Introduction: Historiography and Theory

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Notes

Introduction: Historiography and theory

1. Archivio Centrale dello Stato [henceforth ACS], Ministero dell’Interno [henceforth MI] Divisione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza [henceforth DGPS], 1935, b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice, 12 Nov. 1935. The islands of Venice are divided into six districts or sestieri: San Marco, Castello, Cannaregio, Dorsoduro, San Polo and Santa Croce. 2. R. De Felice (1974) Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Turin: Einaudi) p. 82; P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 332–3; R.J.B. Bosworth (2005) Mussolini’s Italy. Life Under the Dictatorship 1915–1945 (London: Allen Lane) and idem. (2005) ‘Everyday Mussolinism: friends, family, locality and violence in Fascist Italy’ Contemporary European History, vol. 14.1, pp. 23–4. 3. P. Corner “Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?” pp. 329–330, 333. The idea of a ‘hidden transcript’ or indirect means and evidence of dissent comes from J.C. Scott (1990) Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Everyday Mussolinism’ p. 25. 4. ACS DGPS 1935 b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice 12 Nov. 1935. 5. Ibid. 6. In her inquiry into the representations of the imagined Mussolini, Luisa Passerini noted the repeated emphasis made to his abstemiousness, as part of the construction of the Duce as an exemplar of virile masculinity. L. Passerini (1991) Mussolini Immaginario: storia di una biografia 1915–1939 (Rome-Bari: Laterza) pp. 122–3. Nevertheless, the osterie and bars of Venice frequently provided the location for clashes – whether violent or verbal – between sup- porters and opponents of fascism. R. Vicentini (1935) A Il movimento fascista veneto attraverso il diario di uno squadrista (Venice: Soc. Acc. Stamperia Zanetti) p. 113; A. Casellato (2002) ‘I sestieri popolari’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia. L’Ottocento e il Novecento vol 2, (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana (Treccani)) pp. 1596–1607. The role of alcohol and its associated locations in the expression of consent/dissent for fascism deserves greater attention. 7. See the introduction to M. Foucault (1975) Surveiller et punir (Paris: Gallimard). 8. The report noted that ‘in turn, Cadel, confirming the above-stated circumstances, declared that it had been his impression that Pinzoni was singing the communist hymn “The red flag will triumph” and it was only when he stopped him that he added the words: “over the toilets of the city”’. ACS DGPS 1935 b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice, 12 Nov. 1935. Here, the term ‘tactic’ is used in the sense in which it was used by Michel de Certeau, in response to Michel Foucault’s assertions of the ever-present networks of

203 204 Notes

power within society, to denote the methods by which individuals are able to act autonomously and win back some degree of control in their everyday lives. M. de Certeau (S. Rendell trans.) (1988) The Practice of Everyday Life, (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press) pp. xviii–xx, 34–7. 9. J. Revel (1996) Jeux d’echelles: la micro-analyse à l’experience (Paris: Gallimard). 10. Many of these criticisms, and the responses of key everyday life historian, Alf Lüdtke to them, are set out in A. Lüdtke (1995) ‘Introduction: What is the history of everyday Life and who are its practitioners?’ in idem (ed.) (W. Templer trans.) The History of Everyday Life Reconstructing Historical Experiences and Ways of Life, (Princeton: Princeton University Press). 11. P. Steege, A.S. Bergerson, M. Heely & P. Swett (2008) ‘The history of everyday life: a second chapter’ Journal of Modern History vol. 80, pp. 358–378. 12. See A. Lüdtke (ed.) (W. Templer trans.), The History of Everyday Life;idem (2000) ‘People working: Everyday life and German fascism’ History Work- shop Journal vol. 50 pp. 74–92; G. Eley (1989) ‘Labour history, social history, Alltagsgeschichte: Experience, politics and the culture of the everyday – a new direction for German social history?’ Journal of Modern History vol 61.2, pp. 297–343. 13. C. Lipp (1990) ‘Writing history as political culture. Social history ver- sus ‘Alltagsgeschichte’; a German debate’ Storia della Storiografia vol. 17, pp. 66–99; Kolloquien des Instituts für Zeitgeschichte (1988) Alltagsgeschichte der N-S Zeit: neue Perspektive oder Trivialisierung? (Munich: Oldenbourg R. Verlag GmbH). 14. D. Peukert (R. Deveson trans.) (1989) Inside Nazi Germany. Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, (Harmondsworth: Penguin). 15. D.F. Crew (1992) ‘The Pathologies of Modernity: Detlev Peukert on Germany’s Twentieth Century’, Social History, vol. 17.2. 16. S. Fitzpatrick (1999) Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press). On the historiographical context, see S. Fitzpatrick (2007) ‘Revisionism in Soviet History’ History and Theory vol. 46.4 and idem. (2008) ‘Revisionism in retrospect: a personal view’ Slavic Review vol. 67.3. 17. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism, p. 3 for the quotation. 18. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism. pp. 2–3; 54–8. 19. Ibid p. 62. 20. L. Passerini (1984) Torino operaio e fascismo: una storia orale (Rome-Bari, Laterza), published in English as (B. Lumley & J. Bloomfield trans.) (1987) Fascism in Popular Memory. The Cultural Experience of the Turin Working Class, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 129–149; A. Lüdtke “What happened to the ‘fiery red glow’? Workers’ experiences and German fascism’ in idem. (ed.) The History of Everyday Life pp. 198–251. 21. See A. Lüdtke ‘Introduction: What is the history of everyday life and who are its practitioners?’ in idem (ed.) The History of Everyday Life. pp. 3–40. 22. L. Hunt (1989) The New Cultural History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press); V. Bonnell & L. Hunt (eds.) (1999) Beyond the Cultural Turn. New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press). Notes 205

23. For example, the authors of the recent review article setting out the stall of the ‘second chapter’ of the everyday life approach all work on Germany or German-speaking central Europe. P. Steege et al. ‘A history of everyday life: a second chapter’. An obvious recent exception to this is the co-authored chapter by Sheila Fitzpatrick and Alf Lüdtke (2009) ‘Energising the everyday: on the breaking and making of social bonds in Nazism and Stalinism’ in M. Geyer & S. Fitzpatrick (eds.) Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Again, though, this reproduces the most common international comparison, that of Nazi Germany and the Stalinist Soviet Union. We still await a broader comparative history of the lived experience of dictatorships. 24. A.S. Bergeson (2001) ‘Listening to the radio in Hildesheim, 1923-53’ German Studies Review vol. 24, 83–113; J. Fürst (2006) ‘In search of Soviet salvation: Young people’s letters of confession to the Stalinist authorities” Contemporary European History, 15.3, 327–345; R. Koshar (2002) ‘Germans at the wheel: Cars and leisure travel in interwar Germany’ in idem (ed.) Histories of Leisure (Oxford: Berg). 25. On Franco’s Spain, see J. Gracia & M.A. Ruiz Carnicer (2004) La España de Franco (1939–1975): cultura y vida cotidiana (Madrid: Editorial Síntesis) and A. Cazorla Sánchez (2010) Fear and Progress. Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939–1975 (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell). For historians working on the day- to-day experience of ‘really-existing socialism’ in the German Democratic Republic see, for example, K. Jarausch (ed.) (1999) Dictatorship as Experi- ence: Toward a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books) or the more recent study, J. Feinstein (2002) The Triumph of the Ordinary: Depictions of Daily Life in the East German Cinema 1949– 1989 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press). See also the review article by Sandrine Kott which appraises these and other recent scholar- ship: (2004) ‘Everyday Communism: New Social History of the German Democratic Republic’ in Contemporary European History vol. 13.2, 233–247. 26. G. Eley (2005) A Crooked Line. From Cultural History to the History of Society (Ann Arbour, MI.: University of Michigan Press) pp. xiii; 5. 27. Similar questions to these were posed in B. Gregory (1999) ‘Is small beautiful? Microhistory and the history of everyday life’ History and Theory vol. 38.1, 100–110. 28. J. Kocka ‘Geschichte als Aufklärung?’ Frankfurter Rundschau, January 4 1988. 29. Lüdtke’s analysis of worker attitudes towards Nazism following the takeover of power in 1933 provides an example of the patchwork development of supportive stances towards the regime among particular pockets of the workforce. A. Lüdtke ‘What happened to the ﬁery red glow?’ pp. 198–251. 30. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism pp. 62–6. 31. C. Ginzburg (1976) Il formaggio e i vermi: Il cosmo di un mugnaio del ‘500 (Turin: Einaudi) published in English as (J. & A. Tedeschi trans.) (1992) The Cheese and the Worms (Harmondsworth: Penguin) pp. xiii–xxvi. 32. Ibid. See also A. Körner (2002) ‘Culture et structure’ Le Mouvement Social, 200, pp. 55–63; M. Peltonen (2001) ‘Clues, margins and monads. The micro-macro link in historical research’ History and Theory vol. 40.3, pp. 347–359. 206 Notes

33. On the idea of in-betweeness and hybridity see N. García Canclini (1995) Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity (London: Univer- sity of Minnisota Press) pp. 107–9, 135–44 and S. Santiago (2001) The Space In-Between: Essays on Latin American Culture (London: Duke University Press) pp. 25–38. 34. In his novel, Fontamara, ﬁrst published in translation in 1933, Ignazio Silone presented an image of rural Italian life in which fascist authority effectively replaced the remote and autocratic authority to which the wretched inhabitants of the village (cafoni) had long become accustomed and resigned. Carlo Levi’s account of his time in internal exile in Basilicata in the mid 1930s similarly emphasises the supposed timeless character of rural Italian life and its exploitations. I. Silone (1975) Fontamara (London: The Journeyman Press) p. 9; C. Levi (1982) Christ Stopped at Eboli (Harmondsworth: Penguin) p. 29. The historian R.J.B. Bosworth follows Levi in insisting that fascism and its intrusions were only ever ‘part of [Italians’] lives’. R.J.B. Bosworth (2004) ‘War, totalitarianism and ‘deep belief’ in Fascist Italy, 1935–43’ European History Quarterly vol. 34.4, p. 499. On semi stillness and ‘deep time’, see F. Braudel (S. Matthews trans.) (1980) On History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). 35. The quotation is from B.J. Davis (2000) Home Fires Burning. Food, politics and everyday life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill, NC.: University of North Carolina Press) p. 5. See also P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ pp. 361; 363–8. 36. See P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ pp. 363–8. 37. P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 325–7. 38. R. de Felice (1974) Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Turin: Einaudi); S. Colarizi (2000) L’opinione degli italiani sotto il regime 1929–43 (Rome-Bari: Laterza); P. Cannistraro (1975) La fabbrica del consenso: fascismo e mass media (Rome-Bari: Laterza). 39. R. de Felice (1975) Intervista sul fascismo (Rome-Bari: Laterza) published in English as: R. de Felice (M. Ledeen ed.) (1976) Fascism: An Informal Introduction to its Theory and Practice (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction). For a summary of the polemics surrounding de Felice’s interpretation of fascism, see Paul O’ Brien’s 2004 review of Emilio Gentile’s (2003) Renzo De Felice (Rome-Bari: Laterza) in Modern Italy vol. 9.1, pp. 121–124. 40. P. Corner ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ p. 325. 41. R. de Felice Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso p. 55. 42. P. Morgan (1999) ‘The years of consent? Popular attitudes and forms of resistance to fascism in Italy 1925–40’ in T. Kirk & A. McElligott (eds.) Opposing Fascism. Community, Authority and Resistance in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 163–179. 43. This point is made by Morgan in ibid and, in relation to protest in Franco’s Spain, by Michael Richards in (1999) ‘Falange, Autarky and Crisis: The Barcelona General Strike of 1951’ European History Quarterly, vol. 29.4, pp. 543–585. 44. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’; idem. ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ pp. 328–330. Notes 207

45. See D. Peukert (R. Deveson trans.) (1989) Inside Nazi Germany. Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, (Harmondsworth: Penguin). 46. A. Lüdtke ‘Introduction: What is the history of Everyday Life?’ pp. 3–40. 47. The quotation is from P. Steege et al ‘The history of everyday life’ p. 370. 48. Cited in P. Corner ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ p. 349 (ft 71). 49. See M. Franzinelli (1999) I tentacoli dell’OVRA: Agenti, collaboratori, e vittime della polizia politica fascista (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri) and V. de Grazia (1981) The Culture of Consent. Mass Organisation of Leisure in Fascist Italy, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 50. Paul Corner makes this point in ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ pp. 327–8; 340–8. In addition, Victoria de Grazia has shown the dualistic function, combining enticement and social control, of the fascist after-work organisation (OND), as has Maria Quine with respect to fascist welfare policies. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent; M.S. Quine (2002) Italy’s Social Revolution. Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism (Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan). 51. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’ p. 167. 52. P. Corner ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ pp. 330–7. 53. On ‘mediators’ see L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149. On the creativity of consumption see M. de Certeau (S. Rendell trans.), The Practice of Everyday Life pp. 15–42. 54. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149. 55. Ibid. 56. A. Lüdtke ‘What happened to the ‘ﬁery red glow’? Workers’ experiences and German fascism’ in idem. (ed.) The History of Everyday Life pp. 198–251. 57. Both Detlev Peukert, working on Nazi Germany, and Mary Vincent, working on Franco’s Spain, have pointed to the tactic or mechanism of ‘withdraw- ing into oneself’ and retreating into more private and domestic worlds, a prevalent trope in the accounts of contemporaries written during and after the events depicted. This notwithstanding, as Mary Nolan has pointed out, the result of this retreat or withdrawal was effectively the prolongation in power of the regime and therefore the prolongation of the repression and persecution of the regimes’ perceived enemies. Peukert Inside Nazi Germany passim; M. Vincent Modern Spain: The Problem of the State, 1833–2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007) chapter 6; M. Nolan (1997) ‘Work, gender and everyday life: reﬂections on continuity, normality and agency in twentieth-century Germany’ in I. Kershaw & M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 58. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149. 59. S. Colarizi L’opinione degli italiani; M. Franzinelli I tentacoli dell’OVRA; R. Canosa (2000) I servizi segreti del Duce: I persecutori e le vittime (Milan: Mondadori). 60. See S. Colarizi (1994) ‘Metodo e strumenti di rilevamento per un’indagine sull’opinione degli italiani sotto il regime’ Ventesimo secolo, vol IV n. 10, pp. 77–87 and P. Morgan ‘The years of consent’ p. 172. 208 Notes

61. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’ pp. 166–7; idem. ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ pp. 333–7. On minor or ‘non-militant’ crimes against the state see P.L. Orsi (1990) ‘Una fonte seriale: I rappporti prefettizi sull’antifascismo non militante’ Rivista di storia contemporanea no. 2 pp. 280–304. 62. G. Albanese (2001) Alle origini del fascismo. La violenza politica a Venezia 1919– 1922 (Padua: Il poligrafo); A. Lyttleton (1973) The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy 1919–1929 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson). 63. An example of the myth – that Italians are essentially good people, and behaved as such during the Second World War – in action is provided by Susan Zuccotti’s (1987) The Italians and the Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue and Survival (London: Halban) and by the popular films Mediterraneo (1991) and Captain Corelli’s Mandolin (2001). The myth has been dissected and refuted in: N. Doumanis (1997) Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean; Remembering Fascism’s Empire (Basingstoke: Macmillan); and D. Rodogno (2003) Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo. Le politiche di occupazione dell’Italia fascista in Europa (1940–1943) (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri). 64. C. Friedrich & Z.K. Brzezinski (1956) Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). 65. H. Arendt (1973) The Origins of Totalitarianism (San Diego, New York & London: Harcourt). 66. S. Fitzpatrick & A. Lüdtke ’Energising the everyday: on the breaking and making of social bonds in Nazism and Stalinism’ pp. 266–301. 67. Roberts points to the establishment of the journal dedicated to Total- itarian Movements and Political Religions in 2000 as evidence of this new attention. D. Roberts (2009) ‘’Political religion’ and the totalitarian departures of interwar Europe. On the uses and disadvantages of an analytical category’ Contemporary European History vol. 18.4, pp. 381–414. 68. E. Voegelin (2000) Collected Works vol. 5 Modernity without restraint (Columbia & London: University of Missouri Press) pp. 19–73; E. Gen- tile (K. Botsford trans.) (1996) The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). See also idem ‘Fascism, totalitarianism and political religions: Definitions and critical reflections on criticism of an interpretation’ in R. Griffin (ed.) (2005) Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion (London: Routledge). 69. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics chapter 2. 70. G. Mosse (1999) The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism (New York: H. Fertig). Fascist leaders, most notably the intellectual Giuseppe Bottai, articulated the idea that their regime and ideology were ‘nothing more than a way of continuing the war, of transforming its values into a civic religion’. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics p. 20. 71. M.S. Stone (1998) The Patron State. Culture and Politics in Fascist Italy. (Princeton: Princeton University Press); S. Falasca-Zamponi (1997) Fas- cist Spectacle. The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press); R. Griffin (2002) ‘The primacy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consen- sus within Fascist Studies’, Journal of Contemporary History vol.37.1, pp. 21–43. Notes 209

