MAR-MAY 2019 12 Features

— Knowledge Transfers in 14th and

— as the Symbol of Chinese Muslims in

— /Maulivarmadeva, First of the Last Indo-Malay

— The Two-World Problem: The Language of Archaeology in the Post-Colonial Landscape

— Ancient Money in - Part 2

Upcoming Events

— Public Lectures

IMAGE: ARCA DWARAPALA (GUARDIAN STATUE), , INDONESIA. TAKEN DURING THE NSC FIELD SCHOOL. (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG) NSC Highlights ISSUE 12 / MAR - MAY 2019 is published by the Nalanda- Sriwijaya Centre (NSC) at ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute and available electronically at www.iseas.edu.sg Contents

Editorial Chairman Choi Shing Kwok

Executive Editor Terence Chong 1 Editorial

Managing Editor 2 Features Foo Shu Tieng ­ Knowledge Transfers in 14th and 15th Century Java Editorial Committee Zheng He as the Symbol of Chinese Muslims in Indonesia Fong Sok Eng Kao Jiun Feng Sang Sapurba/Maulivarmadeva, Lim Chen Sian First of the Last Indo-Malay Kings Hélène Njoto The Two-World Problem: The Language of Archaeology in the Post-Colonial Landscape ISSN (electronic): 2424-9211 Ancient Money in Southeast Asia - Part 2

14 Centrefold Excavating on the Axis of the World: The 2018 NSC The ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute Field School at Mount Penanggungan, East Java (formerly Institute of Southeast Asian Studies) is an autonomous organization 23 Events established in 1968. It is a regional centre dedicated to the study of socio- Buddhist Accounts of Maritime Crossings in the Southern Seas political, security, and economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia The 21st Congress of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association and its wider geostrategic and economic Portuguese and Dutch Records for before 1819 environment. The Institute’s research programmes are grouped under Regional The Localisation of Buddhism in the Wider Landscape of Bagan Economic Studies (RES), Regional Strategic and Political Studies (RSPS), Banks, Raffles and the Poison Tree of Java: Botanical Exchange in the Late 18th and Early 19th Centuries and Regional Social and Cultural Studies (RSCS). The Institute is also home What More Can Archaeology Tell Us about Singapore’s Past? to the ASEAN Studies Centre (ASC), the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre (NSC) The Mysterious Malay Jong and Other Shipping and the Singapore APEC Centre. Workshop on Chinese Ceramics The Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Correspondence (NSC) at the ISEAS — Yusof Ishak 31 Institute, Singapore, pursues research Reflections on an NSC AU Internship on historical interactions among Asian societies and civilisations. It serves as 32 New Publications and Upcoming Events a forum for the comprehensive study of the ways in which Asian polities and societies have interacted over time through religious, cultural, and economic exchanges, and diasporic networks. The Centre also offers innovative strategies for examining the manifestations of hybridity, convergence and mutual learning in a globalising Asia. ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute is not responsible for facts represented ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE 30 HENG MUI KENG TERRACE and views expressed. Responsibility rests exclusively with the individual SINGAPORE 119614 author(s). No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form TEL: (65) 6778 0955 without permission. Comments are welcome and may be sent to FAX: (65) 6778 1735 the author(s). Copyright is held by the author(s) of each article. 1 Editorial

DETAIL OF AT CANDI JAGO, TAKEN DURING THE NSC FIELD SCHOOL IN EAST JAVA, INDONESIA. (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG)

This is the final issue of NSC Highlights. them in the civilizational histories of these 1819”; “What More Can Archaeology There are new plans for future countries. The aim of the Field School Tell Us about Singapore’s Past?”; publications even as we mark the 10th was to nurture an EAS identity and “The Mysterious Malay Jong and Other anniversary of the Nalanda-Sriwijaya develop a community of young scholars Temasek Shipping”, and “The Inception Centre (NSC). Set up in 2009, the interested in Southeast Asia. There have of Lion City”. I am grateful to Kwa Chong Centre was the initiative of the Singapore been six Field Schools since 2012 with Guan for helming this special series. government to enhance ’s links to over 80 students benefiting from the the East Asian Summit (EAS) through unique experience. NSC also initiated I am in the debt of previous NSC Heads research and intellectual exchange. the NSC-Nalanda University Internship who steadily contributed to NSC in NSC was thus located at ISEAS to Programme where MA students from their own ways. Tansen Sen was the complement the re-establishment Nalanda University would spend a month inaugural head from 2008 to August of the ancient Nalanda University in at ISEAS to use its library and network 2012, followed by Ooi Kee Beng Bihar, India, and to examine Southeast with experts in the region. This Internship from August 2012 to January 2014; Asia’s historical, cultural and trade Programme was designed to support the followed by Derek Heng from January links to India in order to explore ancient academic development of the university. 2014 to July 2015; and finally, Terence civilizational networks between them. Chong from July 2015 to present. NSC has also contributed to Singapore’s Since 2009, NSC has hosted 40 bicentennial anniversary. Since July 2018, In the meantime, we hope you will enjoy Visiting Fellows of varying ranks and NSC has hosted a series of seminars this issue of NSC Highlights and continue experience who have contributed to entitled “1819 and Before: Singapore’s to support us in our research endeavours. capacity and reputation of the Centre. Pasts” to introduce the premodern and Over the decade, it has published 34 early , and to locate academically well regarded books, it in the broader region. Seminar titles organised 164 public seminars, and include “Why Was There No Singapore 80 conferences and workshops. NSC Before Raffles?”; “The and also pioneered the archaeological Field the Realm of the Straits”; “Buddhist School which hosted students from EAS Accounts of Maritime Crossings in member countries in Cambodia and the Southern Seas”; “Portuguese and most recently, Indonesia, to immerse Dutch Records for Singapore before FEATURE 2 Knowledge Transfers in 14th and 15th Century Java

— BY KENNETH R. HALL PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, BALL STATE UNIVERSITY

FIGURE 1: CENTRAL JAVA MOUNTAIN TEMPLE RITUAL. (CREDIT: K. R. HALL)

“The land of Java has become more and more renowned for its purifying power in the World. It is only India and Java that are noted for their excellence as fine places [...] And so constantly all kinds of FIGURE 2: TRADITIONAL BALI DANCE/GONG ORCHESTRA. (CREDIT: K. R. HALL) people come from other countries in countless numbers [...] Namely India, Cambodia, , The passage is significant in that it and semi-literate public to share these Yawana [Vietnam], , the highlights Java’s external ‘knowledge written texts in communal reading Carnatic [South India] and so on, networking’ contacts over its international sessions, religious ceremonies, and [...] sailing on ships with merchants marketplace exchanges, including the dramatic and musical performances in large numbers, Monks and priests intellectual dialogue facilitated by ‘monks (Wappel 2017; Sprey 2017; Hall 2017). in particular -- when they come they and priests’ who travelled on merchant are given food and are happy to stay.” ships and established residency in stable Contemporary scholars study regional (Nagarakertagama, 83.2-4, in Robson Java (Figures 3 and 4). Of interest is how written texts, inscriptions, and 1995: 85, and Robson 1997: 434). Java is presented as both India’s wealthy iconographic portrayals of texts at temples as well as contented1 peer, and there is in Java and wider less focus on Java’s material prosperity as these have emerged from rich pre- The passage above comes from a 14th but more on its ‘purifying [spiritual] power’ print literary written and oral traditions. century kakawin (long narrative poem) and the consequent superior quality of Long-standing oral renditions of texts called Nagarakertagama (also known as its culture. It is notable that the citation continued in both formal and informal Desawarnana) written by Mpu Prapanca pairs Java with India as one of the two settings, as the initial texts were widely as a eulogy on , a Javanese ‘excellent’ Asian cultural centres, as China sung, read, and performed, adding to the of the , supposedly is relegated to the longer list of linked text body movements, facial expressions, during its greatest extent. Mpu Prapanca ‘material’ trading societies that follows. languages, musical traditions, and asserts in the passage that Java’s contextual practices that connected the continued patronage of Indic religion was Revisionist scholarship focal to Southeast pre-printed literary forms -- notably lontar vital to Java’s continuity in an increasingly Asia has redefined traditional literacy palm leaf texts that remain the source destabilising ‘global’ world in which only as being more than the transmission of of oral recitations. Unlike the Western India and Java were stable civilizations knowledge in print or script, and instead notion that literary consumption was done as they remained dedicated to Hindu- embraces the notion that knowledge of through private reading and study, in Java Buddhist virtues. This passage should be the written word in traditional religious and elsewhere in contemporary Southeast seen in context with the Hindu-Buddhist and secular texts did not necessarily Asia there is still a range of performing perspective in mind, as several courts and translate into readership. However, the arenas from households to wider public areas in the Southeast Asian maritime alternative knowledge transfers based spaces (including television) that connect world had begun converting to Islam. in traditional textual transmission in performance and other representations oral recitations or in dramatic, musical, of textual matter in ways that allow and dance rituals allowed illiterate variable consumption of sacred texts 3 “[In the Nagarakertagama] Java 15th Century is presented as both India’s Java Knowledge Agencies wealthy as well as contented peer, and there is less focus on Java’s Knowledge of Informed Symbols/Ceremonies Officials material prosperity but more on Conversion of knowledge into its ‘purifying [spiritual] power’ “Currency” Literacy/ and the consequent superior Religious/Cultural Discourse

quality of its culture.” Collect, Collate, Combine, Integrate, Represent Knowledge of Hierarchical “the other” and historical chronicles (Figure 1). This Societal

