.....

~

23 23 23 BEIWEEN BEIWEEN THE THE SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES THE BEIWEEN

really the but glimpsed, law law really law the but glimpsed,

higher higher are laws The without. are laws higher The without.

n fra forced upon upon contradictions him him from upon forced contradictions him PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY

not himself, thin wi contradictions not himself, thin wi contradictions

were they they that fact the by fied were they that fact the by fied

justi­ were contradictions the even justi­ were contradictions the even

and in contradictions by it, it, the and it, in contradictions the by

even troubled be to sweet pressibly even troubled be to sweet pressibly

string string fish. of a and pole fishing a carrying fish. of string a and pole fishing a carrying

too too existence existence inex­ was Walden At too inex­ was existence Walden At

vegetarianism, vegetarianism, about see see statement him we we see vegetarianism, about statement him we

canplete canplete IlDst "[2] contains contains which Laws, his his complete llDst his contains which 2] [ " Laws,

writes: writes: (1974) (1974) (1974)

writes:

"Higher on on chapter begins Thoreau the the "Higher on chapter the begins Thoreau As As As

Krutch Joseph diet, regarding . tions Wood Wood Krutch Joseph diet, regarding . tions Wood

contradic­ apparent Thoreau's of point; this contradic­ apparent Thoreau's of point; this

him? him?

appreciated appreciated have to measure any in appears

appreciated have to measure any in appears to vegetarianism vegetarianism what mean mean did attention: to mean vegetarianism did what attention:

biographer biographer Only one one principles. dietary biographer one cnly principles. dietary Thoreau's occupied which question central Thoreau's occupied which question central

regarding regarding his his inconsistency of feeling any his regarding inconsistency of feeling any concerned concerned pages the with be will we following the with concerned be will we pages following

expressed expressed time no at himself Thoreau ianism.

expressed time no at himself Thoreau ianism.

the began significantly. significantly. changed has the significantly. changed has began In In In

vegetar­ Thoreau's case this in viewed, being vegetar­ Thoreau's case this in viewed, being

which which question we with The we which with question The

ref~ence.[l]

ref~ence.[l]

that that is is which distort biases tic's cri is which that distort biases tic's cri own own

own

frame frame fran of his within Thoreau derstand of frame his within from Thoreau derstand own own

detennined, detennined, the because objectively be easily

the because determined, objectively be easily

un­ to attempt us) in conflict of areas and and un­ to attempt us) in conflict of areas and

and and always always cannot consistency of notion The and always cannot consistency of notion The

defense defense against a represent frequently (which against defense a represent frequently (which

whose whose view? view? of point from consistent ask: view? of point whose from consistent ask:

of of inconsistency judgments our aside put inconsistency of judgments our aside put

to to must must We We answer. easy not is question The to must We answer. easy not is question The

views--is his regarding dietary dietary particularly views--is dietary his regarding particularly

to to ideal? ideal? vegetarian the adhering in he was to ideal? vegetarian the adhering in he was

to to do do scholarship-­ Thoreau need we in in What to scholarship-­ Thoreau in do need we What

consistent consistent How inconsistent. being for 1954, 1954, 1954, consistent How inconsistent. being for

Wagenknecht, Wagenknecht, Jones, Jones, by 1977, 1977, 1981,

1977, Garber, 1981, Garber, Garber,

Jones, Wagenknecht, by

p. p. 356) 356) p.

e.g. e.g. times, times, numerous criticized has he

e.g. times, numerous criticized has he been been been without without live inconsistency? inconsistency? (1965, (1965, inconsistency? without live

Consequently, Consequently, vegetarianism. his of extent

Consequently, vegetarianism. his of extent How How anyone can it. obey always not not anyone can How it. obey always not

the the judging for criterion as suffice not a a

the judging for criterion a as suffice not choice. choice. freedan did I course of Of Of did I course choice. of freedom Of

does does practice his vegetarian a ethic. ethic.