72. See, for example, the work of David Kertzer (1988) Ritual, Politics and Power (New Haven: Yale University Press) passim. The quotation comes from P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ p. 369. 73. R.J.B. Bosworth, for example, voiced this criticism in ‘War, totalitarianism, and ‘deep belief’ in Fascist Italy 1935–43’ p. 476. 74. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics pp. 153–161. 75. R. Griffin ‘The primacy of culture’. See, for example, the responses to Griffin’s Journal of Contemporary History article by David Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, published in the April 2002 (vol. 37.2) issue of the same journal pp. 259–274. 76. Both Corner and Bosworth have made this argument, from different perspectives. P. Corner ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ passim; R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Everyday Mussolinism’ especially pp. 25–7. 77. Renato Moro praised Gentile’s thesis, whilst expressing his concern in relation to Gentile’s much used term of ‘imperfect totalitarianism’ which he believed tended, in a ‘de Felician’ manner, towards the positive relativisation of Italian fascism in comparison to more ‘perfect’ versions of totalitarianism such as National-Socialism in Germany. R. Moro (1995) ‘Religione e politica nell’età della secolarizzazione: riflessioni su di un recente volume di Emilio Gentile’ in Storia contemporanea vol. 26.2, pp. 255–325. 78. On the ‘cultural turn’ in historical studies, see L. Hunt The New Cultural His- tory op. cit. and V. Bonnell & L. Hunt (eds.) Beyond the Cultural Turn. New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture. On the British tradition of ‘history from below’ see E.P. Thompson (1980 [1963]) The Making of the English Work- ing Class (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.), especially the prologue; R. Hoggart (1992 [1957]) The Uses of Literacy (New Brunswick: Transaction Publications); and R. Williams (1958) Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (London: Chatto & Windus) & idem. (1992 [1961])The Long Revolution (London: Hogarth Press). 79. On the role of ritual in constructing social and political relationships see: D.I. Kertzer Ritual, Politics and Power op. cit.; E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (eds.) (1992 [1983]) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); N. Zemon Davis (1975) ’The Reasons of Misrule’ in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press). On the structures of power, see M. Foucault L’Archéologie du savoir &idem.Surveiller et punir. 80. On the ‘aesthetics of reception’ see: H.R. Jauss (1970) ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’ New Literary History vol. 2.1, pp. 7–38; W. Iser (1974) The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul); P. Hohendahl (1977) “Introduction to reception aesthetics” New German Critique n.10; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life passim. 81. M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life pp. xi–xxiv & 15–42. 82. M. Foucault Surveiller et punir introduction; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life p. xv. 83. E.P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class prologue; A. Lüdtke ‘Introduction: What is the history of everyday life and who are its practitioners?’ pp. 3–40. 84. This point is also made in P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ p. 375. 85. C. Ginzburg The Cheese and the Worms pp. 51–3. 86. See Andrew Goodwin’s introduction to R. Hoggart The Uses of Literacy p. xiii. 210 Notes

87. R. Chartier ‘Texts, Printing, Readings’ in L. Hunt (ed.) The New Cultural His- tory pp. 154–175 and idem (L.G. Cochrane trans.) (1987) TheCulturalUsesof Print in Early Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press). 88. See ibid and H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’ pp. 7–38. 89. D. D’Avray (1994) Death and the Prince. Memorial Preaching before 1350 (Oxford: Clarendon Press) pp. 189–90. 90. R. Koselleck (K. Tribe trans.) (1979) Futures Past: on the Semantics of Historical Time (Cambridge, Mass. & London: MIT Press) pp. 267–288. 91. On ‘structures of thought’ see L. Febvre (B. Gottlieb trans.) (1982) The Prob- lem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais (Cambridge, Mass. & London: Harvard University Press). On ‘ideas materials’ see E. Panofsky (1970) Architecture gothique et pensée scolastique (Paris: Gallimard). Further information on the development of these concepts can be found in R. Chartier (1982) ’Intellectual history or sociocultural history? The French trajectories’ in D. LaCapra & S. Kaplan (eds.) Modern European Intellectual His- tory. Appraisals and New Perspectives (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press) pp. 18–21 and in A. Körner ‘Culture et structure’ passim. 92. P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ pp. 373–7.

1 ‘Elbow to elbow’: Venetian life between the wars

1. J. Pemble (1997) Venice Rediscovered (Oxford: Clarendon Press) pp. 73–5; D. Laven ‘Researching, producing and reproducing Venetian history in the long nineteenth century’ unpublished research paper presented at ‘Spatial identity, rhythm and modernity’ University of Santiago de Compostela, July 2009. 2. On the myths, and anti-myths of Venice, see M. Infelise (2002) ‘Venezia e il suo passato. Storie miti “fole”’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds) Storia di Venezia. L’ottocento e il novecento vol 2 (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana fondata da Giovanni Treccani) pp. 967–988. 3. These ﬁgures are taken from the 1931 census and are citied in M. Reberschak (1986) ‘L’economia’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia (Roma-Bari: Laterza) p. 296. From 1926, the comune of Venice included not only the central islands of Venice, the Giudecca and the Lido but also the islands of Pellestrina, Murano and Burano, as well as Mestre, Favaro, Chirignano, Zelarino and Malcontenta on the mainland. 4. R.J.B. Bosworth (1999) ‘Venice between Fascism and international tourism, 1911–45’ Modern Italy, vol 4.1, pp. 5–23; S. Longo (2004) ‘Culture, tourism and Fascism in Venice, 1919–1945’ Unpublished PhD. thesis, University of London, pp. 39–44. 5. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between Fascism and international tourism’ p. 18. 6. The phrase belongs to Ruth Ben Ghiat. R. Ben Giat (2001) Fascist Modernities. Italy 1922–1945 (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press) p. 15. 7. M. Infelise ‘Venezia e il suo passato. Storie miti “fole”’ p. 975. 8. Foscari has been described as the ‘unofﬁcial doge’ of the early twentieth century; his ducal cap was taken up in the 1920s and 1930s by his long-time Notes 211

friend Giuseppe Volpi. G. Pignatelli et al. eds. (1997) Dizionario Biograﬁco degli Italiani vol. 49 (Rome: Instituto della Enciclopedia Italiana (Treccani)) pp. 338–340. 9. F.T. Marinetti (L. de Maria ed.) (1983) Teoria ed invenzione futurista (Milan: Mondadori) pp. 33–4. 10. On the Venetian group, see M. Reberschak (2002) ‘Gli uomini capitali: il “gruppo veneziano” (Volpi, Cini e gli altri)’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1255–1311; F. Brunetta (1986) ’Figure e momenti del Novecento politico’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia p. 178. 11. G.L. Fontana (2002) ‘L’economia’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 2 pp. 1857–60. 12. Following the ‘night of 8 hours’ the Venetian patriarch, Cardinal Piero La Fontaine, made a public pledge to offer a votive temple to the Vir- gin Mary in return for Venice’s safe deliverance from the dangers of the war. This temple was subsequently built on the Lido and is discussed in Chapter 5. 13. The city’s pre-war population, in July 1914, was 158,698. L. Pes (2002) ‘Il fascismo adriatico’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 2 p. 1315. 14. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 10. 15. See R.J.B. Bosworth (1997) ‘Tourist planning in Fascist Italy and the limits of a totalitarian culture’ Contemporary European History vol. 6.1, pp. 9–10. 16. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 10. 17. G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1461. 18. M. Reberschak ‘Gli uomini capitali’ pp. 1255–1311. 19. Ibid. 20. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 268 & G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1466. 21. D. Howard (2002) The Architectural History of Venice (New Haven & London: Yale University Press) p. 274. 22. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 268 & G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1466. 23. G.L. Fontana ’L’economia’ pp. 1457–60. 24. Ibid p. 1463. 25. Ibid. p. 1463–4. 26. See G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1464 and M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 262. 27. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 262–3. 28. A. Casellato (2002) ‘I sestieri popolari’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1586–7. 29. G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1463. 30. L. Magliaretta (1986) ‘La qualità della vita’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia p. 368. 31. Ibid. p. 369. 32. For example, Cini set up home in Palazzo Loredan, near the Accademia, from 1919 and Volpi, born in Venice to a Bergamasco family, lived from 1917 in Palazzo Pisani in San Benedetto, close to the Rialto. M. Reberschak ‘Gli uomini capitali’ p. 1291. 33. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna Archivio Nazionale Diaristico [AND] MP/And. 34. The term ‘forced exodus’ is from M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 265. 212 Notes

35. Ibid. 36. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 pp. 49–51. 37. Ibid pp. 51–5. 38. G. Sbordone (2003) Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita. Storie di un campo veneziano nel primo Novecento (Portogruaro: Ediciclo Editore) pp. 51–2. 39. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 9. 40. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ p. 381. In 1910, in the poorest parishes such as S. Pietro di Castello, 46 per cent of homes had no access to drinking water. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1589–90. 41. This was according to a 1903 inquiry by the local Camara del Lavoro, reproduced in L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ pp. 336–7. 42. L. Picchini (1933) Tentati suicidi e suicidi con particolare riguardo alla città di Venezia (Venice: Graﬁche Sorteri), cited in R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 9. 43. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1589–90. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ p. 350. 44. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 265. 45. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 p. 30. 46. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ p. 350. 47. G. Bellavitis & G. Romanelli (1985) Venezia (Rome: Laterza). 48. M. Reberschack ‘Gli uomini capitali’ p. 1293. 49. Gazzettino 25 April 1933; Gazzetta 26 April 1933. 50. Gazzettino 26 April 1933. On the vandalism of the lions of Trau, and other Dalmation towns, see Gazzettino 3 January 1933. 51. Gazzettino 13 July 1935. 52. G. Bellavitis & G. Romanelli Venezia op. cit. 53. Gazzetta 18 June 1933; 19 June 1933; Gazzettino 20 July 1938. 54. Gazzettino 2 September 1938; Gazzetta 5 September 1938. 55. E.R. Trincanato (1948) Venezia minore (Milan), cited in A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1590. 56. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ pp. 367–8. 57. M. Fincardi (2001) ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ dell’antico leone. La moderna realtàdelmitodiVenezia’inContemporanea n. 3, Bologna, Il Mulino, pp. 445–474. 58. The comment on the Venetian experience of the Great War comes from Maria Damerini’s memoir of ‘the roaring years’ of the 1920s and 1930s. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) (1988) Gli ultimi anni del Leone (Padua: Il poligrafo) p. 241. 59. On the ‘moral economy’ of eighteenth century England see E.P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class passim; on ‘blat’ in Stalinist Russia see S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism pp. 54–8, 62; on ‘mediators’ in fascist Turin see L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–141; and on clientalist networks in fascist Italy, see R.J.B. Bosworth (2005) ‘Every- day Mussolinianism: Friends, family, locality and violence in Fascist Italy’ Contemporary European History, vol. 14.1, pp. 23–43. 60. M. Damerini GliultimiannidelLeonep. 52. 61. J. Habermas (1989 [1959]) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity). 62. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And p. 202. Notes 213

63. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607. 64. J. Weintraub & K. Kumar (1997) Public and Private in Thought and Practice: Perspectives on a Grand Dichotomy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). 65. A. Vickery (1993) ‘Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women’s history’ The Historical Journal vol. 36.2, pp. 383–414; R.B. Shoemaker (1998) Gender in English Society, 1650–1850. The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (London & New York: Longmans). The separate spheres thesis is most commonly associated with L. Davidoff & C. Hall (1987) Family Fortunes. Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1750–1850 (London: Hutchinson). 66. See, for example: V. de Grazia (1992) How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy 1922– 1945 (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press); idem. (1981) The Culture of Consent; C. Helstosky (2006) Garlic and Oil. Food and Politics in Italy (Oxford: Berg). 67. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 175–180. 68. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And. 69. The term ‘adriatic fascism’ is borrowed from L. Pes ‘Il fascismo adriatico’ pp. 1313–1354. 70. Though he left active national politics in 1934, Giuriati remained a significant figure within fascist and elite political and cultural circles locally. G. Pignatelli et al. (eds) Dizionario biografico degli italiani vol. 57, pp. 120–3. 71. L. Pes ‘Il fascismo adriatico’ pp. 1313–4. See also G. Albanese (2003) Piero Marsich (Somacampagna: Cierre) passim. 72. A contemporary account of the early years of Venetian fascism and squadrismo is provided by R. Vicentini (1935) Il Movimento fascista Veneto attraverso il diario di uno squadrista (Venice: Stamperia Zanetti). L. Pes ‘Il fascismo adriatico’ pp. 1335–1347. 73. R. Vicentini Il Movimento fascista Veneto p.113. 74. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1582. 75. On the biennio rosso in Venice, see: G. Albanese Alle origini del fascimo. La violenza politica a Venezia passim; Vicentini R. Il Movimento fascista Veneto passim; G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 217–228; A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607. 76. G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 228–9; G. Albanese Alle origini del fascimo pp. 241–9; Il Gazzettino 31 October 1922. 77. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1583. 78. E. Brunetta ‘Figure e momenti del novecento politico’ p. 163. 79. For a discussion of Le Tre Venezie, see M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ dell’antico leone’ p. 459. 80. The undated nota di servizio from which these guidelines are taken was found among the paper of Ennio Talamini and reproduced in M. de Marco (1976) Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano (Venice: Marsilio) pp. 84–5. 81. See Mario Isnenghi’s preface to M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 17. 82. M. de Marco Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano p. 63; G. Boldrin (1976) ‘Aristocrazie terriere e finanziarie all’assalto della stampa (1919–25)’ in idem. et al. (eds.) Giornali del Veneto fascista (Padua, CLEUP); A. Curcione (1995–6) ‘La “Gazzetta di Venzia” e l’avvento del fascismo’ Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Venezia, p. 24. 214 Notes

