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Why Do Bloggers Keep Silent?

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Why Do Bloggers Keep Silent? Why do bloggers keep silent? Self-censorship in social media: cases of Belarus and Russia By: Alesia Rudnik Supervisor: Liudmila Voronova Södertörn University | School of Social Sciences Master’s thesis 15 credits Journalism | 2 semester 2020 Abstract Social media are often referred to as democracy drivers in autocratic states, whereas in some countries, they appear as tools of the regimes that employ a wide range of mechanisms to restrict freedom of expression online. In authoritarian countries, political bloggers stand out as new politi- cal leaders or anti-regime actors, serve as alternative information sources, advocate for political ac- tion, or mobilize financial support for different initiatives. Political conditions in countries with es- tablished governments’ control practices complicate publishing routines for political bloggers and may increase incentives to self-censor. Employing the theory of the spiral of silence, this study ana- lyzes self-censorship in social media among political bloggers in two neighboring post-Soviet auto- cratic countries - Belarus and Russia. The research is based on a comparison of media legislation in Belarus and Russia, textual analysis of political blogs, and survey among political bloggers in the two countries. The survey demonstrates that political bloggers face obstacles in forms of adminis- trative or criminal sentences, forceful blocking of their pages, online threats, or experience pressure/ attention from secret services. Despite these challenges, political bloggers in Belarus and Russia demonstrate readiness to speak out and criticize political elites. According to the model suggested in this thesis, the majority of political bloggers practice self-censorship at the pre-publishing stages in forms of selecting topics and wording, avoiding particular names. The author argues that in auto- cratic countries, the spiral of silence, that engages more people to silence their opinion due to politi- cal obstacles, can be and is currently challenged by political bloggers, as decentralized political opinion leaders, who aim to break down the spiral of silence. The research contributes to media studies of social media and freedom of expression in autocratic countries. Political bloggers as nei- ther ordinary social media users or media in non-democratic world require more attention among media and political scholars. Acknowledgments: I would like to express sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Liudmila Voronova, who positively impacted this research by academic advise and strong personal support. Her willingness to carefully scrutinize the material and patience in responding to all questions created a plausible working at- mosphere. I wish to thank all the survey participants who, despite their hectic and stressful lives, found time to both fill in the questionnaire and contribute by broadening the survey sample. Key Words: authoritarian regimes, Belarus, censorship, political bloggers, freedom of speech, Russia, self-censorship, social media. 2 Contents List of figures and tables 4 Introduction 5 I. Theoretical framework and literature review 8 1.1. Political discussion in social media: new media - new journalists 8 1.2. Web 2.0. in authoritarian states 12 1.3. Spiral of silence - do you dare? 15 1.4. Political and media background 17 1.5. Filling the research gap 23 II. Methodology 24 2. 1. Research design 24 2.2. Analysis of media legislation 25 2.3. Textual analysis 26 2. 4. Web-survey 27 2. 5. Respondents sampling 28 2. 6. Limitations 30 III. Results and analysis 31 4.1. Comparing media legislation in Belarus and Russia 31 4.2. What do political bloggers in Belarus and Russia talk about? 34 4.3. Survey findings 36 4.4. General findings 39 IV. Discussion 41 5.1. What causes self-censorship? 41 5.2. Bloggers’ perception of self-censorship 42 5.3. Self-censorship’s impact on freedom of expression 44 Conclusion 47 List of references 49 Appendices 60 Appendix I. Questionnaire (translated to English) 60 Appendix II. Code sheet 63 Appendix III. List of the analyzed legislative acts 69 Appendix IV 69 Appendix V 70 3 List of figures and tables Figure 1. Internet control tactics in CIS countries (Deibert and Rohozinski, 2010) 14 Figure 2. Spiral of Silence 15 Figure 3. Political regimes in Belarus, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine (Way, 2005, p.247). 