Technical Guide No. 9a

GUIDELINES FOR SOIL SURVEY AND LAND EVALUATION

IN JAMAICA

(Semi-detailed surveys)

VOLUME I: PROCEDURES

MINISTRYOFAGRICULTURE RURAL PHYSICAL PLANNING DIVISION JAMAICA SOIL SURVEY PROJECT IS.71C L!tir?f'."JY Technical Guide No. 9a

GUIDELINES FOR SOIL SURVEY AND LAND EVALUATION

IN JAMAICA

(Semi-detailed surveys)

VOLUME I: PROCEDURES

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RURAL PHYSICAL PLANNING DIVISION JAMAICA SOIL SURVEY PROJECT Scanned from original by ISRIC - World Soil Information, as ICSU World Data Centre for Soils. The purpose is to make a safe depository for endangered documents and to make the accrued information available for consultation, following Fair Use Guidelines. Every effort is taken to respect Copyright of the materials within the archives where the identification of the Copyright holder is clear and, where feasible, to contact the originators. For questions please contact [email protected] indicating the item reference number concerned.

^11-lQ • PKEFACE

The need for natural resources management is widely recognized. In order to achieve sustained development and conservation, reliabie data on the resources of a country must be available. In Jamaica planners and users of the land recognize this need for accurate resource information and in the past, attempts were made to systematically inventorise the soil and land use resources using the available technology. This resulted in the publication of thirteen reports on soil and land use, covering potential areas for agricuitural and other development purposes (RRC 1958-1970).

However, while these reports provided vital information for planning and development since the time of their publication, the need to update such data base arose as a result of the increased demand for its use to satisfy the ever-expanding population. To this end the Comprehensive Resource Inventory and Evaluation System (CRIES) Project funded by USAID, the World Bank and the Jamaican Government, and later (in 1983) the Soil Survey Project jointly funded by the Governments of the Netherlands and Jamaica were initiated to provide more accurate and up-to-date data on soil and land use using modern technologies. The task of updating the soil and land use data base of the entire island has been assigned to the recently established Soil Survey Unit in the Rural Physical Planning Division and this will continue even after the Soil Survey Project is ended.

During the implementation of the Soil Survey programme, the team of local and international Soil Surveyors and Land Evaluation experts developed the procedures for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation and have decided to document them for use by the present and future Soil Surveyors who will continue the updating process. This has lead to the birth of the Guidelines for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation (Volumes I and II) specially prepared for Jamaica conditions.

Vincent A. Campbell Deputy Director Rural Physical Planning Division

Kingston, November 1989.

i CONTRIBUTORS:

This is the ninth Technical Guide issued by the Soil Survey Project, a bi- lateral undertaking of the Governments of Jamaica and the Netherlands (JAM/81/03, JM/86/008 and JM/89/001). The main contributors to this volume of the Guidelines for Soü Survey and Land Evaluation in Jamaica are listed below in alphabetical order:

- Niels H. Batjes: Subchapter 2.3 and 3.7, and Appendices I and II. - Vincent A; Campbell: Chapter 1. - Swonia Austin and Petrie A.M. van Gent: Subchapter 3.4. - Petrie A.M. van Gent: Chapter 4. - Rob G. Hennemann: Subchapters 2.1, 2.2, 3.5 and 3.6. - Peter H. Oldeman: Subchapters 3.1 and 3.2 in collaboration with Petrie van Gent. Subchapter 3.3 in collaboration with Niels Batjes.

Editorial and technical comments by Mr. Wim Andriesse of the Winand Staring Centre, the Netherlands, and staff members of the Rural Physical Planning Division are gratefully acknowledged.

Mrs. Petrie van Gent made the final draft print-ready.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface i Contributors ii Tab Ie of contents iii List of tables vi List of figures vi

1.INTR0DUCTI0N 1

1.1 History 1

1.2 The present situation 2

2. NATURE, PURPOSE AND USES OF SOIL SURVEYS 3

2.1 Soil and soil survey 3

2.2 Types of soil surveys 5 2.2.1 General 5 2.2.2 General-purpose and special-purpose surveys 5 2.2.3 Small-scale and large-scale surveys 6 2.3 Applications of soil surveys 9

3. PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS 10

3.1 General 10

3.2 Office preparations 11 3.2.1 Overall survey planning 11 3.2.2 Collation of material 12 3-2.3 Aerial-photo interpretation 12 3.2.4 Other office work 16

iii 3.3 Execution of field work 17 3.3.1 General aspects 17 3.3.2 Stage 1 - Reconnaissance of the survey area 20 33.3 Stage 2 - Sample area survey 21 3.3.3.1 Objectives 21 3.3.3.2 Criteria for sample area selection 22 333.3 Execution of sample area survey 23 3.3.4 Stage 3 - Survey of the "remaining area" 24 3.3.4.1 Procedures 24 3.34.2 Recommended observation density 25

34 Procedures relating to soilanalysis 26 34.1 Delivery and registration of soil samples 26 3.4.2 Selection of analyses required 26 3.4.2.1 Standard analyses 26 3.4.2.2 Additional analyses for special soils 27 3.4.3 Handling and application of soil analytical data 28 3.4.3.1 Derived values 28 3.4.3.2 Cross-checking 29 3.4.3.3 Presentation and application of data 30

35 Soilclassificationandcorrelation procedures 32 3.5.1 Soil classification 32 3.5.2 Soil correlation aspects 33 36 The soil map 37 3.6.1 The mapping units 37 3.6.2 Map legend structure 39 36.3 Map compilation 40

37 Land evaluation 43 3.7.1 Objective 43 3.7.2 Terminology 44 3.7.2.1 Land use 45 3.7.2.2 Land 47 3.7.2.3 Matching of land use with land 49 3.7.3 Carrying out a land evaluation using JAMPLES 49

iv 4. PRESENTATION-OF RESULTS 51

4.1 General 51 4.2 Report compilation 52 4.2.1 Planning 52 4.2.2 General outline of the report 54 4.2.3 Soil map and legend 55

References 57 Key to Soil Survey Project references 62

APPENDICES

I Soil sampling techniques for soil survey and land evaluation. 64 II Carrying out a detailed soil survey (1:5,000-1:15,000). 67 III Recommended field equipment. 73

v HST OF TABLES 2.1 Types of soil surveys. 7 31 Example of a time-table for a semi-detailed soil survey of 11,000 ha (publishing scale 1:25,000). 11 3.2 Checklist of materials needed for a soil survey. 13 33 Basic for mat for the legend of aerial-photo interpretation maps. 14 3.4 Scales of aerial photographs and topographic maps in Jamaica. 15 3.5 Kind of observations during different stages of field survey. 18 3.6 Basic format for the "provisional soil map" legend. 22 37 List of Standard analyses on soil samples. 27 38 List of special-pur pose analyses on soil samples. 28 39 List of derived values. 29

4.1 Report and map compilation in the overall time-table for a semi-detailed soil survey. 52

LIST OF FIGURES 3.1 Flowchart showing the procedures for a semi- detailed soil survey. 10 3.2 Block diagram showing relationship between soil mapping units, API unit, soil map unit, soils/soilscape and soil taxonomie units. 38 33 Flowchart of the physical land evaluation procedure. 46

1.1 Schematic representation of augering density in a detailed grid survey. 65 II.l General procedure for sampling a soil profile. 70

VI 1NTR0DUCT10N l.INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY Soil Survey in Jamaica dates back to 1932 when Hardy and Chroucher carried out a preliminary investigation of some of the soils of the island to obtain information on the range of the soils occurring in the cultivated lands with particular reference to their origin from various rock formations. The close relationship observed between the parent materials and the soils, strongly influenced the investigators in classifying the soils into four categories viz. soils of recent alluvial formation, coastal, white limestone and blue mountain series.

The above mentioned study was carried out jointly by the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (now University of the West Indies) in Trinidad and the Department of Agriculture in Jamaica. In 1947 the Soil Research Scheme in Jamaica was developed by the Imperial College to undertake systematic soil surveys in the former British Caribbean with related research in chemistry and physics of the major soil types and the role of tracé elements in West Indian Agriculture. Under this scheme systematic soil survey was started in Jamaica in the parish of St. Mary in 1951 (Vernon 1960) and culminated in the parish of Trelawny in 1970 (Barker 1970).

The surveys resulted in the publication of Soil and Land Use reports for thirteen of the fourteen parishes (RRC 1958-1970). The soils were classified into ten categories based on their geologie origin. A total of two hundred and ninety two soil types were identified and given names of the districts in which they were first described.

The reports provide general physical information on the soil series and their potential for different land use practices, but lack vital chemical data. This omission was by design since the surveyors had originally intended to publish these data separately. However, this separate publication was never materialized.

The lack of chemical data coupled with the need to reclassify the soils according to international systems of classification and the greater demand for up to date information for land use planning and agricultural development prompted the establishment of a modern Soil Survey Unit in the Ministry of Agriculture. This Unit was created through the Soil Survey Project (SSP) which was funded jointly by the Governments of the Netherlands and Jamaica and lasted from June 1983 to December 1989. The

1 1NTR0DUCTI0N task of the Unit is to re-inventorise the soils and to provide a computerized data base of soils and land use for more effective planning and hence increased agricultural production.

1.2 THE PRESENT SITUATION The recently established Soil Survey Unit has been updating the soil and land use information in areas of Jamaica with the greatest potential for agricultural development and has published a number of Soil Survey Reports, Technical Soil Bulletins and Miscellaneous Papers, During the soil and land evaluation surveys the soil surveyors developed specific procedures and have decided to document these for use by future soil surveyors. The result of their efforts is this document on Guidelines for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation in Jamaica.

The Guidelines are published in two volumes. Volume I is the main part of the document and deals with all operations of soil and land evaluation surveys. The historical background tö soil and land evaluation surveys and the present situation are presented in Chapter 1 while Chapter 2 deals with the nature, purpose and uses of soil surveys. Chapter 3 contains office preparations, field work execution, procedures for soil analyses, soil classification and correlation, soil map compilation and land evaluation. This Volume of the Guidelines concludes with presentation of the resuits in Chapter 4.

In Volume II the procedures for the compilation of survey reports are documented separately for ease of handling.

2 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

2. NATURE. PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

2.1 SOIL AND SOIL SURVEY These Soil Survey Guidelines are about soils and how to map them in an accurate, meaningful and time-efficient way that satisfies the ultimate user(s) of the survey.

What is soil ? Soil has been defined in many different ways. One definition, however, is of particular interest as some of the concepts as discussed in the Guidelines are based on it: Soil is "the collection of natural bodies on the earth's surf ace, in places modified or even made by man of earthly materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants out- of-doors" (Soil Survey Staff 1975).

A somewhat more elaborate definition in which also the five soil forming factors are explicitly mentioned is as foUows: "Soil is the collection of natural bodies occupying portions of the earth surface that support plants and that have properties due to the integrated effect of climate and living matter. acting upon parent material as conditioned by relief, over periods of time" (Wildetal. 1983). It should be noted that land as defined in land evaluation is a much broader concept than soil, including climate, relief, geology, hydrology, soils and vegetation (see also Section 3.7.2.2).

The above definitions on soil implicitly indicate that there are, in fact, two general ways to consider soil: a) on the basis of the nature of its properties; b) on the basis of specified functions or use of soil. The first approach to soil is oedologic. the second edapholoeic. Brady (1984) neatly summarizes the two basic approaches as follows:

Pedoloeic aooroach: " The origin of the soil, its classification, and its description are involved in pedology (from the Greek word "pedon" which means soil or earth). Pedology considers the soil as a natural body and does notfocus primarily on the soils immediate practical utilization. A pedologist studies and classifies soils as they occur in their natural environment. These

3 NATURE. PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

findings may be as useful to highway and construction engineers as to the farmer.''

Edaoholosic aooroach: " Edaphology (from the Greek word "edaphos", which means soil or ground) is the study of the soil from the standpoint of higher plants. It considers the various properties of soils as they relate to plant production. The edaphologist is practical, having the production of food and fiber as an ultimate goal. Simultaneously, the edaphologist must be a scientist to determine the reasons for variation in the productivity of soils and to find means of conserving and improving this productivity."

For the surveyor now to identify, describe, analyze, define, correlate, map and evaluate soils in an accurate, meaningful and time-efficient way it is essential that both approaches are combined when planning and conducting the survey: the pedologic approach ensures that soil distinctions made are recognizable and mappable in the field; the edaphologic approach sereens above soil distinctions on agricultural relevance so that the soil units distinguished on the map are relevant tó the user.

The surveyor is often facing a difficult task when trying to define and map soils in a particular area. Dent and Young (1981) point out the fundamental difference between soils and living organisms with respect to their natural characteristics and the distinction of relevant classes based on these characteristics :" However soils are defined, their boundaries are transitional and intergrades are common. This in contrast with the discrete individuals of the living world in which species may be recognized, each with a limited range of characteristics, and where there are relatively few hybrids or other transitional forms."

It is the special nature of soils as indicated above which frequently defies characterization and mapping and which, added to the complexity of soil patterns, makes soil survey work in Jamaica often difficult, but also challenging and eiciting.

In order to succeed, the surveyor must have a basic knowledge of soil science, soil-related physical sciences and agriculture in addition to more specific knowledge with regard to survey techniques including aerial-photo interpretation. In the following chapters, general guidelines for soil survey procedures in Jamaica are provided which will assist the surveyor in all operational aspects of the survey work including field work planning and execution, soil analytical aspects, soil classification and correlation.* -legend construction and map compilation, land evaluation and report writing.