83. G. Albanese Alle origini del fascismo p. 25. 84. M. de Marco Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano passim. 85. G. Vian (2003) ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’ Storia e problemi contemporanei. Rivista dell’Istituto regionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione nelle Marche (Bologna: Ed Clueb.) pp. 85–6. 86. Ibid. pp. 86–7. 87. Ibid. pp. 85–115. 88. M. Reberschak ‘Gli uomini capitali’ pp.1255–6. 89. The functions of the podestà replaced within a single individual (albeit advised by the consulta) the competencies previously carried out by the sin- daco, giunta and consiglio comunale in the liberal period. S. Barizza (1987) Il comune di Venezia 1806–1946: l’istituzione, il territorio, guida-inventario dell’Archivio municipale (Venice). 90. Damerini and Cini served from mid-1930 to 1935 and again from 1939. S. Barizza Il comune di Venezia. 91. Alverà was elected to the 1914 consiglio comunale in Venice as part of Grimani’s moderate clerical list. R. Camurri (2002) ‘La classe politica nazionalfascista’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1412–3. 92. A. Körner (2008) Politics of Culture in Liberal Italy: From Unification to Fascism (London: Routledge). 93. See, for example: R. Drake (1981) ‘The theory and practice of Italian nationalism 1900–6’ in Journal of Modern History vol. 53.2, pp. 213–241; R.J.B. Bosworth (1997) ‘The “Touring Club Italiano” and the nation- alisation of the Italian bourgeoisie’ European History Quarterly 27.3, pp. 371–410. 94. A. Körner Politics of Culture in Liberal Italy pp. 177–8. 95. A. Confino (1997) The Nation as a Local Metaphor. Württemberg, Imperial Germany and National Memory 1871–1918 (Chapel Hill & London: Univer- sity of North Carolina Press); C. Applegate (1990) A Nation of Provincials. The German Idea of Heimat (Oxford & Berkeley: University of California Press); I. Porciani (1997) La festa della nazione. Rappresentazione dello stato e spazi sociali nell’Italia unita (Bologna: Il mulino); A. Körner Politics of Culture in Liberal Italy op. cit. 96. See A. Confino The Nation as a Local Metaphor op. cit. & C. Applegate A Nation of Provincials op. cit. 97. Cited in M. Infelise ‘Venezia e il suo passato’ p. 975. 98. P. Ginsborg (1979) Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–9 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 51–8. 99. M. Isnenghi (1986) ‘La cultura’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia p. 453. 100. L. Passerini (1991) Mussolini immaginario. Storia di una biografia 1919–39 (Roma-Bari: Laterza). 101. This was according to contemporary historian, Giuseppe Maranini. See the introduction of G. Maranini (1931) Costituzione di Venezia dopo la serrata del Maggior Consiglio (Venice) and also C. Povolo (2000) ‘The creation of Venetian historiography’ in J. Martin & D. Romano (eds.) Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297–1797 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) p. 508. Notes 215

102. Gazzettino 18 July 1935 ‘Curiosità storiche veneziane – Quattro nomi’. 103. Ibid. 104. The ﬁrst written accounts of the ‘republic of Santa Margherita’ date from 1919 and, it is suggested, were subject to some mythologisation. G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 153–166. 105. Giovanni Sbordone provides an eclectic list of well-to-do clients of the osterie around Campo Santa Margherita, especially the famous Capon, from D’Annunzio to Lloyd George to Jimmy Carter. Ibid. pp. 177–8. 106. Ibid. p. 28. 107. E. Zorzi (1967 [1928]) Osterie veneziane (Venice: Filippi) pp. 99–100, cited in G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita p. 22. 108. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone pp. 96–100. 109. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1583. 110. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 p. 48. 111. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 87. 112. Ibid. pp. 87–8. 113. Ibid. p. 87. 114. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And. 115. E. Franzina & E. Brunetta (1986) ‘La politica’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia pp. 135–146. 116. On ‘rites of passage’ see A. van Gennep (M.B. Vizedom & L.G. Caffee trans.) (1977 [1909]) The Rites of Passage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul), especially chapter 1 and T.S. Turner (1977) ‘Transformation, hierarchy and transcendance: a reformulation of Van Gennep’s model of the structures of rites de passage’ in S.F. Moore & B.G. Meyerhoff (eds) Secular Ritual (Assen: Von Gorcum). 117. S. Tramontin (1979) ‘Il Cardinal La Fontaine. Patriarca di Venezia e I fascisti dopo la Marcia su Roma’ Storia contemporanea vol. 3, pp. 481–519; G. Vian ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’ p. 12. 118. Renzo de Felice described La Fontaine as a ‘philofascisct’, an evaluation with which Silvio Tramontin vehemently disagreed. See S. Tramontin ‘Il Cardinal La Fontaine’ pp. 481–3. 119. Gazzetta 10 July 1936. 120. S. Tramontin ‘Il Cardinal La Fontaine’, especially p. 519; idem. (1970) ‘Il fascismo nel diario di Cardinal La Fontaine’ Storia contemporanea vol. 1, pp. 359–378. 121. Reported in Gazzetta 20 July 1938. On Cardinal Piazza, see L. Nardo (2002) ‘Il tessuto cattolico’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1523–1580. 122. G. Vian ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’. 123. Tramontin suggests that this was not necessarily the opinion of AC held by fascists locally, for example, by the provincial Party Secretary, Giorgio Suppiej, although the anti-Azione Cattolica campaign was sanc- tioned by Giuriati, then national Party Secretary. S. Tramontin (1975) Cattolici, popolari e fascisti nel Veneto (Rome: Edizioni Cinque Lune) pp. 257–261. On the ‘events’ of 1931 see also L. Nardo ’Il tessuto cattolico’ pp. 1546–7. 124. ACS PNF b. 1183 Guido Giacomini (Political Secretary of the Venetian GUF) to Carlo Scorza (GUF national secretary), 26 May 1931. 216 Notes

125. S. Tramontin Cattolici, popolari e fascisti nel Veneto pp. 299–300. 126. S. Levis Sullam (2002) Una comunità immaginata. Gli ebrei a Venezia (1900– 1938) (Milan: Edizioni Unicopli) p. 50. 127. It is Simon Levis Sullam who described the Venetian Jewish community as an ‘imagined community’. Ibid. 128. ibid. pp. 67–8. 129. On the ‘invention’ of leisure time, see A. Corbin et al. (1995) L’avènement des loisirs 1850–1960 (Paris: Aubiers). 130. V. de Grazia (1996) ‘Nationalising women. The competition between Fas- cist and commercial cultural models in Mussolini’s Italy’ in V. de Grazia with E. Furlough (eds.) The Sex of Things, (Berkeley & Los Angeles: Uni- versity of California Press) pp. 337–358. On comparable discourses in Nazi Germany see S. Baranowski (2004) Strength through Joy. Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) especially the introduction & chapter 5 and R. Koshar (2000) German Travel Cultures (Oxford: Berg), introduction and chapter 3. 131. Of course, for Adorno & Horkheimer, leisure and consumptive policy and practice in Mussolini’s Italy or Hitler’s Germany was simply a more extreme and overt form of a wider capitalist ‘culture industry’. They argued that leisure, or ‘amusement’ was effectively the ‘prolongation of work’. M. Horkheimer & T. Adorno (1972) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Philo- sophical Fragment (New York: Herder and Herder) ‘The culture industry: Enlightenment as mass deception’. 132. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent pp. 180–1. 133. M. Fincardi (2002) ‘I fasti della tradizione. Le ceremonie della nuova venezianità’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1495–9. 134. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent p. 55. 135. See, for example, R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Everyday Mussolinism’ pp. 23–4 and A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607. 136. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent passim. 137. M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ del antico leone’ pp. 445–474. 138. Il Ventuno March 1934 ‘Anti-funzione del caffè di piazza’. 139. Il Ventuno January 1934 ‘Notizia sui salotti’. 140. Ibid. 141. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187. The reception of the anti- sanctions resistance by Damerini and her social circle is discussed in Chapter 4. 142. See P. Morgan (1995) Italian Fascism 1919–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan) p. 143.

2 ‘Make way for the young’: Youth in fascist Venice

1. Michele Sarfatti argues that these early fascist policies, which dismantled Liberal Italy’s insistence on secularism and instead privileged Catholicism, amount to ‘the persecution of religious equality’ and thus hint at the fascist regime’s anti-Semitism from the start. See M. Sarfatti (2000) Gli ebrei nell’Italia fascista: una comunità tra persecuzione e rinascita (Turin: Einaudi), chapter 3. Notes 217

2. For a full discussion of fascist secondary education, see T. Koon (1985) Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialisation of Youth in Fascist Italy 1922–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press) chapter 2 or M. Isnenghi (1979) L’educazione dell’italiano. Il fascismo e l’organizzazione della cultura (Bologna: Nuova Capelli), passim. 3. An exception to this is A. Gibelli’s important volume (2005) Il popolo bambino. Infanzia e nazione dalla Grande Guerra a Salò (Turin: Einaudi). On education under fascism see: M. Isnenghi L’educazione dell’italiano; J. Charnitzky (1999) Fascismo e scuola. La politica scolastica del regime (1922– 1943) (Florence: La Nuova Italia); M. Galfré (2005) Il regime degli editori. Libri, scuola e fascismo (Rome-Bari: Laterza). Victoria de Grazia’s important work on The Culture of Consent (op. cit) addressed the regime’s attempts to influence Italians’ recreational activities and to organise ‘consensus’ through the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro, and the limitations of these attempts, but, of course, focused upon the experience of adults rather than children. 4. R. Zangrandi (1962 [1947]) Il lungo viaggio attraverso il fascismo: contributo alla storia di una generazione (Milan: Feltrinelli), passim; T. Koon Believe, Obey Fight, chapter 1. See also S. Colarizi (1991) L’Opinione degli italiani sotto il regime 1929–1943 (Rome-Bari: Laterza), and T.M. Mazzatosta (1978) Il regime fascista tra educazione e propaganda 1935–43 (Bologna: Cappelli). 5. L. La Rovere (2003) Storia dei GUF. Organizzazione, politica e miti della gioventù universitaria fascista 1919–1943 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri). R. Ben Ghiat (2004) Review. Journal of Modern Italian Studies vol 9.2. 6. The ideas of Chartier, Hoggart, Jauss and de Certeau are important in this regard, for their recognition of the act of reading as a productive act, in which the reader absorbs and responds to a text in the light of what they already know, or according to their pre-existing world-views and mental reference points. See R. Chartier (L.G. Cochrane trans.) (1987) The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press) passim; R. Hoggart (1992 [1957]) The Uses of Literacy (New Brunswick, Transaction Publications, 1992) passim; H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’ in New Literary History op. cit.; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life op. cit. 7. T. Koon Believe Obey, Fight p. 149. 8. T. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight pp. 95–6. 9. In 1936, 66 per cent of 8 to 14 year old girls were Piccole Italiane, dropping to just 15 per cent of young women enrolled in the Giovani Fasciste. Statis- tics from Istituto Centrale di Statistica VIII Censimento Generale, population figures at 2 April 1936; PNF membership figures at 28 October 1936, from Istituto Centrale di Statistica, Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1936. Cited in T. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight p. 179. 10. T. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight p. 181–3. 11. This figure covers the Venetian comune and thus includes Mestre and Marghera on the mainland in addition to the islands of Venice. 12. Rivista di Venezia March 1931 ‘La scuola comunale a Venezia nel 1930’ pp. 112–20. 13. For example, in the summer of 1936, 70 children of fishermen from Venice, Pellestrina and Chioggia were sent to an EOA-run camp on the mainland. ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie I b. 1187. 218 Notes

14. On the topics explored in children’s literature under fascism, see P. Palumbo (2003) ‘Orphans for the empire: colonial propaganda and children’s literature during the imperial era’ in idem (ed.), A Place in the Sun. Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press). 15. J. Neubauer (1992) The Fin-de-Siècle Culture of Adolescence (New Haven & London: Yale University Press) introduction. 16. Il Balilla 10 Jan. 1935 p. 3. 17. Ibid. 18. Gazzetta 13 Nov. 1938. The first Italian comics to include the Walt Disney creation Mickey Mouse, or Topolino in Italian, were published by the Nerbini publishing house in 1932. The Disney franchise was then taken over by the Mondadori subsidiary, API, in 1935. David Forgacs has suggested that the exception made for Walt Disney characters in the 1938 decree, which remained in force until the USA’s entry to the Second World War in 1941, was due partly to the popularity of these characters among the Italian public, but principally to the negotiating powers of Arnoldo Mondadori and his son Alberto, whose ability to find accommodation with the regime’s censorship regulations was well known. D. Forgacs (1990) Italian Culture in the Indus- trial Era 1880–1980. Cultural Industries, Politics and the Public (Manchester: Manchester University Press) pp. 57–8; 62–3. 19. A. Faeti (1997) “Il Corriere dei Piccoli” in M. Isnenghi (ed.) I Luoghi della Memoria. Personaggi e Date dell’Italia Unita (Rome-Bari: Laterza) pp. 151–163. 20. Corriere dei Piccoli 4 Nov. 1934, p.1; 11 Nov. 1934 p. 12; 18 Nov. 1934 p. 2; 2 Dec. 1934 p. 1; 23 Dec. 1934 p. 4. 21. Faeti ‘Il Corriere dei Piccoli’ p. 158. 22. N. Marsich ‘Giuochi e cantilene’ in Italia Nova 31 July 1933 pp. 24–6. 23. Il Balilla 22 Nov. 1934 p. 10. 24. Il Balilla 31 Jan. 1935 p. 14. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Il Balilla 4 Oct. 1934 ‘La ultima arma’ p. 11. 28. Il Balilla 22 Nov. 1934. 29. Il Balilla 18 Oct. 1934 p. 2. 30. Il Balilla 3 Jan. 1935 p. 6. 31. See, for example, Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 1 March 1936 p. 11. 32. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 10 November 1935 p. 11. 33. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 1 December 1935 p. 4. 34. Corriere dei Piccoli 2 February 1936 p. 8. 35. Corriere dei Piccoli 16 February 1936 p. 8. 36. Ibid. 37. Corriere dei Piccoli 9 February 1936 p. 12. The cartoon characters, Trilli and Trulli, two Italian girls, were depicted freeing a group of enslaved Ethiopian children by outwitting their captors, leaving Trilli and Trulli to first feed and then educate the freed children. 38. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 8 December 1935 p. 6. 39. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 15 December 1935 p. 7. 40. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 22 December 1935 p. 6. Notes 219

41. See, for example, the visit of an ‘Eskimo doctor’ in Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 1 March 1936, in which the visiting doctor is treated with similarly crude racial stereotyping as the Ethiopian, but in which the usual pattern of punishment being directed towards the family is observed. 42. See, for example, H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’ pp. 7–38; W. Iser The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response passim; P. Hohendahl (1977) ‘Introduction to reception aesthetics’, New German Critique n.10; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life passim. 43. A. Scotto di Luzio (1996) L’appropriazione imperfetta. Editori, biblioteche e libri per ragazzi durante il fascismo (Bologna: Il mulino) passim. 44. The archival material relating to the Premio da Ponte is held in the Archivio Municipale ‘la Celestia’ in Venice (AMV), Quinquennio (Quin.) 1931–5, IX- IV-8. The ﬁrst reference to the Premio da Ponte appears in documents from the quinquennio 1920–5. It is possible to surmise that the premio might have been established as part of a bequest by the local Da Ponte family, as was the case with the Premio da Maria – given each year to a young girl of primary school age – also mentioned in the archival material. 45. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8. 46. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by L.S., Scuola A. Gabelli; essay by S.M., Scuola A. Gabelli. 47. AMV Quin. 1931-5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.P., Scuola A Diaz; essay by A.B., Scuola S Samuele. 48. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 32. 49. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.V., Scuola Diedo. 50. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 18. 51. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 6. 52. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 25. 53. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 27. 54. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay 37. 55. Corriere dei Piccoli 13 Jan 1935 pp. 14–5. 56. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.V., Scuola Diedo. 57. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli. 58. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.B., Scuola Priuli, anonymous essay no. 10. 59. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 8. 60. Of those for whom their gender is known, ﬁve boys and seven girls preferred the Corriere, whilst one boy and one girl preferred the Gazzettino. 61. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 32. 62. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli. 63. As such the conferring of Sansepolcrista status was not made lightly. By way of example, one Venetian fascist wrote to Starace in October 1936 to request posthumous Sansepolcrista status for his ex-teacher, Giulia Marconi, who he said ‘sent her adhesion to the rally in Piazza S. Sepolcro’. Intransigent, the PNF replied that not having been physically present at the rally, this status could not be granted. ACS PNF Serie 1 b.1188 9.89.13. 64. See L. Passerini (1992) ‘Youth as a metaphor for social change: Fascist Italy and America in the 1950s’ in G. Levi & J.C. Schmitt (eds.) (C. Volk trans.) A History of Young People in the West. Vol 2 (Cambridge, Mass. & London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press) pp. 292–4. 220 Notes

65. G. Bottai ‘Giovani e più giovani’ Critica Fascista 15 November 1930; C. Pelizzi ‘Aprire le finestre’ Critica Fascista 1 September 1929; G.P. Gallegari G. ‘Elogio del vecchio’ Critica Fascista 15 November 1930: all cited in L. Passerini ‘Youth as a metaphor for social change’ pp. 294–5. 66. On il Ventuno: ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie 1. B. 362 6.1.71 and A. Follin & M. Quaranta (eds.) (1973) Le riviste giovanili del periodo fascista (Treviso: Canova). 67. Il Ventuno Feb. 1934 ‘Ieri e oggi’. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. ACS PCM Fascicolo 14.2 n. 7736, Raccomandata (30 Sept. 1936). 71. Gazzetta 19 Oct. 1936 ‘La consegna del gonfalone alla nuova legione Marinara’. See also ACS PCM Fascicolo 14.2 n. 7736, Raccomandata (30 Sept. 1936), Appunto per il Duce (7 Oct. 1936) and telegram from the Undersecretary of State to the President of the Council of Ministers to the Venetian Prefect (7. Oct. 1936). 72. Gazzetta 19 Oct. 1936 ‘La consegna del gonfalone alla nuova legione Marinara’. 73. Ibid. 74. Whilst not wishing to digress into a broad discussion of ‘generation’ and its problematic use as a historical category, it is worth noting that ‘generation’ is used here to indicate a set of people who are bound by (imagined) shared experience, which is subject to evolution and variation over time, and is not used either in the sense of an age-bound cohort group or a fixed stage in the life-course. The notion of generation as key to explaining societal dynamics and change was, of course, a prominent preoccupation of inter-war scholars in Europe, including Jose Ortega y Gasset and Karl Mannheim. J. Ortega y Gasset (1923) El tema de nuestro tiempo, published in English as (J. Cleugh trans) (1931) The Modern Theme (London: C W Daniel Co); K. Mannheim (1928) ‘Problem der Generationen’ in Kölner Vierteljahresschrift für Soziologie vol. 7. The significance of a shared formative experience, which shapes the subsequent experiences and collective identity of a generation, has also been central to later scholars’ understandings of the impact of the experience of the Great War on post-war society. R. Wohl (1980) The Generation of 1914 (London: Wiedenfeld & Nicholson). 75. ACS PNF Serie 1. B. 1184, letter for Ranieri to Starace 11 Oct. 1932.

