SCIENTIFIC CORRESPONDENCE environment over the equatorial plane, and Supriya, G., Planet. Space Sci., 2010, Received 9 October 2013; accepted 11 Octo- some of the CHACE findings are likely 58, 947–950. ber 2013 2. Sridharan, R., Ahmed, S. M., Das, T. P., to be vindicated. Further, unlike in the case of CHACE, which was a ‘one shot’ Sreelatha, P., Pradeepkumar, P., Naik, N. and Supriya, G., Planet. Space Sci., 2010, mission, the distinct advantage of 1, 58, 1567–1577. R. SRIDHARAN * LADEE which would be an orbiting 2 3. Sridharan, R., Das, T. P., Ahmed, S. M., TIRTHA PRATIM DAS spacecraft initially at around 250 km and 3 Supriya, G., Bhardwaj, A. and Kamalakar, S. M. AHMED later coming down as low as 20 km, with J. A., Adv. Space Res., 2013, 51, 168–178. 2 ANIL BHARDWAJ an anticipated lifetime of ~ 3 months, is 4. Hoffman, J. H., Hodges Jr, R. R. and Evans, that the whole of the lunar globe is likely D. E., In Proceedings of the 4th Lunar Sci- 1Physical Research Laboratory, to be covered over the equatorial plane. ence Conference, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ahmedabad 380 009, India This would clearly bring out the spatial Acta, Suppl. 4, 1973, pp. 2865–2875. 2Space Physics Laboratory, heterogeneity indicated by India’s CHACE Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, experiment, in addition to the inferences ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This work is Thiruvananthapuram 625 022, India on the lunar day and night pressure dif- supported by the Department of Space, Gov- 3Central University, ferences. ernment of India. R.S. thanks NASI for the Senior Scientist position and the Director, Hyderabad 500 046, India 1. Sridharan, R., Ahmed, S. M., Das, T. P., PRL, Ahmedabad for providing the necessary *For correspondence. Sreelatha, P., Pradeepkumar, P., Naik, N. facilities. e-mail: [email protected]
Lessons from Kedarnath tragedy of Uttarakhand Himalaya, India
The complete destruction by Mandakini (chhan in local parlance) existed in the from the outwash plain over which River in Kedarnath on 16 and 17 June region. Kedarnath is situated (GSI, unpublished). 2013 could not have been avoided. Yet, Some decades ago, the holy shrines of Examination of satellite images indicates the number of casualties would have Uttarakhand did not witness heavy influx that this outwash plain might have been been far less had the mushrooming growth of floating population of pilgrims and reworked by the Mandakini River in the of hotels, lodges and dharmshalas not tourists. Also, there was no rampant con- past and a major part of Kedarnath till 16 been allowed in Kedarnath. This has struction activity on active and old flood June 2013 was located on the old flood been one of the worst Himalayan trage- plains and lower terraces of rivers and on plain (T1 terrace). However, the famous dies in recent years in which the exact critical hill slopes. Our rising population, Kedarnath temple constructed on a man- number of people buried/perished is not economic growth and improved lodging made raised platform seems to be located known as thousands are still missing. facilities due to rapid transformation in on a higher terrace of the Mandakini Almost the entire Rambara and a large the livelihood strategies of locals have River. The moraine ridges running paral- part of Gaurikund and many villages of drastically increased the influx of lel and subparallel to the upper Manda- Mandakini valley were also wiped out. pilgrims and tourists in this region. kini valley are conspicuous in Kedarnath The flash flood and attendant debris flow A few years back, the pilgrims used and further downstream up to Garuriya was undoubtedly an irrepressible natural to start their journey from Gaurikund to and Ghindurpani. After the flash floods hazard. However, its worst impact must Kedarnath on foot or by pony early in the and debris flow of 16 and 17 June 2013 be viewed in the perspective of high morning just to ensure their return to (although flood water of the Mandakini vulnerability (of this area) mainly attri- Gaurikund by afternoon on the same day. River has receded), it would not be buted to rampant construction activity This was because there were few lodges/ geologically incorrect to say that the for commercial purpose in Kedarnath, hotels in Kedarnath and even far lesser completely devastated settlement of Rambara and Gaurikund in the close number of such facilities in Rambara, Kedarnath today lies on the active flood proximity of Mandakini River and also which is a transit point midway between plain of Mandakini River that may be the