Contents Beyond Proprietorship This page intentionally left blank Contents Beyond Proprietorship Murphree’s Laws on Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Southern Africa Edited by B.B. Mukamuri, J.M. Manjengwa & S. Anstey Weaver Press HARARE International Development Research Centre OTTAWA • CAIRO • DAKAR • MONTEVIDEO • NAIROBI NEW DELHI • SINGAPORE iii CCONTENTS Weaver Press PO Box A1922 Avondale, Harare Zimbabwe www.weaverpresszimbabwe.com InternationalA Development Research Centre PO Box 8500 Ottawa, ON K1G 3H9 Canada www.idrc.ca / [email protected] eISBN 978-1-55250-424-6 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, or by electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publishers, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. © This collection: Weaver Press, 2009 Individual chapters: the respective authors, 2009 ISBN 0-77922-072-1 Chapter 7 (‘More Than Socially Embedded: The Distinctive Character of “Communal Tenure” Regimes in South Africa and its Implications for Land Policy’) was first publishedin the Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol. 7, No. 3, July 2007, pp. 281–315, and is reproduced with permission. The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, whose financial assistance made this publication possible. Cover design by Heath Manyepa Cover photograph by Frédéric Baudron, CIRAD, Harare Typesetting by forzalibro designs Printed and bound in Mauritius by Précigraph Ltd. iv Contents Contents 1 Introduction B.B. Mukamuri, J.M. Manjengwa & S. Anstey 1 2 Murphree’s Laws, Principles, Rules & Definitions Rowan B. Martin 7 3 Rethinking the Building Blocks A Critique of Demand Driven Decentralisation in Chizvirizvi Resettlement Area in Chiredzi District of Zimbabwe Chaka Chirozva 29 4 Beacon & Barometer CBNRM & evolutions in Local Democracy in Southern Africa Simon Anstey 41 5 Global-local linkages The meanings of CBNRM in global conservation politics Rosaleen Duffy 58 v CONTENTS 6 Rural Institutions Challenges and Prospects for the active participation in Natural Resources Governance in Zimbabwe Billy Mukamuri 7 More than Socially Embedded The Distinctive Character of ‘Communal Tenure’ Regimes in South Africa & its Implications for Policy Ben Cousins 89 8 Conflicts & Commercialization Pressures over Forest Resources in the Post-Fast Track Land Reform Context in Zimbabwe A case of Seke Communal Lands Shylock Muyengwa 123 9 Gender Issues Surrounding Water Development & Management in Chishawasha Settlement Area Chipo Plaxedes Mubaya 136 10 Participatory Development of Community-based Management Plans for Livestock Feed Resources in Semi-arid Areas of Zimbabwe Experiences from Lower Guruve District B.G. Mombeshora, F. Chinembiri & T. Lynam 151 vi Contents 11 Local Environmental Action Planning Making it Work Jeannette Manjengwa 164 12 Trying to Make Sense of it All Dealing with the Complexities of Community Based Natural Resource Management Michael A. Jones 179 13 Taking Murphree’s Principles into the Future The Research & Development Issues for CBNRM Initiatives in Southern Africa B.B. Mukamuri, J.M. Manjengwa & S. Anstey 198 Notes on Contributors 201 vii This page intentionally left blank Billy Mukamuri, Jeanette Manjengwa & Simon Anstey 1 Introduction Billy Mukamuri, Jeanette Manjengwa & Simon Anstey This book seeks to capture the spirit of Professor Marshall Murphree’s work and convictions from the past, present and in shaping future research initia- tives. The book is based on a collection of papers that were prepared for and presented at a conference hosted in honour of Murphree’s work, held at Leop- ard Rock Hotel, Vumba, Zimbabwe, in May 2007. Professor Marshall Murphree contributed immensely to academia, to the conservation of wildlife resources, to community development and to race relations for more than four decades. His professional career as an academic and social developer was anchored at the Centre for Applied Social Sciences (CASS), formerly called the Centre for Race Relations, which he opened in the 1960s. The book covers a wide range of issues that are in the purview of Profes- sor Murphree’s scholarship, and conveys a central concern with the notion of equality and fairness to all humankind. There is a deliberate focus on the poor and marginalised people living in Southern Africa’s most impoverished and remote regions, characterised by low rainfall, limited agricultural potential, and poor infrastructure and social services. However, these remote regions have latent opportunities for economic development and conservation of nat- ural resources, particularly wildlife. This opportunity for wildlife-based devel- opment was noted by Murphree and his colleagues while they worked