History Chemistry’s special relationship From the discovery of aniline dyes to modern biofuels, chemistry and energy have always been intractably linked. Simon Bennett argues that this connection gives chemists a special interest in the future of energy NEBRASKA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY HISTORICAL STATE NEBRASKA

66 | Chemistry World | October 2007 www.chemistryworld.org Last year saw the 150th anniversary the development of chemistry? And including natural gas, into the energy of William Perkin’s serendipitous with sustainable energy technologies In short equation in a big way. Petroleum discovery of mauveine, the dye on the rise, what does that mean for  Chemists have long was easy to extract, easy to transport that helped spawn the modern chemistry’s future? As I discovered, had a special interest in and the by-products of gasoline organic chemicals industry. Perkin one need look no further than the and influence on energy production provided an excellent isolated the purple compound while publications of the British chemical production alternative to coal as a chemical attempting to make quinine from societies for evidence.  Major events in feedstock. But despite this, the aniline, a molecule found in the coal the history of energy British Journal of the Chemical tar by-product of gas manufacture. A historic survey provision can be seen to Society published more articles than Yet without the proliferation of gas A survey of the general-interest impact on the focus of ever before on coal. lighting in Britain in the nineteenth chemistry journals – from chemistry research at This may reflect the fact that coal century, there could easily have been Proceedings of the Chemical Society the time was so firmly established as the no readily-available aniline, and no of London (1842–1849) to Chemistry  Current topics of British chemical industry’s primary mauveine. World (2004–) – revealed the published research feedstock. And after the industry’s Chemistry’s historic links to responsiveness of chemists to energy indicate that energy expansion during World War I, UK energy production are frequently issues. The trends that emerged from is once again high on coal users needed to up their game overlooked, even though the my survey of about 40 000 articles chemists’ agendas and in the face of competition from oil. chemical industry’s raw material and meeting reports spread across that chemistry continues The British government also had an hydrocarbons are still provided 160 years of scholarly chemistry to shape the future of interest in promoting the Empire’s almost exclusively by the same publications were fairly clear. energy supply coal reserves, as it had limited oil to sources that power the lights and Between 1860 and 1870, almost 10 meet the changing energy demands drive the wheels. The coal mines may per cent of what was discussed by of warfare. This climate drove have given way to oil wells, and the the Chemical Society was related to chemists, ever-responsive to the gasifiers may have been bypassed the introduction of electricity and changing energy scene, to seek new by natural gas pipelines, but the its associated technologies, such uses for coal. link between chemistry and energy as batteries. The dominant energy A similar effect is seen when remains intact. Indeed, even before system was changing from coal looking at issues of Chemistry in the coal tar industry was founded and coal-gas to electricity, and the Britain between 1965 and 2000. in the UK, Britain was producing nation’s chemical scientists were The great increase in articles on chemicals based upon the prevailing at the forefront of the impending energy in 1975 compared to 1965 energy source of the time. revolution. Electrical lighting was is almost certainly related to the ‘It’s often forgotten that the not actually commonplace on British 1973 oil crisis, when security of oil first organic feedstock was wood,’ streets until the 1890s. Yet ever since supply was threatened. The articles explains Peter Morris, an expert on Michael Faraday’s Experimental themselves were not concerned with the history of the chemical industry Researches in Electricity was oil, however – instead, renewables at London’s Science Museum. announced through their journal, and energy efficiency dominated ‘Wood was important as a source the members of the Chemical Society the chemical zeitgeist. With titles for methanol, acetic acid and also appreciated their own importance such as: Fermentation – An answer turpentine, which was used in the to the introduction of electrical to the solvent crisis?, and Coal as a manufacture of Charles McIntosh’s lighting, and also the application of source of raw materials for the future, waterproof coats. Wood remained electricity to chemical processes the potential impacts of insecure important right up to the 1930s for such as electrolysis. oil supplies on a discipline reliant chemical production, and also as an In the hundred years after the on oil was not lost on members of energy source.’ Ever since those early 1890s we see two other periods when ‘The links the Royal Institute of Chemistry days of organic chemistry, chemists energy concerns took a more central between and the Chemical Society. Equally, have explored the composition and role in chemical science articles: the conferences on topics including manipulation of hydrocarbons, 1920s and the 1970s. Both appear to chemistry ‘The Electrolytic Production of learning about their properties for correspond to major events in the and energy Hydrogen’ and ‘The Hydrogen combustion and finding new uses for history of energy provision. Energy Economy’ demonstrate the seemingly worthless waste products. The 1920s was the decade of run much engagement of chemists with more I wanted to test my suspicion that the automobile. The availability deeper than general energy issues. solving energy problems was nothing of affordable cars coincided with new for chemists. Not only does the opening up of federal lands in the scientific Shared history energy production shape the world the US to mineral exploitation, and contribution The survey suggests that chemical they work in, it also directly dictates an oil surplus. The increased use scientists do indeed respond to their own industry’s raw material of abundant oil for transportation to energy changes in the prevailing energy supply. So how has energy shaped brought petroleum resources, technologies’ system by actively focusing their

James Young files patent No. 13292 Edison switches on the world’s Welsbach invents Baekeland presents ‘for obtaining paraffine [sic] oil…from first electrical power distribution the gas mantle to the first petroleum- bituminous coals’ by slow distillation. system in Manhattan. improve gas lighting. derived plastic, Bakelite.