3 Remembering the Serenissima: Festivals and celebrations in 1930s Venice

1. Gazzetta 22 August 1936. 2. The 1936 festa notturna was due to be broadcast on US as well as national radio, though in the event this was thwarted when the festival had to be postponed by a week due to adverse weather. The Istituto LUCE (L’Unione Cinematograﬁca Educativa) was the fascist organisation, inaugurated in 1924, to house the blossoming national cinema industry, under the control of the regime. 3. See, for example, Gazzetta 25 August 1935; Gazzettino 31 August 1936. 4. Gazzettino 25 August 1935. Notes 221

5. Ibid. 6. Gazzetta 31 August 1936. 7. See, for example, S. Cavazza (1997) Piccole patrie: feste popolari tra regione e nazione durante il fascismo (Bologna: Il Mulino), M. Berezin (1997) Making the Fascist Self. The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca: Cornell Uni- versity Press) chapter 5, and on Venice, M. Fincardi (2002) ‘I fasti della tradizione. Le ceremonie della nuova venezianità’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 2, pp. 1485–1522. 8. M. Horkheimer & T. Adorno Dialectic of Enlightenment.; V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent passim. 9. D.I. Kertzer and Power See also E. Durkheim (K.E. Fields trans.) (1995 [1912]) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press), especially p. xlix. 10. This broad point is made in M. Rolf (2006) ‘Die Feste der Macht und die Macht der Feste. Fest und Diktatir – zur Einleitung’ Journal of Modern European History vol. 4.1, pp. 39–59. 11. J. & J. Cormaroff (1991) Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) p. 199. 12. F.T. Marinetti (1910) ‘Against past-loving Venice’ in F.T. Marinetti (R. Flint ed.) (1971) Marinetti. Selected Writings (London). 13. On the ‘popular trains’ bringing daytrippers and holidaymakers to Venice see, S. Longo (2004) “Culture, tourism and fascism in Venice, 1919–1945” Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of London. 14. Le Tre Venezie April 1931 ‘Venezia, città di vita’. 15. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 11. 16. M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ dell’antico leone’ pp. 445–74. On the Venetian tourist ofﬁce see S. Longo ‘Culture, tourism and fascism’ pp. 39–44. 17. M. Fincardi (1995) ‘La secolarizzazione della festa urbana nell XIX secolo. L’immaginario del progresso nei carnivali italiani e d’oltrealpe’ Memoria e Ricerca 5, pp. 11–27; G. Turnaturi (1996) ‘Divertimenti italiani dall’Unità al fascismo’ in A. Corbin (ed.) L’invenzione del tempo libero 1850–1960 (Rome- Bari: Laterza) pp. 183–212. 18. G. Maranini Costituzione di Venezia dopo la serrata del maggior consiglio op. cit. p. 30. See also C. Povolo ‘The creation of Venetian historiography’ p. 508. 19. Italia Nova 31 December 1932. 20. Gazzetta 1 January 1933 ‘Un altro leone Veneto abbatuto’; Gazzettino 3 January 1933. 21. Gazzettino 26 April 1933. 22. ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1184 9.98.9. Letter from the Sindicati Fascisti dei Trasporti Terrestri e Navigazioni interni to PNF headquarters, 22 January 1933. 23. AMV Determinazioni Podestarili [henceforth DP] 1934 Trim. 2. ‘L’Amministrazione del comune di Venezia dal 15 luglio 1930-VIII al 15 luglio 1934-XII’ pp.53–4. 24. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938 ‘Spetacolo di Potenza marinara nel bacino di San Marco’. 222 Notes

25. This link was made in Manlio Dazzi’s 1937 study of Feste e costumi di Venezia (Venice: Zanetti) p. 7. M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione”’ p. 1486. 26. Gazzetta 26 April 1936. See also M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione’ p. 1487. 27. Gazzetta 1 September 1938. 28. M. Fincardi ‘La secolarizzazione della festa urbana nell XIX secolo’ pp. 11–27. 29. The decree was published in the Gazzetta on 18 January 1936. 30. Gazzetta 18 January 1936. 31. Italia Nova 28 February 1933. 32. M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione’ pp. 1499–1500. 33. Dizionario di politica vol. 1 (Rome, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1940) pp. 596–599. 34. Gazzetta 3 February 1934. 35. Reports of the festa delle Marie appearead in the Gazzetta on 3 and 4 February 1934 and 1 February 1935. After 1935 there is silence in relation to the festival in both the archival material and local press. I have therefore been unable to ascertain why the festa delle Marie ended almost as abruptly as it began. The records of the Venetian podestà reveal that the provincial OND twice sent written requests, in late 1933 and 1934, asking the comune to contribute to the ‘dowries’ of the Marie. On both occasions, the commune acquiesced to the OND’s request, noting in 1934 the ‘ﬁrst-rate success’ of the previous year’s festival. No mention in the podestà’s records of late 1935 is made of the festival, suggesting that no requests for funds were made by the OND. (AMV DP 1933 Trim. IV n. 74138 & 1934 Trim IV. N. 68947.) One might conjecture that the coming of the Ethiopian War in the autumn of 1935 and associated drive for autarky could have prompted the OND to shelve any plans to re-stage the festival a third time. Historian Silvio Tramontin, who wrote an article on the medieval festa delle Marie in the 1960s, suggested that the reason for the festival’s return to obscurity was perhaps due to ‘the wars and also perhaps because it was by now little felt by the people’. S. Tramontin (1966) ’na pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico: La festa de “Le Marie’ in La religiosità popolare nella valle padana. Atti del II convegno di studi sul folklore padano, Modena 19–21 marzo 1965 (Modena: ENAL) p. 417. 36. On the evolution of fascist welfare and pronatalist policies see M. Quine (2002) Italy’s Social Revolution. Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism (Basingstoke: Palgrave). 37. Gazzetta 1 Feb 1935. 38. C. Viviani ‘La Festa delle Marie nella storia e nell’arte’ in Rivista di Venezia January 1934 p. 12. The podestà’s records noted that alongside the comune’s donation of L.300 to each couple, ‘other fascist organisations will make their own contributions, offering the wedding breakfast and furniture for the bridal room’. AMV DP 1933 Trim IV. N. 74138 & 1934 Trim IV. N. 68947. 39. AMV DP 1933 Trim IV. N. 74138; Gazzetta 2 February 1934. 40. B. Mussolini (E. & D. Susmel eds.) (1951) Opera Omnia vol. 22 (Florence: La Fenice) p. 367. 41. V. De Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women. pp. 41–76. Notes 223

42. Gazzetta 1 February 1935. 43. Gazzetta 4 February 1934. 44. Gazzetta 2 February 1934. 45. Reported in ibid. 46. AMV DP 1934 Trim. 1 n. 8870. 47. Reported in Gazzetta 4 February 1934. 48. Reported in Gazzetta 3 February 1934. 49. Ibid. 50. La Settimana Religiosa 8 February 1934 ‘La festa delle ”Marie”’. 51. Descriptions of the medieval festival have been continually re-elaborated and retold over the centuries. The most recent attempts by historians to reconstruct the festival are those of Silvio Tramontin and Lina Urban. S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ op. cit.; L. Urban (1988) Tra sacro e profano. La festa delle Marie (Venice: Centro internazionale della graﬁca). 52. S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ pp. 403–9. 53. L. Urban Tra sacro e profano p. 33; S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ pp. 405 & 409–16. Tramontin notes that only from around 1400, and therefore after the festival had ceased to be cel- ebrated, did the Venetian chronicles begin to refer to the Marie as real people, leading him to conclude that they were never real. 54. Lina Urban even suggests that the lavish celebrations of the Marian festival of the Marie may have provided the impetus for the attack, rather than the attack providing the motive for the festival. L. Urban Tra sacro e profano p. 37. Tramontin, however, dismisses any link whatsoever between the Marian festival and the legend of the kidnapped bridges in the medieval incarnation of the festa. He suggests that it was only after the festival ceased to be observed that the two merged in local memory. S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ pp. 409–16. 55. M. Dazzi Feste e costumi di Venezia p. 4. 56. Gazzetta 4 February 1934; Gazzettino 4 February 1934. 57. Rivista di Venezia January 1934 p. 3. 58. Gazzetta 3 February 1935. 59. Gazzetta 4 February 1934. 60. La Settimana Religiosa 8 February 1934. 61. Gazzetta 4 February 1934. 62. Gazzetta 3 February 1934. 63. J. Perry (2005) ‘Nazifying Christmas: Political culture and popular celebration in the Third Reich’ Central European History vol. 38.4, pp. 573–4. 64. Gazzetta 24 December 1933. 65. Gazzetta 21 December 1935 ‘Come verrà celebrata a Venezia la Giornata della Madre e del bambino’. 66. Ibid. 67. Gazzetta 24 December 1939. 68. M. Quine Italy’s Social Revolution pp. 129–172 and idem. (1990) ‘From Malthus to Mussolini. The Italian Eugenics Movement and Fascist 224 Notes

Population Policy 1890–1938’ Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London, p.104. 69. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 46. 70. Ibid p. 47. 71. Le Tre Venezie December 1935 p. 592. 72. Ibid. 73. R. Pickering-Iazzi (2003) ‘Mass-mediated fantasies of feminine conquest, 1930–1940’ in P. Palumbo (ed.) A Place in the Sun. Africa in Italian Colo- nial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press) p. 207; R.J.B. Bosworth Mussolini’s Italy p. 385. 74. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 54. 75. Le Tre Venezie December 1936. 76. La Settimana Religiosa 24 December 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’. 77. La Settimana Religiosa 20 December 1936 ‘Fecondità perenne’. 78. Ibid. 79. La Settimana Religiosa 20 December 1936 ‘Fecondità perenne’. 80. La Settimana Religiosa 24 December 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’. 81. Ibid. This chimes with the findings of Giovanni Vian’s review of the Settimana Religiosa during the ‘years of consent’. G. Vian ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia’ pp. 85–115. 82. Bolletino Mensile dell’Ufficio di Statistica del Comune di Venezia (Venice 1930–4). 83. AND MP/And V. A. Me g’ha contà la nonna p. 218. 84. AND MP/And V. A. Me g’ha contà la nonna p. 165. 85. See: V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp. 49–51; M. Nash (1994) ‘Pronatalism and motherhood in Franco’s Spain’ in G. Bock. & P. Thane (eds.) Maternity and Gender Policies. Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s–1950s (London & New York: Routledge) pp. 160–175. 86. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. AND MP/86 p. 49. 87. M. Quine ‘From Malthus to Mussolini’ p. 247. 88. Gazzetta 25 December 1930 ‘Giornata di folle e di compere’. 89. Gazzetta 2 January 1936 ‘L’assedio economico e le feste’. 90. Gazzetta 2 December 1930. 91. Gazzetta 23 December 1932. 92. Gazzetta 26 December 1935. 93. Il Balilla 20 December 1934 p. 5. 94. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 29 December 1935 ‘Il fuoco natalizio’ p. 9. 95. AND DP/94 D.S.. Quaderni dei diarii 7 January 1941. 96. AND MP/91 E.S. Saper sorridere p. 54. 97. In this respect, he follows Berezin’s notion of fascist self-fashioning. J. Perry ‘Nazifying Christmas’ p.575. 98. Gazzetta 17 June 1938. 99. Ibid. 100. Gazzetta 17 June 1938. 101. Ibid. 102. Gazzettino 19 June 1938; Gazzetta 18 June 1938. 103. Gazzettino 19 June 1938. 104. Gazzetta 19 June 1938. Notes 225

105. Gazzetta 19 June1938 & 20 June 1938. 106. See, for example, Gazzettino 20 June 1938. 107. For more on this, see C. Fogu (2003) The Historic Imaginary Politics of History in Fascist Italy. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press) pp. 8–13. 108. Gazzettino 20 June 1938. 109. Each Ascension Day, the Venetian Doge would ride out to the waters of the Lido with his entourage in the Bucintoro, the state gondola, and drop a wedding ring into the water to symbolise Venice’s marriage to the sea. However, it must be acknowledged that the 1938 ceremony to honour those who died at sea with a laurel wreath was by no means peculiar to Venice – a similar ceremony took place on the same day at Civitavecchia, for example. 110. M. Isnenghi ‘La Grande Guerra’ in idem (ed.) I luoghi della memoria: Strutture ed eventi dell’Italia unita vol. 2. pp. 275–309. 111. Reported in Gazzetta 18 June 1938. 112. Gazzettino 18 June 1938. 113. For any Venetians not aware of the signiﬁcance and heroic histories of these individuals, their deeds were reported in the Gazzetta on 20 June 1938 and in the Gazzettino on 19 June 1938. 114. These were Bragadin, Marcello, Calvi and Farinati degli Uberti Tolosetti. 115. Gazzettino 19 June 1938. 116. Cardinal Piazza, sermon, 19 June 1938, reproduced in the Gazzetta 20 June 1938. 117. Ibid. 118. Gazzetta 20 June 1938. 119. Reported in Gazzetta 19 June 1938. 120. For example, Gazzetta 18 June 1938. 121. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 241. 122. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938. 123. Speech, reported in ibid. 124. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938. 125. See, for example, Gazzetta 20 June 1938 and Gazzettino 19 June 1938. 126. Gazzettino 19 July 1938. 127. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 241. 128. Ibid.