4 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

2.2 TYPES OF SOIL SURVEYS 2.2.1 General

Semi-detailed soil surveys form part of a survey hierarchy in which each survey level is defined in terms of survey purpose, accuracy and scale. The above attributes are inter-related as survey purpose determines accuracy, the accuracy determines the scale and the scale determines the possible uses of the map which in turn corresponds with the purpose of the survey.

Each survey scale has its own recommended field observation density which further depends on complexity and intricacy of the soil pattern in the area under investigation.

In view of the above, a first broad distinction is made on the basis of survey purpose: general-purpose surveys and special-purpose surveys. The differences between both types of survey are highlighted in Section 2.2.2. A more commonly used division which is related to above distinction is based on survey scale, viz. (in order of increasing survey scale and intensity): exploratory surveys, reconnaissance surveys, semi-detailed surveys and detailed surveys.

A brief outline of above types of survey and their attributes is presented in Section 2.2.3 and Table 2.1. It should be noted here that the Soil Survey Guidelines for Jamaica refer primarily to procedures relating to eeneral- ouroose survevs at semi-detailed level (1:25.000 - 1: 50,000). However, guidelines for the planning and execution of detailed soil surveys are given in Appendix I.

2.2.2 General-ouroose and soecial-ouroose survevs Surveys that are designed and conducted without a specific purpose regarding their use, are called general-ouroose surveys. This type of survey considers a wide range of observable soil characteristics which, supplemented with relevant soil analytical and climatic data, permits correlation and taxonomie classificat'ion of the soils in the survey area. Accurate general-purpose surveys provide a comprehensive soil data base required for interpretation for many different purposes, some of which may not have been identified or defined at the planning stage of the survey. An example of a general-purpose survey is the semi-detailed survey of the Montpelier area at a scale of 1:25,000. General-purpose surveys are

5 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OP SOIL SURVEYS generally conducted as part of a systematic soil survey program me at national level. An important advantage of the general-purpose survey is the fact that interpretations/evaluations for newly identified or modified forms of land use can be carried out without the need to re-survey the area. A good example, in this respect, is the soil survey of the Meylersfield West Polder, Westmoreland (RPPD 1980): "the soil survey has been interpreted for three forms of envisaged land use, i.e. mechanized irrigated rice farming, traditional irrigated rice farming and traditional livestock farming. However, if need arises additional interpretations for further land uses can be made, e.g. irrigated vegetable farming". An additional advantage of the above type of survey is that they can help to identify promising new types of land use since in many instances basic soil information is required bef ore decisions on land use can be made. Disadvantages are the often considerable survey inputs required in terms of time, manpower and funds. In contrast the special-ouroose survey is conducted where the objectives of the investigation are well known and often clearly specified, e.g. the assessment of the potential of a particular area for large-scale banana cultivation under drip irrigation. Survey requests usually come from farmers, investment companies or para-statal organizations dealing with agriculture or land resources use in general. The special-purpose survey typically concentrates on those soil characteristics that are considered to be relevant to the use(s) envisaged. The range of soil properties can be quite limited e.g. to soil depth, texture of topsoil and subsoil, groundwater depth, pH and soil salinity.

Major advantages of the above survey type in comparison to the general- purpose survey are the high speed and low costs at which the survey can be conducted. A limitation is the fact that its usefulness is limited to the specific purpose for which the survey was carried out. It usually means that the area has to be re-surveyed as soon as new land use alternatives are to be considered.

2.2.3 Small-scale and large-scale survevs The afore-mentioned survey hierarchy is visuaiized in Table 2.1 showing type of survey, survey purpose, scale, map unit composition, observation density and survey methods.

6 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

Table 2.1 Types of Soil Surveys.

Type Purpose Scale Other major survey characteristics

Exploratory Establishing major soil 1:1,000,000 Deductions from existing natural resources regionsfor to fflaps, geological surveys; interpretations agricultural 1:500,000 of existing field data; study of LANDSAT planning and and SPOT imagery; country-wide research travelling and sampling; all soil boundaries inferred from other sources

Reconnaissance Systematic inventory 1:250,000 Observation density: i/625-2500ha of soil and land to (1:250.000) to 1 /100-400 ha (1:100,000); resources with 1:100,000 mapping units: physiographic units multi-purpose enclosing consociations, associations and land evaluation complexes of Subgroups and Families aerial-photo interpretation; field observations on soils, geology, topography, land cover and soil management; analysis of selected soil profiles; most boundaries inferred, some spot-checks along the entire length; qualitative land evaluation.

Semi-detailed General-purpose and 1:50,000 Observation density: 1/25-100 ha special-purpose to (1:50.000) to 1/4-20 ha (1:25.000); e.g. project feasibility 1: 25,000 mapping units: consociations of Families studies or consociations, associations and complexes of series; aerial-photo inter­ pretation; intensive field observations, mainly on soil; most boundaries are checked but not along their entire length; analysis on selected prof iles; qualitative land evaluation.

Detailed General-purpose and 1:15.000 Observation density: 1/1-4 ha or more; special purpose and consociations of Series and phases thereof; surveys e.g. farm larger all boundaries are checked throughout the planning and entire length; intensive augering in a grid characterization of pattern ; limited use of aerial- research trial sites photo interpretation; laboratory analysis including soil testing.

Site evaluation Special-purpose, Variable Observation density and mapping units: preliminary survey; variable; aerial-photo interpretation; soil problem assessment, scattered, judiciously selected field project Identification. observations; all boundaries inferred; rapid laboratory testing; rapid reporting.

Source: Modified from Kenya Soil Survey Staff (1987) and Sombroek and van de Weg (1980).

7 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

A special survey category nas been added to Table 2.1 : the site evaluation which is not a regular soil survey and therefore can not be categorized on the basis of survey scale. A site evaluation can be defined as a special-purpose preliminary survey, designed to rapidly assess land resources in a particular area for a generally well-defined purpose. An example of a site evaluation in a standardized for mat in Jamaica is presented in the Site Evaluation of the Bernard Lodge Estate, Block C (SSU 1988f).

Further readine: Kenya Soil Survey Staff 1987. Manual for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation, Volume I. (For Subchapter 2.2 see pp. 3-11)

8 NATURE, PURPOSE AND USE OF SOIL SURVEYS

2.3 APPLICATIONS OF SOIL SURVEYS Soil surveys provide the basic information about soil resources. By timely identifying favourable soil conditions, soil surveys allow for optimum use of land resources and funds when major changes of land use are contemplated or new lands are to be cultivated.

An important application of soil surveys is the siting of agricultural research fields and plots and the subsequent transfer of experimental results to other areas with similar soils and related conditions.

Three other broad categories of soil survey applications are recognized by Dent and Young (1981), namely: 1) the planning and management of farming, grazing and forestry 2) interpretations for a variety of specialist purposes (e.g. gravel mining, waste disposal) 3) urban/regional planning.

Each application requires the evaluation of the suitability of land for a variety of alternative uses. In all cases, the soil map is a means of extrapolating knowledge of soil properties and response to management to other areas with similar land conditions (e.g. topography, soils, climate).

Results of a semi-detailed soil survey, for instance, can provide the technical basis for regionai Rural Physical Planning. Possible applications include the identification of the irrigable acreage, the assessment of areas suitable for growing particular crops under well defined conditions of management, and mapping of the erosion status (e.g. Soil Survey Report No. 2 and No. 4).

Further readine: Dent, D. and A. Young, 1981. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. Chapter 1.

9 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

3 PLANNING AND EXECIJTION OF SKMI-ÜFTA 1..ED SOIL S1JRVETS

3.1 GENERAL

The procedure to carry out a semi-detailed survey is shown in the following flowchart (Figure 3.1). Each stage is represented by a box and discussed in the Sections as indicated.

erna NIU> LAKBATOIT

eoOaOoa

JJJ

tapro?* API map

WWCUoo •ftfttpU WM , low vupfonmg of avnpto «J anaiya" rrom af «tl .mtolp

tfr«wüi( of maf •ad Mfood of f- •amptt u*u [. JJJJ

•ur**7of ;asaJr*Mof aoO of API rttDAlBUf ; aamptoi Irom map ar» Umt -J tofular aofj mapabooO > BfOfDo plsi JJ«

prouminary map unit dMtrtpttom. drawtiaj aeil map Ulnt map ««tl. int aou eorrotattoo Manga. •pdau pcotlmmarr •oatofood 35. J*

ttnaiet map unit flnall» turvty ,'anaJrmi of «ou ~ aoocrtptjoat. drawtnf of raoalnloa ; aamptn (rom •ou oup (p«r map map ab#*ta * ¥t rafular aoc KbMtJ. tlnal «OU

report toId map coca pin boe 4 1.4 2. 4 5. 4 4mz*3 VotUflMI II puUl£blx>$ and dfeUlbuUooatf f «port

Fig. 3.1. Flowchart showing the procedures for a semi-detailed soil survey.

10 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

3.2 OFFICE PREPARATIONS

32.1 Overall survev planning

One of the most important aspects of soil survey, apart from technical knowledge, is the proper planning and timing of activities. This applies for all stages of the survey: office work and field work, map compilation and report writing.

First, a survey team should be composed of two surveyors, one of them being the party leader. Eventually, an assistant surveyor can be added to the team. The composition of the team should be stable throughout the survey and the team should be assigned to and be responsible for one particular survey.

Table 3.1 Example of a time-table for a semi-detailed soil survey of 11,000 ha (publishing scale 1:25,000).

jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar collation materiaJ (I week) study material (i week) f irst API map (2 weeks) reconnaissance survey area (1/2 week) finalize API map (1 i/2 week) sample areas: selection and survey (6 wks) sample area map and report (3 weeks) review API map (2 weeks) survey of f irst 1:12,500 map sheet and sample submission to the lab (6 weeks) ...... national sbil correlation and map unit description of first map sheet (2 wks) review API (1 week) survey second 1:12,500 map sheet and sample submission to the lab (3 weeks) national soil correlation and map unit description second map sheet (1 wk) gathering extra data for land evaluation (3 wks) using JAMPLES (1 week) write first draft report and preparation of draft soil map (7 weeks) —— (reading by other staff members) write final draft report (4 weeks) (reading by other staff members) —- write final report and preparation of the final map (2 weeks)

11 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

A vehicie as well as a driver should be available to the survey team for the field work. The advantage of always travelling with the same driver is that the driver becomes more involved in the survey team activities from the point of organization: getting tools in and out the car, departure time, arranging gas coupons, maintenance of the vehicie and arranging auger- and pit-men.

Support staff should always be timely informed on up-coming activities: the laboratory should know about samples to be analyzed, the drawing office has to be informed about maps and figures to be drawn and secretaries about reports to be typed.

The time planning of the survey is the responsibility of the party leader. As directive the above time-tabie (Table 3.1) is to be used. On the basis of this time-table, the party leader can make a work plan and adapt it, for instance when a survey of more map sheets is to be carried out or when other activities interfere with the soil survey. It is important that a realistic time- table is made. so that activities are completed within the time-frame set.

3.2.2 Collation of material After making the overall planning, the office preparations for a new survey continue with the gathering of all available material relevant to the survey area. The study of this information helps the surveyors in building up their local reference level. A checklist of the materials that can be used, is shown in Table 3.2.

32.3 Aerial-ohotointeroretation (API) Soil surveyors analyse aerial-photographs to map possible soil boundaries and to predict certain soil properties. This makes aerial-photo interpretation of the entire survey area another very important task to be carried out in the office.

The aerial photographs can provide useful information on landforms, geology, hydroiogy and land cover. Changes in the landscape which are related to these features often coincide with changes in soil conditions and hence are potential soil boundaries.

12 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

These boundaries have to be indicatad on overlays on the aerial-photos from where they are transferred to the topographic map (1:12.500). which is used as field map. This map is usually referred to as API map. All units delineated on the map are given a map symbol and have to be included in the API legend. The format for the legend is given in Table 3-3. In the field these boundaries as well as the units are checked for their validity.

Table 3.2. Checklist of materials needed for a soil survey. item source aerial photographs (black and Survey Department / RPPD white 1:20.000 or 1:50.000 drawing office andinfrared 1:50,000) base map for the final soil map * Survey Department / Xerox / (1:25.000 or 1:50.000) RPPD drawing office topographic maps Survey Department / RPPD (1:12.500 and 1:50,000) drawing office geological map RPPD / Geology Division reports and maps of previously RPPD library undertaken soil surveys in the area (RRC surveys, special purpose surveys, other soil and land capability surveys) special studies (e.g. hydrology, RPPD library / Ministry library / geology, land use, soils, climate, Commodity Boards / Bodles / agronomy, field experiments, Estates etc; special studies from records of erop observations) outside Jamaica (books, papers) climatic data RPPD/ Nat. Meteorological Service Note: the 1:25,000 base map for the final soil map has to be made by the Survey Department or Xerpx by reducing the 1:12,500 toposheets to the final scale. For more details, see Section 3.6.3.

13 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Table 3.3. Basic format for the legend of aerial-photo interpretation maps. mapping landform relief slope drainage vegetation/land use remarks unit components intensity (form and (pattern and (greytone, texture, gradiënt) density) structure, mottling, type)

Before the aerial-photo interpretation map can be finalized a reconnaissance trip has to be made to the area (see Section 3.3.2). The findings of these trips will increase the surveyor's local reference level and help in finalizing the API map.

Additional information from the sources as mentioned in Table 32 can also be used in compiling the API map, but this information like from previously undertaken soil surveys can never replace the actual aerial-photo interpretation! It should be noted, that the maps accompanying the Soil and Land Use Surveys (RRC 1958-1970), the so-called "Green Book" maps, cannot be used as an alternative for the API map either, since they are not aiways reliable. The soils mapped often are not adequately described and correlated, and the soil boundaries on these maps are commonly in the wrong place.