uncontrolled floating population of the 14 km long pony route from Gauri- flooded again in the near or far future in pilgrims. It was the worst-case scenario kund to Kedarnath. the event of torrential rains and or due to with an area of very high vulnerability The area is geodynamically unstable mobilization of glacial material. (man-made) experiencing flash floods with neotectonic movements and high Critical slopes on the hillside and flash and debris flow induced by torrential frequency of landslides, including rock flood-prone banks on the river side restrict rains, Chorabari lake collapse and mobili- falls, debris flow and ground subsi- the capacity of the Himalayan shrines of zation of glacial material1. This corre- dence2,3. The source of the Mandakini Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, Badri- spondence discusses the measures aimed River is formed by Chorabari and an nath and a number of habitations such as at reducing the vulnerability of this area unnamed companion glacier. The settle- Gaurikund and Rambara (on the way to in the future. ment of Kedarnath is just 500 m below Kedarnath) and Janki chatti (on the way About 131 years ago in 1882 only the the snout of these glaciers and the termi- to Yamunotri) to safely accommodate the Kedarnath temple and four to five huts nal moraine hump is about 275 m high growth of 3–4-storied hotels and lodges.
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Rampant construction of commercial mushrooming growth of multistoried introduced and only a limited number of facilities such as hotels, restaurants and hotels and lodges in these areas. This in pilgrims should be allowed to visit the lodges in close proximity of the Himala- turn will restrict the concentration of shrines. Further, a yatra management yan rivers narrows down the space for human population and also anthropo- group also needs to be constituted com- these rivers to accommodate their unre- genic intervention in these areas. prising officials from the Department of lenting spate during high monsoonal The new pony route alignment to Disaster Management, Police and Nodal rains in their catchment. During the flash Kedarnath should be on the middle and Officers from the districts falling on floods of June 2013, the narrow Manda- upper hill slopes (that too after detailed the pilgrimage routes and also a repre- kini valley (at many places) seems to geotechnical investigations), since the sentative from India Meteorological have hindered the spread of flood water, area is highly prone to landslides2. Slope Department (IMD). This group should be which then might have risen to very high cutting even for construction of pony responsible for necessary decision- level thus wiping out large stretches of route may trigger new landslides and making regarding suspending the pilgrim- the pony route between Gaurikund and activate old slides at some places. Feasi- age and immediate evacuation of stranded Kedarnath even on the middle slopes. bility of rope ways as a safer means of people in the event of bad weather condi- Further, many stretches of this pony transport in very high to severe flash tions. There is a dire need for close coor- route are reportedly blocked or damaged flood and landslide hazard zones should dination between IMD and the local by landslides probably triggered due to also be assessed. authorities. The forecast of very heavy severe toe erosion by the Mandakini Reconstruction of Kedarnath must rains in hill regions of Uttarakhand River that might have changed the angle include structural mitigation measures should be a critical input for continuing of repose of critical slopes having old for flood control, including river training or discontinuing the Char Dham Yatra. slide, colluvial and/or moraine material. and bank protection work in the immedi- The pilgrimage should be suspended and The pre- and post-disaster images ate upstream of Kedarnath temple in an pilgrims sent back if there is forecast of released by NRSC4 indicate that the effort to mitigate to some extent the very heavy rains. This would reduce the swollen Mandakini River and attendant impact of flash floods in the future. vulnerability of floating population of pil- debris flow probably comprising moraine Regular monitoring and credible early grims to the probable onslaught of flash material have devastated the construc- warning of prevailing hazard scenario in floods and/or landslides. Once Kedarnath tions even on the middle and upper ter- glaciers and Chorabari lake in the up- yatra resumes, it should be conducted in races in Kedarnath. During high