4 ‘Make every Italian family a fortress’: Consumption, family and constructing the ‘home front’ in Venice during the Ethiopian War

1. Reported in Gazzetta 19 December 1935. The population of Venice was 165,856 in 1932 according to the Bolletino Mensile dell’Ufﬁcio di Statistica del Comune di Venezia. 2. Gazzetta 19 December 1935. 3. Gazzetta 19 December 1935. 4. See Italia Nova 22 December 1935; 29 December 1935; 8 January 1936; 2 February 1936. In a recent article, Paul Corner observed the quick establishment of a market in steel rings following the ceremonies and continued pressure to donate wedding rings to the war effort. P. Corner (2010) ’Italian 226 Notes

fascism: organization, enthusiasm, opinion’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies 15.3, pp. 378–389. 5. On ‘tactics’ in everyday life see M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life pp. 29–39. 6. P. Willson (2007) ‘Empire, gender and the ”home front” in Fascist Italy’ Women’s History Review vol. 16.4, p. 488. 7. Ibid. 8. See, for example the Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo ad ogni costo’. 9. In this way, there are parallels with Belinda Davis’ research into the home front in First World War Berlin. B. Davis (1996) ‘Food scarcity and the empowerment of the female consumer in World War One Berlin’ in V. de Grazia with E. Furlough (eds.) The Sex of Things. pp. 287–310. 10. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 78. 11. B. Mussolini (E. & D. Susmel eds) Opera Omnia vol. 27 p. 266. 12. The dichotomy in how the impact of increased consumerism and the emergence of a mass consumer culture in interwar Europe has been interpreted has been set out by Victoria de Grazia in ‘Nationalising women. The competition between fascist and commercial cultural models in Mussolini’s Italy’ in idem. with E. Furlough E. (eds.) The Sex of Things pp. 337–9. See also M. Daunton & M. Hilton (eds.) (2001) The Politics of Consumption. Mate- rial Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America (Oxford & New York: Berg). 13. E. Weber (1976) Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford University Press); R. Bendix (ed.) (1964) Nation-Building and Citizenship (New York: Wiley). 14. A. Appadurai (1990) ‘Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy’ Public Culture vol. 2.3, pp. 1–24; S. Hall & M. Jacques (eds.) (1989) New Times: The Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s (London: Lawrence & Wishart); D. Harvey (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Basil Blackwell). 15. V. de Grazia ‘Nationalising women’ pp. 340–2. 16. See ibid. 17. See the speech by Mussolini to the National Assembly of Corporations on ‘Il Piano Regolatore della nuova economia italiana’ in B. Mussolini (E. & D. Susmel eds.) Opera Omnia vol 27 pp. 241–8. See also P. Morgan (1995) Italian Fascism 1919–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan) p. 166. 18. On the sanctions see G. Federico (2003) ‘Le sanzioni’ in V. de Grazia & S. Luzzatto (eds.) Dizionario del fascismo vol. 2 (Turin: Einaudi) pp. 590–2. 19. P. Morgan Italian Fascism p. 143; C. A. Ristucia (2000) ‘The 1935 sanctions against Italy: would coal and oil have made a difference?’ European Review of Economic History vol. 4.1, pp. 85–110. 20. G. Federico ‘Le sanzioni’ pp. 590–2. 21. G. Fontana ‘L’economia’ pp. 1472–3. 22. S. Falasca Zamponi Fascist Spectacle p. 172. 23. See the Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 17 November 1935; 25 November 1935. 24. Le Tre Venezie November 1935 p. 543. 25. Il Ventuno September–October 1935 pp. 1–2. 26. P. Morgan Italian Fascism p. 143. Notes 227

27. See S. Falasca-Zamponi S. Fascist Spectacle p. 173. 28. Gazzetta 19 November 1935 ‘La prima giornata della rivolta all’assedio’. 29. Ibid. 30. Gazzetta 19 November 1935 ‘Le sanzioni e le scuole’. 31. Gazzetta 6 November 1935. 32. Ibid 31 October 1935. 33. Gazzetta 17 November 1935 ‘La resistenza contra l’ofensiva sanzionistica’. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. Italia Nova 12 January 1936; Gazzetta 17 November 1935. 37. Gazzetta 17 November 1935 ‘La resistenza contra l’ofensiva sanzionistica’. 38. Similarly, the local fascist party bulletin, Italia Nova, stipulated that ‘foreign goods already paid for and in our homes are now part of the national pat- rimony and should therefore be consumed’ while urging shopkeepers who had stocks of such goods remaining to sell these at discounted prices. Italia Nova 15 December 1935 ‘parlar chiaro’. 39. Gazzetta 12 November 1935; 13 November 1935. 40. Gazzetta 21 November 1935 ’L’implacabile resistenza alle sanzioni’. 41. Ibid. 42. The description is from the Gazzetta 17 November 1935. 43. Commandments 1–4 and 7 in full:

1) Eliminate meat from meals on Tuesdays and Wednesdays and do not make provisions for meat in the preceding days. 2) Only purchase Italian products, both in foodstuffs and clothing, fur- nishings etc. Always refuse what comes from abroad. 3) Try to economise as much as possible in everything: lights, gas, heat- ing, foodstuff, especially luxury objects and eliminate ‘caprices’. This is directed particularly to the better-off because it’s those who have a lot of money who can make the greatest savings! 4) Choose foods which represent the highest nutrition value for the lowest cost. Here too caprices are forbidden. [...] 7) FOR THOSE WITH LAND OR EVEN A MINUTE GARDEN. Plant – at the appropriate time - carrots, potatoes, beans, tomatoes; build a little chicken run so as to make use of even the least kitchen scraps and to have fresh eggs for your family. If the land permits it, keep a pair of kid goats. You will have the best milk, superior to cow’s milk, for your little ones and for the less fortunate children of the neighbourhood. Gazzetta 17 Nov. 35.

44. Commandments 5–6 in full:

5) Devote your activities not to useless pastimes and frivolous entertainments but to the strict observance of order and economy both within your own family and among acquaintances and friends. Help those who have less experience than us with your own experience and wise advice. 6) Dedicate at least an hour a day to the making of clothing for those who have less than we do and for our soldiers in East Africa. Speciﬁcally: out- ﬁts for newborns and children, for all the children whose fathers are far away. For our soldiers: body belts, woolen socks and scarves, balaclavas etc. Ibid. 228 Notes

45. Gazzetta 17 November 1935. 46. Ibid. 47. Gazzettino 9 May 1936. 48. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 17 November 1935 ‘Pik e Puk’ p. 6. 49. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 8 March 1936 ‘Distrattoni e ‘linglese’ p. 8. 50. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 12 June 1936 ‘Toni è molto discreto . . . ’. 51. See, for examples of such stereotypical depictions, the illustrations in R. Segrè (1995) Gli ebrei a Venezia. Una comunità tra persecuzione e rinascista (Venice: il cardo). 52. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 26 April 1936 ‘Topolino e il medico sanzionista’. 53. See, for example, Gazettino dei Ragazzi 8 December 1935 ‘Roberto e le sanzioni’ p. 9. 54. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo ad agoni costo’ p. 4. On the memory of 1848 in Venice, see E. Cecchinato (2003) La Rivoluzione Restaurata: Il 1848–1849 a Venezia fra memoria e oblio (Padua: il poligrafo). 55. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo ad agoni costo’ p. 4. 56. This observation is made in V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 78. 57. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 83. 58. Ibid pp. 88–94. 59. The recourse of German women to the repressive apparatus of the Nazi state as attempts to resolve family crises is described by Vandana Joshi in (2002) ‘The ‘private’ became ‘public’: Wives as denouncers in the Third Reich’ Journal of Contemporary History vol. 37.3, pp. 419–435. 60. De Grazia discusses the idea of the family as a ‘private haven’ in fascist Italy: V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp.79–82. In the case of Nazi Germany, the thesis of the family unit as a shield from Nazism was advanced by Diewald-Kerkmann, although the impenetrability of this shield has been called into question by Joshi’s research. See G. Diewald- Kerkmann (1996) Politische Denunziation im NS-Regime (Bonn) p. 126 and V. Joshi ‘The “private” became “public”’ pp. 433–4. 61. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 138–144. 62. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp. 112–5. 63. On the evolutions of Fascist food policy see C. Helstosky (2004) Garlic and Oil: Politics and Food in Italy (Oxford: Berg) and idem (2004) ‘Fascist food politics: Mussolini’s policy of alimentary sovereignty’ in Journal of Modern Italian Studies vol. 9.1, pp. 1–26. 64. See Gazzetta 7 November 1935; 12 November 1935; 14 November 1935. 65. Lists of ﬁxed maximum prices, both wholesale and commercial, were regularly published in local newspapers in order that consumers could ensure for themselves that the ﬁxed-price directives were being observed. See, for example, the Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 14 November 1935; 22 November 1935. 66. AMV Quin. 1931–5. XI-5-1. Circular from the Venetian prefecture to the podestà no. 3152, 2 Dec. 1935. See also Gazzetta 30 October 1935. 67. ‘Il Bolletino federale’, reproduced in Gazzetta 27 October 1935; see also Gazzetta 7 November 1935. 68. Italia Nova 15 December 1935. 69. Gazzetta 8 November 1935. Notes 229

70. Gazzettino 14 December 1935 ‘Saponi e sanzioni’. 71. Il Gazzettino Illustrato 1 December 1935; 15 December 1935; 22 Decem- ber 1935. 72. See T. Plebani (1995) Sapori del Veneto: Note per una storia sociale dell’alimentazione (Rome: Edizioni De Luca). 73. Il Gazzettino Illustrato 24 December 1935 ‘Il consiglio del medico: Frutta e verdure nostrane’. 74. Ibid. 75. Gazzetta 20 November 1935 ‘La “Salute” senza castradina’. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid. 78. With pointed symbolism, the Venetian podestà donated the gold medal awarded to Mestre in recognition of its citizens’ valour during the 1848 siege, as well as other medals from the Risorgimento era, as part of the gold collection ceremonies. AMV Det. Pod. n. 69230, 13 December 1935. 79. Gazzetta 17 November 1935. ‘Aquistate prodotti italiani’. 80. Gazzetta 16 & 17 November 1935. 81. Gazzetta 2 December 1935; 9 December 1935. 82. Reported in Gazzetta 21 November 1935 p. 4. Further lists of shopkeepers who had disobeyed the ﬁxed-price directives were published, as part of their punishment, on 12 November, 15 November, 16 November and 5 December. 83. Italia Nova 19 January 1936. 84. AMV Quin. 1931–5 XI-5-I letter from prefecture to the podestà 25 November 1935; Italia Nova 12 April 1936; 19 January 1936. 85. Italia Nova 15 December 1935. 86. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187. 87. A.B. Ricordi di guerra di un diciassettenne 1940–45 AND MP/02 p. 20. 88. Gazzetta 20 November 1935 ‘Il metodico sviluppo della lotta contro le sanzioni’. 89. Letter from Michele Pascolato to Giovanni Marinelli, 13 November 1935 ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12. 90. Letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Michele Pascolato, 23 November 1935 ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12. 91. Letter from Michele Pascolato to Giovanni Marinelli, 21 January 1936 ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12. 92. Letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Michele Pascolato 30 January 1936 ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12. 93. Gazzetta 10 November 1935. 94. Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 12 November 1935. 95. Italia Nova 22 December 1935. 96. See Gazzetta 14 December 1935 ‘Per la nostra vita indipendente dale sanzioni’. 97. Ibid. 98. Ibid. 99. See, for example, E. Paulicelli (2004) Fashion under Fascism. Beyond the Black Shirt (Oxford: Berg) and S. Gnoli (2000) La donna, l’eleganza, il fascismo. La moda italiana dalle origini all’Ente nazionale della Moda. (Catania: Edizioni del Prisma). 230 Notes

100. M. di Giorgio (2003) ‘Moda’ in Dizionario del fascismo vol. 2, p. 140. 101. Ibid. pp. 141–2. 102. S. Gnoli La donna, l’eleganza, il fascismo p. 68. 103. Ibid. pp. 30–1. 104. V. de Grazia ‘Nationalising women’; M. Vincent (2002) ‘Camisas Nuevas: Style and Uniformity in the Falange Española 1933–43’ in W. Parker (ed.) Fashioning the Body Politic. Dress, Gender, Citizenship (Oxford: Berg) pp. 167–187. 105. Vita Femminile April 1936 p. 9, cited in S. Gnoli La donna, l’eleganza, il fascismo p. 93. 106. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 82. 107. Gazzetta 2 December 1935 ‘Eleganze, consigli e posta delle lettrine: Parliamo alle donne’. 108. Ibid. 109. Ibid. 110. Gazzetta 23 December 1935 ‘Eleganze, consigli, posta delle lettrine’. 111. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 186. 112. Ibid. p. 187. 113. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187. 114. R.J.B. Bosworth Mussolini’s Italy. 115. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 186. 116. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. ADN MP/86 pp. 55–6.

5 Death in Venice: The ‘fascistisation’ of funerals and the rituals of death

1. Gazzetta 3 June 1936. 2. Gazzetta 11 June 1936 ‘Le esequie del cap. Eugenio Manetti’. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej. 6. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina Codré to Benito Mussolini. 7. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej, 20 May 1930. 8. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self,chapter6. 9. E. Gentile The Sacralisation of Politics in Fascist Italy p. 27. 10. For this argument in full, see ibid, passim. 11. These themes are explored in C. Fogu (2003) The Historic Imaginary op. cit. and M. Neocleous (2005)’ “Long live death!” Fascism, resurrection, immortality’ Journal of Political Ideologies vol. 10.1 pp. 31–45. 12. See M. Neocleous ‘Long live death!’, especially pp. 40–6 and C. Fogu (1996) ‘Fascism and historic representation. The 1932 Garibaldian celebrations’, Journal of Contemporary History vol. 31.2 especially pp. 333–5. 13. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, 9.89.6 ‘Inventory of furniture, machinery etc. bought for the headquarters of the Venetian Fascio in the Notes 231

year VIII’. Giovanni Cattelan was a Venetian squadrista who transferred his allegiance from communism to fascism and was killed at the age of 19 by Venetian communists as punishment for his defection. In retaliation for his death, a group of Venetian squadristi attacked the Castello branch of the Communist Party, ‘punishing’ the 30 communists found there, two of whom were taken to the local fascio for further interrogation. The leader of the Venetian fascio ordered shops and public services to shut and tricolours to be displayed in every home during the ‘grandiose funerary ceremonies’ of the newly martyrised Cattelan. M. Franzinelli (2003) Squadristi: Protagonisti e techniche della violenza fascista 1919–1922 (Milan: Mondadori) p. 55. See also R. Vicentini Il movimento fascista pp. 260–1 and G. Albanese Alle origini del fascismo p. 237. 14. AMV DP Trim. III n. 30613. 15. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy pp. 117–9. 16. On Italy, see, for example, B. Tobia (1991) Una patria per gli italiani: spazi, itinerari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870–1900) (Rome-Bari: Laterza) and A. Banti (2000) La nazione del risorgimento (Turin: Einaudi). On the roots of the post war cultures of death in Europe more widely, see J. Winter (1995) Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning. The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press) passim. 17. R. Koselleck (2002) The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History, Spacing Concepts (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press) pp. 265–84; D.I. Kertzer. Ritual, Politics and Power chapter 4. 18. G. Mosse (1990) Fallen Soldiers. Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press) p. 4. 19. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self p. 206. 20. P. Ariès (1974) Western Attitudes towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press); E. Becker (1973) The Denial of Death (New York: Free Press); G. Gorer (1965) Grief and Mourning in Contemporary Britain (London: Cresset). 21. R. Grifﬁn (1993) The Nature of Fascism (London, Routledge). 22. L. Riall (2007) Garibaldi. Invention of a Hero (New Haven & London: Yale University Press) pp. 357–361. 23. B. Tobia (1999) ‘Urban space and monuments in the “nationalization of the masses”: The Italian case’ in S. Woolf (ed.) Nationalism in Europe. 1815 to the Present (London & New York: Routledge) pp. 171–191; idem. Una patria per gli italiani; D. Atkinson, D. Cosgrove & A. Notaro (1999) ‘Empire in modern Rome: shaping and remembering an imperial city 1870–1911’ in F. Driver & D. Gilbert (eds.) Imperial Cities. Landscape, Display and Identity (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press); I. Porciani (1997) La festa della nazione: rappresentazione dello stato e spazi sociale nell’Italia unita (Bologna: Il mulino), M. Isnenghi (1994) L’Italia in piazza: I luoghi della vita pubblica dal 1848 ai nostri giorni (Bologna: Il mulino); U. Levra (1992) Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento (Turin: Comitato di Torino dell’Istito per la storia del Risorgimento italiano). 24. C. Fogu ‘Fascism and historic representation’ pp. 331–5. 25. For more on the commonplaces of the Great War, see M. Isnenghi ‘La Grande Guerra’ in idem. (ed.) I Luoghi della Memoria vol 3 pp. 275–309. 232 Notes