A discussion on methods of aerial-photo interpretation for soil survey is beyond the scope of these guidelines. Under further reading, the literature to be consulted is specified.

In order to carry out an aerial-photo interpretation, the following materials are needed: - mirror stereoscope, for study of photographs in the office - small, pocket-size stereoscope, for reference and study in the field - black and white photographs, scale according to Table 3.4

14 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

- infrared ("false colour") photographs (available on scale 1:50,000) - transparent overlay sheets to cover the photographs - wax pencils for drawing boundaries on overlay sheets - alcohol to erase wax pencil Unes - topographic map (1:12,500) for field map onto which the boundaries of the aerial photo interpretation are transferred - Zoom Transferscope for transfer of boundaries from photographs to topographic map (optional)

Table 3.4. Scales of aerial photographs and topographical maps in Jamaica. publishing scale field approximate scale major use scale maps of aerial-photo's

1:50,000 1:25,000 1:25.000 semi-detailed soil maps for planning on parish level 1:25,000 1:12,500 1:12,500 semi-detailed soil maps for planning on part-of-parish level Note: the scale of aerial photographs to be used refers to the ideal situation. Such photo's may not always be available. In such situations photographs of the nearest equivalent scale should be used.

Further readine: Bennema and Gelens, 1969. Aerial Photo-Interpretation for Soil Surveys: pp. 7-8 (reference level); pp. 16-20 (API procedures); pp. 13-16 and 23-24 (elements); pp. 27-57 (discussion of elements).

Van Zuidam and Van Zuidam-Cancelado, 1978. Textbook of Photo- Interpretation: pp. 3-12 (introduction), pp. 30-59 (elements + discussion, API procedures); p. 68 (complete procedure); pp. 76-188 (landscape examples illustrated with photographs, figures and maps).

Soil Survey Staff, Soil Survey Manual, 1984. For special reference to interpretation of false coloured infra-red photographs.

15 PLANNING AND EXEOJTION OF SEM1-DETAILED S0IL SURVEYS

3.2.4. Other office activities

After the aerial-photo interpretation has been finalized, the preparations for the field work can start. Materials to be taken to the field for soil and site descriptions are listed in Appendix III. While carrying out the field work, at regular times the surveyors should come back to the office, to review the work that has been done and plan the work that stiU has to be done. These activities are described in further detail in Sub-chapter 33. The remaining office activities are discussed in the following Sub-chapters and Chapter 4.

16 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

3.3 EXECUTION OF FIELD WORK

331 General aspects

This section reviews the kind of field observations that are made during the successive stages of a soil survey, the necessity of walking through the field, and the continuous need for supplementing field work with office work.

Kind of field observations Several types of field observations can be made during a survey, for eiample auger borings, road/gully cuts, minipits and fuil size or regular soil pits. Field observations serve to identify, describe and record changes in local soil conditions so that the aerial photo-interpretation map and later the soil map can be updated. Field observations are complemented with site descriptions in which the features of the surrounding landscape (e.g. topography, landform, lithology, land cover) are recorded.

Site descriptions are made at every observation point but also between points. This is necessary because site observations allow for continuous monitoring of changes in landscape features, which in turn are often related to soil conditions (e.g. colour of the surf ace soil).

Quantitativeiy speaking, auger borings form the main kind of observations that. are made during a field survey. They mainly provide information on changes in soil texture, stoniness, consistency and colour with depth. Additional observations are needed to obtain a true, "three-dimensional" view of the soil body. In the first stages of a survey, this view can rapidly be obtained from minipits and freshly prepared road/gully cuts. Minipits can be sampled for chemical and physical analyses. Sampling from road/gully cuts is to be avoided, because they are often contaminated with alien materials, for instance marl from a road surf ace. Once the major soils of the area have been identified, f uil size pits can be dug, described and sampled (see Appendix II).

General stages of a survev The kind of observations that are required varies with the stage of the survey (see Table 3.5). In the first, reconnaissance stage auger borings with supplementary site and road/gully cut descriptions are made to obtain an overall picture of the landscape and its soils (see Section 3.3.2).

17 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Subsequently, the knowledge on soil conditions is mainly increased through auger borings and minipits during the sample area survey (see Section 3.33). Full size pits should only be dug in major soil bodies at representative sites. This impiies that they can only be positioned properiy once the surveyor has gained a good understanding of the local soil pattern.

Table 35. Kind of observations during different stages of field survey.

reconnaissance sample areas remaining area site descriptions x x x roadcuts (x) (x) (x) auger borings x x x minipits x x regular soil pits x soil sampling (x) x

Note: Compulsory observations are indicated with an "x" while (x) is used for optional observations.

Field surveying includes walking It is a serious misconception that good soil surveys can be made by solely making observations points next to motorable tracks. The surveyors can only gain a good understanding of the regional soil pattern by walking through the field, observing and recording changes in the landscape such as presence of rock outcrops, colour of the topsoil, occurrence of wetness or erosion, as welt as changes in land cover. Without this supporting field evidence auger borings generally remain of limited practical value in semi- detailed surveys. This is so because the above mentioned features are often the result of changes in soil conditions. Once these changes are recognized and understood, the surveyor will know where to place the next observation point. In this manner, soil boundaries can be demarcated on the field map in an accurate manner. This increased "ground-truth" alsó allows the surveyor to update the aerial-photo interpretation and preliminary soil maps respectively.

The above kind of understanding is needed for the successful mapping of the so calfed "remaining area", in which stage extrapolation is often applied using the aerial-photographs. This procedure can greatly reduce the amount of

18 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS field work in areas where clear relations exist between land features and soil boundaries. In other areas, such as recent alluvial plains that have ill- defined surface features, an intensive soil sampling programme will be needed to obtain an accurate soil map. In the latter type of areas, it is even more vital that map unit boundaries are demarcated on the aerial-photo interpretation map during the field survey.

Interim processing of field data Good time planning is crucial to the success of a soil survey. Once the field work has started the surveyors should continue planning their activities for the coming weeks (see also Section 3.2.4). This includes, for example finding suitable locations for siting soil pits and liaising with laboratory staff.

It is important that the surveyors timely notify the laboratory about the imminent arrival of soil samples so that lab-staff can allocate time for the requested analyses in their own work programme. The surveyors should also indicate which type of analyses will be required so that lab-staff can check whether adequate supplies are available in the store room (e.g. Chemicals and status of gas cylinders).

Soil data collection is a time consuming and hence expensive activity. Consequently, it is crucial that all field observations are properly recorded. Standardized procedures for describing and naming soil features in auger borings and soil pits are presented in Technical Guide No. 5, which also includes copies of the Standard observation forms. Original field observations and site descriptions must be stored in folders that are referenced per survey area. It is good practice to make photo-copies of the original field documents, particularly soil pit descriptions. This "duplication" of materials can be very useful in case original materials are lost or damaged. Duplicates should always be stored in different rooms of the office.

Gathering soils data over longer periods of time without subsequent interpretation often results in data loss. This means that field work should be complemented with office work. The surveyors must analyze and process the gathered information at least on a weekly basis so that the relevant information is still "fresh" in their memory. Office work at this stage mainly includes activities such as calculating the coordinates and altitude of soil pits from topographic maps, the writing up of pit descriptions and expanding of the field legend. Preliminary soil profile descriptions and analytical data sheets have to be typed on diskettes using the computer (i.e. Macintosh);

19 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVBYS this also includes making back-uos. Thereafter, these descriptions can be easily updated and duplicated. On the basis of the above information preliminary soil series and map unit descriptions can be refined so that preliminary soil correlation may begin. Office work also includes the update of the aerial-photo interpretation map starting from the first day of field observations. As the survey progresses, the preliminary aerial-photo interpretation map gradually evolves into a soil map with accompanying legend and mapping unit descriptions. The three main stages in a semi-detailed soil survey are described in sections 3.3.2 through 33-4.

3.3.2 Stage 1 - Reconnaissance of the survev area A reconnaissance is made to the survey area at the stage when the first aerial-photo interpretation map is nearly completed. Generally, this trip takes one day but in case of areas with intricate landforms or poor accessibility this may be more. Often, it will be beneficial to include staff from other agencies in the reconnaissance survey (e.g. Geology Department of the University of the West Indies; extension officers of the Land Authority Office).

The reconnaissance stage of semi-detailed surveys serves to increase the soil survey or's field reference level by:

a) studying the general terrain conditions and accessibility of the survey area. This knowledge is important when planning the logistical aspects of the subsequent field work.

b) getting a first impression of the distribution of the major landscapes in the area. This information or "ground-truth" shouid be compared with the information presented on the aerial-photo interpretation map.

c) getting an insight into the local soil conditions which occur within the major landforms, mainly through auger borings and minipits.

Upon returning to the office the above information is processed and plotted on the map and legend of the earlier aerial-photo interpretation. The updated map is subsequently used to select representative and easily accessible areas for carrying out the sample area surveys.

20 PLANNING AND EXEOJTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

3.3.3 Stage 2 - Sample area survey

3.3.3.1 Objectives Sample area surveys form the basis on which the aerial-photo interpretation map can be checked for its relevance in differentiating soil bodies. These soil bodies are mapped using a detailed, grid survey. In case of a general purpose survey the kind of observations is already determined before the actual field work starts (see Section 2.2.2). However, in special cases user requirements will require that special kinds of observations be emphasized. For instance, close monitoring of salinity and sodicity status may be required when map ping coastal plains.

In order to be of practical value, sample areas should provide information on the following:

a) Field relationships Soil characteristics are of ten related to surf ace features such as landform, position in landscape, geology and land cover. These field relationships should be established during sample area surveys. It is on the basis of this understanding that soils can efficiently be mapped in similar areas using aerial-photo interpretation.

b) Comoosition of map units (spatiaTsoil variability) Sample areas are systematically surveyed so that the surveyor gets detailed information on the spatial variability of soils within each aerial- photo interpretation unit, i.e. possible soil mapping unit. This information forms the basis for defining soil mapping units in terms of major and "included" soils (see Subchapter 36).

Using the above information the first aerial-photo interpretation map can be updated and the preliminary API-legend expanded (see Table 36). The resuiting map will already indicate which mapping units are likely to occur on the "provisional soil map". At this point, the provisional soil legend can also be drafted.

21 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

Table 3.6. Basic format for the "provisionai soil map" legend (updated aerial- photo interpretation map legend). map landform geology slope erosion soil texture drainage stoniness unit depth class

H HILLS HL - hard white limestone

HL1 - - gentle none deep CL/C well dr. non stony

HL2 - - steep moderate shallow CL/C exc. dr. stony

B INLAND BASIN BF - alluvial deposits

BF1 - - flat none deep heavy C poor.dr. slightly stony

BF2 - - gentle none deep CL well dr. non stony

3.3.3.2 Criteria for sample area selection Proper siting of sample areas is of critical importance. The foUowing aspects should be considered:

a) Location Sample areas should be selected to encompass all major landscapes (i.e. physiographic-lithological units) and sited so as to be representative for each of these. Consequently, each sample area should include as many aerial-photo interpretation units as is possible. Areas which deviate from the general picture of the aerial photo interpretation map should not be selected as sample areas.

b) Accessibility Sample areas should be readily accessible by car to reduce transportation time. From thereon surveyors should walk to access remote areas which often have their own soils (e.g. cockpit country).

22 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

c) Reoresentativitv Sample areas should be large enough to cover sufficiënt soil map units, but at the same not become too large either. The following rule of thumb can be used: two surveyors (one team) should be able to map a sample area within 2-3 weeks, performing a good amount of daily observations (about 10-15 auger borings). The minimum size f or a sample area mapped at scale 1:12,500 is about 100 hectares (250 acres). However, the area may be larger when changes in the local soil pattern cannot be mapped at the specified scale.'

d) Number of samole areas The number of sample areas to be surveyed varies with the intricacy of the landscape under study and range of landscapes. In most cases, however, 3 to 4 sample areas should suffice for the whole survey area.

3.333 Execution of sample area survey Sample area surveys provide the surveyor with the basic information required for successfuUy surveying the "remaining area". When mapping at a field scale of 1:12,500 the average observation density should be about 1 observation per hectare for the sample area. In flat areas without ciear physiographic features, for instance recent alluvial plains, a grid survey is recommended using a reguiar grid of about 100 metres. The previous rule does not appiy in e.g. sloping areas were surface features will facilitate the mapping process because catenas are likely to occur. In these areas transects should be made at right angles to the contour iines. Survey methods for sample areas resemble those for detailed surveys (see Appendix I).

Minipits are commonly used during the sample area surveys. As was observed earlier, they provide quick information on soil bodies. As a rule of thumb it is recommended that at least' two minipits are described in each major soil identified. Whether a particular soil is "minor" or "major" in the survey area, will automatically follow from the sample area survey.

In case several sample areas are surveyed within the operational framework of one semi-detailed soil survey, it is important that a short report, including soil mapping unit descriptions with accompanying soil map and legend, is prepared per sample area. At this stage, soils are provisionally classified according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy up to the Great Group levei so that the first soil correlation exercise can be organized. In sample areas surveys, it is sufficiënt to accurately describe major soils without using the names of

23 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS national soil series yet. Soils will be correlated up to series level after the so- called "remaining area" has been surveyed.

3.3.4 Stage 3 - Survev of the "remaining area" 3.34.1 Procedures

Short repons and detailed soil maps for the sample areas are now available. This wealth of information is used to review the aerial-photo interpretation map and to update the corresponding legend for the whole study area. A "provisional soil map" for the whole area is the result of this exercise.