1850 1859 1882 1888 1890 1908 1909

Britain boasts over 1000 Daimler develops the Henry Ford sells gas works converting coal to first motor car, thus finding a his first Model T town gas market for gasoline. for $850. www.chemistryworld.org Chemistry World | October 2007 | 67 History

for other chemicals. The carbon Percentage of Chemical Society Journal Articles directly related to energy 1841-1966 10 content for polymers alone would equate to roughly 63 million barrels ) 9 of oil per year in 2025, twice the 8 current UK consumption of motor 7 fuels. According to BP, the current rate of consumption would exhaust 6 known oil reserves in about 40 years, 5 and any increases in demand for % of all articles 4 synthetic materials could reduce this

3 figure regardless of advances in fuel (as 10-year rolling average efficiencies. 2 This underlines the importance of 1 considering the entire hydrocarbon 0 system and the potential for 0 0 0 5 improvements in all areas. Even if 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 190 1910 1920 1930 1940 19 196 Year they do not directly reduce carbon Coal Combustion Energy Efficiency dioxide emissions, replacing oil Electricity and Batteries Energy Production (General) Lighting Technologies feedstock with bioresources, using Nuclear Fission Natural Gas Petroleum Chemistry coal gasification, or investigating chemicals from carbon dioxide, research on energy, as both a than petroleum.’ Introduction of could facilitate the technologies or feedstock consumer and technology Since 2004, the interest in electricity and the economies of sustainable energy use. enabler. solar photovoltaics, biofuels and automobile influenced Traditionally the energy and According to Peter Morris, an hydrogen power amongst the pages chemistry research chemicals industries have been interesting example of this role of Chemistry World suggests that treated separately by governments for chemists is the story of the such concerns are once again high on with departments for energy chemurgy movement in 1930s chemists’ agendas. Novel techniques detached from those for other America. The movement promoted are constantly promoted for industries. But that may be changing. use of agricultural raw materials for harnessing renewable resources; the In December 2006, the International industrial uses and was supported availability of the dominant resource, Energy Agency held a workshop by Henry Ford, Thomas Edison and oil, is once more uncertain. If we with members of the petrochemical Irenee DuPont as a route towards really are serious about accelerating industry to discuss feedstock economic independence. In the days the use of alternative energy sources, substitutes, energy efficient before Middle East oil discoveries it can the shared history between technology and CO2 reduction as a was also endorsed as a replacement energy and chemistry point towards part of the G8 Dialogue on climate for declining US petroleum supplies. the best role for chemical scientists? change, clean energy and sustainable Agricultural crops soon became History tells us that we can development. This was the first seen as a source of motor fuel and reasonably expect chemists and time the chemical industry had been chemists developed ‘agrol’, an chemical engineers to respond explicitly invited to the IEA, and it ethanol/gasoline mix, which was to changing energy systems. But may signal an understanding that the marketed alongside plastics derived the relationship works both ways, flows of energy products throughout from soybean oil. Grain-derived because the energy economy relies the whole economy will need to be ethanol was also a feedstock for on the chemical sciences to utilise addressed for the substitution of oil synthetic rubber and it played a the by-products of fuel production as ‘Energy to be as painless as possible. vital role in America’s World War II feedstocks. Chemical production and effort when rubber supplies were energy are mutually dependent. This production Old ties, new directions cut off. It was ultimately displaced suggests that an integrated approach shapes the There is compelling evidence that by petrochemical rubber, just as to the two sectors has implications 150 years of co-evolution of the petroleum became the major source for how they might evolve together. world chemists chemistry and energy disciplines of ethanol, but as Peter Morris points work in and has created links between them out, ‘things could have gone in a quite The carbon landscape than run deeper than simply the different direction had the Farm In the EU, 10 per cent of oil directly scientific contribution of chemists Chemurgic Council been granted the consumption is for chemical dictates their to improving energy technologies. contract for all US synthetic rubber feedstocks. Global polymer As energy systems have evolved, at a time when polyethylene was also production is projected to double industry’s raw so has the use of chemicals to manufactured from alcohol rather by 2025, and the picture is similar material supply’ produce dyes, synthetic materials

Bergius invents the Fischer and Tropsch US car ownership reaches 200 Henry Ford unsuccessfully launches hydrogenation route to patent a new way to obtain per 1000 persons, a level that the a car made almost entirely from soybean liquid fuels from coal liquid fuels from coal UK would not reach until 1970. bioplastics, and running on ethanol.

1913 1912 1925 1933 1935 1936 1942 1961

Churchill converts the British First industrially The first commercial Oil replaces coal as the naval fleet to oil despite the practical polyethylene catalytic cracking plant is primary feedstock in the absence of an assured supply. synthesis is developed at ICI built in US. German chemical industry.