with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. Following the attainment of Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980, race became sidelined in economic debates; access, management and benefit shar- ing of the country’s natural resources took centre stage. Murphree and his col- leagues spearheaded the wildlife proprietorship initiatives. The group’s effort led to the creation of the world acclaimed Communal Areas Management Pro- gramme for Indigenous Resources (Campfire) programme in the mid-1980s. The programme, though encompassing other natural resources, was centred on wildlife in Communal Areas adjacent to National Parks and other protected areas. It was, and is still, based on the principles set by Murphree and his col- leagues, notably Rowan Martin, who crafted the initial Campfire document. These principles centre on proprietorship of wildlife by communal people 1 INTRODUCTION living with wildlife and their right to benefit from funds generated through wildlife-based activities including trophy hunting, culling and eco-tourism. Wildlife management was devolved from the state to local communities in partnership with or through their respective Rural District Councils (RDCs). Murphree and colleagues, together with students largely from CASS, provided academic and professional advice to Campfire. The first decade of Campfire implementation was characterised by success, evidenced by financial dividends that were channelled to the communities through their respective RDCs. Funds derived from Campfire activities were used to build or upgrade schools, clinics, community centres, as well as remit dividends to households. However, reviews of the programme have indicated reversals in these benefits, particularly following the implementation of eco- nomic reforms which led to reduced government subsidies to RDCs. There is recognition that RDCs tend to derive more benefit from the wildlife remit- tances than do local communities, and that RDCs have retained most of the power related to decision making. Despite these problems, recent research indicates that the design of Campfire has not been found wanting. What needs to be promoted is how to make local authorities more responsive to the needs and aspirations of local communities. Achieving this requires more transpar- ency and accountability, as well as communities being able to set up institu- tions that can deal with all these issues. Contributors to the book have interacted with Professor Murphree in vari- ous capacities: people who have worked with him over the last 20 or more years, his former students and friends, academics currently based at CASS who have benefited immensely from his scholarship and leadership, as well as post- graduate students who continue to be inspired by him. The chapters are predi- cated on past and present community-based natural resource management initiatives in Southern Africa. The strand running through them borrows from a series of Murphree’s principles governing the relationship between bureaucracy and local communities: devolution, decentralisation and rights over decision making and property, and the inclusion of marginalised com- munities who bear the consequences of living with wildlife. Community-based natural resource management principles Rowan Martin’s chapter summarises the core values and principles espoused by Murphree. Though the laws, or perhaps more correctly ‘principles’, are not sorted by order of importance, readers are able to get to the core of Mur- phree’s thinking, notably that community conservation is a long process, and a product of negotiation, requiring involvement of multiple disciplines. Local people, particularly the marginalised, need to be central. Other principles present conditions for sustainability, which include a developmental rather 2 Billy Mukamuri, Jeanette Manjengwa & Simon Anstey than conservational focus, benefits being perceived as more than the costs of management; and planning for a broader cultural, political and economic base (multiple stakeholders). Above all, regulatory mechanisms need to be in place. Roselyn Duffy’s chapter contributes to the understanding of CBNRM within the international framework. Although many commentators view CBNRM as an internally driven agenda, her chapter clearly shows that the process is very much imbedded in donor-driven politics and agendas. Governance, institutional issues & land tenure Simon Anstey (a PhD student of Professor Murphree) and Liz Rihoy focus on community-based natural resource management and evolution of gov- ernance in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Their chapter draws on Murphree’s academic contributions on the important role community-based natural resource management