Using this "provisional soil map" as the new field map the survey team can now complete the survey for the first topographical map sheet of the "remaining area". If the sample areas were properly located and surveyed, the surveyors will soon notice that the "provisional soil map" has a good predictive value. This aspect becomes apparent as additional auger borings and site descriptions are made throughout the area in order to check soil boundaries. If the field situation differs from the pattern delineated on the "provisional "soil map", this map should be corrected on the basis of the newly gathered field information using aerial-photo interpretation whenever possible. The surveyor may encounter new soils that were not previously mapped during the sample area survey. The range in characteristics of these soils should initially be assessed by describing and sampling at least two minipits. If the newly identified soil qualifies for a new series or series variant it will be necessary to describe and sample two or more f uil size soil profile pits.

As the amount of data collected through auger borings, site descriptions, soil pits and laboratory analyses increases, the "provisional soil map" can be further refined. The end product is the final soil map for the first map sheet. Thereafter, the survey team should finalize map unit and soil series descriptions for this 1:12,500 sheet. This includes provisional classification of the major soils up to the family level. This activity is to be foliowed by soil correlation at the national level during which proposed new series and series variants may be established. These sessions will also indicate whether additional soil pits should be described in this part of the survey area.

The above procedure should be repeated for each 1:12,500 field sheet constituting the "remaining area". During this process the overall soil map and soil legend are further expanded and/or refined. In view of the ever increasing local reference level of the surveyors the mapping of these new

24 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS sheets (2nd, 3rd, etc.) wiü progress quickei: than that for the first sheet. Additional types of observations, such as infiltration tests, can be carried out at this stage of the survey.

Surveyors should start with land evaluation using JAMPLES after the final correlation session (see Subchapter 3.7). Preliminary output for the considered land utilization types has to be checked against the surveyors field knowledge supplemented with results of local agricuitural research and farmers experience. This output validation stage is important to provide correct agronomic recommendations, but also to refine the rating system for land qualities.

At this stage of the survey the surveyors have finalized the bulk of the field work and preliminary data interpretation process. Another important task is to be started now, being the compilation of the soil survey report and accompanying maps. The procedures and formats for report writing are extensively documented in the second volume of the Soil Survey and Land Evaluation Guidelines for Jamaica (see Technical Guide No. 9b). It should be emphasized that a soil survey only ends with the distribution of the corresponding report.

3-3.4.2 Recommended observation density The survey of the "remaining area" must be accurate. This is only possible if a sufficiently large number of field observations is made. In case aerial- photo interpretation can be applied successfully in predicting the local soil pattern, about 100 to 200 auger borings should suffice for a field sheet at scale 1:12,500. This number does not include auger borings made during the sample area surveys! In areas where aerial-photo interpretation proved to be of limited value a denser pattern of auger borings may be required to fully elucidate the local soil pattern.

It was indicated earlier that the surveyor should aim at describing two or more full size pits in each major soil, with supporting minipit data.

Further readine: Dent and Young 1981. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. Chapter 4.

25 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

3.4 PROCEDURES RELATED TO SOIL ANALYSES

3.4.1 Deliverv and reeistration of soil samples The procedures and criteria for soil sampling and labelling, preceding the delivery at the laboratory, are described in Appendix II.

After the profile is properly sampled, the soil samples should be delivered to the laboratory, immediately after reaching the office. Each bag should contain about 1 kg of soil (fine earth) and a properly filled out label, written in waterproof ink. The label should contain the following information for registration: - pedon number (year/number of topographical sheet l:12,500/pit number) - parish - tentative soil name - horizon designation - depth of sample - name of surveyors - date of sampling.

At the laboratory, the Soil Analytical Data sheet should be filled out by the surveyor, indicating location, date of delivery, soil number (= tentative soil name and pedon number), name of the surveyor and depths of sampling.

If field experience suggests that the samples are either calcareous, saline, high in Na, very acid or alkaline, high in organic matter, high in aluminium, high in sulphur, or in case recent application of fertilizer or lime is suspected, this should be indicated on the analytical data sheet (see Technical Guide No. 4). This will permit the laboratory staff to quickiy identify appropriate analytical methods.

3.4.2 Selection of the analyses reauired 3.4.2.1 Standard analyses

For each semi-detaiied soil survey a Standard set of analyses is to be carried out, as listed below. When the samples are properly taken from representative profiles, the analytical results assist in classification of the soils according to USDA Soil Taxonomy.

26 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

Since 1988, the analytical determinations are carried out according to the methods described in Technical Guides Nos. 2 and 3. Chemical analyses and texture are done on the fine earth fraction. Upon receipt in the laboratory, soil samples are dried in an oven at 35-40 °C (air­ dry) and sieved. The fine earth fraction (< 2 mm) is then used for chemical and textural analyses. Moisture content is calculated from the oven-dried samples (drying overnight at 105 oQ.

Bulk density and water-holding capacity at "low" pF values are determined on core samples, whereas water-holding capacity at "high" pF values is measured on small undisturbed soil clods (see Appendix II).

The Standard analyses performed at the SSU laboratory, are shown in Table 37. A brief description of the corresponding methods for inclusion in the soil survey report under preparation is given in Technical Guide No. 9b, Sub- chapter 3.4.

Table 3.7. List of Standard analyses on soil samples.

Available K Exchangeable bases Available P (Truog) Organic carbon (Walkley and Black) Bulk density Partiele size analysis (pipette) Calcium carbonate (Van Wesemael) pH(H20) CEC(-NH40Ac at pH 7.0) pH (KC1) Electrical cond uctivity (1:2.5) Total N Exchangeable acidity/aluminium Water holding capacity ("pF-values")

If the pH(H20) of a soil sample is higher than 5.5 and lower than 6.5, both CaC03 and exchangeable acidity should be determined.

3.4.2.2 Additional analyses for special soils. In some cases, additional analyses are required to get a better understanding of the soil and its characteristics. A (non-exhaustive) list of the most commonly used special-purpose analyses, based on Technical Guides No. 2 and No. 3, is shown in Table 38. The descriptions of the special-purpose analyses are summarized in Technical Guide No. 9b.

27 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Table 3.8. List of special-purpose analyses on soil samples.

Available P (Olsen) Extractable tracé elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) Ca and Mg (water sample) Sulphate Chloride Water dispersible clay (natural clay) ECe (in saturation extract)

For soils in use for rice cultivation or soils that will be used as such in the future as well as for calcareous soils (high pH), the P-Olsen method can provide a valuable estimate of the P-content available to plants.

In saline areas, where the EC (1:2.5) exceeds 10 mS/cm, or in areas earmarked for growing salt-sensitive crops, the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract, chloride and sulphate content have to be determined to get an impression of the quantity and kind of salts present.

For irrigation purposes Ca and Mg, as well as chloride and sulphate of the irrigation water should be determined.

Determination of extractable tracé elements is important for polluted soils and in cases where (induced) micro-nutrient deficiencies are expected, based on erop growth and yields.

Water dispersible clay is to be determined, when information is needed about clay activity (e.g. in Oxisols and some Ultisols and Alfisols).

3.4.3 Handlina and aoolicatión of soil analvtical data 3.4.3-1 Derived values

Derived values are calculated from the results of the Standard analyses. Often, they teil more about some soil characteristics than the straight forwarded laboratory data. As such, they are useful for soil classification.

Bef ore calculating the derived values, the data as delivered by the laboratory should be checked for eventual inconsistencies.

Table 3.9 shows the list of the derived values (see Technical Guide No. 6). The relevant calculation procedures are shortly described in Technical Guide No. 9b.

28 PLANNING AND EXECUTION.OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Table 3.9. List of derived values. Al-saturation Effective CEC Available moisture Effective CEC-clay Base saturation percentage Exchangeable sodium percentage CEC-clay Exchangeable Ca Dispersion ratio Organic matter C/N quotiënt Sum of exchangeable bases

3.4.32 Cross-checking Cross checking of laboratory data is difficult, because there are no strict rules for relations between different soil characteristics. In spite of the "natural exceptions", some directives can be given, as follows from the "Aid to laboratory determination of the soil type" (Technical Guide No. 4).

The following eeneral statements made by the Kenya Soil Survey Staff (KSSS 1987), can be applied in Jamaica as weli:

- pH(H20) and pH(KCl) follow the same trend within the profile, pH(KCl) being generally 1 -2 units lower than pH(H20), except in Oxisols and soils with oxic properties and 'low activity" clays.

- pH(H20) and ECe follow the same trend within the profile (i.e. both of them increase or decrease).

- If pH(H20) exceeds 7.0, the base saturation percentage is 100. Otherwise it is less than 100 and usually no free carbonates are present.

- The C/N quotiënt normally decreases with depth to 50 cm, except in buried profiles. Below 50 cm the C/N quotiënt becomes unreliable, because of analytical procedures (rounding off errors).

- Texture analysis with the pipette method has an internal check; therefore no errors are anticipated, provided the analysis is performed properly.

- If there are no lithologic discontinuities or if clay destruction has not taken place to any marked extent, the value of the CEC of the clay size fraction is more or less the same throughout the profile. CEC-clay, as defined in Soil Taxonomy, is the CEC of the clay size fraction i.e. it includes the

29 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVÉYS

contribution of the organic matter. The CEC of the (mineral) clay size fraction can be estimated by subtracting the contribution to the CEC of the organic matter (CEC organic carbon: about 250-350 me/100 g). Calculating the CEC of the clay at several depths gives the trend within the profile.

If the results of the analyses are not in agreement with the above "rules of thumb", the surveyors should first try to understand the results, before asking for repeats from the laboratory.

If fertilizers have been applied just before sampling the soil, electrical conductivity and exchangeable K values may be higher than expected. When lime has been applied, a high value for exchangeable Ca can be found, while the pH is still quite low. Burning of stubbles affects the C/N quotiënt and increases the content of exchangeable K.

3.4.3.3 Presentation and application of data The analytical results with the accompanying profile descriptions should be presented in a standardized way as shown in Appendix II of Technical Guide No. 9b.

The immediate use of analytical data in soil survey is for classification according to Soil Taxonomy, and soil correlation. The samples have to meet critical (field and laboratory) values, on the basis of which the surveyor can identify the different diagnostic epipedons, -horizons, and -criteria and finally decide how to classify the soil. Threshold values for classification, based on soil analyses, are summarized in Technical Guide No. 6, which is based on the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1987). More explicitly, they are described in: Principles and procedures for using soil survey laboratory data (SCS 1983 p. 126-130)

For the application in the computerized land evaluation system (JAMPLES), in most cases the input can be taken straight from the final data sheet. The bulk density and the water holding capacity are requested and the very fine and coarse sand fractions should be specified. It should be noted that base saturation in JAMPLES is given as the sum of the exchangeable bases divided by the ECEC and their quotiënt multipiied by 100%. In case of saline soils, it is important that the ECe is determined on all samples of the profile.

30 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Further reading:

ILACO, 1981. Agricultural compendium for the tropics and subtropics: p. 76- 108.

J.R. Landon, 1984. Tropical Soil Manual: Chapter 6-7-8.

Technical Guide No. 1: Lecture Notes on Soil Fertility Assessment Course, by R.A. Leyder and F.R. Westerhout.

31 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

3.5 SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CORRELATION PROCEDURES

35.1 Soil Classification

After identification, description, analysis and characterization of a particular soil the surveyor places it - on the basis of its most important properties - into a specific soil class. This process of assigning soils to established classes is calied soil classification. In Jamaica the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975). an international classification system, is used for classifying soils up to the f amily level.

The Soil Taxonomy classification system, hereafter referred to as Soil Taxonomy, is structured according to the principles of a natural classification system (see Volume II - Glossary) but at the same time gives maximum weight to properties of agricultural relevance (Buol et al. 1980). Soil Taxonomy is a hierarchical system of taxonomie classes at six categorical levels. The following categories - in order of decreasing level of generalization - are distinguished:

1) Orders 2) Suborders 3) Great Groups 4) Subgroups 5) Families and 6) Series

A complete description of Soil Taxonomy is beyond the scope of this Technical Guide. For a brief outline of the system the reader is referred to Sub-chapter 4.2 of Technical Guide 9b. For detailed information with regard to the structure and definitions of the classification system the reader is referred to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975) and its latest update (summarized edition), Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1987). Concise, practical guidelines for the use of Soil Taxonomy are provided in Technical Guide No. 6.

The application of Soil Taxonomy has the following advantages (RPPD 1981):

It helps to remember the significant eharacteristics of soils and thus enables a good arrangement of the surveyor's knowledge.

32 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

It enables an understanding about the relationships between soils and between soils and their environment, thus allowing for the comparison or transfer of data between different geographical locations.

It allows to distinguish adequate soil mapping units during the survey.

It provides for a basis of interpretation of soils data for selected land uses, i.e. through land evaluation.

Soil Taionomy provides the taxonomie framework within which newly identified, "in-coming" soils are compared to one another or matched to already established soils. This is done in Jamaica at the lowest categorical level, i.e. the series level. This process of comparison and matching is called soil correlation and is f urther discussed in Section 3.5.2.

Further readine: Buol, S.W., F.D., Hole and RJ. McCracken.1980. Soil Genesis and Classification: pp. 180-193.

3-5.2 Soil correlation aspects Soil correlation is defined as "the process of maintaining consistency in naming, classifying and interpreting kinds of soils and units delineated on maps. In the correlation process, field and laboratory data are examined for similarities and differences between soils at different places" (Soil Survey Staff 1984).

During the field operations the process of correlation at survey level starts at the second soil observation when this is compared with the first observation to find out and decide whether it has a similar set of properties or whether a different kind of soil is encountered. If the soils at two different places in the survey area are found to be similar, they are given the same name. If a soil is similar to one identified and named in another survey, then that name is adopted. If it is different from any of the already known soil, a new name is given. This continues from the beginning to the

33 PLANN ING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SO IL SURVBYS end of each survey when the soils are described and mapped at different places.