So, So,

does practice his ethic. vegetarian a So, on on :irr\posed :irr\posed left left was no no me me me and and :irr\posed left on was and no me me

Thoreau Thoreau espoused espoused fact, this despite Yet, espoused Thoreau fact, this despite Yet, to to which which obey law law inner an I had had to which law inner an obey I had

rarely). rarely). latter rarely). latter wrote: wrote: Carl once once Jung G. gist, wrote: once Jung G. Carl gist,

(though (though fish the the meat ate he account, and and the (though meat fish ate he account, and psycholo­ eminent the Echoing Thoreau, Thoreau, psycholo­ eminent the Thoreau, Echoing

his his since, vegetarian, a considered by by his since, vegetarian, a considered own own by own

be be cannot Thoreau then judging, for criterion be cannot Thoreau then judging, for criterion

you you (pp (pp were. manent each 84-5) 84-5) (pp were. you manent each

to to sole sole the be is practice dietary If to sole the be is practice dietary If

at what be, to along, along, all learned at what along, all be, to learned

if if perfect; have have only but you you have you only but perfect; if

to to question. question. this answers several are to

question. this answers several are

you you have be will perfect become be will you perfect become have

There There not? or vegetarian a Thoreau Was There not? or vegetarian a Thoreau Was

you you When When scholar. scholar. or or chopper, chopper, wood wood

or or hunter, nature own your by are or hunter, nature own your by are

you you you what whether whether are, ius"--be you whether are, you what ius"--be

California California Berkeley, California Berkeley,

gen­ gen­ your your "Follow "Follow says: says: which which own own own

EPSTEIN EPSTEIN ROBERT EPSTEIN ROBERT

the the grasped law is by lived and and law the is by lived grasped and

VEGETARIANISM VEGETARIANISM VEGETARIANISM

AND AND HEROICS HEROICS THE OF OF AND HEROICS THE OF

LAWS" LAWS" "HIGHER LAWS" "HIGHER

THOREAU'S THOREAU'S THOREAU'S

HIS HIS RACE: RACE: OF BENEFACTOR A RACE: HIS OF BENEFACTOR A

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J

n n nl nl III tcny tcny <,rt <,rt But there is more: not only do we see him symbolic senses--lies his faith. The young carrying fish; we behold him preparing to person, Thoreau says, may start out as d chase a woodchuck through the woods, which he hunter but will eventually discover, provided would devour raw, if caught. he has the "seeds of a better life" in him, that the animals he would slaughter are fun­ Thoreau appears to have no qualms about damentally of the same nature as him. Thor­ eating fish or meat. In fact, the author of eau declares: Walden praises the hunters and fishermen of the past as "the best people," because they No humane being, past the thought­ have spent the better part of their lives in less age of boyhood, will wantonly nature and so have become more a part of murder any creature which holds its Nature itself." Thoreau may even be regarded life by the same tenure that he as pro-hunting, since he goes so far as to does. (162) reconmend that young boys should be trained in hunting at an early age, so as to famil­ 'Ibis, at least, is Thoreau's own faith. iarize them with Nature (161). He is well aware that the majority of people still relate to Nature in an unenlightened If we take him literally, Thoreau seems way, even if they don't actually hunt and to be an ardent advocate of hunting and fish­ slaughter the animals they eat. Thoreau ing. Yet, he confounds everything by insist­ believes that animal slaughter impedes one's ing that the hunter may be more humane than moral and religious developnent, because such the Humane society (161). With this oxynor­ killing does violence to one's relationship on, it occurs to us that words like "humane" with the world. [4] --even "hunter" and "fisherman"-400an some­ In the case of fishing, Thoreau objects thing special to Thoreau. to it less because of any sentimental humane­ ness than because the fish "seemed not to In fact, the author of "Higher Laws" have fed me essentially" (163). By "essen­ typically invests familiar words with new tially," Thoreau means spiritually.[5] When meaning. "Hunter," for example, signifies speaking of meat-eating, which includes fish, not simply a hunter of animals but, in a Thoreau refers to his imagination several metaIborical sense, anyone who is a seeker. times. Animal food, he writes, is objection­ Similarly, Thoreau uses the word "fisher" to able because it offends his imagination. One mean saneone who is angling for something could perhaps ask why meat-eating should so hidden, concealed below the surface. Both offend the imagination, but Thoreau firmly hunter and fisher, in short, symbolize seek­ states that such inquiries are vain (164) • ers of self-knowledge. He says that he is satisfied that the imagin­ ation will not be reconciled to meat-eating. 'nloreau borrows these images from the Thoreau, in fact, is convinced that the pre­ Bible[3] and transfonns them for his own use. dilection for fish and animal food is not Regarding their use, Charles Anderson ob­ instinctive but, rather, an aaruired taste. serves: Indeed, he declares in no uncertain terms his conviction that if anything is an instinct, As with all Thoreau's allusions to the it is the repugnance to animal food (165). Bible, these are transmuted to new neanings. Hunter and fisher for him In realizing the miserable existence of become archetypes of those who praise the meat-eater, Thoreau makes a pronouncement God and serve men. He does not unparalleled in Walden. Not the aboli­ intend any evangelical meaning of tiomst, not the individualist, not even the "hunters and fishers of men" as those poet receives the status accorded the true dedicated to saving souls for Christ. vegetarian: They are poetic names for the author of a new scripture, whose mission was to He [the vegetarian] will be re­ hunt and fish for the human condition, garded as a benefactor of his race for the true nature of man buried under who shall teach man to confine a material civilization. (1968, p. 149) himself to a more innocent and wholesome diet. (164) Behind Thoreau's notions about hunting and fishing--both in their literal as well as Thoreau adds:

BEl'WEEN THE SPEX::IES 24

25 25 25 SPECIES SPECIES THE BEIWEEN SPECIES THE BEl'WEEN

laws laws higher to nature of jungle the the laws higher to nature of jungle the in­ in­ injury injury needless needless and and conscious conscious

the the way to woods from up his work the fran up way his work to woods least least least The The universe. universe. the the with with one one

the the to alism. went went Thoreau So So the to went Thoreau alism. So at at at be be must must we we successful and and serene serene suocessful suocessful

materi­ of sty the in sunk or tions materi­ of sty the in sunk or tions be be be act? act? or or thought thought in in beast, beast, or or To To To

of of pursuit the in grossed abstrac­ abstrac­ of pursuit the in grossed man man inhumanely, inhumanely, live we live live we toward toward toward Do Do Do

en­ soul, the forget and world en­ soul, the forget and world

continues: continues: continues: He He enough?" innocent innocent life life our our enough?" enough?" the the ignore men --where natural natural natural the ignore men --where

ourselves ourselves is is weekly, ask to while the worth civilization civilization of limbo in is weekly, ourselves ask to while the worth the the lands civilization of limbo the in lands

be be be would would "It "It entry: journal journal a a in in reflected reflected entry: entry: he he nature, higher his asserting he nature, higher his asserting

is is is an.i.mals toward toward non-violence non-violence of of heroics heroics animals animals and and in animal the denying him him and in animal the denying him

by by shortcut a tries he If divine. the the the about about notions notions with with connected connected mately mately his his his by shortcut a tries he If divine.

the the aspire and it transcend toward toward the aspire and it transcend inti­ is is harm:>ny of of ethic ethic s Thoreau That That inti­ harIJX)ny Thoreau's toward I I

can can before self savage his he he can before self savage his he

understand understand and accept must (man) He understand and accept must (man) He ianism. ianism.

vegetar­ vegetar­ of of heroics heroics the the evolves evolves Thoreau Thoreau life, life,

to to virtue"): virtue"): virtue"): to for reverence a of Out harm:>ny. of ethic for reverence a of Out of ethic harIJX)ny. harIJX)ny.