continuity of the oral drama, dance, and Cross-Cultural Societal Circuits System pre-print traditions prevents the written Military/Technical/ text from being fixed, as multiple reading, Commercial Skills recitation, and consumptive practices encouraged personal appropriations that still shape Southeast Asia’s popular Literacy/ Commercial Clerical literary marketplace (Figure 2). Oral/Writing Diaspora Parishioners Skills In sum, these revisionist studies are based in distinctive knowledge transfers FIGURE 3: 15TH CENTURY JAVA KNOWLEDGE AGENCIES. (CREDIT: K. R. HALL) characteristic of Java’s evolving literary traditions – from the culminating Hindu-Buddhist era of dynastic sovereignty portrayed in the 14th century Nagarakertagama chronicle during the formative years of the Majapahit court to the fifteenth-century Pararaton, which characterises the Majapahit court during its decline. From the late 15th century, the transition to Islamic sultanates is recorded in the Babad literature initiated by the new downstream Islamic courts. These innovative Islamic texts legitimised the transition of dynastic power from Java’s upstream wet- agricultural centres to its subsequent downstream multi-cultural Islamic port-of-trade marketplaces that had regular international engagements. The multiple north coast Islamic port- polity marketplaces superseded the FIGURE 4: 15TH CENTURY JAVA KNOWLEDGE AGENCIES. (CREDIT: K. R. HALL) power of the previous upstream courts as portrayed in the 17th century Babad THE ADVISORY BOARD OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ECONOMIC SOURCE,”BIJDRAGEN TOT DE TAAL-, LAND- EN VOLKENKUNDE chronicle poems composed by Islamic AND SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE ORIENT, AND WAS A FULBRIGHT 153(3): 431-435. clerics at the original downstream SENIOR SCHOLAR/PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION AT GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY IN INDONESIA (2003-2004) AND sultanate courts. Eventually, downstream SPREY, I. (2017). “INDIC MODEL AND JAVANESE ADAPTATION: SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES AT THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF courts were displaced by the new THE EVOLUTION OF WAYANG KULIT (SHADOW PUPPET) PHNOM PENH (2012). court in the productive THEATRE IN INDONESIA FROM ‘PRE-HISTORY’ UNTIL THE central Java upstream near modern- 1As Java is said to have food to spare. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.” IN DALLAPICCOLA, A. L., AND VERGHESE, day Yogyakarta, which was nearby the A. (EDS.), INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: CULTURAL DISCOURSES. earlier foundational centres of Javanese MUMBAI: THE K. R. CAMA ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, PP. 405-420. Hindu-Buddhist spiritual and textual REFERENCES tradition at Prambanan and Borobudur. WAPPEL, J. (2017). “THE ‘LOCALISATION’ OF INDIC HALL, K. R. (2017). “KNOWLEDGE NETWORKS, LITERARY HINDU CULTURE INTO JAVANESE AND BALINESE GAMELAN KENNETH R. HALL IS A PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT BALL STATE ADAPTATIONS, AND THE ‘SANSKRIT COSMOPOLIS’ IN FIFTEENTH PERFORMANCE PRACTICES AND AESTHETICS.” IN UNIVERSITY. HE WAS FORMERLY A SENIOR RESEARCH FELLOW CENTURY JAVA.” IN DALLAPICCOLA, A. L., AND VERGHESE, A. DALLAPICCOLA, A. L., AND VERGHESE, A. (EDS.), INDIA AND IN THE NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE AT THE ISEAS-YUSOF (EDS.), INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: CULTURAL DISCOURSES. SOUTHEAST ASIA: CULTURAL DISCOURSES. MUMBAI: THE K. R. ISHAK INSTITUTE, SINGAPORE, AND HAS PUBLISHED A SERIES MUMBAI: THE K. R. CAMA ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, PP. 361-404. CAMA ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, PP. 387-404. OF MONOGRAPHS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES THAT ADDRESS EARLY SOUTHEAST ASIA AND SOUTH INDIAN HISTORY, MOST RECENTLY A “HISTORY OF EARLY SOUTHEAST ASIA: MARITIME ROBSON, S. O. (1995). DESAWARNANA: (NAGARAKERTAGAMA) TRADE AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT, C. 100-1500” (2011); AND BY MPU PRAPANCA. LEIDEN, NETHERLANDS: KITLV. “NETWORKS OF TRADE, POLITY, AND SOCIETAL INTEGRATION IN CHOLA-ERA SOUTH INDIA, C. 875-1400” (2014). HE IS ON ROBSON, S. (1997). “ IN AN OLD JAVANESE FEATURE 4 Zheng He as the Symbol of Chinese Muslims in Indonesia

— BY LEO SURYADINATA VISITING SENIOR FELLOW ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE

FIGURE 1: CHENG HOO IN , EAST JAVA, INDONESIA. (CREDIT: WILSON TJANDINEGARA, COURTESY OF LEO SURYADINATA)

Admiral Zheng He (郑和1 1371- and cultural pluralism was accepted. “The Suharto government took 1433/1435) is a well-known historical The official interpretation of Islamic Chinese Muslim figure among the ethnic history in Indonesia has also been the position of only accepting Chinese in Indonesia, but less so among reviewed, with many “indigenous” one official version, where Islam the non-Chinese, as during the Suharto Indonesian Muslim scholars who began period (1966-1998), the government to re-examine the issue. Scholars, led was brought into Indonesia from policy towards the Chinese was one by those such as Sumanto Al Qurtuby Saudi Arabia directly or/and of total assimilation, and the Chinese, of Nahdlatul (2003), began to even Muslim Chinese, were expected accept the third route, which was from through the region of to become “indigenous” Indonesians China, and they also acknowledged India; there was no third route, by abandoning their “Chinese-ness”. the role of local Chinese Muslims in Anything which appeared to be “Chinese” spreading Islam among the Javanese. which was via China.” was not acceptable. This policy also applied to the interpretation of Islam, The new era of cultural pluralism also as Professor Slamet Muljana’s (1968) meant that the Indonesian Muslim Cheng Hoo (Zheng He Mosque). book which mentioned the spread of community had begun to accept the Islam from China and the role of ethnic Chinese type of Islam, where The mosque architecture in Surabaya Chinese in spreading the religion was had Chinese architectural features and was based on another mosque located immediately banned. The Suharto Zheng He was seen as an Islamic leader. in Beijing’s Niu Jie (Cow Street), which is government took the position of only Chinese Muslims were also free to keep thought to be the oldest Chinese mosque accepting one official version, where their ethnic identity. Associations such as in Beijing. The walls of the Cheng Hoo Islam was brought into Indonesia from the Persatuan Tionghoa Islam Indonesia Mosque was carved with the reliefs of Saudi Arabia directly or/and through (PITI) which was changed to Pembina Zheng He and his voyages. It should be the Gujarat region of India; there was Iman Tauhid Islam during the Suharto era, noted that the mosque was not exclusively no third route, which was via China. readopted its pre-Orde Baru name, as a for Chinese Muslims but also open to all. way to show others that it was a Chinese Indeed, many non-Chinese Indonesian However, with the in May Muslim Association. Together with the muslims pray in the Cheng Hoo Mosque 1998 and the era of globalisation, the local Chinese community in Surabaya, and participated in mosque’s activities. total assimilation policy was abandoned the PITI in 2002 established the Masjid Within the last 14 years, then, this led to 5 Islam has been allowed; many young Islamic preachers of Chinese descent purposely highlighted their ethnic identity. They even used Chinese names (e.g. Tan Mei Hwa, Koko Lim) and Chinese costumes in order to show that there was no conflict between Islam and Chinese-ness. Nevertheless, the language that they used in preaching is Indonesian as the majority of these preachers are Peranakan Chinese: i.e. local-born Indonesian-speaking Chinese.

1Zheng He has now become the symbol of Chinese Muslims in Indonesia.

PROF. LEO SURYADINATA IS A VISITING SENIOR FELLOW AT THE ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE AND AN ADJUNCT PROFESSOR AT THE S. RAJARATNAM SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY. WELL KNOWN FOR HIS NUMEROUS CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE TOPIC OF ETHNIC CHINESE IN INDONESIA AND ON RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA, HE ALSO EDITED THE BOOK “ADMIRAL ZHENG HE AND SOUTHEAST ASIA” (2005; ISEAS). RECENT NOTABLE PUBLICATIONS (IN ENGLISH) INCLUDE “THE RISE OF CHINA AND CHINESE OVERSEAS: A STUDY OF BEIJING’S CHANGING POLICY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND BEYOND” (2017; ISEAS), “PROMINENT INDONESIAN CHINESE: BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES” (2015; ISEAS, 4TH EDITION), AND “THE MAKING OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS: STATE, ETHNICITY, INDIGENISM AND CITIZENSHIP” (2014; WORLD SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY).

REFERENCES

AL QURTUBY, S. (2003). ARUS CINA-ISLAM-JAWA: BONGKAR SEJARAH ATAS PERANAN TIONGHOA DALAM PENYEBARAN AGAMA ISLAM DI NUSANTARA ABAD XV & XVI. [THE CHINESE- ISLAM-JAVA CURRENT: UNRAVELLING THE HISTORICAL ROLE OF THE ETHNIC CHINESE IN SPREADING ISLAM IN THE ARCHIPELAGO, 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES]. YOGYAKARTA: INSPEAL AHIMSAKARYA PRESS.

MULJANA, S. (1968). RUNTUHNJA KERADJAAN HINDU-DJAWA DAN TIMBULNJA NEGARA-NEGARA ISLAM DI NUSANTARA. [THE FALL OF THE HINDU-JAVANESE KINGDOM AND THE FIGURE 2: ZHENG HE STATUE IN SAM PO KONG TEMPLE, SEMARANG, INDONESIA. (CREDIT: 22KARTIKA / WIKIMEDIA) RISE OF ISLAMIC STATES IN THE ARCHIPELAGO]. JAKARTA: BHARATARA. a proliferation of other Chinese mosques; Islamising Java. Many of their graves at least 10 Cheng Hoo mosques were were built in accordance with Chinese established in Java, , architectural features. Many ancient and . The latest Cheng Hoo mosques in Java also had Chinese Mosque with a (boarding characteristics. It can be said that school) was built in Banyuwangi (East Chinese architecture was not new for Java) in 2016. There are also three the Indonesian Muslim community. more mosques which did not bear the However, during the Suharto era when name of Cheng Hoo but were built the anti-Chinese sentiments were strong, in the Chinese architectural style. anything with Chinese characteristics had to be suppressed, if not eliminated. In fact, the influence of Chinese Muslims to Indonesian Islam, especially Islam It is ironic that the Chinese identity in Java, was quite well-known among was expressed through Islam and was scholars. There was discussion in the accepted by the “indigenous” community, past that at least four of the nine Wali especially in Java. Nevertheless, Songo (Nine Islamic Saints) in Java Indonesian mainstream Islam wanted were of ethnic Chinese origins. These to project its liberal aspect and tended Nine Islamic Saints are believed to be to be accommodative; it was prepared the notable figures who succeeded in to accept Chinese Islam. Ethnicity in FEATURE 6 Sang Sapurba/Maulivarmadeva, First of the Last Indo-Malay Kings

— BY IAIN SINCLAIR NSC VISITING FELLOW

FIGURE 1: BUKIT SIGUNTANG IN , SUMATRA, INDONESIA, WHERE SANG SAPURBA AND HIS ENTOURAGE FIRST APPEARED, ACCORDING TO THE “SEJARAH MELAYU.” 2012. (CREDIT: FOO SHU TIENG)

