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University of Oklahoma Graduate College UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE INDIGENOUS NATIONALISM ON THE WIND RIVER INDIAN RESERVATION, 1851-1938 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By BRANDI LYNN HILTON-HAGEMANN Norman, Oklahoma 2013 INDIGENOUS NATIONALISM ON THE WIND RIVER INDIAN RESERVATION, 1851-1938 A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY ______________________________ Dr. Warren Metcalf, Chair ______________________________ Dr. Joshua Piker ______________________________ Dr. David Wrobel ______________________________ Dr. Lindsay Robertson ______________________________ Dr. Maria-Elena Diaz © Copyright by BRANDI LYNN HILTON-HAGEMANN 2013 All Rights Reserved. To my husband Josh – without your unwavering support, profound wisdom and unbreakable faith in me this dissertation would have never been possible. Acknowledgements As with all academic journeys, it is a series of people, not necessarily places, who guided my path. First, I owe a debt of gratitude to Renée Laegreid who encouraged me to go to graduate school and gave me the tools to get there. William Bauer has been with me on this project, in one way or another, from the very beginning. For the record, he was right, the University of Oklahoma is where I needed to go, and I hope that he is as proud of this work as I am. My graduate colleagues at the University of Oklahoma challenged me to work hard, but also to enjoy this crazy ride. I am particularly grateful to Julie Stidolph who came with me from the University of Wyoming and has been a constant pillar of strength and unbounded enthusiasm, even when I remained skeptical. Emily Wardrop became a constant friend and part-time accomplice, whose faith in students and loyalty to friends continues to inspire me. Matt Pearce’s work ethic and commitment to academia is unmatched and I have tried to learn by his example as he shared my love of the West, he briefly lived in our home and he often showed his true color – green. I would also like to thank Jeff and Rowan (Steineker) Fortney, Dave Beyreis, Michele Stephens, Doug Miller, Exa von Alt, Bryan and Bridget Rindfleisch, Dustin and Chelsey Mack and Matt and Allison Bahar for their friendship and support during my graduate career. You have made a challenging path in life a pleasure to walk down, thank you. I would like to thank several faculty members at the University of Oklahoma for countless hours of assistance and faith in my dissertation. My advisor, Warren Metcalf, allowed me the latitude to develop this project, but never let me stray too far off course. Josh Piker, David Wrobel, Rob Griswold and Terry Rugeley patiently listened when I iv struggled or ranted about the process and graciously provided helpful advice. I want to acknowledge the support of Sterling Evans who became a constant advocate for us all, as well as Maria-Elena Diaz and Lindsay Robertson whose comments on this dissertation certainly improved the final product. Finally, I must thank Brad Raley. Though I seriously question his taste in beer and music, his friendship and critical perspective subtly guided this project from beginning to end. Of course, this dissertation would not have been possible without the aid of several research grants and fellowships. First and foremost, I must acknowledge the very gracious assistance of Cliff Hudson. Without the Hudson Fellowship, I doubt that I would have found my way to Oklahoma. The Anne Hodges and Wayne Morgan Fellowship, Robberson Research and Creative Endeavors Grant, National Society of the Colonial Dames of America – American History Scholarship, American Heritage Center Travel Grant, National Phi Alpha Theta Doctoral Scholarship and the American Philosophical Society Phillips Fund for Native American Research Grant all provided essential assistance as I traveled throughout the country seeking information about Wyoming Indians. Throughout my career, University of Oklahoma and the Department of History readily supported both my research trips and my travel to conferences. I also would like to recognize the people of the Northern Arapaho and Eastern Shoshone tribal nations for their contributions to my work. Thank you for allowing me into your homes and the chance to hear your stories. As I look toward the future beyond graduate school, Doane College certainly deserves my admiration. They were willing to take a chance on an inexperienced scholar with a fiery spirit, and for that I am grateful. My family certainly deserves my v most heartfelt thanks for their support and encouragement. My parents, Ann and Dennis Hilton, never doubted the career path that I had chosen, though I am in the first in our family to go to graduate school. Their belief in my abilities and support supersedes that of a parent’s love. My in-laws, Bill and Sue Hagemann probably had no idea what they were in for when they met me, but have been great companions on this journey. Finally, my husband Josh deserves all of my gratitude. On the night we met, I told him that I was headed down a long and winding road. Without him by my side, I would have never survived such a wild ride. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 - Contested Space ........................................................................................... 36 Chapter 2 – Reservation Life .......................................................................................... 86 Chapter 3 – Political Authority ..................................................................................... 129 Chapter 4 – Language of Politics ................................................................................. 174 Chapter 5 – Cultural Representations ........................................................................... 213 Chapter 6 – Shared History .......................................................................................... 264 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 308 Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 319 vii Abstract This dissertation seeks to alter the ways in which scholars address indigenous group formation. Instead of adhering to the rather pervasive, and anthropologically based, band/tribe/nation approach, this work argues that historians should address indigenous peoples as "tribal nations," a phrase that reflects both their unique place within the United States as "nations within" and their sovereign status. To do so, I have created a loose set of six characteristics that all tribal nations exhibit including territory, citizens/members, political authority, language, cultural representations and a shared history. Each chapter in this dissertation addresses one of these traits. Additionally, this work argues that to study indigenous peoples in isolation, or give primacy to indigenous reactions to non-Native actions, tends to give the impression that Native peoples are static, unwilling or unable to adapt and change. Therefore, the second part of the tribal nation model includes four forces of influence (internal demand, other tribal nations, the federal government and non-Native outsiders) who certainly promoted change, both good and bad, throughout the history of the tribal nation, but I give primacy, when possible to Native-Native interactions. Together, the six characteristics and four forces of change provide a model that can be applied to almost any tribal nation. This process of analysis allows scholars to better study indigenous people and create meaningful "tribal histories" that place Native people at the center of the narrative and underscore their resilience. To demonstrate the utility of this model, I have chosen to study the Northern Arapaho and Eastern Shoshone because of their unique position as two distinct tribal nations who live on the same reservation, yet are so very different. In the end, this dissertation demonstrates the viii efficacy of the tribal nation model and encourages scholars to reassess the ways in which they discuss indigenous peoples and their histories. ix Introduction In the summer of 1883, Wyoming residents anxiously awaited the arrival of a very important visitor. Making his way toward Yellowstone Park, Chester A. Arthur, the President of the United States, scheduled a few brief stops in the territory as part of his sojourn through the West. Social commentators lauded the tour as a standing endorsement for the region, because the President’s arrival could “advertise its advantages and resources…but will also give tone to and make it fashionable to come to the Rocky Mountains when the president of the United States comes here for his vacation.” 1 But Arthur intended to visit with residents beyond the settled areas of Cheyenne, the Wyoming capital and epicenter of politics and high culture in the territory, as he requested an audience with the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho,
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