wildness wildness heaven to fran proceeds ("from ("from earth earth wildness ("fran heaven to fran proceeds earth an an an to to control control and and conquest conquest of of ethic ethic an an fran fran

developnent developnent uni-directional a outlines

thEtt developnent uni-directional a outlines t ~ m:>vement a represents therefore, courage, His IJX)vement IJX)vement a therefore, courage, represents represents His

Laws" Laws" "Higher Anderson, Charles to Thoreau's Thoreau's Laws" "Higher s Thoreau Anderson, Charles to I I an.i.mals. over over dominion granted granted are are humans hmnans animals. animals. daninion

According According the for concern profound spirit. spirit. According spirit. the for concern profound where where where Genesis, Genesis, in in example, example, for for declared, declared, as as

Thoreau's a a is question implied Behind a is question implied s Thoreau Behind I I the the the over over dominion dominion hold hold to Nature, trol trol to to Nature, earth, earth, earth,

con­ con­ to to need need no no has has Thoreau Hence, Hence, absent. absent. Thoreau Thoreau

same? the do beings human will asking: same? the do beings human will asking: is is is succumbing of of and and Nature Nature of of fear fear succumbing succumbing dread dread dread

were Thoreau if as is It anything. tually were Thoreau if as is It anything. tually the the the because because absent, absent, is is daninate daninate to to need need the the

vir­ eat will rat the Thoreau, to According vir­ eat will rat the Thoreau, to According Nature, Nature, Nature, and and people people between between connection connection uble uble

rat. a of level the to said) caIm;)nly is (as rat. a of level the to said) caIm;)nly is (as indissol­ indissol­ the the perceives perceives who who Thoreau, Thoreau, For For

degenerates appetite human when s predaninate degenerates appetite human when predominates

which sordidness the the But symbolizes symbolizes rat which sordidness the symbolizes rat the But control. to control. control. to

of, of, IJX)re no absurdity. his instance an than than absurdity. his of instance an m:>re no than vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable and and available available were were animals animals people, people,

Thoreau's Thoreau's thetic rat fried in see will reader rat fried s Thoreau in see will reader thetic

I I all all all of of property property the the as as held held and and expropriated expropriated

unsympa­ An hitherto. Thoreau discussed discussed by by

unsympa­ An hitherto. Thoreau discussed by part non­ non­ Nature, Nature, of of control. control. gain gain to part part to As As As

part part has has what the on ty to to reader's been part has what to s reader the on ty been I I effort effort effort desperate desperate a a in in others others daninate daninate to to to

receptivi­ and requires work sensitivity sensitivity both receptivi­ and sensitivity both requires work learned learned learned people people within, within, are are which which of of roots the roots roots the

For For strategy strategy this food. animal to sion to to

to strategy this For food. animal to sion fear, fear, fear, that that combat combat to to fear fear constant constant is is there there there

~ ~

with with contact direct into repul­ his/her own own repul­ his/her with contact direct into own peril, represents represents Nature Nature where where scarcity of of 'peril, 'peril, scarcity

reader reader the pushes Thoreau Thoreau meat-eating, of ple reader the pushes Thoreau meat-eating, of ple economy economy economy an an in in cowardice: cowardice: for for cover a a ever, ever, cover cover

exam­ extreme an an taking by rat: the tioning exam­ extreme an taking by rat: the tioning was, was, was, conquest conquest of of illusion The The destiny. destiny. illusion illusion h0w­ h0w­

in in another has Thoreau But men­ p.rrpose

men­ in purpose another has Thoreau But manifest manifest manifest of of the the under under Nature Nature seized seized

pr~tense pr~tense

time, time, had had had people people time, s Thoreau during during manentmn manentmn Thoreau's I I

156). 156). p. 1968, (Anderson, 156). p. 1968, (Anderson,

unbridled unbridled unbridled with with and and centuries centuries the the over over ingly ingly

faddist faddist a of caprice the as dismissed not and faddist a of caprice the as dismissed not and