floods, stream area of Kedarnath are needed5. batches. One or two flood and landslide- the rivers acquire a shorter, straight path Further, a hospital, police station, safe locations can be identified midway similar to the one carved by the flood accommodation for priests, PCO facility, (on the pony route) for overnight stay. water of Mandakini River (along with Temple Committee office and Yatra No one should be allowed to stay at debris and boulders) through the settle- Management Group office with accom- Kedarnath in the evening, except the per- ment of Kedarnath. On the eastern ex- modation for those manning these critical sonnel of emergency support functions tremity of Kedarnath the more or less facilities should be constructed with such as doctors, the police personnel, abandoned channel of Saraswati River earthquake-resistant design on flood and priests, members of the temple manage- was also flooded severely. Reconstruc- landslide safe (to some extent) locations ment and yatra management committees, tion of hotels, lodges, dharamshalas and in Kedarnath or its vicinity, as the area is personnel maintaining communication shops at these sites will again raise the prone to multi-hazards. According to the towers and power and drinking water sup- vulnerability of Kedarnath to pre 16 June Vulnerability Atlas of India6, this area ply. Quick response teams equipped with 2013 level. Constructions on moraine falls in Earthquake Very High Damage emergency communication facilities, first- ridges (juxtaposing the moderately steep Risk Zone V and also in the high land- aid kits and rescue equipment should be hill slopes) at Kedarnath will be vulner- slide hazard zone2. The events of 16 and based at important locations of Char Dham able to subsidence as well as landslides. 17 June 2013 have demonstrated that Yatra routes during the yatra season. Blanket ban is needed on further con- Kedarnath area is severely prone to flash It was our mistake during the recent struction activity on active flood plains floods and attendant debris flow as well. years to commercialize the holy shrine of and restricted constructional activity on Only some basic facilities like day-time Kedarnath. Now it would be a blunder on old flood plains and lower terraces of retiring halls for pilgrims and locals and our part to do so again. In the near future rivers all along the river valleys of Man- a couple of warehouses for stockpiling we may not have the technology to pre- dakini, Alaknanda, Bhagirathi, Yamuna rations and cooking fuel for emergency vent or even precisely predict the time and their tributaries and also along other purposes should be constructed. This and area that will be affected by flash rivers in parts of Uttarakhand. would drastically reduce the vulnerabi- flood and debris flow events, but we can Cutting down trees to some extent has lity of the shopkeepers, vendors, hotel- drastically reduce the vulnerability of the destroyed the natural barriers against iers and floating population of pilgrims population of pilgrims, tourists, shop- flash floods and debris flow slides along and tourists to future flash flood and keepers and locals to such hazards. The the river banks in hilly regions. The de- debris slide events. big question that remains unanswered is, velopment of ecozones in severe and A yatra management system for the are we prepared to restrict the Kedarnath very high flash flood hazard-prone selec- Char Dham Yatra (pilgrimage to four type commercialization in other Himala- tive stretches of active and old flood shrines of Uttarakhand namely Yamu- yan, shrine areas, namely Yamunotri and plains of the Himalayan rivers and also notri, Gangotri, Kedarnath and Badri- Janki Chatti? Are we ready to pay the in very high to severe landslide hazard- nath) needs to be put in place. Advance price for not commercializing shrines prone areas will drastically restrict the booking system for this yatra should be such as Kedarnath and Rambara again?
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4. NRSC, http://bhuvan-noeda.nrsc.gov.in, Meghraj and Dr Rajiv Srivastav and Nidhi 1. Dobhal, D. P., Gupta, A. K., Mehta, M. 2013. Uniyal for support. and Khandelwal, D. D., Curr. Sci., 2013, 5. Building Materials and Technology Pro- 105(2), 171–174. motion Council, Vulnerability Atlas of 2. Uniyal, A., Shah P. N., Kumar, V., Wad- India, 2005. Received 10 July 2013; revised accepted 8 hodkar, M., Sarin, V. and Shukla, S., In 6. Bhandari, R. K., Curr. Sci., 2013, 105(5), October 2013 National Seminar on Glacial Geomorphol- 563–564. ogy and Palaeoglaciation in Himalaya.