One of the last precolonial dynasties own rice fields there. They see his crown which ruled parts of present-day and perceive him as a divine being. Indonesia, Singapore and The girls call him Sang Sapurba, after from the onwards traces Suprabhā, a nymph in Indra’s heaven, its origin back to Sang Sapurba. The who features in the Mahābhārata and FIGURE 2: THE BUDDHA OF GRAHI, NATIONAL MUSEUM, deeds of Sang Sapurba have so far its Malay and Old Javanese retellings BANGKOK. (CREDIT: PHOTOGRAPHY BY ANANDAJYOTI BHIKKHU, been known primarily from the Sejarah (Winstedt 1938:2). Though this name is CC BY-SA 3.0) Melayu (SM) literature. This family of a respectful acknowledgement of deva texts (formally titled Sulalat al-Salatin) status, it is clearly a kind of nickname. has some fanciful elements in its Likewise, when the noblewomen who worlds”, a common title of a universal storytelling and has been regarded as sleep with Sang Sapurba break out in ruler; dharmarāja, “religious/righteous doubtful history. Nonetheless, historians spots (kedal), this is also taken as a sign king”, as some Buddhist monarchs called have been extracting information from of his divinity; however, it may in actuality themselves; and adhirāja, “über-king”, an these texts ever since John Leyden’s be an early reference to a certain STD absolute sovereign, subject to nobody. translation was published (Boomgaard 2007:25). In any case, Sang There is also the title maulin, “crown- in 1821. We are just starting to learn Sapurba affirms that he and his entourage haver.” The Sejarah Melayu emphasises how, when, and why the various layers are just men (manusia). According to that Sang Sapurba’s right to the throne and versions of the SM came about the SM, Sang Sapurba is coronated is essentially due to his owning a crown. (Chambert-Loir 2017A). The possibility as an Indo-Malay king, one who is both Therefore, it is no great leap to suppose that Sang Sapurba is a historical person, bangsa hindustan and raja malayu. that Sang Sapurba, being called a the king Maulivarmadeva, has been Tribuana king, divine, and a maulin raised before (Drakard 1999:242); The ciri proclamation within this literature, has a formal name here I explore this possibility by looking such as Tribhuvana Maulivarmadeva. further into the available evidence. In the SM, the formal titles of Sang Sapurba are announced in Sanskrit The Amoghapāśa pedestal Sang Sapurba was not so much a by the herald, Baṭṭ1, in a proclamation inscription, 1286 miraculous figure as a man at the centre called the ciri. While the text of the of events that are seen as miraculous. ciri has become degraded over the Maulivarmadeva, the historical ruler, is In the narratives of the SM, he arrives centuries, a recent study has begun identified in a 1286 inscription on the with two companions at Bukit Siguntang to unpack it (Adam 2016:373ff). From pedestal of a statue found in Sumatra’s (a hill in present-day Palembang, South this the name elements in the ciri would Minangkabau highlands. The statue Sumatra - Figure 1), meeting girls who seem to include: tribhuvana, “of three- depicts the eight-armed bodhisattva 7 request of mahārāja Trailokyarāja- maulibhūṣaṇavarmadeva. This name is practically synonymous with that of the Tribhuvana king Maulivarmadeva (de Casparis 1967:34–35). The presence of this statue at the northern edge of the might illuminate the claim that Sang Sapurba soon became “well known in all countries” (masyhurlah segala negeri). On the other hand, the age of the statue is controversial, and likewise, its association with the Indo-Malay Maulivarmadeva needs to be substantiated.

The base of the Buddha of Grahi is inscribed in the Kawi script — common in Sriwijaya — with a date that appears to have five numerals. There is no firm consensus on how to correct this date. One emendation results in the Śaka year 1105, i.e. 1183 CE; this is well before FIGURE 3: , SON OF SANG SAPURBA AND SCION OF THE TRIBUANIC DYNASTY. SCULPTED BY HONG HAI Maulivarmadeva’s time. Another proposal ENVIRONMENTAL ART FOR SINGAPORE’S BICENTENNIAL CELEBRATIONS. KUALA TEMASEK, PRESENT-DAY NORTH BOAT QUAY, SINGAPORE. 2019. (CREDIT: IAIN SINCLAIR) gives a year that resolves as 1291 CE (de Casparis 1961:38 n.25). It can be added here that the day–month–sexagenary Amoghapāśa, a form of Avalokiteśvara. (Leyden 1821:39; cf. Adam 2016:47). year components of the date are also It was crafted in Java and installed He would have to have moved there by compatible with the current Śaka year in Sumatra by officials acting on the the 1280s, judging by the chronology 1190, that is, 1267 CE. Whether any of orders of king Kṛtanagara that has Sang Sapurba’s son and heir these dates can be confirmed remains to (r. 1268–1292). The inscription states apparent, Tribuana Nila Utama, arriving at be seen. Art-historical assessments of the that the statue is fit to be worshipped by Kuala Temasek (Figure 3) and founding statue’s age are inconclusive (Woodward the caste society of Melayu, led by the Singapura by 1299 (Linehan 1947:120). If 2003:194–195). Without a more solid Tribhuvana king Maulivarmadeva (Ferrand identification, it would have to be assumed 1922:123–4). There is no mention of the that an earlier, albeit unknown, king of matriarchal society of the Minangkabau. Sriwijaya used the name element maulin. “An ornate, heavy crown An ornate, heavy crown (baibao jinguan In this inscription Kṛtanagara calls himself (baibao jinguan zhongshen zhongshen 百宝金冠重甚) was already mahārājādhirāja, while Maulivarmadeva a defining element of Sriwijaya kingship is called only mahārāja. As the latter 百宝金冠重甚 ) was already in the early 13th century, according is subject to the former, the statue no a defining element of Sriwijaya to Zhao (Hirth & Rockhill 1911:61). doubt formalises the subordination of Melayu to Java. Javanese sources such kingship in the early 13th Ādityavarman’s rededication as the Pararaton would suggest that century.” of Amoghapāśa, 1347 this situation was the result of the long military campaign launched against Finally, Sang Sapurba may be referred the () by Kṛtanagara to in the inscriptions of the Sumatran in 1275. Reading the SM in this light, this identification is accepted, it enhances king Ādityavarman (c. 1294–1376). It is one wonders whether the Javanese the credibility of the version of the Sejarah generally accepted that Ādityavarman campaign was provoked by Sang Melayu that distinguishes Sang Sapurba is Maulivarmadeva’s grandson (Kulke Sapurba’s assertion of adhirāja status from Nila Utama, and diminishes the 2009:232). Ādityavarman’s mother has on their borders — in effect, a declaration version that conflates these two Tribuana been identified as , one of two of independence — which ended in his kings (Chambert-Loir 2017A:169). “princess brides” brought from Melayu to fleeing to the remote Minangkabau hills. the Singhasari court in 1293 at the end of The Buddha of Grahi, c. 1183–1291 the pamalayu campaign. (In one version It is possible to identify Sang Sapurba of the SM, the daughters of the Bukit with the Maulivarmadeva of the A bronze statue of outstanding Siguntang group have the title Dara.) Amoghapāśa inscription in so far as workmanship, the “Buddha of Grahi” now His father, Advayavarman, a Javanese they both appear to be ruling the same kept at Bangkok National Museum (Figure courtier, is probably one of the officials region at the same time. The pedestal 2), may also be tied to Maulivarmadeva. who installed the abovementioned inscription identifies Maulivarmadeva It comes from a monastery in Grahi, now Amoghapāśa statue. By 1347 as the king of “Malay country” (bhūmi known as Chaiya, in Southern Thailand. Ādityavarman had left the court in Java and malāyu). And Sang Sapurba, according In 1225 this region was reported by Zhao relocated to Minangkabau. He moved the to one version of the Sejarah Melayu, Rukuo (赵汝适 ) to be a dependency statue off its pedestal, reconsecrated it, abandoned Palembang and finally settled of Sriwijaya (Hirth & Rockhill 1911:62). and inscribed a long Sanskrit dedication down as the king of Malay Minangkabau The statue was commissioned by on its rear face (Figure 4), thereby after moving around the Archipelago the military governor of Grahi at the “appropriating” it (Reichle 2007:127). 8 to establish modern Singapore was ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY 20(2): 117–127. influenced by it, through Leyden and others. As such, our ongoing attention REICHLE, N. (2007). VIOLENCE AND SERENITY: LATE BUDDHIST to the precolonial narratives of the SCULPTURE FROM INDONESIA. HONOLULU: UNIVERSITY OF Malay world is more than justified. HAWAI‘I PRESS.

IAIN SINCLAIR IS A VISITING FELLOW AT NSC. THIS ARTICLE WINSTEDT, R. O. (1938). “THE MALAY ANNALS OF SEJARAH IS A PREVIEW OF FINDINGS FROM A PROJECT TO STUDY MELAYU.” JOURNAL OF THE MALAYAN BRANCH OF THE ROYAL EXCHANGES BETWEEN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO AND THE ASIATIC SOCIETY 16(3): 1–226. INDO-HIMALAYAN REGION BETWEEN THE 10TH TO 14TH CENTURIES. THE AUTHOR WOULD LIKE TO THANK ANDREA ACRI, WOODWARD, H. (2003). THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE E. EDWARDS MCKINNON AND FOO SHU TIENG FOR COMMENTS. OF THAILAND. FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES THROUGH THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. LEIDEN/BOSTON: BRILL. 1Henri Chambert-Loir (2017B:219) has pointed out that the bard’s name is transcribed in Jawi with a shadda sign of gemination, i.e. as Baṭṭ. If so, perhaps the word baṭṭ is a miscopy of the word bandi “bard, herald,” resulting from the ligature ndi being mistaken for ṭṭa in the Kawi script. FIGURE 4: ĀDITYAVARMAN’S INSCRIPTION (PRASASTI AMOGHAPASA) IN PRAISE OF THE MĀTAṄGĪŚA, 1347 CE, TOGETHER WITH ITS BASE (PRASASTI PADANG ROCO), 1285 CE. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF INDONESIA, JAKARTA. (CREDIT: REFERENCES PHOTOGRAPHY BY ANANDAJYOTI BHIKKHU, CC BY-SA 3.0) ADAM, A (ED.). (2016). SULALAT U’S-SALATIN. : YAYASAN KARYAWAN. A couple of verses in the new dedication praise the “lord of the low-caste girls” BOOMGARD, P. (2007). “SYPHILIS, GONORRHOEA, LEPROSY (mātaṅgīśa) who sports with heavenly AND YAWS IN THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO, 1500-1950.” nymphettes (Chatterji 1967:194). These MANUSYA: JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES 14: 20–41. verses have been taken as descriptions of Ādityavarman or, less probably, “the CHAMBERT-LOIR, H. (2017A). “THE HISTORY OF A HISTORY: demoniac form of Amoghapāśa.” It VARIANT VERSIONS OF THE SULALAT AL-SALATIN.” INDONESIA would be more fitting if they alluded 104: 121–177. DOI:10.1353/IND.2017.0013 to the story of the late Sang Sapurba, who was seen by the farmgirls at Bukit CHAMBERT-LOIR, H. (2017B). “ONE MORE VERSION OF THE Siguntang to have “come down from SEJARAH MELAYU.” ARCHIPEL 94: 211–221. the heavens” (turun dari keinderaan). Illustrious ancestors are, of course, CHATTERJI, B. R. (1967). , EARLY AND common subjects in royal eulogies. MEDIEVAL. DELHI: MEENAKSHI PRAKASHAN. In the same dedication Ādityavarman calls himself Maulimaṇivarmadeva, the DE CASPARIS, J. G. (1967). “THE DATE OF THE GRAHI BUDDHA.” “jewel in the crown” of his grandfather. JOURNAL OF THE SIAM SOCIETY 55(1): 31–40.