Increas­ Increas­ alone. alone. Nature Nature let let courage--to courage--to the the

seriously seriously taken be to convictions vegetarian seriously taken be to convictions vegetarian

critically, m:>re willingness--even the izes critically, critically, willingness--even the izes IJX)re IJX)re

his his means he on: live also could says he he his means he on: live also could says he

symbol­ symbol­ it it because because culture, culture, Western Western in in least least

Thoreau Thoreau which nails, board as p.rrpose same Thoreau which nails, board as p.rrpose same at at heroics, new a is vegetarianism His at heroics, new a is vegetarianism His

the the serves it inedible, is fried a that rat rat the serves it inedible, is rat fried a that

extent extent the disease. transmits and and filth To To extent the disease. transmits and filth To vegetarianism. vegetarianism. vegetarianism. of of

on on feeds which one creatures, lowliest the of on feeds which one creatures, lowliest the of heroics heroics heroics an an heroics, heroics, new new a a of of possibility possibility the the

one one also is it but diet, not--an unappetizing unappetizing one also is it but diet, unappetizing not--an creates creates Thoreau Thoreau declaration, declaration, this this With With With

only only Not reading. or or rat--fried a is ficial or rat--fried a is only Not reading. ficial

literal literal super­ and a fran results tradiction super­ and literal a fran results tradiction • • • (164) (164) (164)

con­ fried a eat to willingness his the the rat, civilized. civilized. civilized. m:>re the the with with contact IJX)re IJX)re contact con­ the rat, fried a eat to willingness his

shockingly shockingly by himself contradict declaring declaring in in in came came they they when when other other each each eating eating declaring shockingly by himself contradict

to to Thoreau this, all appears appears If, If, after after to appears Thoreau this, all off off left have tribes savage the If, after off left have tribes savage the

as as as surely surely as as animals, eating eating off off animals, animals,

1854) 1854) 28, 1854) 28, leave leave to to ilnprovement, gradual gradual its its improvement, improvement,

(May (May have? murderer a life--can or in in in race, race, human human the the of of destiny destiny the the (May have? murderer a life--can or

peace-­ What suicide. a extent peace-­ What suicide. a extent part part part of of of a a is is it it that that doubt doubt no no have have

its its to is creature any on flicted its to is creature any on flicted I I I be, be, may may practice practice Whatever Whatever own own own my my my