26. For a contemporary account of the inseparability of D’Annunzio and Venice, see G. Damerini (1943) D’Annunzio e Venezia (Milan: Mondadori). See also E. Mariano (ed.) (1991) D’Annunzio e Venezia: atti del convegno, Venezia 28–30 ottobre 1988 (Rome: Lucarini) and M. Leeden (1975) D’Annunzio aFiume(Rome-Bari, Laterza) published in English as The First Duce: D’Annunzio at Fiume (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977). 27. M. Isnenghi (1991) ‘Venezia e l’ideologia della venezianità’ in E. Mariano (ed.) D’Annunzio e Venezia: atti del convegno, Venezia 28–30 ottobre 1988 (Rome: Lucarini) p. 231; Gazzettino 2 September 1938; Gazzetta 5 September 1938. 28. G. D’Annunzio (1995 [1921]) Notturno (Milan: Mondadori). 29. G. D’Annunzio Notturno pp. 26–7. English translation from: G. D’Annunzio (R. Rosenthal trans.) (1993) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death (London: Quartet Books) pp. 223–5. 30. G. D’Annunzio Notturno p. 28. English translation: G. D’Annunzio (R. Rosenthal trans.) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death p. 226. 31. M. Puccini ‘Un giorno alla Città universitaria’ in Il Ventuno June 1938 p. 45. 32. Ibid. 33. G. D’Annunzio Notturno p29. English translation: G. D’Annunzio (R. Rosenthal trans.) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death p. 227. 34. Gazzetta 16 February 1937 ‘Cronache funebre’. 35. In Spain during the civil war both the Falange and members of the JAP (the youth wing of the Catholic party before it was subsumed into the Falange) would reply ‘Present’ or ‘Present and Forwards!’ when the names of their dead comrades were called out. During Franco’s dictatorship, Jose Antonio’s name was always followed by ‘Presente’. In Germany, the roll call is recorded as having taken place in 1935 at the Ehrentempel in Munich as part of the commemorative celebrations for the reburial on 8 November 1935 of the exhumed corpses of the 13 ‘blood martyrs’ of the Munich Putsch. ’At the Ehrentempel the names of the sixteen “blood witnesses” were called out individually, the chorus of Hitler Youth responded to the intonation of each name with the cry, “Here!” and after each cry there shots rang out in salute.’ P. Connerton (1989) How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 42–3. 36. Dizionario della politica vol 1. (Rome, 1940) pp. 146–7. 37. C. Fogu Fascism and Historic Representation: pp. 331–5. 38. In this regard, this study ﬁnds itself in agreement with Claudio Fogu’s interpretation of the roll call and at odds with that of Emilio Gentile. C. Fogu Fascism and Historic Representation p. 335; E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics p. 27. 39. All death notices carried in the Gazzetta and Gazzettino newspapers and all funerals reported in the Gazzetta between the months of January to March, 1929–1939, were surveyed; a total of 1,429 death notices and 19 funeral reports. It must be acknowledged that these statistics can only incor- porate those funerals that were reported in the newspapers. As might be expected, these tended to be the funerals of individuals who were prominent professionally, politically, socially or culturally, those who were killed in combat, either in Ethiopia or Spain, or those who died in otherwise untimely Notes 233

or unusual circumstances. Given that these people are perhaps more likely to be considered to have ‘actively contributed to the reconstruction of Italian life promoted by Fascism’, one might surmise that the percentage of the entire cohort of funerals held in Venice during the 1930s which included the roll call must be even lower. 40. For example, Gazzetta 2 September 1930 and 3 September 1930. 41. Gazzetta 13 September 1936. 42. Ibid. 43. The notion of the regime ‘colonising time’ is borrowed from Mabel Berezin’s Making the Fascist Self chapter 5 ‘Colonizing time: Rhythms of fascist ritual in Verona’. 44. T. Edensor (2006) ‘Reconsidering national temporalities: institutional time, everyday routines, serial spaces and synchronicities’ in European Journal of Social Theory vol. 9.4 pp. 525–545. 45. Gazzetta 15 February 1936 ‘La ferocia abyssina. Un feroce episodio narrato da un legionario veneziano’. 46. Ibid. 47. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina Codré to Benito Mussolini. 48. The phrase ‘suicide state’ belongs to Mark Neocleous (M. Neocleous “‘Long live death!” Fascism, resurrection, immortality’ p. 41). In discussing fascism’s suicidal tendency, Foucault referred primarily to Nazi Germany. See M. Foucault (D. Macey trans.) (2003) Society Must Be Defended. Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–76 (London: Allen Lane) p. 260. 49. B. Mussolini, in collaboration with G. Gentile ‘Foundations and Doctrine of Fascism (1932)’ in J.T. Schnapp (ed.) (2000) A Primer of Italian Fascism (Lincoln, Ne.: University of Nebraska Press) p. 52. Cited in M. Neocleous ‘Long live death!’ p. 41. 50. Gazzetta 6 February 1938 ‘L’eroica morte in Spagna d’un Padre Francescano di S. Michele’. 51. Ibid. 52. Gazzetta 30 March 1936 ‘L’eroico sacrificio di padre Reginaldo Giuliani/ Rievocato dal Dominicano Acerbi in Palazzo Ducale’. 53. M. Stone The Patron State pp. 213–4. 54. Ibid. 55. In this context, ‘official’ participation refers to the presence of uniformed fascist groups, with or without flags etc., who played some kind of active role in the funereal rites, or the including of ‘fascist’ elements within the rites, such as the anthem ‘Giovinezza’. 56. Gazzetta 11 June 1936. 57. Gazzetta 30 March 1936 ‘L’eroico sacrificio di padre Reginaldo Giuliani/ Rievocato dal Dominicano Acerbi in Palazzo Ducale’. 58. Ibid. 59. M. Isnenghi ‘Monte Grappa’ in idem (ed.) I luoghi della memoria vol 1. passim. 60. La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935; Gazzetta 10 July 1935. 61. Gazzetta 10 July 1935. 62. See, for example, Gazzetta 10 July 1935; Gazzettino 10 July 1935; La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935. 234 Notes

63. Gazzetta 10 July 1936. 64. S. Tramontin (1979) ‘Il cardinal La Fontaine, Patriarca di Venezia e I fascisti dopo la marcia su Roma’ Storia Contemporanea vol. 3, pp. 481–519; G. Vian (2003) ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’ in Storia e problemi contemporanea (Bologna, Rivista dell’Instituto regionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione nelle Marche, Ed. Clueb) passim. 65. Gazzetta 12 July 1935 ‘Il commosso omaggio dei veneziani’; Gazzettino 12 July 1935. 66. La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935. 67. Gazzetta 12 July 1935. 68. Gazzetta 13 July 1935; Gazzettino 13 July 1935; La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935. 69. Gazzettino 13 July 1935. 70. Ibid. 71. Speech by Mario Alverà, podestà of Venice 12 July 1935, reproduced in the Gazzetta 13 July 1935. 72. Gazzettino 13 July 1935. 73. Cardinal Pietro La Fontaine, sermon 25 December 1916, reproduced in La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935. 74. Gazzetta 1 March 1936. 75. Gazzetta 16 February 1934. 76. Gazzetta 18 February 1936. 77. See for example Gazzetta 27 February 1933. More on Maria Pezzè Pascolato’s life can be found in N.M. Fillippini (2002) ‘Storia delle donne: culture, mestieri, proﬁli’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1623–1662. On the establishment of the Fasci femminili nationally, see V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women. Italy 1922–1945 pp. 30–5. 78. Gazzetta 24 February 1933. 79. Gazzetta 28 February 1933 ‘Il cordoglio per la morte di Maria Pezzè Pascolato’. 80. Ibid. See also Gazzettino 28 February 1933. 81. Gazzetta 28 February 1933. 82. See, for example, the Gazzetta 1 March 1933 ‘L’imponente manifestazione di omaggio alla salma di Maria Pezzè Pascolato’. 83. Ibid. 84. ibid. 85. Gazzetta 27 February 1935. 86. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina Codré to Benito Mussolini. 87. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej, 20 May 1930. 88. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self pp. 236–242.

Epilogue and conclusion

1. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite AND MP/99 p. 11. That said, because of the chemical, steel and petroleum plants, Porto Marghera and Mestre on the mainland were targeted by allied bombers. On two occasions the centro Notes 235

storico also came under aerial attack: on 14 August 1944 a German hospi- tal ship moored off the Punto della Dogana at the entrace to the Grand Canal was hit, along with two vaporetti which happened to be alongside, killing over 30 people. On 13 October 1944 a commuter ferry boat was sunk off Pellestrina with the loss of more than 100 lives. R. Liucci (2002)’“Il ‘43 – ‘45’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 3. pp. 1741–1768. 2. The Ministry of Public Works, part of the Foreign Ministry and the Instituto LUCE all made their home in Venice between September 1943 and April 1945. 3. R. Liucci ‘Il ’43 – ‘45’ p. 1750. 4. Gazzettino 23 January 1941 & 25 August 1941. On tourist Venice during the war see R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ pp. 13–17. See also E. Franzina (2002) ‘Il ‘fronte interno’ sulle lagune. Venezia in Guerra (1938–1943)’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 3 pp. 1685–1739. 5. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite ADN MP/99 p. 11. 6. R.d.C. MichiamoR.d.C.aisuoicomandiADN MP/86. 7. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite ADN MP/99 p. 11. 8. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna ADN MP/a p. 229. 9. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 266. 10. Maria Damerini’s account of the end of the Gazzetta is described in her memoir. See Mario Isnenghi’s preface to M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone pp. 13–17 and also I cento anni del “Gazzettino”. 1887–1987.(Turin, Gutenberg 2000, 1987) p. 24. 11. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 272–3. 12. C. Fogu The Historic Imaginary. Politics of History in Fascist Italy, passim. 13. Speech made by the Venetian podestà, Mario Alverà, on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Battle of the Piave, reported in the Gazzetta 18 Jun.1938 ‘Venezia acclamerà oggi il Re Imperatore’. See Chapter 3. 14. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8. Essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli. See Chapter 2. 15. This compares with 46 per cent of Corriere readers who made no mention of fascism whatsoever and 12 per cent who explicitly wrote of fascism in their essays. See Chapter 2. 16. F. Pasinetti ‘Ieri e oggi’ Il Ventuno Feb. 1934. 17. Letter from Ranieri to Starace 11 Oct. 1932. ACS PNF Serie I, b. 1184. 18. Introduction to G. Maranini Costituzione di Venezia dopo la serrata del Maggior Consiglio, cited in C. Povolo ’The Creation of Venetian Historiography’ p. 508. 19. Rivista di Venezia Jan. 1934, p. 3. See Chapter 3. 20. Venezia. (Venice, Comune di Venezia, Ufﬁcio per il turismo, 1938). 21. Gazzetta 4 Feb. 1934. 22. From Mario Alverà’s speech reported in the Gazzetta 18 Jun. 1938. See Chapter 3. 23. Gazzetta 19 Dec. 1935 ‘Unanime di fervida passione il popolo veneziano ha compiuto il sacro rito dell’offerta della “fede” alla patria’. See Chapter 4. 24. Patriarch, Cardinal Piazza’s speech, reported in the Gazzetta 20 Jun. 1938 ‘Spettacolo di potenza marinara in Bacino di San Marco’. See Chapter 3. 25. See Chapter 5. 236 Notes

26. Such as the violent scufﬂes that broke out between members of the Venetian branches of the GUF and FUCI during the ‘crisis’ of 1931; see Chapter 2. 27. Settimana Religiosa 24 Dec. 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’. See Chapter 3 p. 155. 28. P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 325–51. 29. The quotation is from R. Ben Ghiat ‘Review of L. La Rovere (2003) Storia dei GUF. Organizzazione, politica e miti della gioventù universitaria fascista 1919– 1943 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri) in the Journal of Modern Italian Studies vol. 9.2, 2004. 30. Motta E ‘La scuola comunale a Venezia nel 1930’ in Rivista di Venezia, Mar. 1931, pp. 112–20. 31. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone. p. 52: see Chapter 1. Select general bibliography

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Abyssinia see Ethiopian War Association of Mothers and Widows of Accademia 28 Fallen Soldiers 129 Acerbi, Padre 175, 176 Associazione Famiglie Caduti 112–13 Adalberto, Folador 142 Associazione Nazionalista Italiana Adamo Bazzani, Ada 136 21, 39 Adriatic fascism 33–8, 191 Ateneo Veneto 101 Adriatic Sea 79, 116 Audisio, Seraﬁno 37 Venice’s ‘right’ to dominate 87 Austria 40, 109, 116, 136 see also Eastern Adriatic lands air-raids from 22, 29, 178, 180 agrarian fascism 34 uprising against (1848) 115, 196 Albania 40 Austrian Consulate in Venice 133 alcohol 1, 12, 31 autarky 109, 123, 124, 143, 148, 151, spaces associated with 2, 48 199 Alexandria 94 patriotic 138 Alltagsgeschichte 3, 4, 6 sanctions and 125–8, 137, 152 Alpini 176 auto-consumption 146, 147 Altino (ferry ship) 41 Avanguardisti 54, 62, 89, 179, 183 Alverà, Mario 29, 38, 85, 88, 93, avogadori 42 113–14, 116, 160, 180, 196 Azzurri di Dalma 176 Anghiar (Garibaldi’s negro) 61 anti-bourgeois campaign 34, 49, 127, Baldinelli, Armando 175–6 130, 201 Balilla organisations 54, 69, 72, 114, anti-fascism 2, 32, 33, 201 179, 183, 200, 201 activities deemed 151 see also ONB resistance size and contribution Bandiera Rossa 1 of 9 barbarity 4, 79, 94, 173–4 youth and 53 supposed 64 appello fascista/rito fascista 169–71, bars 2, 8, 34, 42, 43, 48 176, 182, 183 Battle of the Piave (1918) 88 Applegate, C. 39 anniversary celebrations 29, 30, Aquileja (ferry ship) 41 50, 85, 109–20, 193, 195, 197 Arditi 176 Becker, E. 162 Arendt, H. 13 Bellavitis, G. 30 Ariès, P.G. 162 Belluno 31, 88 aristocracy 18, 21, 30, 36, 40, 48, Ben Ghiat, R. 53 143, 184, 188 Benghazi 88 Armando Diaz primary school 67, 71 Berezin, M. 186 Arsenale 24, 110, 112, 115, 195 Bergamo 23, 88 arsenalotti 89 Bersaglieri 176 Assicurazioni Generali (insurance Biadene, Galeazzo 49 company) 46 Bianchi, Franco 58 Association of Infantrymen 176 Bielefeld school 3