From these observations, it can be DRAKARD, JANE. (1999). A KINGDOM OF WORDS: LANGUAGE deduced that Maulivarmadeva took AND POWER IN SUMATRA. NEW YORK: OXFORD UNIVERSITY control of the remnants of Sriwijaya, PRESS. perhaps as early as 1267; was at war with Java in 1275, reduced to a vassal FERRAND, G. (1923). L’EMPIRE SUMATRANAIS DE ÇRĪVIJAYA. by 1286; had probably ended his reign PARIS: PAUL GEUTHNER. by 1293, but left at least two lines of succession; and is the same person HIRTH, F. & ROCKHILL, W. W. (1911). CHAU JU-KUA: HIS as Sang Sapurba. Much more could WORK ON THE CHINESE AND ARAB TRADE IN THE TWELFTH be written about the historicity of Sang AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES, ENTITLED CHU-FAN-CHÏ. ST. Sapurba and the extent of his legacy. PETERSBURG: IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Suffice to say that the line represented by Ādityavarman disintegrated in the late KULKE, H. (2009). “’S HIGHLAND KINGDOM.” 14th century, while the line of Nila Utama IN DOMINIK BONATZ, JOHN MIKSIC, J. DAVID NEIDEL (EDS.), established in Singapura was continued FROM DISTANT TALES: ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOHISTORY in the form of the Sultanate. IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SUMATRA. NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE: CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLISHING, 229–253. Of course, the high Sanskritic culture and religion of the Indo-Malay kings is LEYDEN, J. (1821). THE MALAY ANNALS. LONDON: LONGMAN, long gone. Nonetheless, the SM literature HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN. has provided a template for the exercise of Malay power in more recent times. LINEHAN, W. (1947). “THE KINGS OF 14TH CENTURY Moreover, Stamford Raffles’ decision SINGAPORE.” JOURNAL OF THE MALAYAN BRANCH OF THE FEATURE 9 The Two-World Problem: The Language of

Archaeology in the Post-Colonial Landscape

— BY NOEL HIDALGO TAN SENIOR SPECIALIST IN ARCHAEOLOGY SEAMEO SPAFA

Like many scientific fields in Southeast Asia, archaeological knowledge exists in Two Worlds: the English-speaking world, and the world of archaeology described in local languages (and to a certain extent, the non-English colonial languages). This is a consequence of post-colonial historical trajectories. One of the lasting reactions against European in Southeast Asia was the development of national languages (e.g. Thai, Filipino, Bahasa, Myanma) and the production of knowledge in these languages. This occurred even as English was used as the common international language of trade and science – this in itself is a post-colonial legacy.

A good starting point to illustrate this two-world problem is from my own experience researching rock art in Southeast Asia. In 2011 the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SEAMEO SPAFA) conducted a workshop in Thailand on rock art studies. One of the activities in the workshop was to translate rock art terms into native Southeast Asian languages (Figure 1).

The responses of our colleagues from Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Timor-Leste were interesting. The Thai and Malay terms (sinlapa tham and lukisan gua respectively) literally translated to cave art, which in turn is a translation of a misconception – not all rock art exist in caves. Other translations, such as the Filipino and Khmer are much more faithful translations, but as I recall, for some languages, this was the FIGURE 1: UNTANGLING THE TERMINOLOGY OF ROCK ART, AN ACTIVITY FROM THE SEAMEO SPAFA WORKSHOP ON ROCK ART first time the terms were translated. RESEARCH IN 2011. (CREDIT: NOEL HIDALGO TAN) English rock art terminology emphasises the method of production as its of research written in local languages. classification system, e.g.: the distinction Besides the problem of equivalent In most overviews of rock art research between two main classes of rock vocabulary, there is also a problem in Southeast Asia written from the art being petroglyphs (created by of language equivalency. As English 1980s to early 2000s, they give the the removal of rock) and pictograms has become the dominant language distinct impression that rock art is rare (created by the application of material of academia and science, non-English in Southeast Asia: in Anati’s (1994) onto rock). These classes can be further language sources have become map rock art in the world is devoid of subdivided, e.g.: drawings (dry-medium “invisible.” It should be noted that the sites in SEA, and even up to the early pictograms) and paintings (wet-medium current renaissance of rock art research 2000s, the persistent perception was pictograms). In this case, the lack of in Southeast Asia was not spurred by a that rock art was rare in Southeast Asia equivalent terms in many local languages sudden change in research direction, but (Glover and Bellwood, although this is part of the Two-World problem. rather, due to an increased awareness was compared to the extremely high 10 bar of northern Australian Art), or that “This Two-World Problem is rock art was an unprofitable avenue PHANOMVAN, P. (26 OCTOBER 2018). LOST IN LITERATURE: of research (SPAFA prehistory 1984). exacerbated because scholars THE POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONSEQUENCES OF Reviews by Anati (1994), Chen (2001), proficient in English have a SUVARNABHUMI [PART II]. RETRIEVED 14 JANUARY, Srisuchat (1996) and Kusch (1986) 2019, FROM HTTPS://WWW.NEWMANDALA.ORG/LOST-IN- relied largely on a handful of works in privileged position; they are LITERATURE-THE-POLITICAL-AND-RELIGIOUS-CONSIQUENCES- English, amounting to no more than able to be published in more OF-SUVARNABHUMI-PART-II/ 20 sites. In contrast, my current count of rock art sites in the region sits at prestigious journals and reach PHIPPS, M. E., HOH, B. P., OPPENHEIMER, S., MANSOR-CLYDE, 1,200 – a large chunk of this work is a larger - but paradoxically not M., & AGHAKHANIAN, F. (4 AUGUST 2018). REBUTTING ZAHARAH found in obscure journals or in foreign SULAIMAN ON MALAY GENES SECOND OLDEST IN THE WORLD language publications. For example, a local - audience. At the same - MAUDE E PHIPPS. RETRIEVED 14 JANUARY, 2019, FROM substantial body of research has been time, scholars who do not operate HTTPS://WWW.MALAYMAIL.COM/S/1659038/REBUTTING- conducted on Thai rock art, consisting ZAHARAH-SULAIMAN-ON-MALAY-GENES-SECOND-OLDEST-IN- of over 200 sites – however, most books in English may find their local THE-WORLD-MAUDE about Thai rock art is only published perspectives and understanding in Thai and are generally out of print. SRISUCHAT, A. (1996). ROCK ART NEWS FROM SOUTH-EAST of the past devalued or ignored. ” ASIA. IN P. G. BAHN & A. FOSSATI (EDS.), ROCK ART STUDIES Scholars and indeed the general public NEWS OF THE WORLD I (PP. 141-144). OXFORD: OXBOW BOOKS. who are unable to traverse this gap between these linguistic differences ZAHARAH SULAIMAN, WAN HASHIM WAN TAH, & RAHMAN, N. have profound differences on how reflexive of the fact that there may be H. S. N. A. (2016). ASAL USUL MELAYU, INDUKNYA DI BENUA archaeology is understood, perceived (and is often the case) an extensive body SUNDA. TANJUNG MALIM, , MALAYSIA: PENERBIT and experienced. For example, the idea of research in the local languages. More UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN IDRIS, MALAYSIA. of Suvarnabhumi the so-called ‘land critically, there is a need to facilitate the of ’ has largely been discussed sharing of such knowledge across these as a literary device to describe two worlds. In this regard, I would like to Southeast Asia in ancient times in suggest a small but significant change English literature. However, in Thailand, in the way we share our knowledge as a Myanmar, and Cambodia, the public starting effort: by writing titles, abstracts discourse treats Suvarnabhumi as and keywords in both English and the an actual location, with nationalistic relevant native local language. This undertones (see Phanomvan 2018). would automatically widen a paper’s searchability in the World Wide Web and In Malaysia, archaeological and genetic also enhance its accessibility. Several research have been (mis)used to journals in the region, including the construct a pseudoscientific narrative of SPAFA Journal which I manage, have the antiquity of Malay genes, which claims this policy as a way to make research that the Malays are one of the oldest accessible internationally and locally. distinct populations after human dispersal Out of Africa and that they were the NOEL HIDALGO TAN IS THE SENIOR SPECIALIST IN progenitors of the Greeks and Chinese. ARCHAEOLOGY AT SEAMEO SPAFA AND WAS A FORMER The key arguments are laid out in a book RESEARCH AFFILIATE AT THE NSC ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT. HE RUNS THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY NEWSBLOG AND that is published by a university press CONDUCTS RESEARCH ON THE ROCK ART OF SOUTHEAST ASIA. (Zaharah et al. 2016). The proponents MOST RECENT NOTABLE PUBLICATIONS INCLUDE “ROCK ART of this pseudoscience have presented AT THE CAVE OF A THOUSAND BUDDHAS, LUANG PRABANG, LAO their ideas in public forums for more than PDR” (ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN ASIA) AND “THE CLIFF a decade, but in Bahasa Malaysia and it PAINTINGS OF PHA TAEM, LUANG PRABANG, LAO PDR” (ROCK was not until 2018 that members of the ART RESEARCH). THIS ARTICLE IS BASED ON A PRESENTATION Human Genome Project have spoken DELIVERED AT THE LATU INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AT out publicly against the misinterpretation THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, BANGKOK ON 13 SEPTEMBER 2018 IN of their work (Phipps et al. 2018). THE “DECOLONISING SOUTHEAST ASIA’S PAST: ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY OF ART, AND NATIONAL BOUNDARIES” CLUSTER. This Two-World Problem is exacerbated because scholars proficient in English REFERENCES have a privileged position; they are able to be published in more prestigious ANATI, E. (1994). WORD ROCK ART: THE PRIMORDIAL journals and reach a larger - but LANGUAGE (3RD ENGLISH ED.). CAPO DI PONTE: EDIZIONI DEL paradoxically not local - audience. At CENTRO. the same time, scholars who do not operate in English may find their local CHEN, Z. F. (2001). ASIA. IN D. S. WHITLEY (ED.), HANDBOOK perspectives and understanding of OF ROCK ART RESEARCH (PP. 760-785). WALNUT CREEK, CA: the past devalued or ignored. As a ALTAMIRA PRESS. discipline that straddles both the KUSCH, H. (1986). ROCK ART DISCOVERIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: humanities and sciences, archaeologists A HISTORICAL SUMMARY. BOLLETINO DEL CENTRO CAMUNO DI in Southeast Asia should be STUDI PREISTORICI, 23, 99-108. FEATURE 11 Ancient Money in Southeast Asia - Part 2

— BY FOO SHU TIENG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

“The Sulu archipelago of the Philippines was described as a source of British cowries during the 19th century, and it is likely that Singapore was an important transit port for that period...”