Generally, soil correlation is conducted at a) survey level as discussed above and at b) national level, for the following purposes: a) Soil correlation at the survev level is carried out to ensure maximum internal consistency of naming, classifying and interpreting kinds of soils of mapping units as distinguished within the survey area. It invoives systematic quality control in all aspects of soil mapping throughout the survey. Soil correlation at survey level is primarily the task of the survey teams party leader with due assistance from the national soil correlator. The correlation of the soils is summarized on a preliminary basis af ter completion of the field work of a particular map sheet. b) Soil correlation conducted at national level is to ensure that names and descriptions from similar kinds of soil are consistent from survey to survey following national standards or concepts. These national standards are generally defined within the framework of the Soil Taxonomy. By using national standards the definitions of soil series are prevented from being unacceptably stretched to fit new soils, yet at the same time unnecessary proliferation of series is avoided. Correlation at national level is the task of the national soil correlator with assistance from the party leaders involved.

The soil series which represents the lowest categorical level in the Soil Taxonomy hierarchy forms the basic element in the soil correlation process. A soil series can be defined as a group of soils having soil horizons similar in differentiating characteristics and arrangement in the soil profile, as weil as being developed on a similar type of parent material. The soils within a series are essentially homogeneous in most soil profile characteristics, except in such features as slope, stoniness and degree of erosion where these features do not greatly modify the kind and arrangements of soil horizons.

Soil correlation is an important part of the soil survey work, in particular with respect to the description of soil mapping units. The different steps in the soil survey process, including soil correlation, are visualized in Fig. 3.1 and discussed in detail in Sections 3-3.2, 3.3-3 and 3-3-4. A number of soil correlation sessions are held between soil surveyor(s) and soil correlator during all stages of map unit description and legend construction. Prior to and d uring soil correlation activities soil surveyor and soil correlator make use of the so-called Series Registration System (SRS) in which all Jamaican soil series and related soil categories - selected on the basis of adequate descriptions and analytical data - have been registered in a regular,

34 PLANNING AND EXECUTIQN OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS taxonomie order. This registration facilitates a quick comparison between soils with similar or partly similar characteristics during the soil correlation process. The above system is updated after each soil correlation session. In addition, soil series can be catalogued and presented on the basis of lithology which will provide a more visual, spatial presentation to the user. For a detailed description of the SRS the reader is referred to Technical Guide No. 8 (SSU 1989h).

Newly defined series should meet the requirements of the family to which they belong but, in addition, need to be screened on the basis of the following criteria:

1) Soil series should be maooable in the field on the basis of observable or inferred characteristics.

2) Soil series (preferabiy) should be relevant in terms of land use: where possible, their diagnostic characteristics ought to be defined in consideration of general ecological and management aspects as affecting potential land use.

The latter criterion requires frequent technical liaisons with the land evaluator on the basis of criteria used in land evaluation (JAMPLES). Consistent use of above criteria in series development ensures maximum effectiveness of the new series as a mapping tooi. Poorly defined series, on the other hand, will affect both accuracy and relevance of the soil map and of the survey as a whole.

After correlation, soil series are given a specific status on the basis of their characteristics and (known) extent, as below:

A - Soil series reoresents revised, updated version of original Green Book Soil (GBS) concept and consequently, carries the name of that concept. Area of extent: > 300 ha (islandwide) Examoles: WINDSOR series, CHURCHPEN series

B - Soil series variant: largely similar to soil series with A or C status, yet significantly different in some (minor) aspects. Area of extent: > 300 ha (islandwide) Example: PENNANTS VARIANT I series

35 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEM1-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

C - As soil series of status A but nol representing updated version of original GBS concept. Area of eitent: > 300 ha (islandwide) Example: BURNT GROUND series, MOUNTAIN HILL series D - Minor series/variant: As soil series of status A, B or C but limited in extent; soil series is put on "stand-by" pending future expansion based on relevant data from other areas allowing upgrading to A, B or C status. Area of extent: < 300 ha (islandwide) Examole: HUNTS PEN series, CHUDLEIGH VARIANT I

With increasing numbers of Jamaican soil series being registered, the system will gradually develop into a real National Soil Classification System.

Series or groups of series form the basic soil components of mapping units (consociations, associations and complexes respectively) in the semi-detailed soil surveys that are presently being conducted in Jamaica. This aspect and the relationship soil series - soil mapping unit in general is further discussed inSection 36.1.

36 PLANNING AND EXEOJTI0N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

3.6 THE SOIL MAP 3-6.1 Soil mapping units

A soil mapping unit can be defined as a collection of soil delineations (on the map) that comprise similar soils or soil combinations (depending on the scale of the survey and the intricacy of the soil pattern). The following types of mapping units are defined in Technical Soil Bulletin 12: a) Single Mapoine Unit

- Consociation: A mapping unit dominated by a single soil series and containing less than 25% inclusions of minor soils. b) Compound Mapping Units

Association: A mapping unit consisting of two or more soil taxa (series) geographically associated in a characteristic recurring pattern. It contains less than 25% inclusions of minor soils.

- Complex: Similar to association but the constituent soil taxa occur in such an intricate pattern or are so small in area that it is not possible to map them separateiy, even at the scale of the sample area survey. The pattern and proportions of soil taxa are somewhat similar in all areas. A complex contains less than 25% inclusions of minor soils.

Undifferentiated: A mapping unit consisting of two or more söii taxa e.g. series that are not consistently associated geographically but are included in the map unit because use and management are the same or very similar. Soil taxa occur in variable proportions in various soil delineations representing the mapping unit.

Mapping units are "conceived" during the aerial-photo interpretation stage when API units are delineated on the basis of supposedly soil-related characieristics of the photo stereo-image. The API units are subsequently transformed into regular soil mapping units during the reconnaissance and

37 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS sample area surveys (see Sections 33.1 and 3.3.2). Soil mapping units comprise soils or soil combinations which in turn represent series concepts (by meeting the specific requirements of these concepts). In the literature such defined concepts are often referred to as taxonomie units, taionomic classes or, shortly, taxa as they all belong to a Iarger taxonomie framework developed for soil classification purposes.

The relationships between API units, soil mapping units, soils/soil combinations and soil taxonomie units are visualized in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Block diagram showing relationship between API unit, soil map unit, soils/soilscape and soil taxonomie unit

38 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

It is important that all major soils of the area are presented in the various mapping units in a way that their geographic setting in relation to the overall soil pattern is clearly shown. This is one of the main reasons why the structure of the soil map legend is based on physiography and lithology (see SSU 1988g); this aspect is further discussed in Section 3.6.2.

For detailed information as to the coding, naming and description of mapping units the reader is referred to Sub-chapter 6.2 of Technical Soils Bulletin No. 12.

3.6.2 Map legend structure

Soil mapping units are structured and presented in a map legend which accompanies the soil map. Standardized guidelines have been developed for the construction of soil map legends in Jamaica (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 12).

Landform and lithology have been chosen as main entries of the Legend Framework in view of their close relationship with the soil and their good visibility on aerial photographs. This entry structure enhances the users general insight of the spatial distribution of the soil in relation to its geographic setting (Sombroek and van de Weg 1980).

The Soil Legend Framework has an open-ended structure with three entry levels, the first level being landform in which seven relevant Iandforms are distinguished and defined on the basis of: a) overall relief intensity b) average slope gradiënt and c) mean elevation above sea level

Relief intensity is defined as the vertical difference between higher and lower points of the landscape, for example between summits/crests and valley bottoms or sinkhole bottoms.

Landform is shown in the map unit code using a capital letter. It should be noted here that distinctions and definitions of Iandforms have been made ia relation to the construction of soil map legends. Above distinctions are therefore pragmatic as they are based on pedological significance, rather than geomorphic purity of the different Iandforms.

39 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Lithology is used to subdivide landform units and is indicated with a second capital letter. A differentiation is made between parent rock which denotes the Consolidated bed-rock underlying the soil profile, and parent material which is an unconsolidated derivative of one or several types of parent rock. A total of 25 different types of parent rock/material are presently recognized.

The third entry is formed by the soil components which as such constitute the actual mapping unit. The soil mapping unit code for consociations is formed by adding an arabic number to the symbols of the first two entries. This arabic number is preceded by a letter in case the code represents a compound mapping unit, e.g. a soil association (y), complex (z) or undifferentiated group (z).

Examples are given below:

H HILLS AND FOOTHILLS HT Soils developed over non-calcareous shale

HT5 Fifth soil consociation occurring on non-calcareous shale within Hills and Foothills.

HTx3 Third soil complex developed over non-calcareous shale within the Hills and Foothills.

For cartographic reasons, the mapping unit code is kept as concise as possible. However, phases are indicated on the map, but not in the legend. All other information relating to kind of mapping unit and soil characteristics of series are represented in the descriptive part of the soil legend.

3.6.3 Mao comoilation Having constructed the final legend and completed the plotting of the final soil boundaries on the field map or photo, the surveyor can now proceed with finalizing the soil map.

In order to compile an accurate and effective soil map the surveyor or the cartographer must make sure that a clear and photogrammetrically

40 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS controlled topographic base map is available onto which the soil boundaries can be super-imposed.

Transparent topographic base maps at scale 1:25,000, which are derived from the 1:12,500 topographic map sheets, are printed by the Survey Department. From these transparencies sepia copies are made onto which the soil boundaries are drawn with black ink. The sepia copy will give a relatively light and subdued colour when blue-print copied: this is required for contrast and to avoid interference of the background information with the soil map proper. When following the above procedure, it is important to check the original 1:12,500 toposheets on contour density as too dense a pattern tends to obscure the actual soil information on the final map.

In case of a 1:50,000 base map the surveyor can best ask the draughtsman concerned to compile a derived base map deleting all redundant information.

After completion of the base map, the soil boundaries can be transferred manuaily or by using the Zoom Transferscope. Although the latter in principle should give more accurate results, the method is rather cumbersome in view of the limited optical angle of the Transferscope and other limitations. Transfer of soil boundaries by hand is generally satisfactory provided a clear topographic reference pattern including contours is present, to which the surveyor can relate when transferring the soil information. After completing the transfer, the draughtsman can now re-draw in ink the soil boundaries and other relevant information onto the map. He can use iines of varying widths to differentiate between the different map unit categories in the legend. It is recommended to use a 0.5mm Rapidograph pen to delineate mapping units belonging to one physiographic unit and to use a 0.25mm or 0.3mm for the remaining boundaries.

It is very important that the surveyor thoroughiy discusses all cartographic aspects including the contents, and the lay-out of the map with the responsible draughtsman; detailed information as required by the cartographer should preferably be written down. The surveyor should regularly liaise with the draughtsman in order to address problems and questions that may come up during the drawing exercise. No strict standardization as to the lay-out for mat is given here but minimum requirements are indicated in Volume II of the Guidelines. The Montpelier Soil Map (SSU 1989f) may serve as a good example of a semi-detailed soil map published at scale 1:25,000.

.41 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Blue prints should be made with care and only after checking the quality of the printing paper and the printing liquid (ammonia). Make a test print first in order to reduce the amount of (expensive!) paper waste to a minimum.

Further readinc:

Sombroek, W.G. and R.F. van de Weg 1980. Some considerations on Quality and Readability of Soil Maps and their Legends.

42 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMl-DETAILED S01L SURVEYS

3.7 LAND EVALUATION

3.7.1 Qbjêctive.

Once a proper soil survey has been carried out and a readable map produced, the survey data need to be interpreted for various uses (e.g. agriculture, forestry and tourism). Up to the early 1970s the Land Capabilitv Ciassification Svstem of Klingebiel and Montgomery (1961) was used in Jamaica (RRC 1958-1970). A shortcoming of this System is that it does not ailow for an objective comparison of alternative land uses possible for the same track of land (land unit). This is the reason why the "Soil and Land Use Surveys" also include tables of "recommended crops for soils" (see RRC 1958- 1970). In view of said limitation the Rural Physical Planning Division started assessing land suitability using land evaluation in the late 1970s (e.g. RPPD 1980).

Land evaluation is concerned with the assessment of land performance when employed for a specified use on a sustained basis (FAO 1976 and Beek 1978). It involves the interpretation of surveys of climate, soils, hydrology, vegetation and land use and other factors of land in terms of the requirements of alternative forms of land use. In order to be meaningful for planning, only those kinds of land use should be considered that are relevant within the physical and socio-economic context of the study area. Land evaluation studies should therefore be performed as an interdisciplinary activity involving a team of specialists from the natura! and social sciences.

Two types of land suitability classifications are defined in the Framework for Land Evaluation, the quantitative and quantitative approach respectively (FAO 1976). The type of evaluation that will be foliowed is strongly determined by the quality, amount and nature of data coilected in the field (e.g. soil conditions, erop performance and socio-economics). It further varies withi the aim of the study (see FAO 1983 p.20).

In qualitative land evaluation specific estimates of erop yields, inputs or costs, and returns are not provided. General descriptions of the technological and socio-economic setting are given as broad background assumptions. As a result, limits between land suitability classes are defined in qualitative terms only. Qualitative systems are often used in regional planning exercises where quantitative data, particularly the economie information, is scarce or lacking.

43 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETAILED S01L SURVEYS

In auantttative land evaluation studies it is necessary to specify the inputs in numerical terms, such as tonnes of fertilizers, field preparation techniques and water application rate, so that quantitative estimates of erop yields and economie returns can be provided. This type of approach is generally used in land evaluation studies aimed at specific develöpment projects.

The Framework for Land Evaluation (FAO 1976) presents two approaches to land evaluation, namely the "parallel" and "two-stage" approach. In the former the physical and socio-economic stages are integrated into one exercise: this is the ideal situation. In the two-stage approach the physical analysis is to be foliowed by a socio-economic analysis.