IIiI IIiI iIIIIII iIIIIII III

'$ 7 7 of the spirit. (1968, p. 151) convention and habit, where humanity has truly become part of Nature. Thoreau believes that one aJuld not deny the animal within him/her and still hope to In Walden, Thoreau knows he is not per­ develop spiritually. Nowhere, however, does sonally destined to reach this future, yet he Thoreau regard Nature as "a jungle" that must is sufficiently receptive to apprehend it be escaped. vividly. To this extent, Thoreau is like Moses who stands on the I1Duntaintop overlook­ Westerners have a long tradition, trace­ ing the Holy Land but does not live to enter able to the Old Testament, in which Nature is it. aJnceived as a seething jungle that must be Vegetarianism and higher laws are one avoided at all costs. Thoreau appears also and the same precisely because Thoreau to aJntribute to this view when he insists creates a new or seo.Jnd reality that is I1Dre 1 that Nature "is hard to overcane, but she perfect than the one he sees around him. must be overcome" (168). Thoreau has the aJurage to create this new \ reality, not only in literary terms but also But as with other words, Thoreau endows significantly in his own life. He bears "Nature" with special meaning when he de­ witness to another, I1Dre sublime world. It clares that Nature must be overcane. ThOreau does not matter to him that he has failed to means, in this aJntext, "the an:imal within go "~l the way" in practice. As he says, "I us. " He does not mean, nor does he imply, went far enough to please ~ imagination; " that the animal within us must be extirpated that is, his spirit, with regard to the meat­ or stamped out. He means that "it" should be less ideal. turned into an "I." In other words, we need to becane aJnscious of primitive desires and By drawing upon Ernest Becker's The impulses within us. It is Thoreau's aJnvic­ Denial of .Death, we may understand I1Dre tion that higher aJnsciousness, that is to clearly the enorIlDusly creative dynamic at say, self-knowledge, leads to increased spir­ "WOrk in Thoreau's struggle to unify the wild ituality and discipline. and the good. According to Becker, human beings need a seaJnd reality or mythology in Herein lies Thoreau's definite disagree­ which they can find personal meaning. This ment with Christianity, which preaches a mythology is a kind of illusion that is char­ turning away from the body, i.e., the animal, acterized by creative power. Indeed, aJntra­ sensual impulses within. In Christianity a ry to the perjorative aJnnotation of being duality exists between spirit and body, di­ the product of pathology, illusion means vine and animal. In aJntrast, Thoreau advo­ creative play at its highest level. cates a reCXXJI1ition of the union between these polarities. This leads to a radically In "Higher Laws" and, for that matter, matter, different view of redemption than the Chris­ throughout all of Walden, Thoreau concen­ concen­ tian notion of grace through suffering. For trates his entire being in the creation of an an Thoreau, the spiritual life is attained by illusion of ~ological proportions that that the flow of the wild and the good into one does not lie al:out reality in response to the the another, by allowing the individual's mind to crumbling of aJllective ~logies that that "descend into his body and redeem it" (169). people have lived by. There is a striking striking In short, Thoreau aJncentrates his energy in parallel between Thoreau and Becker in the the spiritualizing or poeticizing the wild. He latter's prescription for psychological well­ well­ has no desire to al:olish the primitive but being in the twentieth century: century: strives instead to make it poetic. What is the ideal for mental mental Thoreau's quest to poeticize Nature health, then? A lived, canpelling canpelling ought to be borne in mind when reading "High­ illusion that does not lie about about er Laws. " It is a chapter that represents. a life, death, and reality; one hon­ hon­ heightened state of poetic aJnsciousness. By est enough to follow its own can­ can­ grasping the heroic life, Thoreau elevates mandments: I mean, not to kill, kill, his writing out of the ordinary and, in so not to take the lives of others to to doing, he alters his relationship to time. justify itself. (1973, p. 204) Vegetarianism represents for Thoreau an he­ roics of a future time, a future unclogged by "Higher Laws" is an inp:>rtant document

BEIWEEN '!HE SPECIES '. 26

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27 27 BEIWEEN BEIWEEN SPECIES SPECIES 'lEE 'lEE 27 SPECIES BE1'WEFN '!HE

LaWS" LaWS" "Higher "Higher practice. through faith to (1909), (1909), Ellen See Diet Laws" "Higher practice. through faith to White White G. also (1838). (1909), White G. Ellen also See (1838). Diet

the the reality. grounded way way points It It in while Vegetable Vegetable his in Bible of interpretation interpretation the the way the points It reality. in grounded while Vegetable his in Bible the of interpretation

offered offered Thoreau, of vegetarian vegetarian a contemporary scripture. scripture. mythological mythological is It of elements vegetarian a offered Thoreau, of contemporary mythological is It scripture. of elements

and and anism. Bronson Bronson of cousin Alcott, William and Bronson of cousin Alcott, William anism. the the all contains Laws" "Higher 'Ihoreau's the all contains Laws" "Higher 'Ihoreau's

of of defense Bible to vegetari­ in the referred vegetari­ of defense in Bible the referred to

one one the only only not was Thoreau 3. who who one only the not was Thoreau 3. who nature. nature. and and nature. and

IIOre IIOre humanity between separation insidious humanity between separation insidious IOClre

(1968). (1968). Walden succeeds succeeds serving, but but even even an perpetuating in (1968). Walden even an perpetuating in succeeds but serving,

edition edition variorum Walter of of Harding's to refer such such self­ arrogant only not is pity and and of edition variorum Harding's Walter to refer self­ arrogant only not is pity such and

the the 2. IlOVement because because animals, on pity takes which text text throughout numbers page The because animals, on pity takes which IOClVement text the throughout numbers page The 2.