FIGURE 1: MONETARIA MONETA. (CREDIT: WORMS, IMAGE FIGURE 2: MONETARIA ANNULUS, WHICH IS CHARACTERISED BY Ryukyus (Kinoshita 2003), and Papua BY JOOP TRAUSEL AND FRANS SLIEKER, NATURAL HISTORY A YELLOW RING. (CREDIT: WORMS, IMAGE BY JOOP TRAUSEL MUSEUM ROTTERDAM, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) AND FRANS SLIEKER, NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM ROTTERDAM, New Guinea (Mahmud 2014; Dubbeldam CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) 1964; Stewart & Strathern 2002), the use of such cowrie shells as money seems to have happened at different times, for This short article on shell money Gaffney et al. 2018). Analyses of shell different reasons. Cowries were used as introduces the current understandings, money, then, run the danger of conflating small money because it was appealing highlights the research gaps, and aspects of value and wealth with money, and easy to handle, its farmed value suggests areas with further research and require a certain degree of caution, was cheaper than metal and could thus potential. It follows an earlier article particularly for those with earlier dates be used for small market transactions, which introduced some theories about where written sources cannot corroborate and could be “accurately traded by monetisation and the use of coins (see their use as money (Yang 2019: 140). weight, volume, or count”; durable; Foo 2018). The study of shell money and “almost impossible” to counterfeit as a type of currency is of global Earlier scholars (Bronson 1976: 11-14) (Hogendorn & Johnson 1986: 5-6). importance as it can provide different thought of shell money as being used insights into the role of market forces earlier than that of metal currencies, In mainland Southeast Asia (SEA), in global monetisation, rather than one but a recent publication argued that cowries were an early monetary candidate which is primarily predicated on the “gold and silver coinages were utilised by the Neolithic, as archaeologically, supply by mints (Yang 2019: 257-259). in India earlier than cowrie money” they were known to have been traded as (Yang 2019: 249). While it is true an exotic item in association with other Archaeologically, shells may be that some forms of shell money were marine shell ornaments and ceramics interpreted as being an exotic good when introduced quite late and are still valued (Higham 2017). Cowries have also they are found in contexts beyond the in inland parts of Eastern Indonesia been reported in mortuary contexts at normal food exploitation areas, having and the Pacific, it may be that the monk sites such as the Bronze Age site of Ban been carried inland from coastal areas Faxian, who is cited as the earliest Non Wat, and the Age sites of Kok (measured as an expense in time and known source on cowrie money, only Charoen and Non Pa Wai in Thailand labour) and may take on symbolic and had to conduct small transactions (Higham 2013, 2017; Higham & Rispoli ritual value (Trubbit 2003). Shells found and hardly came into contact with 2014). In insular SEA, there is also in archaeological contexts at coastal rich people (Sircar 2008: 279; Breton evidence that cowries were discovered sites are usually interpreted as a coastal 1999; Ploeg 2004; Hylkema 2012). in mortuary contexts, at Niah Cave (Gan resource if they are not worked with the Kira), Manunggul Cave (190 BCE), and at evidence of additional processing, and Monetaria moneta (Cypraea moneta) the 14th-15th century sites of San Narciso ethnographic and historical information and Monetaria annulus (from the and Pulong Bakaw of the Philippines, would have to be used if alternative Cypraeidae family) are perhaps the best where they were interpreted as ornaments interpretations are suggested. Indeed, known historical examples of cowrie (Arifin 2004: 246; Evangelista 1960: 102- to say that an artefact is in fact money shell money, used in parts of Africa, the 103; Baretto-Tesoro 2003: 308). Other usually requires ethnographic or written Indian Ocean and the Pacific, forming sites in insular SEA where cowries are sources to corroborate that claim. one of the earliest known globalised mentioned also interpret the shells as currency types, and will thus be the focus ornaments, such as at Loyang Mendale Given that shell money can be traded in of this article (Hogendorn & Johnson in Sumatra (8,430 ± 80 BP), Niah Caves either a modified (pierced or chipped, and 1986; Vogel & Hieronymous 1993; Yang (Lobang Tulang), and in the site of Kimanis then threaded on strings with a standard 2019). These cowries’ natural habitats in East Kalimantan (12,582-11,116 cal. value) or unmodified manner, however, can be found from the eastern coast BP to 4,650±90 BP) (Wiradnyana 2016: it is often difficult to evaluate whether of Africa to the Galapagos and Cocos 32; Arifin 2017: 109; Arifin 2004: 246). they were worn as adornment1, part of islands (Hogendorn & Johnson 1986: the gift-giving networks of the elite, an 8). Although the furthest reaches of the According to historical evidence, important part of rituals and bridewealth, cowrie money trade did extend to parts Monetaria moneta was farmed in the and/or functioned as money (Heath 2016; of the New World (Heath 2016, 2017), Maldives, as part of a royal monopoly, O’Connor & Langley 2018; Szabó 2018; Central Asia (Wang 2004: 20), the since at least 851CE until the collapse 12 of the money cowrie industry in the 19th of Africa was introduced as a substitute Voogt 2010). In SEA, the board game century due to hyperinflation (Litster currency and flooded the market, creating (usually carved in wood or stone, or 2016: 4, 6, 9). It should be noted that hyperinflation (Hogendorn & Johnson more temporarily, played in sand) usually the Maldivians did not use cowries as 1986). The Sulu archipelago of the consists of two neat parallel rows of currency themselves and the cowries Philippines was described as a source of shallow cupules, terminated at each end were likely to have been exported in British cowries during the 19th century, by a larger cupule, with cowries, stones, standard units without modifications and it is likely that Singapore was an seeds mentioned as pawns (Voogt 2010; (Hogendorn & Johnson 1986; Christie important transit port for that period (Yang Bougas 1998: 95-96). Researchers & Haour 2018: 17-18; Heath 2017: 58). 2019: 181). At the end of its use-life as have recently begun to record how While the main supply of Monetaria money in its key core areas by the 1880s, megalithic archaeological sites with these moneta to Africa, , and Pegu was cowrie money was no longer accepted features were considered important from the Maldives, cowrie shells found in as payment for the slave trade, palm oil, for rituals and considered sacred sites, Siam (Thailand) were said to have been and government taxes, signifying how particularly in south Sulawesi and exported from both the Maldives and monetary standards of value were indeed Sumatra (Nayati 2005; Hasanuddin Borneo (Litster 2016: 9; Hogendorn & political standards of value, expressing 2011; Setiawan 2012). It is hoped that Johnson 1986). There were also ships the “values of the dominant powers” with further research into shell money, from the Moluccas, Pegu, Melaka, and (Gregory 1996: 210; see Hogendorn & our understanding of the complexities Sumatra which were in contact with Johnson 1986: 138-157; Sanders 1982). of everyday life can be deepened. the Maldives and likely had cowries as a paying ballast in the An interesting point to consider is how to S. T. FOO IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT, (Vogel 1993: 225). Up until the 17th view the link between bronze drums and NSC, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. SHE RECEIVED HER century, was still using cowrie cowries; Yang (2019) is in agreement with M.A. BY RESEARCH IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES FROM THE money as its main currency (Bowrie some researchers (Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE (NUS) AND HAS HELPED TO FACILITATE FIELD STUDY PROGRAMMES BOTH AT ISEAS AND 1905). There is historical evidence to 1992; Xiao 2006) in considering the NUS IN CAMBODIA, THAILAND, AND INDONESIA. SHE WOULD cowries found in bronze drums in the believe that at this time, many of the SEA LIKE TO THANK PROF. JOHN N. MIKSIC, DR. IAIN SINCLAIR, nations which were in contact with the Bronze Age Dian culture as “special AND MS. FONG SOK ENG, WHO GAVE USEFUL COMMENTS AND Maldivian royal family were part of a Sufi treasures”, only in elite burial contexts, SUGGESTIONS FOR THIS PAPER. ANY ERRORS THAT REMAIN cosmopolitan network, and these ties and therefore not money due to their ARE THE AUTHOR’S OWN. may have deeper roots (Peacock 2018; limited supply. This is a departure from Manguin 2010). While there are still earlier scholars (Cribb 1986), who 1Scholars in the Pacific have suggested that many unknowns about the shell money pointed to Shang period inscriptions Cypraeidae with both dorsal and ventral tradition in SEA, such as the antiquity of on bronze objects mentioning cowries grinding modification marks was more likely the practice outside the Tai world and as reward payments and used the to be ornamentation (Clark et al. 2018). its development, many researchers are association of Chinese pictograms with interested in studying cowrie money as a money as a way to express the abstract REFERENCES way to study the rise and fall of an ancient concept of money. Similar bronze global currency type, and the way it may drums are also found in both insular ARIFIN, K. (2004). EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE differ from other forms of currency. and mainland SEA and are also thought EAST KALIMANTAN RAINFOREST (THE UPPER BIRANG RIVER to be prestige objects, but so far, no REGION, BERAU). (UNPUBLISHED DOCTORAL DISSERTATION), Yang (2019: 259-261) has proposed cowries have been found in connection SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. AUSTRALIAN a hypothesis that global cowrie with them (Calo 2014: 13-15). Although NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, CANBERRA. money underwent several phases the cowries from Yunnan are thought to of development; this needs to be have come mainly from the trade with ARIFIN, K. (2017). “TERMINAL PLEISTOCENE AND EARLY tested archaeologically and through Bengal (Vogel 1993), other scholars HOLOCENE HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE RAINFORESTS OF EAST investigations of extant historical sources. have pointed to the mainland road KALIMANTAN.” IN PIPER, P. J., MATSUMURA, H., AND BULBECK, He argued that cowries were used first as a potential trade route as well (Peng D. (EDS.), NEW PERSPECTIVES IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN AND in Bengal or Orissa, sometime before & Zhu 1995). Areas of the South China PACIFIC PREHISTORY. TERRA AUSTRALIS 45. CANBERRA, the monk Faxian’s visit to Tamralipti at Sea were likely to have farmed cowries, AUSTRALIA: ANU PRESS, PP. 97-124. the turn of the 4th