Soil Survey Staff adopted a two-stage approach when developing JAMPLES, the computerized Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (Batjes et al. 1987, Batjes and Bouwman 1989). JAMPLES focuses on the elaboration and testing of the methodology of the first, physical stage. The second socio- economic stage is still to be developed by social scientists of RPPD. JAMPLES is based on a qualitative land suitability classification in view of the limited availability of agro-economic data, particularly erop yields.

Land use planning must be based on the understanding of the physical environment (land), the kinds of envisaged land uses and the socio-economic context. It is a function of Soil Survey Staff to bring about an understanding of the physical relations between land and land use so that technically feasible forms of land use can be identified. Results of physical land evaluation can assist planners in making policy decisions. They cannot, nor are they intended to, teil the planner what to do (see Dent and Young 1981, P-15). It is the function of the planner to ensure that resources of the environment are conserved for the future and at the same time put to the most beneficial use for man, taking. into consideration the socio-economic and political context.

3.7.2 Terminoloev A good understanding of the principies and procedures of the "Framework for Land Evaluation" (FAO 1976) is required in order to carry out a land evaluation using JAMPLES (see Section 3.7.3).

Land evaluation involves the comparison of properties of land units with requirements of well defined kinds of land use with a view to determining

44 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS their suitability for the specified uses. The general procedure is schematically depicted in Figure 3.3.

3.7.2.1 Land use There are many different kinds of land use in Jamaica (see CRIES/RPPD 1982). As a result, it is impractical to include them all in a land evaluation system.

JAMPLES considers four major kinds of land use (MLU) which are major subdivisions of rural land use. MLUs are defined as management svstems in which a specific erop is produced under well defined technological and socio- economic conditions (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 15, chapter 2).

MLUs are subdivided into land utilization tvoes (LUT) on the basis of the type of erop grown. This implies that LUTs are defined as "management/ erop" svstems in JAMPLES.

Each LUT is described on the basis of a number of kev attributes. viz.: - Produce (e.g. type of erop, livestock, tourism and mining) - Market orientation (e.g. rural, urban and export) - Capital intensity (e.g. low, medium and high) - Labour intensity (e.g. low, medium and high) - Level of technology (e.g. slash and burn, irrigation) - Infrastructure (e.g. accessibility of the area, distance to markets) - Land tenure (e.g. leasing, ownership) - Size of holdings - Income ieveis

The list of crops present in the database can readily be expanded using JAMPLES, but definitions of the MLUs can only be modified in the software by an agronomist experienced in programming (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 16).

45 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OP SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Data entry I i ~3r 'MAJOR KINDS OF LAND VS\ ^LAND UNITS) t I * Land Utilization Types land characterisitics 'i i i t i land use nequirements (LUR) land qualities (LQ)

Matching of LURs with LQs

degrees ofl limitation s (current conditions) I feasible improvements as determined by the technical and socio-economic setting of the MLU T physical land suitability classification for specified land utilization type T Recommendations

Fig. 33- Schematic flowchart of the physical land evaluation procedure PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEM1-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

A number of land use reauirements are to be met in'order to ensure the sustained and successf ui f unctioning of a LUT, namely: - erop requirements. which vary from erop to erop and between erop varieties. - management reauirements. which are the result of the technological and socio-economic setting in which the erop is produced. - conservation reauirements. which must be met in order to allow for sustained application of the specified use (e.g. absence of soil degradation hazard).

3.7.2.2 Land Land refers to the physical environment at the earth's surface, including climate, relief, soil, hydrology and vegetation in so far they influence land use. Purely social and economie factors are not included in the definition since they are part of the socio-economic setting (FAO 1976).

A land mapping unit is a mapped area with specific characteristics or qualities, for instance a soil mapping unit.

Soil mapping units can be described using land characteristics which are single attributes of land that can be measured or estimated. The following are examples of land characteristics: slope angle, slope length, monthly rainfall, soil reaction and soil texture.

Land characteristics generally do not have a single distinct effect on the suitability of land for a particular use. For instance, the content of organic matter in a soil influences the availability of nutrients, nutriënt retention, water retention capacity and resistance to erosion. This type of "interactions" makes the use of land characteristics cumbersome if not impractical in land evaluation. It is for this reason that the "Framework for Land Evaluation" (FAO 1976) recommends that land qualities should be used when comparing land with land use. FAO (1983 p. 43), however, also recognizes the f act that in some clrcumstances the use of land characteristics is more convenient. In such cases a land quality can be rated on the basis of a single land characteristic (e.g. soil pH).

A land aualitv is a complex attribute of land that acts in a distinct manner in its influence on the suitability of land for a specific kind of land use.

47 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS

Fourteen land qualities (LQs) are considered in JAMPLES according to their general effect on erop productivity: a) LQs related to agro-ecological conditions: - Soil moisture regime - Air temperature regime - Soil reaction (pH) - Nutriënt retention capacity - Nutriënt availability - Calcium carbonate toxicity - Aluminium toxicity - Salinity hazard - Sodium toxicity - Availability of oxygen in the root zone - Rooting condition b) LQs related to land and water management; - Absence of long term erosion hazard - Ease of cultivation/mechanization - Ease of irrigability of the land

Each land quality in JAMPLES is rated on the basis of one or more land characteristics . For example, the land quality nutriënt availability has been rated using the land characteristics exchangeable Ca, Mg and K, organic matter content and available phosphorus (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 10). The development of the rating system for LQs and assessment of the relationships between LQs and land use requirements is one of the more difficult aspects of land evaluation. Truly quantitative relationships between land characteristics and LQs, and between LQs and land use requirements can only be derived from results of long term agronomic trials. The latter are not readily available for a wide range of locations in Jamaica. It is for this reason that soilsürveyors should collect as much information as is possible on erop responses to specific soil conditions during the survey (e.g. contacts with Commodity Boards, Extension Officers and Farmers). It is mainly on the basis of this type of information that the rating system for land qualities and matching procedure can be refined (see Technical Soils Bulletins No. 5 and 10).

48 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

3.72.3 Matching of land use with land Suitability classification is the process whereby both the current and potential suitability of a mapping unit for one or more kinds of land use is ascertained. In JAMPLES the suitability classification is determined by matching LQs with the land use requirements of each LUT, which is done in two stages (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 15).

The first stage of the matching procedure gives the limitations of the soil mapping units for each considered erop under current conditions (ENTERMOD module). The current conditions of the land can in part be modified using land improvements. The technological and socio-economic setting of a LUT determines which land improvements can be carried out by the farmer or farm manager. This aspect is considered during the second stage of the computerized matching process (LANDEV module). This last comparison gives the suitability classification of each soil mapping unit for the specified LUTs or "MLU/crop" systems.

Four suitability classes are considered in JAMPLES. They are described below in general terms: 51- Highly suitable: limitations absent or insignificant 52- Moderately suitable: moderate to severe limitations, i.e. extra costs or lower benefits 53- Marginally suitable: high extra costs/strongly reduced profits N- Not suitable: severe limitations precluding successful use in the manner specified.

With the exception of SI land, all S-classes are divided into subclasses according to the dominant limitation(s) after land improvement. For instance, in case the classification is S3tf the air temperature regime (t) and soil fertility (f) are limiting for the considered LUT (see Technical Guide No. 7).

3.7.3 Carrving out a land evaluation using JAMPLES The procedure for processing and analyzing environmental data using the computerized JAMPLES software package is explained in the User's Guide (Technical Soils Bulletin No. 16). A brief outline of the main operations is given below:

1. Initial consultations which include establishing objectives and terms of reference. This activity should be completed bef ore the actual soil survey

49 PLANNING AND EXECUT10N OF SEMI-DETA1LED SOIL SURVEYS

starts because it determines the type of data that have to be collected (see Subchapter 2.2).

2. Description of LUTs that are relevant for the study area. Identification of the land use requirements of each of these (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 15). 3. Description of the soil mapping units (see Subchapter 36) föllowed by data entry into the computer using the ENTERMOD module of JAMPLES.

4. "Raw" data on climatic conditions and erop requirements, as obtained from "external" sources such as the Meteorological Office, are entered into the computer. Monthly rainfall data are entered using the ENTERAIN module, checked with RAINCHEK, and updated with RAINCOR. Crop data are stored and updated with WRITECR.

5. Statistical analysis of rainfall data are made with a view to determining the length of the 75%-dependable growing period, using subsequently the POWSTAT and RAINSTAT modules.

6. Computerized matching of land use requirements with land qualities so as to deter mine the physical land suitability classification for the specified uses (MATMOD and LANDEV).

7. Cross-checking of model output against the surveyors field experience in order to validate the results. This is the most crucial stage as it ensures that validated results are released to end-users (see Technical Soils Bulletin No. 15).

8. Presentation and discussion of results of the physical land evaluation. This topic is discussed in Chapter 4.

Further readine:

FAO 1976. A Framework for Land Evaluation.

FAO 1983. Guidelines: Land Evaluation for Rainfed Agriculture.

FAO 1985- Guidelines: Land Evaluation for Irrigated Agriculture. SSU 1989. User's Guide the the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (Version 3.0).

50 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4. PRESENTATION QF RESULTS

4.1 GENERAL Bef ore writing a report, bear in mind that:

- Soil survey reports generally are rather dull technicai documents; where possible, draft the report in such a way that it becomes pleasant to read. Try to visuaiize part of the presented data by using histograms, graphs and figures. Use all available and relevant data on agricultural production and practices of farmers and research stations, to make the report more enjoyable and less abstract. The emphasis of the report should be on the agronomic interpretation of the survey data.

- Although format and lay-out piay a very important role, the technicai contents of the report are the most important.

- Readers of the report will include co-workers from the Ministry of Agriculture, but also owners of farm enterprises, Commodity Boards, planning organizations, agricultural extension officers, research workers, (foreign) consultants and students of Agricultural schools. Interests of all different parties must be covered in one report and in readily understandable terms.

- The report should be comprehensive, yet clear.

- The Summary is very important as it reviews the conclusions and recommendations. Next to the Summary, the Introduction usually determines whether a reader continues to read the report or not; superficial readers do not go beyond the Summary and the map.

The present accepted format for soil survey reports is described in Volume II of these Guidelines. It is derived from the format used in earlier reports published by RPPD. To date, the best developed ones in these series are the "Semi-Detailed Soil Survey of the Linstead - Bog Walk Area" (Soil Survey Report No. 2) and the "Semi-Detailed Soil Survey of the Montpelier Area" (Soil Survey Report No. 4).

51 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.2 REPORT COMPILATION

4.2.1 Planning

For report compilation, the same time-table is used as in Section 3.2.1, scheduled for two map sheets at scale 1: 25,000. In Table 4.1 the activities related to report and map preparation are highlighted by letters (=a=). Each description is briefly discussed below.

Table 4.1. Report and map compilation activities in the overall time-table for a semi-detailed soil survey.

JFMAMJJASONDJFMAM col lat ion mater ial study mater ial . - first API map reconnaissance of survey area finalize API map sample areas: selection and survey — sample area map and legend -a- review API map survey first map sheet national soil correlation map unit description first map sheet -b- review API • - survey second map sheet national soil correlation map unit description second map sheet -c- gathering extra data for land evaluation usingJAMPLES write first draft report and preparation of draft soil map — d~ (reading) —e~ write final draft report -f- (reading) -g- vrite final report and preparation of the f inal map -h- last check -i- printing and binding -j- distribution -k- a) The first writing activities are performed during the sample area survey. Preliminary soil maps and the first (tentative) maj>ping unit descriptions are drafted. The cartography section should prepare the base map for the final soil map from the reduced 1:12,500 toposheets. The laboratory should get ready for carrying out the soil analyses.

52 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS b) Af ter finishing the survey of the first map sheet and receiving the first analytical resuits from the laboratory, the preliminary soil map is prepared and the mapping unit descriptions are refined. c) After completing the survey of the second map sheet and receiving additional analytical data from the laboratory, the preliminary soil map of the remaining area is prepared and the mapping unit descriptions are further refined. d) The first draft of the report is written according to the format as presented in Technical Guide No. 9b, using all available data. Word processing of the report is done by support staff. Derived maps of e.g. land suitabiiity are prepared during this stage, after JAMPLES has been used. e) Reading of the first draft report is done by co-workers (technical staff, section heads) and preferably aiso by a non-specialist. In this way, technical comments can be received, but also general comments on lay- out, readability and vocabulary. f) Based on the comments given, the report is re-edited and prepared by support staff for a second reading. The final soil map and accompanying legend are prepared by the cartography section, under supervision of the soil surveyors. g) Second reading by co-workers as well as a non-specialist (preferably an other person than the one who read the first draft), to check mainly for grammar and vocabulary. h) Preparation of the final report. i) After leaving the report "over-night", the last overall check is carried out by the surveyors. j) The Soil Survey Section Head ensures that the report and map are printed or photocopied. After this, the report is bound and the soil map folded and put in the report by support staff. k) Distribution of the reports, according to the Standard mailing list, is organized by the Sojl Survey Unit Head.

Planning is very important in the "compilation-of-the-report" stage, especially when other sections (e.g. support staff) are involved. Timely made

53 PRESENTAT10N OF RESULTS appointments and regular checking with support staff can avoid situations in which the report is ready but not the soil map, or the report is written but not typed. A lot of unnecessary work can be avoided if, from the beginning of the report writing, decisions are taken on the typing format, i.e. the word processing system (Micro-Soft), letter type (New York), letter size (12), line distance (1), line width (6 inches), left-right justifying and the use of capitais and small letters (l.CHAPTER. 1.1. SUB-CHAPTER. 1.1.1. Section).