philanthropic philanthropic as any any suspect views 'Iboreau fhilanthropic any suspect as views 'Ihoreau

reason, reason, lar this this For animals. the case, reason, this For animals. the case, lar issue issue consistency. consistency. of the consistency. of issue the

this this them.--in particu­ under those of expense particu­ this them--in under those of expense due due non-vegetarian to to misinterpretations and and to due misinterpretations non--vegetarian and

the the at at self-elevation human with occupied the at self-elevation human with occupied for for Garber vegetarian vegetarian (1977) (1978) man and and vegetarian for (1977) Garber (1978) man and

pre­ subtly retonnism man"-a of "love means

pre­ subtly retonnism man"-a of "love means also also (p. Suss­ See 149). indecisive" "quite Suss­ also See 149). (p. indecisive" "quite

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that that fhilanthropic well quite understands fhilanthropic that well quite understands ambivalent ambivalent as as flesh-eating on thoughts and and ambivalent as flesh-eating on thoughts and

He He make. Society, Humane the to longing

He make. Society, Humane the to longing

his his but categorizes categorizes places several in ingly his categorizes but places several in ingly

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i

be­ tions those those as such people, other that Dudley Dudley approv­ Thoreau quotes Giehl Life, of be­ those as such people, other that tions approv­ Thoreau quotes Giehl Dudley Life, of , , ,

philanthropic philanthropic the distinc­ to objection his Vegetarianism: Vegetarianism: book, his In matter. distinc­ fhilanthropic the to objection his Vegetarianism: book, his In matter.

~ ~ ~ ~

states states very very Thoreau life. for ence clearly clearly about about IIDre no no says contradictory and and the the clearly very states Thoreau life. for ence about IOClre no says contradictory and the

as as views anism, by all Thoreau's Thoreau's up sums neatly rever­ absolute characterized above is as views Thoreau's up sums neatly anism, rever­ absolute by characterized all above is

history history on book of vegetari­ of the author a a philosofhy. philosofhy. It It transcendental a represents vegetari­ of history the on book a of author It fhilosofhy. transcendental a represents

the the the (1975), (1975), Barkas Janet subject. on LaWS" LaWS" "Higher "Higher Thoreau's vegetarianism, in the (1975), Barkas Janet subject. the on Laws" "Higher Thoreau's vegetarianism, in

canplex canplex understanding IIDre views views Thoreau's of views cemplex Thoreau's of understanding IOClre IIDvement utilitarian utilitarian the to contrast In In IOClvement utilitarian the to contrast In

little little exhibited writers Vegetarian have have little exhibited have writers Vegetarian

arrogance arrogance before. than than before. arrogance than

barbarous" barbarous" 21). 21). (p. and and 21). (p. barbarous" and with with although less position, top the ing less with although position, top the ing

was was that filthy filthy flesh-eating strongly very was filthy flesh-eating that strongly very occupy­ beings human with relative of worth, worth, worth, occupy­ beings human with relative of

"did "did of author the that edges feel feel Walden terms in life sentient order hierarchically feel "did Walden of author the that edges terms in life sentient order hierarchically

acknowl­ consistently vegetarian, vegetarian, a he he though acknCTW'l­ he though vegetarian, a consistently still Singer like utilitarians M::>reover, M::>reover, still Singer like utilitarians .M:>reover,

that that states law never never was Thoreau knecht conscience. of inner an to reference no (1981), (1981), never was Thoreau that states (1981), knecht conscience. of law inner an to reference no

one one , IIDvement IIDral a a makes that but reform biografher, biografher, Wagen­ Etlward Etlward recent IIDre A a makes that one but IOClvement, reform IOClral Wagen­ Edward biografher, recent IOClre A

is is Singer represented as as Movement beration by by is Singer represented as Movement beration by