to 5th century; by the as according to a source, 10-13th centuries, cowrie use spread the Ryukyu islands also used conch BARETTO-TESORO, G. (2003). “BURIAL GOODS IN THE to Yunnan, via Lower Burma and the Tai shells and cowries in 1436CE as “wealth PHILIPPINES: AN ATTEMPT TO QUANTIFY PRESTIGE VALUES.” world of Lan Na, Phayao, and Sukhothai, enhancers” prior to the introduction of SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES 41(30) (DEC.): 299-315. to be used as small money along with coinage (Wade 2007: 30). However, the gold or silver coinage. Researchers Ryukyus’ role in the cowrie trade, though BOUGAS, W. A. (1998). “BANTAYAN: AN EARLY MAKASSARESE have found links between cowrie shells, suspected to be active, is still unknown. KINGDOM 1200 – 1600 A. D.” ARCHIPEL 55: 82-123. horses, and silver in Bengal, Bagan, and Yunnan until the Ming dynasty Another interesting complication about BRETON, S. (1999). “SOCIAL BODY AND ICON OF THE PERSON: (see Yang 2004; Mukherjee 2018). finding cowries in an archaeological A SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS OF SHELL MONEY AMONG THE context would be their known use in WODANI, WESTERN HIGHLANDS OF IRIAN JAYA.” AMERICAN Yang (2019: 261-264) posits that in gaming and gambling. Ethnographically, ETHNOLOGIST 26(3) (AUG.): 558-582. the 14th to mid-17th centuries, West cowries were traditionally used for Africa came to use cowries as small mancala games throughout the cowrie BRONSON, B. (1976). “CASH, , AND COWRIE SHELLS: money; the trade in African commodities world (also known as congkak or dakon THE NONMODERN MONEYS OF THE WORLD.” FIELD MUSEUM OF and slave labour created a shortage of in Java; and sungka in the Philippines) NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN 47(10) (NOV.): 3-15. cowries, which led a “retreat” of cowrie but the origins and spread of these money from Yunnan and SEA. In the games are poorly understood, and more CALO, A. (2014). TRAILS OF BRONZE DRUMS ACROSS EARLY final phase, from the 16th-19th centuries, research into this field may give further SOUTHEAST ASIA: EXCHANGE ROUTES AND CONNECTED Monetaria annulus from the east coast insight into the practice (Voogt 1997, CULTURAL SPHERES. SINGAPORE: INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST 13 ASIAN STUDIES. PRESS. HIGHLANDS OF WEST PAPUA.” ETHNOLOGY 43(4) (AUTUMN): 291-313. CHRISTIE, A. C., AND HAOUR, A. (2018). “THE ‘LOST CARAVAN’ HYLKEMA, S. (2012). COWRIES AMONG THE ME OR EKAGI: SANDERS, J. (1982). “PALM OIL PRODUCTION ON THE GOLD OF MA’DEN IJAFEN REVISITED: RE-APPRAISING ITS CARGO OF THE IMPACT OF A NEW CURRENCY ON A GROUP OF CENTRAL COAST IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE SLAVE TRADE: A CASE COWRIES, A MEDIEVAL GLOBAL COMMODITY.” JOURNAL OF HIGHLANDERS IN PAPUA, INDONESIA. EDITED, WITH AN STUDY OF THE FANTE.” THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY 16: 1-20. INTRODUCTION AND APPENDIX BY ANTON PLOEG. MÜNSTER: AFRICAN HISTORICAL STUDIES 15(1): 49-63. LIT VERLAG. CLARK, G., LANGLEY, M. C., LITSTER, M., WINTER, O., AND SETIAWAN, T. (2012). “PERMUKIMAN GUA DI SUB-CEKUNGAN AMESBURY, J. R. (2018). “SHELL BEADS AS MARKERS OF KINOSHITA, N. (2003). SHELL TRADE AND EXCHANGE IN THE PAYAKUMBUH.” SANGKHAKALA: BERKALA ARKEOLOGI 15(2) OCEANIC DISPERSAL: A RARE CYPRAEIDAE ORNAMENT TYPE PREHISTORY OF THE RYUKYU ARCHIPELAGO. BULLETIN OF THE (NOV.): 224-242. FROM THE MARIANA ISLANDS.” IN LANGLEY, M., LITSTER, M., INDO-PACIFIC PREHISTORY ASSOCIATION 23: 67-72. WRIGHT, D., AND MAY, S. K. (EDS.), THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SIRCAR, D. C. (2008). STUDIES IN INDIAN COINS. DELHI: PORTABLE ART: SOUTHEAST ASIAN, PACIFIC, AND AUSTRALIAN LITSTER, M. (2016). COWRIE SHELL MONEY AND MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED. PERSPECTIVES. LONDON AND NEW YORK: ROUTLEDGE. TRADE: THE MALDIVES IN PAST GLOBALIZATIONS. (ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN 1968). (UNPUBLISHED DOCTORAL DISSERTATION). AUSTRALIAN CRIBB, J. (1986). FROM COWRIE SHELLS TO CREDIT CARDS. NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA. STEWART, P. J., AND STRATHERN, A. (2002). LONDON: BRITISH MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS. “TRANSFORMATIONS OF MONETARY SYMBOLS IN THE MAHMUD, M. I. (2014). “ALAT TUKAR LOKAL DAN IMPOR DI HIGHLANDS OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA.” L’HOMME 162 (APR.- DUBBELDAM, L. F. B. (1964). “THE DEVALUATION OF THE PAPUA.” AMERTA: JURNAL PENELITIAN DAN PENGEMBANGAN JUN.): 137-156. KAPAUKU-COWRIE AS A FACTOR OF SOCIAL DISINTEGRATION.” ARKEOLOGI 32(2) (DEC.): 119-136. AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST 66(4-2): 293-303. SZABÓ, K. (2018). “ENDURING VALUE: SHELL ORNAMENTS IN MANGUIN, P. Y. (2010). “THE MALDIVES CONNECTION: PRE- THE METAL AGE OF ISLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA WITH A FOCUS ON EVANGELISTA, A. E. (1969). “THE PHILIPPINES: ARCHAEOLOGY MODERN MALAY WORLD SHIPPING ACROSS THE INDIAN OCEAN.” THE SOUTHWESTERN PHILIPPINES IN LANGLEY, M., LITSTER, IN THE PHILIPPINES TO 1950.” ASIAN PERSPECTIVES 12: IN RADIMILAHY, C., AND RAJAONARIMANANA, N. (EDS.), M., WRIGHT, D., AND MAY, S. K. (EDS.), THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF 97-104. CIVILISATIONS DES MONDES INSULAIRES (, ÎLES PORTABLE ART: SOUTHEAST ASIAN, PACIFIC, AND AUSTRALIAN DE CANAL DE MOZAMBIQUE, MASCAREIGNES, POLYNÉSIE, PERSPECTIVES. LONDON AND NEW YORK: ROUTLEDGE. FOO, S. T. (2018). “ANCIENT MONEY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA - PART GUYANES); MÉLANGES EN L’HONNEUR DU PROFESSOR CLAUDE 1.” NSC HIGHLIGHTS 10 (SEPT-NOV). SINGAPORE: NALANDA- ALLIBERT. PARIS: KARTHALA, PP. 261-284. TRUBBIT, M. B. D. (2003). “THE PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE SRIWIJAYA CENTRE, ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE, PP. 8-13. OF MARINE SHELL PRESTIGE GOODS.” JOURNAL OF MUKHERJEE, R. (2018). “SILVER LINKS! BAGAN-BENGAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH 11(3) (SEPT.): 243-277. GAFFNEY, D., SUMMERHAYES, G. R., SZABO, K., AND KOPPEL, B. SHADOWY METAL CORRIDORS: 9TH TO 13TH CENTURIES.” (2018). “THE EMERGENCE OF SHELL VALUABLE EXCHANGE IN IN GOH, MIKSIC, AND AUNG-THWIN (EDS.), BAGAN AND THE VOGEL, H. U., AND HIERONYMUS, S. (1993). “COWRY TRADE THE NEW GUINEA HIGHLANDS.” AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST WORLD: EARLY MYANMAR AND ITS GLOBAL CONNECTIONS. AND ITS ROLE IN THE ECONOMY OF YÜNNAN: FROM THE NINTH 121(1): 30-47. SINGAPORE: ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE, PP. 153-178. TO THE MID-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. PART I.” JOURNAL OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE ORIENT 36(3): GREGORY, C. A. (1996). “COWRIES AND CONQUEST: TOWARDS NAYATI, W. (2005). SOCIAL DYNAMICS AND LOCAL TRADING 211-252. A SUBALTERNATE QUALITY THEORY OF MONEY.” COMPARATIVE PATTERN IN THE BANTAENG REGION, SOUTH SULAWESI STUDIES IN SOCIETY AND HISTORY 38(2) (APR.): 195-217. (INDONESIA) CIRCA 17TH CENTURY. (UNPUBLISHED DOCTORAL VOOGT, A. J. DE. (1997). MANCALA BOARD GAMES. LONDON: DISSERTATION). NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE, BRITISH MUSEUM PRESS. HASANUDDIN. (2011). “MEGALITHIC SITES IN THE DISTRICT SINGAPORE. OF SINJAI, SOUTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA.” BULLETIN OF THE VOOGT, A. DE. (2010). “PHILIPPINE SUNGKA AND CULTURAL INDO-PACIFIC PREHISTORY ASSOCIATION 31: 76-84. O’CONNOR, S., AND LANGLEY, M. C. (2018). “THE CONTACT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA.” ASIAN ETHNOLOGY 69(2): CONTRIBUTION OF EARLY SOUTHEAST ASIAN MATERIAL TO A 333-342. HEATH, B. J. (2016). “COWRIE SHELLS, GLOBAL TRADE, AND GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING OF PORTABLE ART.” IN LANGLEY, LOCAL EXCHANGE: PIECING TOGETHER THE EVIDENCE FOR M., LITSTER, M., WRIGHT, D., AND MAY, S. K. (EDS.), THE WADE, G. (2007). “RYUKYU IN THE MING REIGN ANNALS COLONIAL VIRGINIA.” HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 50(2): 17-46. ARCHAEOLOGY OF PORTABLE ART: SOUTHEAST ASIAN, PACIFIC, 1380S-1580S.” ASIA RESEARCH INSTITUTE WORKING PAPER AND AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVES. LONDON AND NEW YORK: SERIES 93 (JUL.). HEATH, B. J. (2017). “COMMODITIZATION, CONSUMPTION, ROUTLEDGE. AND INTERPRETIVE COMPLEXITY: THE CONTINGENT ROLE WANG, H. (2004). MONEY ON THE SILK ROAD: THE EVIDENCE OF COWRIES IN THE EARLY MODERN WORLD.” IN HEATH, B. PEACOCK, A. C. S. (2018). “SUFI COSMOPOLITANISM IN THE FROM EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA TO C. AD 800. WITH A J., BREEN, E. E., AND LEE, L. A. (EDS.), MATERIAL WORLDS: SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY INDIAN OCEAN: SHARIˉʿA, LINEAGE, CATALOGUE OF THE COINS COLLECTED BY SIR AUREL STEIN. ARCHAEOLOGY, CONSUMPTION, AND THE ROAD TO MODERNITY. AND ROYAL POWER IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE MALDIVES.” LONDON: THE BRITISH MUSEUM PRESS. TAYLOR & FRANCIS. IN GEDACHT, J., AND FEENER, R. M. (EDS.), CHALLENGING COSMOPOLITANISM: COERCION, MOBILITY AND DISPLACEMENT WIRADNYANA, K. (2016). “ASPEK-ASPEK KEMARITIMAN DI HIGHAM, C. (2013). “HUNTER-GATHERERS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: IN ISLAMIC ASIA. EDINBURGH: EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS. DATARAN RENDAH DAN DATARAN TINGGI DARI MASA MESOLITIK FROM PREHISTORY TO THE PRESENT.” HUMAN BIOLOGY 85(1-3) HINGGA TRADISI MEGALITIK.” SANGKHAKALA: BERKALA (FEB.-JUN.): 21-43. PENG, K., AND ZHU, Y. (1995). “NEW RESEARCH ON THE ARKEOLOGI 19(1): 28-42. ORIGINS OF COWRIES IN ANCIENT CHINA.” SINO-PLATONIC HIGHAM, C. F. W. (2017). “FIRST FARMERS IN MAINLAND PAPERS 68 (MAY): 1-21. XIAO, M. (2006). “BRONZE COWRY-CONTAINERS OF THE DIAN SOUTHEAST ASIA.” JOURNAL OF INDO-PACIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY CULTURE.” CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY 6(1): 168-173. HTTPS://DOI. 41: 13-21. PIRAZZOLI-T’SERSTEVENS, M. (1992). “COWRY AND CHINESE ORG/10.1515/CHAR.2006.6.1.168 COPPER CASH AS PRESTIGE GOODS IN DIAN.” IN GLOVER, I. C. HIGHAM, C. F., AND RISPOLI, F. (2014). “THE MUN VALLEY (EDS.), SOUTHEAST ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 1990: PROCEEDINGS YANG, B. (2004). “HORSES, SILVER, AND COWRIES: YUNNAN IN AND CENTRAL THAILAND IN PREHISTORY: INTEGRATING TWO OF THE THIRD CONFERENCE OF THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE.” JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY 15(3): CULTURAL SEQUENCES.” OPEN ARCHAEOLOGY 1: 2-28. OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGISTS. HULL: CENTRE FOR 281-322. SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF HULL, PP. 45-52. HOGENDORN, J., AND JOHNSON, M. (1986). THE SHELL MONEY YANG, B. (2019). COWRIE SHELLS AND COWRIE MONEY: A OF THE SLAVE TRADE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PLOEG, A. (2004). “WEALTH ITEMS IN THE WESTERN GLOBAL HISTORY. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE. CENTREFOLD 14 Excavating on the Axis of the World: The 2018 NSC Field School at Mount Penanggungan, East Java