244 Index 245

Biennale exhibitions 23, 148, 175, Campo San Bartolomeo 26, 107 176, 188 Campo San Maurizio 166 biennio rosso 22, 34, 35, 89, 159, 184 Campo Santa Margherita 27, 42 birth-rates 103 Casa del Popolo, Casa rossa del Bisacco, Alfonso 37 Malcanton 35 black market 189 Cannaregio 27, 35, 42, 46, 92, 129 Blackshirts 42, 61–2, 112, 156 population growth 28 deaths/funerals 169, 172, 174–7, Canzone del Piave 110, 112, 180, 197 180, 184 capitalism 3, 34, 159 political violence against real and imagined opponents 12 Capon (osteria) 42 blat 5, 6, 31 Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 22, 113, bocolo 89 165 Bologna 37 Caprera 163 Bonfanti, Aldo 71 carabinieri 176, 183 Bonmartini, Ninetto 190 Carnival celebrations 43, 63, 87, Bortolon, Padre 174 89–90 Bosworth, R. J. B. 20, 27, 86 Carta della Scuola (1939) 53 Bottai, Giuseppe 53, 77, 78–9, 81, Casanova, G. 40 106 Case della Madre e dei Bambini 101, bourgeoisie 42, 43, 96, 151, 188 102 imagined lifestyle 130 Case Rurali 35 tirade against unpatriotic practices castellani and nicolotti 89 131 Castello 28, 92, 93, 129, 142 upper 30, 143 see also anti-bourgeois campaign Calle Mora, near Campiello della Bragadin, Marcantonio 114–15 Madoneta 26 Brandolin Marcello, Contessa Ponte de la Comenda 26, 32 Vendramina 49, 102, 129, 131 Via Garibaldi 35, 42 Brass, Italico 83 see also San Pietro di Castello Brass, Sandro 89 castradina 140, 143 Bressan, Giorgio 71 Catalano, Ada 117 Britain 127, 135 Catholic Action 37, 44, 48, 55 Brunetta, Padre 174 brought under direct control of Bucca, Captain 176 bishoprics 45–6 Bucintoro society 115 group outlawed by decree 45 Burano 24, 183 Catholic Church 17 fascist regime and 44, 51, 119, Ca’ Foscari University 167 179–80, 192, 196 Ca’ Littorio 112, 113, 115, 121, symbols and rites 96, 116, 119, 128–9, 134, 160 163, 164, 192 Cadel, Angelo 1, 2 Caduti del Mare 112, 116 see also church and state caduti fascisti 160 Catholic parties/associations see Case see also Associazione Famiglie Caduti; Rurali; Catholic Action; FUCI; Caduti del Mare Leghe Bianchi Calvi, Pier Fortunato 115 Cattelan, Giovanni 160 Camera del Lavoro 27, 42 Cavalchina ball 43, 89 Camicie Nere (III gruppo) 174 cenerentolo dei campi 25 246 Index centro storico 24, 26, 27, 30–1, 35, 36, comics see publications 189 commemorative cults 113, 161, 162, decline of traditional industries 201 126, 150 communism 35, 47 economic life at virtual standstill complaisance 12, 13 22 Concordia (ferry ship) 41 poorer inhabitants cajoled out of Confino, A. 39 85–6 confraternities 43, 179 unemployment rise 25 consent for fascism 8–9, 11–13, 103, centurie marinari 179 199 Certeau, M. de 4, 11, 15, 199 apparatus geared towards Chanel, Coco 150 engendering 10, 198 Children’s Library 185 attempts to foster culture of 84 child-bearing high point of support and 50, 128 cost of 106 political 48 outside marriage 105 see also ‘years of consent’ Chioggia, Battle of (1380) 18 Constantinople (sacking 1204) Chirignino 24 79, 91 Christianity 64 consumption 18, 20, 106, 130, 141, Christmas 27, 85, 119, 181 145, 150, 152–3, 198 appropriation of 50, 99–109, 179, conspicuous 129 193, 196, 200 creativity of 11, 15 church and state relationship 44, 45 curbing of 136, 142–3, 151 collaboration 104 difficulties of 4–5, 6 conciliation (1929) 196 family 123, 132, 136, 138 conflict and contested space 197–8 fascist ritual 85 shared aims and values 197 local 83, 87, 127 CIGA (Compagnia Italiana degli Grandi mass 46–7, 48, 124 Alberghi) 23, 36, 48–9, 86, 87, 89, 91 national 109, 127, 128, 138, 142, Cinevillaggio 188 146, 149, 193, 199 Cini, Vittorio 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 38, nationalist-imperialist models of 194 137 Circolo di Cultura Ebraica 46 patriotic 138, 139, 147, 192, 200 Circolo Fascista 1 politicised 125 città-franca status 22, 188 popular 87 città-vetrina projection 20, 86, 119 regulating 142, 144, 151 Civil Resistance Committee 184 resistant 124 clientelist networks 31 see also auto-consumption clothing 22, 24, 132 consumption-production 15, 16, 50, certified 147–8, 150 199, 202 shortages of 4 Cormaroff, J. & J. 85 wearing of a red item 12 Corradini, Enrico 39 Codré, Gesù & Rina 156–8, 174, 185 Corriere dei Piccoli 53, 57, 59, 63, Codroma (osteria) 42 69–70, 72, 73, 74–5, 193, 194 cohesion 9, 31, 48 Corso, Amadeo 142 common purpose and 159 Corte Michiel 166 national 47, 124 costumes 63, 83, 89, 90, 95, 113 colonie estive 55–6 Cotonificio Veneziano 24, 25 Index 247

Cottin, Monsignor, archpriest of Depression years (1930s) 20, 24, 90, Castello 93 126, 150 Council of Ministers 42 Des Bains (grand hotel) 23, 42, 86 Critica Fascista 77, 79 Dettori, Giovanni 171 crocerossine 89 dictatorship 2–5, 7–13, 16, 18–20, cucina della memoria 139, 140 58, 199 cultural products 17, 125, 193, 200 ambiguities and ambivalences of life ambivalence in 58 under 53 dominant 15, 67 avoiding the impositions of 137 fascist(ised) 41, 53, 67, 192, 198, banning of mask-wearing 89 199, 201, 202 brutal 11, 198 reception and 54, 76, 199, 201 characteristics of 33 cultural resistance 5, 12 coercive and repressive 201 identities and narratives out of line Dal Fiume, Captain 173–4 with ideals of 109 Dal Tedesco, Angelo 171 mass consumerism a potential Dalmatia 40, 140, 178 threat to 124 see also Fiume; Nona; Trau Dictionary of Politics (1940) 90, 170 Damerini, Maria & Gino 31–2, 36, Directory of Italian Tailors 147–8 38, 43, 49, 89, 118, 120, 143, 144, Disdottona (ceremonial gondola) 148, 150, 151–2, 153, 189–91, 201 112, 115 Dandolo, Emilio 60–1 dissent 1, 8, 10, 11, 13, 198 Dandolo, Enrico, Doge of Venice 79, absence of 9 114, 195 importance placed on 12 Daniele (grand hotel) 42 inferring consent from lack of 12 D’Annunzio, Gabriele 21, 22, 30, 34, Dodesona (ceremonial gondola) 112, 36, 165–8, 175, 190, 191, 194 115 Dardanelles 115 Donne fasciste 113 D’Avray, D. 17, 200 Dorsoduro 28, 35, 42, 142, 182 Dazzi, M. 95 dowries 92, 95 De Bono, Emilio 116 Dugnani (provincial OND Secretary) De Felice, Renzo 9, 12, 178, 198 93 De Grazia, Victoria 47, 48, 123, 124–5, 148 East Africa 56, 63, 84, 102, 108 death/funerals 13, 18, 155–87, 189, argument used to justify fascist 192, 193, 197, 200–1 colonial and imperial ambitions Decalogo delle Donne Italiane 131, in 92 132, 133, 138, 145, 146 recognition of regime’s conquests democratic governments 124 in 89 demographic campaign 37, 89, 91, see also Ethiopian War 93, 94, 96, 196 Eastern Adriatic lands 87, 88 Christmas a vehicle for 100, 119 irredentist claims in children’s failure of 120 comics 195 imperialist-racist justiﬁcations education 67, 81 which informed 193 abandonment of secularism 52–3 possible radicalisation of policies moral and physical 55 103 patriotic, militaristic and racist 53 women coopted into procreation religious 44 92, 108–9 Eigensinn 5 248 Index

England 31 Fenice, La (opera house) 42, 46, 49 ENM (Ente Nazionale della Moda) 147 Cavalchina ball 43, 89 EOA (Ente Opera Assistenziale) 56 festivals 18, 48, 83–120, 137, 139, Eraclea (ferry ship) 41 140, 192 Eroi della Grande Guerra 59 film 23, 148 Ethiopian War (1935–6) 9, 18, 37, local 47, 85, 143 50, 62–6, 81, 155, 157, 159, 169, reinvented and novel 200 173, 174, 175, 177, 182, 183, 186, religious 43, 50, 85, 91, 100 198, 199 see also Carnival celebrations; children born of Italian men and Christmas; Marie festival; Ethiopian women 102 marriage (festival of) consumption and family during Figli(e) della Lupa 54, 56 121–54 Fincardi, M. 89 League of Nations’ punishment for Fitzpatrick, S. 4–5, 6 Italy’s invasion 106 Fiume 21, 34, 165, 175, 190, 191 Excelsior (grand hotel) 23, 42, 43, 86, Florence 78, 88, 150 190 Florian (gran caffé) 42 Fogu, Claudio 164 Folin, Giovanni 142 Faccetta Nera (popular song) 62, 151, Fondamente Nuove 43 176 Fontane, T. 17 Faeti, A. 58 food 22, 23, 127, 135, 140, 151, 200 Famagosta 115 finding on the black market 189 Families of the Fallen for Fascism 79, fixed prices for 137 159, 176 foreign 141 Farfusola, Giovanni 169, 201 important 142 Fascio femminile 55, 87, 91, 102, 129, local 139, 141 148, 151, 183–4 low cost but highly nutritious 132 Fascist Confederation of Industrialists luxurious 142–3 171 nationally-produced 141 Fascist Exhibition (Mostro del Fascismo) political-cultural significance (1932) 80, 159, 160 attached to 106 Fascist Federation 36, 101 provision and availability of 141 fashion 151, 200 sanction-busting regulations on foreign 108, 150, 153 distribution 122 high-society 148 shortages of 4, 189 impact on choices of wealthier unpleasant 136 women 150 food consumption national 147, 148, 149 patriotic 139 patriotic 148 reduced 146 sanction-resistant 149 women urged to restrict 138 see also clothing foreign goods 141, 146, 149, 150, 151 Favaro 24 foreign languages/names 130, 131 Favini, Giunio 156 forze di Ercole 89, 90 fecundity 96, 106, 195, 196 Foscari, Piero 21, 38, 42 disregard of Mussolini’s Foucault, M. 2, 15, 174 exhortations on 105 Fourth Crusade (1202) 29, 91, 114 promotion of 101 Fradaletto, Antonio 42 feminine virtues 59 France 36, 60, 127, 162, 189 Index 249

Franco, Gen. Francisco 5, 105, 169 Gran Consiglio 128, 129, 133 Fraschetti, Lieutenant 176 Grand Canal 29, 83, 91, 95, 111, Friuli 7, 26, 31, 34, 156 121, 140, 143, 179, 185 FUCI (Federazione Universitaria Casetta Rossa 165 Cattolica Italiana) 45 fascist party headquarters 160 funereal roll call see appello fascista Granzotto, Gianni 10 Gray, E. M. 22 Gaggia, Achille 26 Graziani, Gen. Rodolfo 88 Galli, Blanche 189 Great Britain 103 Gallipoli 115 Great War (1914–18) 13, 21, 34, 41, Garda, Lake 138 69, 78, 81, 140–1, 155, 194 Garibaldi, Anita 164 deliverance from Austrian bombing Garibaldi, Giuseppe 61, 163 raids 29 Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 53, 57, 59, 64, devastating effect on economic life 65, 69, 70, 74, 108, 133, 134, 135, 22 193 heroics/heroes of 59, 70, 177, 193 GDR (German Democratic Republic) industrial sector given seismic boost 5 in the final years 22 gender 6, 7, 32, 52, 54, 55, 74–5, 76, patriarch’s conduct during 178, 170, 180, 183–7, 192 180, 197 Genoa 88, 164 rituals of death rooted in experience Gentile, Emilio 13–14, 159, 198 of 155–63, 165, 177, 182 Gentile, Giovanni 52 see also Battle of the Piave; war Germany see GDR; heimat; Nazi veterans Germany Gregorian calendar 172 Giardini 97, 111, 166 Griffin, R. 14, 163 Biennale pavilions 188 Grimani, Filippo, Mayor of Venice 44 GIL (Gioventù Italiana del Littorio) 54, gruppo veneziano 22 110 see also Cini; Volpi Ginocchietti, Port Captain 79, 81, 82 Guadalajara 174 Ginzburg, C. 7 Guerra dei pugni 89 Giolitti, Giovanni 23 GUF (Gruppo Universitario Fascista) Giornata della Fede 121, 123, 134, 10, 49, 53, 54, 77, 129, 138, 145, 151, 153, 160, 196–7 168 Giornata della Madre e del Fanciullo attacks on local Catholics by young 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 116, fascists and members of 45 120, 178, 193, 197 see also Ventuno Giovani Fascisti 54, 55, 80, 81, 100–1, 102, 113, 176 Habermas, J. 32, 33 Giovani Italiani 54–5, 61, 89, 179, 194 health-care see Case della Madre e dei Giovinezza (fascist anthem) 176 Bambini Giudecca 24, 28, 68, 181 heimat 39 Giuliani, Padre Reginaldo 174–5, 176 History Workshop movement 3 Giuriati, Giovanni 25, 29, 34, 36, Hitler, Adolf 4, 36, 57 38, 39 Hoggart, R. 16, 199 glass industry 24, 25, 126 Hollywood 8, 125, 148 Gorer, G. 162 House of Savoy 45, 75, 111, 118, 197 Gorizia (battle cruiser) 110 housing stock 28 graffiti 1, 35 overcrowded and unsanitary 26, 27 250 Index industrial developments 21–6, 124 LUCE (L’Unione Cinematografica infant deaths 28 Educativa) 83, 86 irredentism 21, 34, 87, 88, 140, 165, Lüdtke,A. 4,5,6,12 191, 195 Luke, St 91 ‘israelitic contamination’ 102 luoghi comuni 116, 119, 120, 191, Istituto LUCE 83, 86 195, 201 Italia Nova 87–8 powerful 181 Italian Red Cross 129 religious, principal 196 italiani brava gente myth 13 luxury hotels see Excelsior; Daniele; Des Bains Jews 46, 135 Luzzatti, Luigi 42 see also Circolo di Cultura Ebraica; ‘israelitic contamination’ madrine 116–17 journals see publications magazines see publications Junghans matchmakers 24, 25 Magliaretta, L. 30–1 Maison du Livre Français 145 Kocka, J. 6 Majer Rizzioli, Elisa 184 Koon, T. 53 Malamocco Fasci 169 Körner, A. 39 Malcontenta 24 Malibran Theatre 101 La Fontaine, Cardinal Pietro, Patriarch Malipiero, Anna & Francesca 143, of Venice 29–30, 44–5, 91, 144 177–82, 185, 196, 197 La Rovere, L. 53 Manara, Luciano 60–1 lace-making 24–5, 126, 183 Manetti, Capt. Eugenio 155–7, 158, Lateran Pact (1929) 44 172, 176 League of Nations 195 Manfren (bar) 43 see also sanctions Manin, Daniele 21, 39, 40, 136, 195, Leghe Bianchi 35 196 Leonardi, Countess Giulia 173 Mann, Thomas 27, 40 Leonardi, Lorenzo 173–4 Manzini, Lorenzo 83–4 Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 115 Maranini, Giuseppe 87 Libreria Tarantola 145 marca di garanzia 147–8 Libya 88 Marcello del Mayno, Countess Marisa licei femminili 52 117 Lido 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 41, 68, 91, see also Brandolin Marcello 112, 143 Marcello, Lorenzo 115 destination of choice for March on Rome (1922) 35, 57, 184, international beau monde 86 191 grand hotels 23, 42, 43, 43, 86, 190 anniversary celebrations 2, 27, locations: Casa Bianca area 27; 79–80, 172 Malamocco 169; San Nicolò violent early months and years airport 42, 86 before 76 recreatorio estivo transferred to 55 Marie festival 50, 85, 90–9, 103, 116, votive temple 162, 180, 181, 182, 119, 120, 179, 193, 195, 197, 201 197 Marinelli, Giovanni 145 worldly entertainments 188 Marinetti, Filippo 21, 85 Lombroso, Ester 148 Maritime Command for the Upper Lucatello, Maria 182 Adriatic 79 Index 251 marriage 50, 105, 112, 192 miscegenation 151 buying into patrician families Mocenigo Faà di Bruno, Countess through 26 Costanza 117 child born outside 105 Modellina 70, 75 exaltation of 92, 93, 94, 95, 102, Molin, Attilio 183, 201 195 Molmenti, Pompeo 39, 40 fecundity within 96, 195, 196 Mondadori, Arnaldo 57 festival of 85, 92, 94, 95, 96, 119, Monte Grappa 165, 177 179, 195 Mosse, G. 13–14, 162, 199 local regime initiatives celebrating Mostra del Fascismo see Fascist motherhood and 44 Exhibition mixed 46 Mostra della Vittoria 110 Mussolinian and fascist policy in Mulino Stucky 24, 25 support of 92 Murano 24, 28, 68, 83 procreation and 92, 93, 96, 120, mass defection of Socialist Party to 200 fascism 35 promotion of 96 Mussolini, Benito 12, 13, 23, 28, Marsich, Nahyr 58 38, 41, 84, 86, 89, 95–6, 119, Marsich, Piero 34, 36, 42 127, 153, 156, 164, 182, 195, masks 43, 83 199 decree banning 89–90 accession to power 191 massaie rurale 113 alignment of church leaders behind maternity see Giornata della Madre e del social policies of 44 Fanciullo; ONMI Ascension Day speech (1927) 92 Medaglio d’oro 15 Baldinelli’s Biennale depiction Mediterranean 9, 41, 92, 112, 139, purchased by 176 194 children’s comics and 56–67, 69, Mestre 24, 25, 26, 31, 35, 40, 156 70, 71, 72, 76, 82 population rise (1921/1931/1936) conscious disregard of his 26 exhortations on fecundity middle classes 36, 49, 89, 129, 105 152–3 Decalogo preface by 131 lower 68; see also V.A. determination to rule ‘totally’ 19 newspapers for 130, 148–9 eulogy to the women of Italy (1936) preoccupation with financial cost of 123 child-bearing 106 first ceremonious act as prime upper 48, 184 minister 162 Milan 8, 40, 88, 145, 150 imperialist-racist justifications inaugural fascist rally in Piazza San which informed his Sepolcro (1919) 33, 77 demographic campaign 193 Ministries 188 invasion of Ethiopia justified 125 Education 52, 54 Machiavellian pretender to his Finance 23 throne 34 Interior 38 military spending increased 126 Popular Culture 36, 56–7 portraits of 45, 72, 133, Press and Propaganda 36 160 Miraglia, Giovanni 166–7, 168, rallying cry in Milan (1919) 175 33, 77 Mirano 26 see also March on Rome 252 Index

