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Chapter 7: Surface Mining

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Chapter 7: Surface Mining CHAPTER 7 Surface Mining Sponsored by: SPONSOR PROFILE SRK Consulting is an independent, international consulting • corporate services: due diligence, Independent Expert company that provides focused advice and solutions to the Reports, technical reviews, IPOs resources industry. We are a one-stop consultancy offering • multidisciplinary studies: conceptual through to feasibility specialist services to mining and exploration companies for the study. entire life cycle of a mining project, from exploration through to mine closure. SRK has successfully completed a wide range of projects, large and small, in most areas of the world and across the full Among SRK’s clients are many of the world’s major, medium- spectrum of mineral commodities. The industry background of sized and junior metal and industrial mineral mining houses, many of our staff ensures that advice is not only technically exploration companies, financial institutions, construction sound, but thoroughly practical. Our working relationships with firms and government departments. the international banking/financing community and regulators Our areas of expertise include: reduce your risks with project financing and permitting. • geology: geophysics, exploration, structural and resource Formed in Johannesburg in 1974, the SRK Group now employs geology, valuations some 1700 staff internationally, in over 45 permanent offices • geotechnics: surface geotechnics, underground rock in 20 countries, on six continents. In addition, a broad range of mechanics internationally recognised associate consultants complements • mining: open pit and underground the core staff. In Australia, SRK employs over 170 people in • waste management: tailings and mine waste engineering offices located in Brisbane, Melbourne, Newcastle, Perth and • water: mine water management, surface water, groundwater Sydney. We can mobilise appropriate teams to carry out diverse • environment: regulatory advice, permitting, geochemistry scopes of work and have the ability to work across borders and environmental services providing staff from international SRK offices. • mine closure For further information on SRK’s consulting services visit http://www.srk.com.au CHAPTER CONTENTS Planning and design 95 Mine life 95 Ore characteristics 95 Mining methods and equipment selection 97 Scheduling 97 Capital expenditure 98 Rock breaking equipment 99 Ripping 99 Drilling 99 Excavating and loading equipment 100 Loader specifications 100 Shovel-type loaders 101 Other equipment 104 Haulage equipment 107 Tr u c k t y p e s 107 Truck specifications 108 Truck travel time 116 Scraper types 119 Conveyors 120 Miscellaneous equipment 120 Haul road maintenance 120 Dewatering plants 121 Lighting plants 121 Light vehicles 121 Worked examples 122 Mining productivity 122 Equipment productivity 123 Personnel 125 Contractor operating costs 126 Equipment capital costs 126 Operating costs 126 Other overheads 132 Miscellaneous costs 132 Cost summary 132 References 133 CONTRIBUTORS First edition text by: H Spark, P Westcott and R Hall Revised and updated by: Ross Bertinshaw FAusIMM(CP), Principal, Golder Associates Pty Ltd Nathan Robinson MAusIMM(CP), Senior Mining Engineer, Golder Associates Pty Ltd Doug Turnbull MAusIMM, Principal Mining Engineer, Sandvik Mining Systems Vicki Woodward MAusIMM(CP), Senior Mining Engineer, Golder Associates Pty Ltd Surface Mining Surface mining cost estimation is a complex exercise In calculating the mine life, the economic limits of that requires analysis of a variety of inputs, including the open cut mine must be known to determine the the geology and physical properties of the deposit, quantity of ore available for mining. This requires equipment selection, equipment productivity optimising the pit’s limits, which is part of the planning estimation, workforce roster and personnel planning. process and a complex iterative exercise. Capital and operating cost estimation for the selected Ore characteristics fleet also needs to be analysed. The physical characteristics of the ore and waste This chapter details factors to be considered when materials must be known in order to select appropriate preparing a surface mining cost estimate. The final excavation and haulage equipment. The most important section provides a worked example of the cost factors are: estimation techniques applied to a small open pit gold mining operation. • excavatability • density PLANNING AND DESIGN • volume measures. For surface mining operations the objectives of the Excavatability planning process are to: Excavatability is a measure of the effort required • define the resource in terms of grade, tonnage and to remove ore or waste from its in situ position. It is location generally described as one of: • determine if a market exists for the products and if • drill-and-blast so what are the quality and quantity