— BY HÉLÈNE NJOTO1, AARON KAO1, BAMBANG BUDI UTOMO2, NURHADI RANGKUTI2, MICHAEL NG1, AND SHINATRIA ADHITYATAMA2 1 NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE 2 PUSAT PENELITIAN ARKEOLOGI NASIONAL

The Field School

The 6th NSC Field School on Archaeology and Art History was held on 22 July to 11 August in Indonesia, at Mount Penanggungan (East Java), Indonesia, and Singapore. The Field School saw the first collaboration between ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute and Indonesia's National Centre for Archaeological Research (Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional), also known as ARKENAS. This new Southeast Asian endeavour, hosted at the University of Surabaya (UBAYA) outbound campus in Trawas, was the first to combine two complementary training components; archaeology and art history. The first 15-day Indonesian leg consisted of a 9-day exploratory excavation, which was carried out at a height of FIGURE 1: THE NSC FIELD SCHOOL GROUP AT THE UBAYA CAMPUS, TRAWAS, EAST JAVA, INDONESIA. (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG) approximately 560 meters in a forested area of Kedungudi village near the south- western foot of Mount Penanggungan. Culminating at 1,653 m above sea level, this mountain was also referred to in old texts as Mount Pawitra (Javanese meaning “the sacred”, “the pure”). The 16 Field School participants were given assignments, including a preliminary research they presented in small groups during the second 3-day leg in Singapore.

Mount Penanggungan contains one of Indonesia’s richest mountains in terms of shrines. It was seen as the representation of Mount Mahameru, the world axis from ancient Indian mythology, with its symmetrical eight satellite peaks. It was the site of hundreds of hermitages, sacred bathing places and shrines, some mentioned in ancient texts, peppered on its slopes and base. Generally, the sites are thought to date from the Hindu-Buddhist ‘East Javanese’ period (10th-mid 16th century). Currently, local stakeholders are preparing a World Heritage dossier to enlist Mount Penanggungan as a World Heritage site as showed by FIGURE 2: THESE REGULAR TERRACES FORMED THE SITE OF INTEREST FOR ARCHAEOLOGISTS. (CREDIT: AARON KAO) Field School participants group 6 during their Singapore presentations (Phuy Meychean, Wang Liwei). 15

Steep Slope

A

(Terrace 6)

B J

I (Terrace 5) F C G D E (Terrace 4) H FIGURE 4: PROFILE OF EXCAVATED TERRACE 4 (WITH DR LYDIA KIEVEN VISITING THE SITE). (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO)

(Terrace 3) Punden Berundak in Indonesian, which is K said to have existed since the Megalithic L period in Java. The presence of many M ancient ceramic and earthenware sherds N on the site surface also strongly suggests Kedungudi - B Site Plan Meters 1 5 10 15 (Terrace 2) Key: the presence of human activity at the site. A - Modern Platform H - S11W1 B - Ditch I - Test Pit 3 N C - Test Pit 2 J - Dirt Path Legend: D - N9W1 K - Tent - Boulders Remains of brick walls at the bottom of E - N6W1 L - Restroom - Cluster of Rocks Road (Terrace 1) F - Test Pit 1 M - Warung Rest Area - Edge of Terrace one terrace in particular (see centre- G - N4E1 N - Warung fold, terrace 4) suggest that the terraces

were reinforced as a more permanent

FIGURE 3: KEDUNGUDI SITE PLAN. (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG) structure. Most of these bricks remains were buried under more than 1 m of soil. The team decided to excavate along the “Historians have long wondered terrace (4), which was approximately The 2018 NSC Field School was the first about the nature of the links 60 m in length along a North-South archaeological research excavation carried axis. Seven units were opened on this out by an Indonesian-Singapore team between Majapahit and terrace, and variation of built structures carried out on Mount Penanggungan's communities living beyond the were discovered. Excavation units slopes. Situated in the immediate orbit closer to the terrace wall revealed that a of the kingdom of Majapahit (13th-15th capital of Trowulan [...] Whether foundation layer of andesite rocks were century), the excavation site uncovered they were considered as part laid beneath the brick courses. Uniquely, man-made topography in the form the characteristics of the rocks varied from of terraces and the units had a wide of Majapahit’s central polity or unit to unit. One of them featuring mostly surface scatter of brick fragments and isolated from its influence is a large 50-70 cm angular to sub-angular potsherds. The excavation sought to rocks also included an odd specimen, shed light on the presence and nature question that future research can which appeared to have been worked into of this occupation (secular, agricultural, help to answer. ” an almost spherical form. Smaller sub- ceremonial, etc.) and its relations to angular rocks, albeit more numerous and Majapahit’s capital of Trowulan. jumbled with brick fragments, were found in another nearby unit (see illustrations in Field School participants were selected as well as East Java expert historian Hadi Figures 5 and 6). Elongated rocks with from the East Asian Summit (EAS) Sidomulyo from the Ubaya Penanggungan unnaturally flat parallel surfaces appeared countries and came from Cambodia, Centre (UPC) who provided precious in a third unit. Pillar bases or stepping- China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, on-site information and logistics support. stones could have been their original Myanmar, New Zealand, Singapore, USA, Sidomulyo’s pioneering survey on the function. This could suggest variation and Vietnam. The training programme mountain carried out since 2012 on in construction methods, function, or a was designed to expose primarily the mountain paved the way for new later extension of the terrace by different undergraduate students to basic excavation endeavours in research and training with craftsmen. Ceramic pottery artefacts and experience and introduce them to the rich local institutions such as the Conservation brick courses were recovered from all and diverse art historical narratives and Department (BPCB) Trowulan, and units, while those away from terrace walls material culture of East Java during the Late other international programmes. did not feature as many brick courses. Classical Period (10th to 15th century). Human occupation and the The absence of roof tiles suggest that Senior archaeologists Bambang Budi nature of the settlement potential structures on the terraces may Utomo (ARKENAS), Nurhadi Rangkuti have been made of timber, with thatched (BALAR Yogyakarta) and art historian Among the most obvious traces of human roofs, as could be expected from a Hélène Njoto (NSC) led the Field School, occupation at the excavation site were mountain site. A few terracotta miniatures assisted by co-director Aaron Kao (NSC) man-made terraces recessed on an East- kept in the National Museum in Jakarta or and field managers Michael Ng (NSC) and West axis, their width stretching along a at the BPCB in Trowulan as well as private Shinatria Adhityatama (ARKENAS). The perfect North-South axis. These features collections, depict such mountain houses team benefited from the guidance of senior are reminiscent of ancient settlements and or hermitages with thatched roofs and archaeologist Kyle Latinis in Singapore, ceremonial site type, commonly called perishable materials. It is also likely that The Kedungudi Steep Slope Excavations

Map Credit: Michael Ng

The archaeological training A component covered surface surveys, mapping, photographic and illustrative documentation of artefacts, features and pit (Terrace 6) profiles, as well as soil sample collection and general excavation techniques. Regular tutorials B on research design allowed J them to be fully involved in the research process underlying the MICHAEL NG (LEFT) TEACHING PARTICIPANTS TO PRODUCE SCALE MAPS AND excavation. PLANS OF THE SITE. (CREDIT: AARON KAO)

The 16 students were divided into teams I to dig four units measuring two by two meters each. These units were spaced out (Terrace 5) in a north south transect to evaluate a F 40 m distance along one of the several G terraces. Field instructors Aaron Kao, C Bambang Budi Utomo, and Shinatria D E H Adhityatama supervised overall team (Terrace 4) strategies, allowing students to exercise a degree of autonomy within their excavation unit. This teaching method encouraged ownership and responsibility. In addition to systematic excavation by layers, the students learnt to record contextual data, sieve for artefacts, and document the finds. (Terrace 3)

K

L UNIT N9W1, DAY 8, RAISATUL MUFAHAMAH, WANG LIWEI, LYDIE LEURQUIN, BAGAS KURNIAWAN AND INSTRUCTOR SHINATRIA ADHITYATAMA. (CREDIT: MHÉLÈNE NJOTO)

N Kedungudi - B Site Plan Meters 1 5 10 15 (Terrace 2) Key: A - Modern Platform H - S11W1 B - Ditch I - Test Pit 3 N C - Test Pit 2 J - Dirt Path Legend: D - N9W1 K - Tent - Boulders E - N6W1 L - Restroom - Cluster of Rocks Road (Terrace 1) F - Test Pit 1 M - Warung Rest Area - Edge of Terrace G - N4E1 N - Warung