19 Table 1. Belarus and Russia in the international ratings 21 Table 2. legislative regulations concerning online media in Belarus and Russia 32 Table 3. Illustrating the approach to textual analysis 35 Figure 4. Have you faced any problems due to your social media publications? (N=61) 37 Figure 5. Self-censorship in Belarus and Russia (N=61) 38 Figure 6. Three stages of self-censorship 43 Figure 7. Spiral of Silence in social media in autocracies 45 Figure 8. Topics covered by political bloggers in Belarus 70 Figure 9. Topics covered by political bloggers in Russia 70 Figure 10. Topics covered by political bloggers in Belarus and Russia 70 4 Introduction In February 2020, Russian blogger Tumso Abdurakhmanov, who openly criticized the Chec- nya’s president Ramzan Kadyrov, was attacked in the town of Gävle, Sweden, where he resided af- ter escaping the republic (The Moscow Times, 2020). In December 2019, a 21-year-old Russian blogger Yegor Zhukov was freed from jail where he had spent several months for calling to partici- pate in anti-governmental protests via his YouTube channel in August the same year (The Moscow Times, 2019). Two years earlier in Belarus a criminal case was opened against another blogger, now Poland-based 19-year-old Stsiapan Sviatlou (known as NEXTA). This became a result of his publi- cations critical towards the Belarusian authorities, including president Alyaksandr Lukashenka (Spring96, 2018). Zmicer Kazlou, another blogger from Belarus, received 120 days of criminal sen- tence for mobilizing his readers for a street protest against the authorities' foreign policy in Decem- ber 2019 (Spring96, 2020). Each of the named bloggers produced different type of political content, but all share a similar feature – they express opinion critical towards authorities in their countries. In this thesis, I refer to such content producers as political bloggers. According to McKenna&Pole (2008), political blog- gers are political content producers who publish information, opinions, and encourage to take part in political events or charity projects. The thesis places in focus those who critically speak up against political regimes in Belarus and Russia by sharing political information and opinions on their social media pages1. Due to cheap and quick access to the internet, citizens of authoritarian countries receive more opportunities to consume news through sources alternative to traditional state-owned and/or state- controlled channels such as TV and print media. However, social media, widely utilized for sur- veillance and control over oppositional groups and individuals, can also bring a threat to citizens in non-democracies (Schlozman et al., 2010). With authoritarian governments employing technologi- cal development for their benefit, there is a risk of regime consolidation, a proliferation of sur- veillance by governments, as well as a crackdown on dissidents. In that sense, political bloggers in authoritarian states become exposed to pressure for their online activism. At the same time, auto- crats strive for securing the status-quo, and in an attempt to create a more democratic international 1 Belarus and Russia are classified as countries with authoritarian political regimes (Way, 2005), or as electoral autocracies (Lührmann, et al., 2020). 5 image, autocratic regimes intend to avoid arresting everyone who is critically reporting about the government (Soest & Grauvogel, 2017). Instead of detaining every dissident, autocrats attempt to use other means to control freedom of expression in social media, such as legal restrictions (Al-Saqaf, 2014). In 2018, the Belarusian parliament passed the law that obliges online media editions (newspapers and magazines) to intro- duce identification of readers willing to comment on an article (government.by, 2018). Similarly, Russian authorities regulate content online, while security services can access personal data of the users of the popular social networks (The Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, 1996, 2014). Belarusian and Russian governments impose criminal and administrative charges not only on journalists formally affiliated with a newsroom but also on individuals publishing undesirable polit- ical content. In Russia, 875 court cases for reposts, online publications, and comments in social me- dia were reported between 2014 and 2019 (BlackScreen.Report, 2019). Authoritarian governments often classify political bloggers as journalists in order to limit access of the latter to broader audi- ence. In 2014, Russian parliament passed the so-called blogger law (Federal Law No. 97-FZ ) that requires social media users with more than 3000 visits per day to register as media. It allowed for prosecution of political bloggers under the media laws (Reporters Without Borders, 2019). Legal limits and repressive practices towards those expressing political views online make them adapt publishing routines to the existing media system. For example, to minimize risks of off- line repressions, political bloggers may opt to limit and self-censor their content published online. International human rights reports often note that self-censorship becomes a result of govern- ment restrictions imposed on press
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