4.2.2 General outline of the reoort Each report should contain the below mentioned sections and chapters:

Preface Summary Table of contents List of tables List of figures List of enclosures

1. Introduction 2. Description of the survey area 3. Materials and methods 4. The soils 5. Agronomic interpretation of survey data

References Glossary Appendices

The minimum contents of all these sections and chapters are thoroughly discussed in Technical Guide No. 9b. Examples from existing reports are given as well as formats for the texts, tables, figures and appendices.

54 PRESENTAT10N OF RESULTS

4.2.3 Soil mao and legend The main aspects of map compilation are described in Sub-chapter 36 of this Volume.

For presentation it is important to keep in mind that the soil map serves two purpóses: it shows the spatial distribution of the soil mapping units as well as the location of specific sites. Therefore, there should be a subdued topographical background on the map, on which the mapping unit boundaries are superimposed.

The map should have a clear title, like: SEMI-DETAILED SOIL MAP OF THE X-AREA, Y, JAMAICA, (Z) in which X is the name of the survey area and Y the name of the parish. Z indicates the scale (1:25,000 or 1:50,000). The scale bar should be put underneath the map.

On the map, thick lines (0.5 mm) are used to demarcate different physiographic units and parent materials; thinner lines (0.3 or 0.25 mm) delineate the mapping units and their different phases, as explained in Section 3-6.3-

The location of the cross-sections, as described in the report, are indicated on the soil map, usually by straight lines (A-A' or A-B). Also indicate the location of the profile pits by a small block (D), including the pit number.

The map should folded in such a way, that is fits neatly in the report.

.The legend to the soil map is printed on the right hand side of the map (on the same sheet) and should present sufficiënt information, so that the map can be used independently from the report. The legend should include the following:

Title Description of the mapping units Description of the miscellaneous land types Key to depth classes Key to textural classes Key to textural groups

55 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

Keys to the phases Sm all location map Explanation of the construction of the mapping unit codes Reference to the legend of the topographical features Fiiled out logo box of RPPD

The format for the legend is described in detail in Appendix V of Technical Guide 9b.

Further readine: Dent and Young, 1981. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation: Chapter 13.

56 REFERENCES

REFERENCES Barker, G.H. 1970. Soil and Land Use Surveys No. 25 - Trelawny, Jamaica. Regional Research Centre, Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad.

Batjes, N.H., A.F. Bouwman and K. Sinclair 1987. Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (JAMPLES). in: K.J. Beek, P.A. Burrough and D. McCormack (Eds). Quantified Land Evaluation Procedures. Publication No. 6, International Institute for Aerospace and Earth Sciences, Enschede, the Netherlands p. 39-43.

Batjes, N.H. and A.F. Bouwman 1989. JAMPLES a Computerized Land Evaluation System for Jamaica. Ia: J. Bouma and A.K. Bregt (Eds). Land Qualities in Space and Time. PUDOC, Wageningen, the Netherlands p. 257- 260.

Beek, K.J. 1978. Land Evaluation for Agricultural Development. ILRI Publication No. 23, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Bennema, J. and H.F. Gelens 1969. Aerial Photo-Interpretation for Soil Surveys. ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands.

Buol S.W., F.D. Hole and R.J. McCracken 1980. Soil Genesis and Classification (Second Edition). The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A.

Brady, N. C. 1984. The Nature and Properties of Soils (Ninth Edition). MacMillan, New York, USA.

CRIES/RPPD 1982. Jamaica Resource Assessment. Prepared for the Jamaican Ministry of Agriculture. Resource Inventory and Evaluation System, Michigan State University/Soil Conservation Service/Ohio State University, U.S.A.

Dent, D. and A. Young 1981. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, U.K.

FAO 1976. A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soils Bulletin No. 32, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy.

FAO 1983. Guidelines: Land Evaluation for Rainfed Agriculture. Soils Bulletin No. 52, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy.

57 REFERENCES

FAO 1985. Guidelines: Land Evaluation for Irrigated Agriculture. Soils Bulletin No. 55, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy.

Hardy, F. and A.H. Chroucher (undated). Some Soil Types of Jamaica.

ILACO 1981. Agricultural Compendium for Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Kenya Soil Survey Staff 1987. Manual for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. Volume 1 - Soil Survey. Miscellaneous Paper- No. M24. Ministry of Agriculture / National Agricultural Laboratories, Nairobi, Kenya.

Klingebiel, A.A. and P.H. Montgomery 1961. Land Capability Classification. Agricultural handbook No. 210, US Dept. Agriculture/Soil Conservation Service, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

Landon, J.R. 1984. Tropical Soil Manual. Booker Agriculture International Ltd., Longman, Essex, U.K.

RPPD 1980. Recommendations for Soil and Water Management of the Meylersfield West Polder, Westmoreland. Rural Physical Planning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Montego Bay, Jamaica.

RPPD 1981. Outline on Soil Survey and Land Capability Gassification Procedures for Land Capability Planners and Soil Surveyors of the Regional Rural Physical Planning Units. Rural Physical Planning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Montego Bay, Jamaica.

RRC 1958-1970. Soil and Land Use Surveys of Jamaica (13 parishes, various authors). The Regional Research Centre, Department of Soil Science at the University of the West Indies, Trinidad, W.I.

SCS 1983. Principles and Procedures for using Soil Survey Laboratory Data. Unpublished Training Materials. National Soil Survey Laboratory, Nebraska/Soil Conservation Service, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

Soil Survey Staff 1951. Soil Survey Manual. Handbook No. 18, United States Department of Agriculture/Soil Conservation Service, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

58 REFERENCES

Soil Survey Staff 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. Handbook No. 436, United States Department of Agriculture / Soil Conservation Service, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

Soil Survey Staff 1984. Soil Survey Manual (Preliminary revised edition). United States Department of Agriculture / Soil Conservation Service, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

Soil Survey Staff 1987. Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Third printing). SMSS Technical Monograph No. 6, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

Sombroek, W.G. and R.F. van de Weg 1980. Some Considerations on Quality and Readability of Soil maps and their Legends. International Soil Museum, Annual Report, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Soil Survey Project/Unit (SSU) 1986. Matching Model (MATMOD), Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (lst Approximation). Technical Soils Bulletin No. 5, A.F. Bouwman, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1987a. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Linstead-Bog Walk Area, St. Catherine, Jamaica (1:25,000). Soil Survey Report No. 2, N.H. Batjes, A.F. Bouwman and CS. Clarke, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSÜ 1987b. Revised Rating System for Land Qualities used in the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (2nd Approximation). Technical Soils Bulletin No. 10, N.H. Batjes, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1988a. Soil Salinity Survey of the South Clarendon Plains (1:50,000). Miscellaneous Paper No. 7, H.A. de Wit, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1988b. Lecture Notes on Soil Fertility Assessment Course. Technical Guide No. 1, R.A. Leyder, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For ihternal use only]

SSU 1988c. Laboratory Procedures. Technical Guide No. 2, F.R. Westerhout, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For interna! use only]

59 REFERENCES

SSU 1988d. Explanatory Notes on Laboratory Procedures. Technicai Guide No. 3. F.R. Westerhout, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1988e. Aid to the Laboratory Determination of the Soil Type. Technicai Guide No. 4. F.R. Westerhout, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1988f. Site Evaluations of Blocks B, C, E and H of the Bernard Lodge and Caymanas Estate, St. Catherine. Soil Survey Staff, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1988g. Soil Legend Framework for Jamaica (3rd Approximation). Technicai Soils Bulletin No. 12, G.R. Hennemann and V.A. Campbell (Eds), Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1989a. Guidèlines for Soil Description. Technicai Guide No. 5, P.H. Oldeman, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Montego Bay, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1989b. Basic Checklist for Soil Taxonomy Classification. Technicai Guide No. 6, P.A.M, van Gent, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1989c. Matching of Land Use Requirements with Land Qualities using the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System. Technicai Soils Bulletin No. 15, N.H. Batjes, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

SSU 1989d. Guidèlines for Writing the Chapter on Land Evaluation in Soil Survey Reports. Technicai Guide No. 7, N.H. Batjes, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1989e. User's Guide to the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (Version 3.0 for IBM PC/AT). Technicai Soils Bulletin No. 16, N.H. Batjes, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica.

60 REFERENCES

SSU 1989f. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Montpelier Area (1:25,000). Soil Survey Report No. 4, P.H. Oldeman and R.L. Wilks, Soil Survey Project/Unit. Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Montego Bay, Jamaica.

SSU 1989g. Guidelines for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation in Jamaica. Volume II - Report Compilation. Technical Guide No. 9b, P.A.M, van Gent, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use only]

SSU 1989h. Outline of Soil Correlation Principles and Procedures in Jamaica (lst Approximation). Technical Guide No. 8, G.R. Hennemann, Soil Survey Project/Unit, Rural Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston, Jamaica. [For internal use onlyl

VanZuidam, R.A. and F.I. Van Zuidam-Cancelado 1978. Textbook of Photo- Interpretation, Vol. VI1-6: Terrain Analysis and Classification using Aerial Photographs. ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands.

Vernon, K.C. 1960. Soil and Land Use Surveys No. 10 - St. Mary, Jamaica. Regional Research Centre, Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad, W.I.

Wild, L.P., N.E. Smeek and G.F. Hall (Editors) 1983. Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy, Vol. I - Concepts and Interactions. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

61 REFERENCES

KEY TO SOIL SURVEY REPORT REFERENCES

Miscellaneous Papers

No. 7. Soil Salinity Survey of the South Qarendon Plains (1:50,000) by H.A. de Wit.

Soil Survev Reports

No. 2. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Linstead - Bog Walk Area, St. Catherine, Jamaica (1:25,000) by N.H. Batjes, A.F. Bouwman and CS. Clarke.

No. 4. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Montpelier Area (1:25,000) by P.H. Oldeman and R.L. Wilks.

Technical Guides [For internal use only]

No. 1. Lecture Notes on Soil Fertility Assessment Course by R.A. Leyder.

No. 2. Laboratory Procedures by F.R. Westerhout.

No. 3. Explanatory Notes on Laboratory Procedures by F.R. Westerhout.

No. 4. Aid to the Laboratory Determination of the Soil Type by F.R. Westerhout.

No. 5. Guidelines for Soil Description by P.H. Oldeman.

No. 6. Basic Checklist for Soil Taxonomy Classification by P.A.M, van Gent.

No. 7. Guidelines for Writing the Chapter on Land Evaluation in Soil Survey Reports by N.H. Batjes.

No. 8. Outline of Soil Correlation Principles and Procedures in Jamaica (lst Approximation) by G.R. Hennemann.

No. 9b. Guidelines for Soil Survey and Land Evaluation in Jamaica. Volume II - Report Compilation by P.A.M, van Gent.

62 REFERENCES

Technical Soils Bulletins No. 5. Matching Model (MATMOD), Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (lst Approximation) by A.F. Bouwman.

No. 10. Revised Rating System for Land Qualities used in the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (2nd Approximation) by N.H. Batjes.

No. 12. Soil Legend Framework for Jamaica (3rd Approximation) by Hennemann, G.R. and V.A. Campbell (Eds).

No. 15- Matching of Land Use Requirements with Land Qualities using the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System by N.H. Batjes.

No. 16. User's Guide to the Jamaica Physical Land Evaluation System (Version 3.0 for IBM PC/AT) by N.H. Batjes.

63 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I • CARRYING OUT A DETAILED SOIL SURVEY (1:5,000-1:15,000) l.OBJECTIVE Detailed soil surveys are usually made with a view to providing specific management recommendations at a scale of 1:5,000 to 1:15,000. They are based on an intensive observation scheme, so that soil boundaries are checked along their entire length, and implemented on a grid system. At the considered scale of mapping aerial photo interpretation only plays a supplementary role in most instances (see Subchapter 2.2).

2. TYPE OF GRID SURVEYS The kind of grid varies somewhat with the characteristics of the area: a) In areas with readily identifiable soil catenas (e.g. topo-sequence, litho- sequence or hydro-sequence) observations are best made along transects positioned at right angles to the soil boundaries. The interval between transects is generally wider than the spacing between observation points along each transect. b) In areas where soil variation cannot be identified on the basis of external features of the land, a regular grid is recommended (e.g. the recent alluvial plains of St. Catherine).

The "Meylersfield West Polder Survey" is a good example of a regular grid survey carried out at a scale of 1:5,000 (RPPD 1980).

3. PROCEDURE The density of the grid changes with the scale of the survey (see below). Generally, the surveyor plots the preliminary grid on the base map prior to the field work at an intensity that is slightly less than the optimum for the considered scale.' This is a sound practice because additional sites are inserted each time a soil boundary changes, in order to accurately map all occurring changes (Figure 1.1).

64 APPENDICES

Directionof grid 3urvcy

+ Standard grid observation points (about 150 m interval) * Additional observation points (about 75 m interval or less when necessary)

Figure I.l. Schematic representation of augering density in a detailed grid survey.

The recommended observation density is about 1 per square'centimeter (cm2) on the final map, irrespective of the map scale. The following discussion is for a soil map that is to be published at a scale of 1:12,500:

65' APPENDICES

- 1 cm on the map corresponds with 125 m in the field. - 1 cm2 on the map equals 15,625 m2 or 1,56 ha in the field. - 1 observation per cm2 on the map means that 1 observation should be made every 125 m along transects. - The distance between transects varies with the type of landscape from about 125 m in case (b) up to about 300 m in case (a). If the soil pattern changes between the transects the density of observations is increased.

Example; RPPD 1980. Recommendations for Soil and Water Management of the Meylersfield West Polder, Westmoreland (scale: 1:5,000).