68 | Chemistry World | October 2007 www.chemistryworld.org and pharmaceuticals. Changes in problem’, p42). feedstock demand have also been Chemistry in Britain and Chemistry World The gasification of coal, however, motivated by politics and tradition, articles on energy topics 1965–2005 has a rich history in the production 14 as was the case with the slow of chemicals from syngas. In South transition to petroleum feedstocks in Africa, Sasol has been producing 12 Europe compared to the US. Political fuels and chemicals from coal since

commitment to local coal reserves 10 the 1950s to avoid dependence on ensured that coal chemistry still foreign oil. played a major role in Germany until 8 Sasol has been perfecting the the 1960s. When the shift was made Fischer–Tropsch technique for it was to a light gasoline feedstock, 6 half a century and now produces as the European motor industry % of all articles around 200 chemical products and had come to use diesel fuel, leaving 4 fuels from over seven million tonnes a gasoline surplus that was not of coal-derived Fischer–Tropsch present in the US where the chemical 2 hydrocarbons per year. In the industry mainly consumed natural current energy climate, Fischer– gas. 0 Tropsch projects such as Sasol and By considering the chemical 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 Qatar Petroleum’s gas-to-liquids and energy sectors as one evolving Year venture are looking increasingly system, new opportunities for Coal Energy efficiency Electricity and batteries economically attractive. Sasol’s Nuclear fission Natural gas Petroleum chemistry green chemistry are emerging that Johann van Rheede explains that ‘a Renewables Hydrogen and fuel cells take advantage of the changing well thought through chemical co- carbon landscape. Rapid expansion production strategy will add value in of biodiesel production to meet fractions to launch the fledgling The 1973 oil crisis the right circumstances. Our plants renewable energy targets has led to a petrochemical industry. prompted a huge upsurge in Secunda demonstrate that the glut of its by-product glycerol, with a Another example is found in of interest in alternative co-production of fuel and chemicals resultant depression of the glycerol Sweden’s Örnsköldsvik region, sources of energy can be a viable business model. price. Combined with projected which has a long and distinguished More development work needs to increases in biodiesel production, history in the conversion of forest be done to address both technical this has created opportunities to use materials to chemicals such as and business challenges, but it can glycerol in new ways that are now ethanol and acetic acid, alongside be anticipated that syngas-derived being recognised by entrepreneurs. core pulp and paper activities. chemicals will gain market share as UK-based Davy Process The region has responded to the the GTL and CTL (coal-to-liquids) Technology has developed a method explosion in global ethanol demand industry expands.’ for producing propylene glycol with the Processum biorefinery The modern petrochemical from glycerol. Vice-president initiative, which aims to create a industry exerts a powerful presence Roger Lawrence says that provided world-leading cluster of companies on the economy. But some major biodiesel production is sustainable, that will convert pulp and paper shifts are underway in both the bio-based propylene glycol could waste into fuels, packaging, energy and chemicals sectors that compete with the petrochemical- pharmaceuticals, food and building could have unpredictable impacts on derived compound. ‘But as long as materials. ‘Using the global hydrocarbon supply. Bio- the production costs of renewable by-product based propylene glycol, integrated fuels are higher than conventional Back to black biorefineries and syngas plants all sources, then government support The resurgence of coal is also glycerol for hold the potential to compete with through fiscal policy is essential. having an impact in many regions. chemical their petrochemical counterparts if The danger is that projects or As a more abundant fossil fuel large scale production is achieved. schemes that rely upon this are than oil, and with a particular products The enduring link between vulnerable.’ These risks can be strategic importance in China and echoes the hydrocarbon usage for chemicals and managed by looking at a variety of India (see Chemistry World: China, fuels that has so interested chemists renewable hydrocarbon sources, September 2007, pC3), use of coal use of residual for 150 years may be about to play an and Davy Process Technology have is set to continue growing despite petroleum important role in the development of also developed processes to convert environmental concerns. To achieve life after oil. palm kernel oils to natural detergent higher efficiency in coal power fractions to alcohols, and bio-ethanol to ethyl stations and reduce greenhouse launch the Simon Bennett is a researcher at acetate. Indeed, using by-product gas emissions, new combustion the Centre for Energy Policy and glycerol for chemical products and carbon storage processes are in petrochemical Technology, Imperial College London, echoes the use of residual petroleum development (see ‘How to bury the industry’ UK

BP finds natural Sasol enters the world NatureWorks LLC opens the Brazil’s Braskem announces certification of the gas off the UK polymer market with world’s first commercial polylactic acid world’s first polyethylene from 100% renewable continental shelf. polypropylene from coal. plant to produce the PLA bioplastic. raw materials, in this case sugar cane.

1965 1973 1990 2000 2001 2007

OPEC oil embargo leads to quadrupling Global use of coal as a chemical Oil price reaches an all-time high of of the oil price in one year and a continuing feedstock peaks at 8.7 million tonnes and $80/barrel – in real terms, a price not price rise until the 1980s. begins decline to 6 million tonnes by 2004. seen since 1979

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