that make up naturopathy / naturopathic medicine.
    [Show full text]
  • Christianity and Vegetarianism 1809 – 2009
    EDEN’S DIET: CHRISTIANITY AND VEGETARIANISM 1809 – 2009 by SAMANTHA JANE CALVERT A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham June 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT The vegetarian teachings of the Salvation Army, Quakers, the Seventh Day Adventists and other Christian groups have been largely neglected by academics. This study takes a prosopographical approach to the development of modern Christian vegetarianism across a number of Christian vegetarian sects, and some more mainstream traditions, over a period of two centuries. The method allows for important points of similarity and difference to be noted among these groups’ founders and members. This research contributes particularly to radical Christian groups’ place in the vegetarian movement’s modern history. This study demonstrates how and why Christian vegetarianism developed in the nineteenth century and to what extent it influenced the secular vegetarian movement and wider society. It contextualizes nineteenth-century Christian vegetarianism in the wider movement of temperance, and considers why vegetarianism never made inroads into mainstream churches in the way that the temperance movement did.
    [Show full text]