66 APPENDICES

SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL SURVEY AND LAND EVALUATION

1. INTRODUCTION The soil surveyor and correlator assume soil samples are representative for the different soil horizons of the pedon under study, when they are reviewing laboratory data. Since every effort is made in the laboratory to keep the analytical variability small, the main source of error in characterizing soil data resides in the sampling technique. Sampling thus is the precision ümiting variable, provided a representative site has been identified.

Guidelines for sampling soils for taionomic and land evaluation purposes are discussed below (adapted from SCS 1983). Other sampling techniques are to be used in studies of e.g. soil fertility and soil salinity (see Miscellaneous Paper No. 7).

2.SITESELECTI0N Primary responsibility for selecting a representative site resides with the soil surveyor. Each site should be representative for a particular soil- landscape and f ree of eitraneous contaminations (e.g. no road cuts). This implies that good sites can only be identified after the surveyor has developed a concept and under standing of the soil pattern in the area (see Subchapter 3.3). Sites are always purposely selected for soil description foliowed by sampling.

3. SAMPLING THE PEDON 3.1 CHEMICAL AND TEXTURAL ANALYSES

The surveyor is responsible for obtaining samples that are representative for the pedon. This implies that the pedon must be thoroughly studied and described bef ore the actual sampling starts (see Technical Guide No. 5).

67 APPENDICES

Soils are sampled to obtain accurate data for e.g. soil classification and land evaluation. It is important that sampling is done in a standardized way and at representative depths. Guidelines for sampling are listed below:

a) How deeo should the pit be? Pedons for soil characterization should be studied to a depth of 180 cm or to the limiting layer (e.g. hard rock, ground water tab Ie).

b) Will sampling be adequate to solve taxonomie auestions? The soil surveyor must know which questions should be answered to allow for correct classification. For example, base saturation for separating Ultisols from Alfisols needs sampling at a specific depth. Gay increases for identifying argillic horizons also have to be recorded over a specific depth range (see Soil Survey Staff 1975 and Technical Guide No. 6).

c) Minimum and maximum thickness of sampled lavers? Appropriate sampling increments vary with the soil under study (horizonation) and proximity of the sample to the soil surf ace. The rule of thumb is as follows: - Horizons in the upper 100 cm are normally split if they are more than 30 cm thick. - Uniform horizons below a depth of 100 cm are generally split if they are more than 75 cm thick. - Judgement should always be used when applying the rule of thumb (see b). • • . -

d) How laree should a sample be? The ideal sample contains all soil material within the horizon, or sampled soil layer, in proportion to their occurrence in the pedon. The soil surveyor attempts to approximate this ideal by carefully sampling a selected portion of the horizon. The bulk of the soil sample is taken from the middle part of each genetic horizon, this in order to avoid sampling from horizon transitions (see also b and c), and arbitrary lateral limits (Figure II.l). Lateral limits encompass short range variability encountered at the site. The rule of thumb is as follows: - If there is a recurring pattern extend the lateral limits to 4-5 times the cycle of the pattern, if the cycie is not too wide (e.g. gilgai in Vertisols). Composite the samples, mix and take a representative subsample. - If a horizon is stratified or otherwise contains contrasting materials, each material must be carefully described. Some contrasting materials can be sampled independently, but mostly they will be so intertwined that practicality dictates that they be sampled together. - A sampling technique designed to average lateral variability is to sample 3-4 relatively small segments (20-30 cm wide) of the same

68 APPENDICES

pedon at several points around the pit. These samples are then composited, mixed, and a representative subsample taken for analysis. e) Direction of sampling? It is recommended to start sampling in the lowest genetic horizon so as to avoid contamination of the sample.

f) Size of soil sample? The size (weight) of sample, needed to be representative for the horizon, depends on the diameter of the largest structural elements. About 1 kg of fine earth material (< 2 mm) should be collected; this corresponds roughly with the contents of a 18" polythene bag. The volume percentage of coarse fragments should be recorded on the Profile Description Form.

g) How should the sample be labelled? Proper labelling of samples is as " critical as proper sampling! Without proper identification samples become useless. The following elements need to be specified on the tag: - Pedon number (89/64C/09 i.e. year/number of 1:12,500 topographical sheet/pit number). - Tentative soil name (e.g. St. Ann variant) - Horizon designation (e.g. Ap) - Depth of sample (e.g. 0-24 cm) - Name of surveyors - Date of sampling

The above information is written in waterproof ink on a tag which is put inside the sample bag, which is then closed. Subsequently, the following data are written on the outside of the bag using a good marker pen: - Pedon number (see above) - Horizon designation - Initiais of surveyors - Date of sampling

Sample bags should be delivered promptly to the laboratory (see Section 3.4.1). The laboratory should store any unused samples, oven-dried and carefully labelled, until completion of the project in case of queries (e.g. repeats).

69 APPENDICES

iu '" '" m m in "' in

m in in in '" '" in |i\ ui in ,

Figure 11.1. General procedure for sampling a soil profile.

3.2 SOIL M01STURE CHARACTERISTICS AND BULK DENSITY

Foilowing sampling for chemical and teitural analyses samples are taken from representative depths of the pedon with a view to determining the soil moisture characteristics (pF-curve) and dry bulk density (see Technical Guide No. 2 and No. 3). pF-samples are best taken when a soil is close to field capacity.

Tvoes of samples:

a) "Low pF": ring samples for the determination of water retention in the pF 0.0-2.7 range and for the calculation of the dry bulk density. b) "High pF": clod samples for the determination of water retention in the pF 3.0-4.2 range.

70 APPENDICES

Sampling procedure: a) The center part of each genetically identified horizon should be sampled bóth for "low" and "high" pF. The samples for "low pF" are taken first: - within the 0 to 100 cm range take 3 ring samples per horizon. The vertical distance between each sampling depth should not exceed 30 cm. - beiow a depth of 100 cm take 2 ring samples per horizon. b) Sample from the surf ace to the bottom of the soil pit. c) Using a spade prepare a "step" at about 0.5 to 1.0 cm above the pre- selected upper-depth of sampling, i.e. a smooth horizontal surface of about 40 x 60 cm. d) Put the ring sample on this surface. The aim is to take an undisturbed, vertical sample. Push the ring gently into the soil using the ring holder. Continue until the upper margin of the ring is about 0.5-1.0 cm below the surface of the "step". (Note: In some pedons it may be necessary to gently hammer the ring sample into the soil, but the soil in the ring should not get compacted as a result. Sometimes, it is easier to cut rings free after all rings have been pushed into the layer under study). e) Cut the core free from the surrounding soil mass, using a knife, and remove it gently from the pedon while the ring sample and protruding soil rest on the spade. f) Using a knife gently cut off the soil that protrudes above the upper surface of the ring until a level surface remains. There should be no cavities or protruding parts upon completion of this exercise (see h). Put a plastic cover on the ring. g) Carefully turn over the ring. Then clean the new surface as described above. h) A new ring sample must be taken if: - the material in the ring got severely compacted - there are "holes" or stones in the sample, and/or - the ring sample was not taken vertically.

71 APPENDICES i) Put the core in the sample box. Record the ring number, pedon name, profile number, horizon name and sampling depth on the profile description sheet(s). j) Collect several clods or structure elements for the determination of "high pF" values at the same depth as where the corresponding ring samples were taken. Put several soil aggregates in a plastic bag. Label the bag and indicate that the samples are meant for the determination of "high pF" values. This is important, because this type of sample should not be sieved, crushed or dried! h) Samples for the determination of "pF-values" should be delivered immediately to the laboratory: they should not be allowed to dry out!

Further reading: SCS 1983- Principles and Procedures for Using Soil Survey Laboratory Data.

72 APPENDICES

APPENDIX III

RECOMMENDED FIELD EQUIPMENT

For regular field work, including augering and minipits, the following are required: - Edelman soil auger (120 cm) -geologie ham mer - knife - field map with aerial-photo interpretation unit boundaries - aerial photographs - pocket stereoscope - Standard forms for regular soil profile descriptions and auger observations - notebook, pen and pencil - Guidelines for soil description (Technical Guide No. 5) - Basic checklist for "USDA Soil Taxonomy" classification (Technical Guide No. 6) - geologie map - Munsell Soil Color Charts, including charts for giey and red colours - Hellige-Truog Soil reaction kit (pH determination) - small bottle with diluted HG-10 % (calcium-carbonate test) - bottle with water (texture determination) - slope meter (preferably in %).

In addition, the following equipment should be taken for work in special areas: - an extension rod (one metre) for the auger when working in areas with e.g. peat soils - a salinity meter (EC meter) for saline soils - a stone auger for stony soils - a gravel auger for gravelly soils (e.g alluvial terraces).

For digging and refilling pits the surveyor should also bring: - piek axe - digging fork - shovel - spade - machete for clearing bush and grass and cutting coconuts.

73 APPENDICES

For description-of soil profiles the following additional equipmentis needed: - measuring tape (in centimeters, at least 150 cm long) - hand lens (6-8 times magnification) for observation of cutans, slickensides, pores, etc. - plastic bags and labels for taking samples for laboratory analysis - pF rings (in a box), pF auger and hammer for taking samples for soil moisture and bulkdensity determination - infiltration rings and hammer for infiltration tests (optional) - correlation boxes - waterproof pen.

Miscellaneous items which may come in handy, are: - first aid kit - tooi kit in/for the car - lunch and drink s - umbrella - camera (for taking photographs of soil profiles) - Gleaner (into the field) - Star (on the way back).

74 List of Dublications issued bv the Jaiai_ca Soil Survev Project iNoveiber 1989)

Soil Survev Recorts

SM (jttiv 19B6). Soii and land use survev ot the Coastal Plains ot St. Cathenne, Jaaaica >;caie i:50, SR-2 (Hav 1987). Seru-detailed soii survev of the Linstead-Boo Walk irea. St. Cathenne, Jaaaica (scaie ... SR-3 (Feb. i?89). Sesii-detailed soil survev of the Fearo area. St. Ehzabeth. Jaiaica \scaie U25.0ÖÖ) SR-4 (ftug. 1999). Seai-detailed soii survev of the Hontoelier area. Western Jamaica (scalfi 1:25. SR-5 (Nov. 1989J. Sein-det ai led soii survev of Northerri-Manchester. J a m a: c 5 (H50.ÖÖÖJ

TB-1 (Nov. 19B5). Lecenüs tor semi-oetaiieo stil taps! the entries eruposed • • .. an), TB-2 (Bet. 1985'. ^ssessaent ot the resistance ot land to erosion for 1 and Bvalöatieri. TB-3 (Aor. 59B6). Jaaaica Pliysical Land Evaiüatiun Svstem dïflrfPLES I. TB-4 (Aug. 1986)* Hethodologv and BASIC pfograaif bs statistical inaivs.r •:- raïnlsli D^obaoiiitv. TB-5 (Sec 1986). Hatchino model (HATHOD). Jasaica Fhvsical Land Evaluatïon Svstea. TB-ó (Beo. 1986}. General tefioerature zones for land evaluatïon in Jaftfliea. TB-7 (Apr. 1987). CRGFRISK. a cosputeriied procedure to assess the aorü-Ecoloaical suiti ": iand for ratnfed annual croos. TB-B (June 1987). JAHPLES Users Suide: A coffiputerized land evaiuation svstea for Jaaaica. TB-9 (Dec. i986i. A sesi-detailed soil leoend: a fraaework for Jaiaica (2nd HDDTDXIsations. TB-10 (Nov. 1987). Revised rating svstem for land ouaiities ased in the Jaseica FhvsicaJ Land Evaluatien Svsiea. TB-11 (Julv 1988.'. Aaro-ciiiiatic charactenzation of the parish of Claremfcm. ia&aica. TB-12 (Julv 196B). -Soii Legend ^ramework for Jamaica (3rd fippröxitation). TB-13 (Dec. 1988). Review of aüro-ciifiatic sodules of JAHPLES. TB-14 (Jan. [91 üHOD: a coüDuterized procedure for ratino the iand auaiitv adeouac-- ef sater sapph to y croos under rainfed condition;. TE-15 (Feb. 19S5), Hstching of land use reauiresents with iand ouaiities usino the cöapttterizeil land evaluc' ioduie. TB-16 (Julv 1989), user'? buide to the Jauaica Phveicai Land Evaiuation Svstea (Versii

Hiscellaneous Paoers

HP-1 (Mav 1985). Generalized soil aap of Jamaica; esplanatorv note to the first drafi iscaie: i:250.000). HP-2 (Oct. 1986). General land caoabilitv aap of Jaaaica (scale: 1:500.000). MP-3 (Dec. 1936). Soil and water qualitv für oma sent al horticuiture. HP-4 (Feb. 1987). An analvsi" of rainfaïi variabilitv in St. Catherine for aincuiturai plannifla, HP-5 (Feb. 1988). rhe application of transfer-functions ifi creatie the ciiaats dlata oase of the • Geoaraohical Inforaation Svstere (JfiHSJS). HP-6 (June 1988;. Land evaiuation of the Coastal Plains of St. Catherine. J.ïiTiaica. asimi the :ü't-puten:ed JAHPLES svstes. HP-7 (Juiy 1988). Soii salinitv Survev of the Southern Clarendon Plains. MP-8 (Sep. 1989). AarD-cliffiatic zones of the parish DI Manchester. Janaica. HP-9 (Oct. 1989). Acro-cliiBatic zones of the parieh ui St. Ha^v. Jamaica. MP-10 (Oct. 1989). Tables of isonthlv rainfall probabiiities. ootentiai evape-traiispiratiöri and air teüperature for aoricultural planning in Jaiaica. MP-11 (Nov. 1989). Agro-clisatic zones map of Jasaica (1:250.-000).