Animal animals. Li­ The cause beings human others. others. arrong Graham, Sylvester Ani.nal Ani.nal Li­ The animals. cause beings human others. arrong Graham, Sylvester

philanthropic philanthropic which which the reduce to desire pain pain Alcott Alcott as William William Bronson people and and and and which the reduce to desire fhilanthropic pain Alcott William Bronson as people and and

the the on vegetarianism of fhilosofhy their such such of deep the convictions convictions vegetarian ing the on vegetarianism of fhilosofhy their such of convictions vegetarian deep the ing

base base thus liberationists animal Many suffer. in in his dismiss­ effect, of vegetarians time, time, base thus liberationists animal Many suffer. dismiss­ effect, in his of vegetarians time,

by by animals they they that fact the of virtue of "faddist" "faddist" the swayed as Thoreau portrays by by they that fact the of virtue by animals of "faddist" the swayed as Thoreau portrays by

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of of writings sacred the the arrong place a deserves of writings sacred the arrong place a deserves it it because vegetarianism of literature the in it because vegetarianism of literature the in

• • j Anna Kingsford (1904), and Szekely (1971). Barkas, Janet, The Vegetable Passion: ~ History of the Vegetarian state of Mind (New 4. others, like the French philosoPler York: Charles Scribner'sscribner's Sons, 1975). Rousseau, agreed, declaring: Becker, Ernest, The Denial of Death (New York: Free press, 1973). How can one explain away the fact that great rneat-eaters are usually Bedell, Madelon, The Alcotts: Biography fiercer and rrore cruel than other of ~ Family (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, men; this has been reex>gn.ized at 1980) • all times and in all places. All savages are cruel, and it is Garber, Frederick, 'lhoreau's Redemptive not their custans that tend in this Imagination (New York: NYU Press, 1977). direction, their cruelty is the

result of their food. Giehl, Dtrlley, Vegetarianism: ~ ~ of Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1979). At Fruitlands, a nineteenth century vegetarian ccmnune, Louisa May Alcott and Jones, JosePl, "Transcendental Grocery others were given "vegetarian wafers" or Bills: 'lhoreau's Walden and Sane Aspects of primers that made the same point: American vegetarianism," University of Texas Studies in English 36 (1957), pp. 141-54. Vegetable diet and and sweet repose repose Jung, carl G., Menories, Dreams, Reflec­ Animal food and and tions, Richard and Clara Wj' .ilton, eds. (New nightmare. nightmare. York: Vintage, 1965).

Without flesh diet diet Kingsford, Anna, The Perfect Way in Diet there would be no no (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1904). blood-shedding war. war. (Quoted In Bedell, 1980, p. 212) Krutch, Joseph Wood, Henry David Thoreau (New York: Morrow, 1974). 5. A note on the title of the chapter in Walden underscores this point. According Singer, Peter, Animal Liberation (New to Philip Van Doren Stern (1970), 'lhoreau York: Avon, 1975). originally titled the chapter "Animal Diet" but changed it to "Higher Laws," which sug­ Stern, Philip Van Doren, The Annotated gests not only the direction of his thoughts, Walden (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1970). but the connection between the vegetarian diet and spiritual developnent. Sussman, Vic, The Vegetarian Alternative (Emmausr: Rodale, 1978).

Szekely, Edrrond, trans., The ~ Gospel of Peace (San Diego: Academy of cre­ ative Living, 1971).

References 'lhoreau, Henry David, The Writings of ~ David Thoreau, Bradford Torrey and Alcott, William, Vegetable Diet: As Francis H. Allen, eds. (Boston: Houghton Sanctioned by Medical Men and by EXperience Mifflin, 1906). in All Ages (New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1838) • --_...... , Walden Walter Harding, ed. (New York: Washington Square Press, 1968). Altman, Nathan, Eating for Life: ~ Book About Vegetarianism (Wheaton: Theosophical Wagenknecht, Edward, ~ David Thor­ Publishing House, 1973). eau: What Manner of Man? (Amherst: Univer­ ------sity of Massachusetts Press, 1981). Anderson, Charles R., The Magic Circle of Walden (New York: Holt, Rinehart and White, Ellen G., The Ministry of Healing Winston, 1968). (Mountain View: Pacific Press, 1909).

BEIWEEN THE SPOCIES 28

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