constraints • free digging • select a mining method that is the most economic • rippable. given the physical characteristics of the orebody and rate at which the ore is to be mined Assessment of the excavatability of the material is not easily determined with accuracy. Many cases can • decide if the project is either economically viable or be cited where contract miners in particular have lost a could be viable under a given set of conditions. considerable amount of money as a result of an error of Selection of the most economically viable mining judgement in its assessment. method requires an evaluation of the capital and To gain an understanding of excavatability a operating costs of the surface mining equipment. In geotechnical investigation of the ore and waste order to establish surface mining equipment costs for materials is required in the early stages of the mine a given project, the planning process must define the: planning process. The information required from this • mining method study should include: • mining sequence (schedule) • engineering logs of boreholes in ore and waste in • ore production rate and hence mine life, including both weathered and unweathered material the overburden production rate required to sustain • engineering seismic surveys across the proposed the ore production rate open cut mine. • physical characteristics of the materials to be A typical engineering log includes a description of handled. the hole, groundwater conditions, rock type, strength, degree of weathering and discontinuities. All can Mine life indicate the excavatability. The life of the mine is determined by dividing the Franklin, Broch and Walton (1971) proposed a method quantity of ore in the designed pit to be extracted by of assessment, based on joint spacing and point load the quantity of ore to be mined per annum to meet strength as shown in Figure 7.1. the marketing requirements for the products. For a constant rate of production: Density The in situ density of the ore and waste must be Mine life = Oreavailable Annual production rate assessed in order to determine the volume of material Cost Estimation Handbook 95 CHAPTER 7 – SURFACE MINING Volume measures Difficult Unrippable- The volume of material is defined depending on its Ripping Blast to fracture stage in the earthmoving process. Bank measure This is the in situ volume of material as it lies in the Rippable ground before the excavation process has begun; it is Joint Spacing (m) Joint typically referred to as bank cubic metres (BCM). Most Free contract mining is based on volume measurement, as it Digging is easy to check by surveying. Point Load Stength (MPa) Loose measure FIG 7.1 - Excavatability assessment This is the volume of material after it has been (Franklin, Broch and Walton, 1971). disturbed by drilling and blasting and excavation, and has swollen as a result. It is typically referred to as that can be loaded and hauled without overloading loose cubic metres (LCM). This measure is important the equipment. In dense ores particularly, there is because the measure is used to select appropriate load- a tendency to overload trucks. A table of typical and-hauling equipment. densities for various ore and rocks in given in It should be remembered that there are different loose Table 7.1. However, it is preferable for the density to measures at different stages in the mining process. be measured in the laboratory using samples from In particular, during the dumping operation some drill core. compaction of the material may occur. This is important to consider during dump planning. TABLE 7.1 Material factors for various ore and rock types. Swell factor Swell is the volume increase after material has been Material Bank Swell Load Loose disturbed. density factor density 3 3 (t/m ) (t/m ) Swell = Disturbedvolumeu- ndisturbed volume Undisturbedvolume Basalt 2.97 0.50 0.67 1.98 Swell can be expressed either as a percentage or ratio, Clay – bed 2.02 0.22 0.82 1.66 eg 50 per cent or 0.5: Clay – dry 1.84 0.23 0.81 1.50 Swell factor = 1 + swell Clay – wet 2.08 0.25 0.80 1.66 Coal – 20% ash 1.50 0.35 0.74 1.11 where swell is a proportion. Coal washed N/A N/A N/A 0.80 - 1.00 Load factor Dolerite 2.85 0.52 0.66 1.88 This allows for the conversion from loose to bank Earth – topsoil 1.40 - 1.50 0.43 0.70 0.98 - 1.05 measure. Earth – compacted 1.80 0.25 0.80 1.44 Load factor = 100% 100%%+ swell Granite 2.67 0.62 0.62 1.65 For example, if swell is 50 per cent: Limestone 2.61 0.63 0.59 1.54 Load factor = 100 Sandstone 2.50 0.63 0.60 1.5 100+ 50 Sand – dry 1.45 0.12 0.89 1.29 = 0.67 Sand – damp 1.90 0.12 0.89 1.7 Load factor is usually expressed as a ratio: Sand – wet 2.08 0.14 0.88 1.82 Sand and gravel – dry 1.96 0.12 0.89 1.75 Volume (BCM) = volume (LCM) × load factor Note: N/A = not applicable. Example A granite material during excavation expands from a Dry density is typically used to report mineral bank volume of 1500 m3 to a loose volume of 2500 m3.
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