Mutilati 113, 176 ONMI (Opera Nazionale per la Maternità MVSN (Milizia volontaria per la ed L’Infanzia) 72, 87, 101–2 sicurezza nazionale) 156, 174, Opera dei Congressi 35 179 Orsi, Pietro 38 osterie 2, 32, 35, 42, 48 Nani, Countess Carola 117 OVRA (Organizzazione vigilanza Nani, Giacomo, Provveditore al Mare repressione antifascismo) 12 115, 195 Napoleon Bonaparte 18, 196 Padua 110, 181 Nastro Azzuro 171, 176 Palazzo della Pescheria 47, 89, 97 nation-building 47, 39, 124 Palazzo Ducale 175 National Association for the Wounded Palazzo Falcon 37 79 Palazzo Venezia 123 National Institute of Insurers 94 Palladio, Andrea 181 National Socialism see Nazi Germany Paris 8, 125, 145, 148, 150 nationalist unification movement cosmopolitan fashion plate 157 proclaimed by 147 see also Venetian nationalism Pascolato, Maria Pezzè 183–7, 202 Nazi Germany 13, 14, 105, 169 Pascolato, Michele 145 disagreement over perceived Pasinetti, Franco 49, 78, 82, 194 influence of 45 Passerini, L. 5, 11–12, 77 racial rhetoric 102, 104 patrician families 30, 31, 34, 42, 43, re-making of Christmas 100 74, 83, 89, 90, 151, 165 trivialising of crimes 4 enduring pre-eminence of 20 see also Third Reich humble girls, dressed and adorned newspapers see publications by 95 Nicopeja Virgin 197 illustrious 21, 102 Noale 115 marriage into 23, 26 Nona 88 old 38, 40, 116–17 Noncommissioned Officers’ paternalistic relations 92 Association 176 rich 21 notturna festival 83, 84 patriziato-popolano connections 31 nouveau riche 26, 130 Pauletti, Pietro 182 Pellestrina 24 oath of allegiance 129, 133, 158–9 Perry, J. 109 ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) 54, 55, Peukert, D. 4, 16 56, 79 philanthropic initiatives 184 attacks on local Catholics by young Piave river 196 fascists and members of 45 see also Battle of the Piave oath of allegiance 129, 133 Piazza, Cardinal A. G., Patriarch of official comic (Il Balilla) 57–61, 69, Venice 44, 45, 112, 115, 116, 70, 71–2, 108, 193 197 OND (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro) Piazza San Marco 21, 29, 85, 86, 88, 58, 84, 89, 91, 93, 97, 129, 179 90, 110, 114, 136, 140, 141 folklore section 90 electrical lighting 22 non-fascist sporting and gran caffés 42, 49 recreational associations student demonstrations 128, 133 replaced or subsumed by 47–8 see also St Mark’s Basilica see also Starace; Turati Piazzale Roma 29, 179 Index 253

Piccole Italiane 54, 58, 59, 70, 179 only-child model of 105 Pini, Giorgio 37 patriotic 101 Pinzoni, Bortolo 1–2, 12 Promessi Sposi, I. 131 Pius IX, Pope 60 propaganda 11, 15, 36, 64, 66, 68, PNF (Partito Nazionale Fascista) 38, 101, 128, 199 45, 54, 91, 110, 157–8, 169 anti-sanctions 151 headquarters 112, 113, 115, 121, comic books and children’s 128–9, 134, 160 magazines as vital tools 81 see also Marinelli; Starace continual 102 podestà function 31, 140 demographic 93 see also Alverà; Orsi; Zorzi (Ettore) important medium used to convey Pola (battle cruiser) 110 to youngest inhabitants 56 Polacco, Vittorio 141–2 interiorised messages 76 political religion 13, 14, 159, 181, local and national 125 196, 198, 199 perfect fodder for 123 political socialisation 52, 75 pro-natalist 104 political violence 12, 13, 35 reaction to 142–3 Polverelli, Gaetano 147 resistance 129, 130, 153 Ponte delle Guglie 2 tactic which allowed women to defy Ponte dell’Littorio 29 122 Ponti, Gio 110 totalitarian, obvious exercise in Pontine marshes 72 excesses of 100 popolani families 20, 31, 47, 119, traditional children’s pastimes 129–30, 139, 150, 153 infused with 56 exodus to newly-constructed houses value of sanctions as 127 24 visual 139 funerals of 182–3 Protestant countries 103 important cause of mobility 27 Prozeßgeschichte 3 staple diet of 143 PSI (Partito Socialista Italiano) 35 see also R.d.C. publications 41, 49–50, 53–77, 81–2, popular opinion 12, 32 84, 92, 95–111, 116, 118, 120, Porciani, I. 39 130, 133–41, 144–9, 151–2, port-worker ambassadors 42 155–6, 169, 171–4, 180, 190, 193, Porto Marghera 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 196–7 31, 38, 85 see also Corriere dei Piccoli; Critica poverty line 27 Fascista; Gazzettino dei Ragazzi; PPI (Partito Popolare Italiano) 27, 35 Modellina; Resto del Carlino; pragmatic acceptance 5, 12, 13 Rivista di Venezia; Settimana prefecture 1, 2, 29, 118 Religiosa; Tre Venezie; Ventuno Premio da Ponte essays 67–76, 193, Puccini, Massimo 167–8 194 Punta della Dogana 111 Press Ofﬁce 36, 147 Punta Sabbioni 41 Primate of Dalmatia title 178 procreation 94, 106, 108–9 Quadri (gran caffé) 42 determining choices about 105 Querini society 115 fascist and religious authorities in Questura 89, 90 agreement about 94 marriage and 92, 93, 96, 120, 200 racial superiority 62, 66 mass 92 Ranieri, Peppino 80–1, 194 254 Index

Ranke, L. von 18 Romanelli, G. 30 Rapallo, Treaty of (1920) 23, 34 romanità 90 R.d.C. (popolano family member) Rome 8, 39, 54, 81, 150, 192, 194, 26–7, 28, 42–3, 105–6, 152, 197 189 Cinecittà actors transferred from Reberschak, M. 25 188 recreatori fascisti 55 defence of Aurelian walls (1849) recreatorio estivo 55 60 Red Flag, The 2 Fascist Exhibition (1932) 160 Redentore church 181 idea of bond between Venice and Redentore festival 29, 139, 143 41 Redipuglia military cemetery 160 imperial potency of 104 Regata storica 89, 115 Palazzo Littorio 80, 88 Reggimento Marina 116 re-internment of Anita Garibaldi on religious education 44 Gianicolo hill 164 repression secession to Italian nation-state apparatus of 10, 11 (1870) 44 coercion and 11, 201 see also March on Rome Repubblica Sociale Italiana 188 Rotary club 48 see also Salò Republic rowing clubs 115 Resto del Carlino, Il 37 Royal Navy 110, 180 Revel, J. 2 submarines 111, 112, 114, 115, revisionism 4 116, 117 Rezzonico, Elisabetta Widmann 21 torpedo boats 111, 112, 114, 115, Rialto 22, 23, 26, 83, 86, 97, 139, 116 142, 144 rural villages 28 rio nuovo 28 Russia see Soviet Union Risorgimento 13, 41, 59, 60, 76, 81, 158, 161, 192, 193, 194 beliefs and practices 177 Sabauda 72 national founding myth 163 SADE (Società Adriatica della’Elettricità) rituals 15, 16–17, 41, 52, 84–5, 96, 23 102, 115, 120 Salizzada San Simeon 1 baptism 196 Salò Republic 188 belligerent 90 see also Repubblica Sociale Italiana death/funereal 13, 18, 113, salotti 49, 78 155–87, 189, 192, Salute festival 140, 143 193, 197, 200–1 San Angelo Raffaele church 182 marriage 94, 95, 112, 195, 196 San Benedetto 83 political 14 San Geremia 46 regime’s penchant for 110 San Giorgio Maggiore 110 religious 50, 94, 100, 103, 106, San Marco 41 109, 116, 119 Jewish Venetians clustered in sestieri sacriﬁcial 122 46 staged simultaneously 112 vaporetto pontoon 97 warrior 89 see also Piazza San Marco Riva dell’Impero/Riva degli Schiavoni San Marco battalion 111 29, 30, 111, 115 San Martino (torpedo boat) 112 Rivista di Venezia 36 San Maurizio church 155 Index 255

San Michele (cemetery island) Settimana Religiosa, La 37, 94, 97, 106, 156, 160, 169, 174, 103–4, 109, 177, 179 175 shopkeepers 122, 127, 128, 138, San Pietro di Castello 91, 94, 95, 97, 140–2, 153, 201 196 Slavic pirates 91, 94–5, 195 sanctions 12, 18, 50, 121, 122, 123, Slavs 120 124, 199 soap 138 autarky and 125–8, 137, 152 Soccimarro, Giuseppe 84 mobilising families against sociability 128–37 ambiguous places of 48 resistance to 137–54, 192 anti-fascist 32 Sanctuary of the Martyrs 159–60 important locations of 43 Sant’ Elena 26, 27, 28, 29, 105, 114 political 42 Casa del ragazzo 184 popular 42 Santa Croce 1, 92 see also bars; osterie; salotti; trattorie Santa Lucia train station 110 Socialist International 1 Santa Margherita 27, 35, 42 socialists 2, 42, 57 Santa Maria della Salute church 140, encounters between fascists and 181 22, 35 Santa Maria Formosa 95 Soviet Union 4, 6, 14, 47, 124 Santa Marta 26, 27, 28 see also blat; Stalinism Sante, Scarpa 142 Spain Blackshirts 174, 177 Santo Stefano church 133 Falange Sección Femenina 148 Sardinia 163 see also Franco; Spanish Civil War Sbordone, G. 27 Spanish Civil War (1936–9) 150, 159, Scarpa, Aristide 142 169, 172, 173, 174, 177, 182, 183, Scotto di Luzio, A. 67 186 Scuola SS Apostoli 74 veterans of 112 Second World War (1939–45) 159, Special Tribunals 12 188, 189 self-sufﬁciency 146 Sposalizio col Mare 29, 112 see also autarky St Anthony of Padua 181 Serenissima Republic 18, 38, 42, 43, St Mark’s Basilica 91, 94, 103, 117, 140, 165 128, 179, 196, 197 invocations of sagacious rulers 188 annual mass baptism 100 remembrance and myth 17, 20, Christmas Day mass (1917) 181 40, 41, 51, 79, 83–120, 194, Pala d’Oro jewels 79 195 St Mark’s bay 110, 114, 115, 162, 195 title which belonged to patriarch of St Mark’s Square see Piazza San Marco 178 Stalinism 5, 13, 31 transformation and return to 20, everyday 4 21, 22, 23, 29, 31 Starace, Achille 47, 49, 80, 127, 148, votive temples 181 184 sestieri 1, 32, 46, 68, 80, 91, 102 stazione marittima 23 population density in poorest and strike-breakers 184 most crowded 28 suicide 27, 174 relocation between different Suppiej, Giorgio 25, 49 parishes and 27 symbolic language 161, 168, 177, working-class 92 187 256 Index

Tagliapietra, Giuseppe 183 Venetian nationalism 39, 40, Talamini family 37 187 terror 4, 13 Venetian Naval League 112 Thaon di Revel, Count venezianità 39, 42, 117, 178 Paolo 126 fascism and 29, 85, 181 Third Reich 4, 109 Veniero, Sebastiano 115 Tolosetto Farinati degli Uberti, P. ventennio 1, 7, 26, 31, 38, 115 123, 151 Torres, Giuseppe 182 Ventuno, Il (GUF magazine) 78, totalitarianism 4, 44, 48, 198 127–8, 167, 194 excesses of propaganda 100 Verona 115 imperfect 14 Versailles peace conference relativising 9 (1919) 23 social atomisation as prelude to Via Ventidue Marzo 166 terror 13 Vianello, Angelo 42 Toti, Enrico 59–60 Vicentini, R. 34, 35 Touring Club Italiano 39 Vicenza 40 tourism 20, 40, 84, 188 Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy battlefield 47, 162 30, 110, 111, 114, 152 bourgeois market 87 nation imagined through the figure international 18, 86, 119 of 194 islands dedicated to 23 orchestrated pilgrimage to his return after end of war 22 tomb at Pantheon (1884) trades linked to 31 163–4 Tourist Office 83, 86, 87 ubiquitous portraits of 160 trades distribution/stratification 31 Villa Fietta 177, 179 trattorie 1–2, 42, 138, 141 visitattrici fasciste 129 popular 143 Vittoriano monument 162, 164 Trau 29, 88 Voegelin, E. 13 Tre Venezie, Le (journal) 35–6, 86, Volpi, Giuseppe, Count of Misurata 103, 127 21, 23, 25, 26, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, Treviso 109, 116 46, 49, 83, 85, 86, 190, 194 Trieste 59 role as Primo Procuratore di San Marco Tripolitana 23 179 Turati Augusto 47 votive temples 80, 162, 180, 181, Turin 31 182, 197 Turks 114, 115, 120 Wall Street crash (1929) see Depression United States 46, 103, 161, 162 years university students see GUF Walt Disney creations 57 unknown-soldier monuments 162 war veterans 54, 112, 155, 156, upper classes 49, 148–9, 152–3 169–70, 183 deaths/funerals of 173, 177, 186, V.A. (lower-middle-class family 201 member) 26, 32, 33, 43, 104–5, special status accorded to 76–7 106, 189 see also Nastro Azzuro Valcarenghi (wounded man) 175 White Leagues see Leghe Valli, Lina 61 Bianchi Vallona 115 women’s magazines 147, 148 Index 257 working-class society 92, 106, 124, ‘years of consent’ 9, 18 143 young people 45, 49, 52–82 care of children 55 regime’s exaltation of 50, 162–3 focal point for Venetian political Yugoslavia 140 organisation and sociability 42 need to target resistance Zangrandi, R. 53 propaganda towards 129 Zelarino 24 rebelliousness in 12 Zorzi, Elio 42 simple and sincere women 151 Zorzi, Ettore 38