Abstr., Centre of Advance Studies in ANIRUDDHA UNIYAL Geology, University of Lucknow, 2008, pp. 77–79. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I thank Mr P. Remote Sensing Applications Centre – 3. Valdiya, K. S., In Landslides, Analysis and N. Shah, Director, Dr T. S. Kachhwaha, Dr A. Control (eds Gupta, H. K. and Krizek, K. Tangri and Mr Rajiva Mohan, Divisional Uttar Pradesh, R. J.), Transportation Research Board, Na- Heads (RSAC-UP) for useful suggestions. I Jankipuram, tional Academy of Sciences, Washington, also thank Dr A. C. Pande, Prof. H. C. Nain- Lucknow 226 021, India DC, 1981, pp. 11–13. wal, Dr S. K. Srivastav, Dr Ajay Naithani, Mr e-mail: [email protected]
Orographic control of the Kedarnath disaster
The 2013 calamity in Uttarakhand is The main reason for such voluminous by India Meteorological Department considered as India’s worst natural disas- flow is a breach in the snow melt and (IMD) at Dehradun (approx. 300 mm in ter since the December 2004 Indian rainfed Chorabari Lake (3960 m amsl, 24 h) and Wadia Institute of Himalayan Ocean tsunami. Heavy, continuous rains approximately 400 m long, 200 m wide, Geology (WIHG) meteorological obser- have caused unprecedented damage to 15–20 m depth) also known as Gandhi vatory at Chorabari Glacier camp life and property where torrential rivers Sarovar Lake, which was dammed by the (325 mm in 24 h) for this event can easily from the Himalaya swept away roads, moraines deposited by Chorabari glacier classify it as a cloud burst which has bridges, houses and buildings in the (Petley: http://blogs.agu.org/landslide- occurred as an extreme event. swirling waters. According to the gov- blog/). The pressure of millions of gal- There have been various events in the ernment officials, more than 1000 per- lons of water caused the breach in the past where life and property have been sons are expected dead with more than loose-moraine dam resulting in glacial damaged due to hydro-meteorological 6000 missing and tens of thousands lake outburst flow (GLOF). calamities in the Himalaya4,5 (Table 1)6–11. have been displaced (http://www.indian- Various reasons have been put forward In the Himalaya, during the period 1871– express.com; http://www.nytimes.com). for this calamity. Some suggest this 2007, out of 475 rain gauge stations, 357 The torrential rainfall between 15 and 17 event occurred due to flash floods and have recorded one-day extreme rainfall June 2013 flooded the area causing others are in favour of a cloud burst. events in excess of 250 mm, which are excessive gulley erosions and sediment Dubey et al.2 suggested that more than mostly located between the Siwaliks and deposition on its way. It is suggested that 200 mm of rainfall in 24 h in the moun- the Higher Himalayan ranges3. Most of during the night of 16 June 2013, due to tainous terrain could be considered as a these extreme events happen either in the incessant precipitation, large volume of cloud burst which can trigger landslides. south of the Higher Himalaya or at the water carrying huge amount of sedi- While Nandargi and Dhar3 considered foothills of Siwaliks. South of the Higher ments, and debris from glacial moraines rainfall of more than 250 mm in 24 h as Himalaya lies in the Lesser Himalaya and surrounding areas struck Kedarnath an extreme event in the Himalayan set- zone, bounded by the Main Central town and washed off its upper parts1. up. In either case, the rainfall measured Thrust (MCT) to the north and the Main
Table 1. Recent events of extreme rainfall, major flash floods and cloudbursts in the Himalaya
Type Date Month Year Affected area
GLOF/flash flood6 31 July 1991 Maling, Himachal Pradesh Landslide6 24 February 1993 Jhakri, Himachal Pradesh Flash flood6 11 August 1997 Tehsil, Himachal Pradesh Cloudburst2 9 June 1997 Chandmari, Sikkim Extreme rainfall/landslide7 11–19 August 1998 Guptkashi–Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand Cloudburst/landslide8 16 July 2001 Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand Cloudburst9 31 August 2001 Tehri, Uttarakhand Cloudburst10 10 August 2002 Tehri, Uttarakhand Cloudburst11 16 July 2003 Kullu, Himachal Pradesh Extreme rainfall3 17 July 2004 Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh Cloudburst3 6-8 August 2010 Leh, Ladakh, J&K Cloudburst4 18–19 September 2010 Almora and Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand
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