Steep Slope

A

(Terrace 6)

B J

UNIT N6W1, DAY 8, PHUY MEYCHEAN, NIKITA RAGHUVANSHI, ASRI HAYATI NUFUS, HUNTER THE SCALE RECORDING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES IS AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF WATSON. INSTRUCTOR: AARON KAO AND SHINATRIA ADHITYAMA. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO) FIELDWORK. HERE MYANMAR PARTICIPANT RAN NAING LIN IS RECEIVING A DEMONSTRATION FROM AARON KAO, WHO ALSO GAVE A WORKSHOP ON ARTEFACT ILLUSTRATIONS. (CREDIT: KWA CHONG GUAN) I (Terrace 5) F C G

D E (Terrace 4) H

(Terrace 3)

K

L UNIT N4E1, DAY 1, NG YUN XUAN, ELYADA WIGATI PRAMARESTI, RAN NAING LIN, SAID EFFENDY. UNIT S11W1, DAY 4, JOCYELYN GOH, LÊ HOÀNG QUỐC, JOFEL MALONDA, TYASSANTI KUSUMO INSTRUCTOR BAMBANG BUDI UTOMO. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO) DEWANTI. (INSTRUCTOR: AARON KAO) (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO) M

N Kedungudi - B Site Plan Meters 1 5 10 15 (Terrace 2) Key: A - Modern Platform H - S11W1 B - Ditch I - Test Pit 3 N C - Test Pit 2 J - Dirt Path Legend: D - N9W1 K - Tent - Boulders E - N6W1 L - Restroom - Cluster of Rocks Road (Terrace 1) F - Test Pit 1 M - Warung Rest Area - Edge of Terrace G - N4E1 N - Warung

In addition to class-room Art History training, students attended on-site lectures by experts on East Javanese history (Hadi Sidomulyo), art and architecture history (Hélène Njoto, Lydia Kieven, Soedarmadji Damais, Kwa Chong Guan, Eko Bastiawan, Adieyatna Fajri), religion history (Andrea Acri). On the high-end side of research technology, a two-part night lecture on LIDAR was given by LIDAR expert and archaeologist from Hungary, Károly Belényesy.

SITE VISIT, SACRED BATHING PLACE, JALATUNDA 10TH CENTURY. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO) CLASSROOM LECTURE BY HÉLÈNE NJOTO (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG)

EKO BASTIAWAN EXPLAININGPRESENTATION THE SHOWING RELIEF FEATURES. A RELIEF OR (CREDIT: A TEMPLE MICHAEL (MICHAEL NG) NG) SITE VISIT OF SELOKELIR BY MR PAHADI FROM THE BPCB, TROWULAN. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO)

DESIGNED TO CONVEY A BROAD UNDERSTANDING OF THE MATERIAL CULTURE AND MULTI- ON-SITE PRESENTATION BY ARCHEOLOGISTS BAMBANG BUDI UTOMO AND ART HISTORIAN EKO DIMENSIONAL BELIEF SYSTEMS, HIKING GROUPS WERE ORGANISED TO CANDI KENDALISODO, AND BASTIAWAN OF AMOGHAPASHA STATUE (13TH CENTURY) AT CANDI JAGO. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NEARBY SETTLEMENT SITES SUCH AS BALAI KAMBANG, KUTOGIRANG, AND JEDONG. (CREDIT: NJOTO) MICHAEL NG) PHOTOGRAMMETRY RENDERING OF THE AMOGHAPASHA STATUE. (CREDIT: SHINATRIA ADHITYATAMA)

PARTICIPANTS PRESENTING THEIR FINAL ASSIGNMENTS ON SMALL SCALE RESEARCH TOPICS RELATED TO THE EXCAVATION AT ISEAS ON AUGUST 10TH. TOPICS VARIED FROM CERAMIC ARTEFACTS TO MATERIALITY AND STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF THE TERRACED BRICK FEATURE, THE POSSIBLE SITE FUNCTION, AS WELL AS SUGGESTIONS FOR HERITAGE SITE MANAGEMENT OF MOUNT PENANGGUNGAN. (CREDIT: MICHAEL NG) PNG, KDU - B Test Pit 01 Plan View 20 Scale 1:10 cm 29 - 30 July 2018 Aaron Kao

0 CMBD

150 6 CMBD

50 CMBD

50 CMBD

100

Bricks

50 CMBD

Andesite

50 114 CMBD

167 CMBD

167 CMBD

0 cm Unit Datum

0 cm 50 100 150 180

FIGURE 5: PLAN VIEW OF TEST PIT 01 SHOWING BRICK TERRACE IN RELATION TO A NEATLY LAID ROCK FOUNDATION. (CREDIT: AARON KAO) FIGURE 7: TEST PIT 02 FEATURING LARGER PIECES OF ROCK CUT FOR FOUNDATION MATERIAL. COULD THESE HAVE SUPPORTED A HEAVIER OR MORE ELABORATE STRUCTURE IN WOOD? (CREDIT: AARON KAO) building materials may have been reused as according to Old Javanese texts, for other sites when the site fell into disuse. hermitages were seen to be self-sufficient There was evidence for human occupation The brick terrace wall’s foundations, which and essentially relied on rice cultivation. and activities at the Kedungudi site. were made up of a combination of regularly Furthermore, during a preliminary surface Earthenware sherds, which were typical sized rocks and bricks, may be similar to survey in these rice fields, no sherds were indicators comprised majority of the the kind of hermitage architecture depicted found, which may suggest the antiquity of assemblage. The specimens recovered on 14th-15th century stone reliefs such as this agricultural activity. Certainly, more possessed rich stylistic variations. For at Candi Panataran complex in East Java. research is needed to determine the example, one unit by observation alone history of these rice fields, but as pointed featured no less than 11 rim designs. The The living conditions for settlement seem out by participants group 5 (Jocyelyn Goh variety of sherd thickness also suggested ideal at Kedungudi. There is an ancient and Jofel Malonda), Kedungudi conveys different types of usage. And soot covered water spring located about 1 km from the the image of an ancient site perfectly specimens showed proof of an applied heat excavation site, with old brick remains integrated in the (agricultural) landscape. source for cooking or rituals. A detailed found near an ancient water channel. The presence of rice fields in the immediate area surrounding of the excavation site is another argument that could support the hypothesis of a hermitage settlement,

PNG, KDU - B Test Pit 01 East Elevation Scale 1:10 cm Datum: 25 cm above NW corner (bottom of terrace) 30 July 2018 Aaron Kao

Surface: Upper terrace Surface: Upper terrace

Tree root

Unexcavated Unexcavated

Tree root

Datum 25 cm above surface O cm Surface: Lower terrace

Surface: Lower terrace

Sand, 7.5YR 3/4 dark brown, medium to very 50 coarse, sub- angular to angular Bricks

Silty clay loam, 7.5YR 2.5/2 very Andesite dark brown 100

Clay loam, 7.5YR 2.5/2 very dark 150 brown

167

0 cm 50 100 150 180

FIGURE 6: BRICK COURSES STILL IN-SITU ARE VISIBLE FROM EAST PROFILE OF TEST PIT 01. ACCUMULATION OF EARTH MATERIAL OVER TIME APPEARED CONSISTANT BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER PORTION OF TERRACE. (CREDIT: AARON KAO) FIGURE 8: PHOTOGRAMMETRY RENDDERING OF TEST PIT 01. (CREDIT: SHINATRIA ADHITYATAMA) 21

FIGURE 10: CANDI PENATARAN RELIEF DEPICTING WHAT IS THOUGHT TO BE AN ASCETIC ON A STONE AND BRICK PLATFORM AT A HERMITAGE. (CREDIT: SULEIMAN 1980: 14)

FIGURE 9: TERRACED RICE FIELDS IRRIGATED BY WHAT SEEMS TO BE AN ANCIENT WATER CHANNEL AT THE BOTTOM OF KEDUNGUDI EXCAVATION SITE. (CREDIT: HÉLÈNE NJOTO)

study of these materials can give insights rather than strictly ceremonial. Participants was in all likelihood related to Selokelir. into activities, local products, traditions, group 2 (Raisatul Mufahamah and Ng Yun Potsherds from the Song and and the socio-technological aspects Xuan) counted about 6% sherds period were found scattered along a behind them. Common kendi spouts, against 94% earthenware and stoneware trail linking both sites. Finally, although utilitarian stoneware, and green-ware, as from the site. More interestingly, no trace of there is little evidence of specifically well as more exotic white-ware porcelain Blue and White ware was found, although religious artefacts found at Kedungudi sherds from the Song and Yuan dynasties it was found in good quantity in Trowulan, at this early stage, an altar stone with a were also scattered throughout, albeit less suggesting the singularity of Kedungudi mid-14th century date (1343 CE) was common. The glazed ware showed stylistic as a mountain site. Furthermore, group 3 found on the Semodo hill, just a short similarities with the Trowulan assemblage. (Hunter Watson, Lydie Leurquin, Bagas distance away from the excavation site. But the much smaller proportion suggest Kurniawan) also made the preliminary that the people of Kendungudi could observation that despite the presence of An Earlier Occupation of the Site well have been the end users at the Chinese stoneware, whiteware, greenware tail of the supply chain network. and porcelain, there was little to no A regional peculiarity unique to East Java evidence of fine or elaborately decorated was that the East Javanese patrons and A well preserved Chinese copper coin paste wares. However, we cannot be carvers insisted on dating the shrines (Cheng Ho Tung Pao) originated from the certain that ceremonial activities were not and temples (Sidomulyo 2016). The dates Northern Song period (906-1127 CE). carried out at Kedungudi. This would be for the nearby Semodo hill altar stone, Although coins provide unreliable dating difficult to prove archaeologically without as well as the two dates from Selokelir for Southeast Asian sites, this particular finding definitive religious iconographies religious complex, which Kedungudi was specimen nevertheless paralleled the time and associated paraphernalia in well dated in all likelihood related to, could suggest period of the Chinese tradewares. Organic contexts. An interesting find as already a continuous occupation in the area at materials such as a bovid jaw bone, mentioned above is the presence of bovid least from the mid-14th to the mid-15th and charcoal samples were recovered teeth. These finds might indicate the use centuries. However, the discovery of Yuan from cultural layers, and will be sent for of these animals to assist with agricultural and (13th-15th century) radiocarbon dating analysis. Unusual stone and farming activities, or perhaps for porcelain during the Field School surface artefacts that were purposefully shaped consumption? This find would make a good surveys and excavation at Kedungudi may remain unidentified. Some of its features sample to refine the settlement dating. extend the earliest site occupation date suggested a kind of mortar for domestic further back to the 13th century while use; while another with well formed It should be noted, however, that apart confirming the later period of occupation faceted sides indicated a more ornamental from temples, settlements could have both in the 15th century. However, as porcelain function. Rock chips recovered near the a ritual and secular element, like in today’s are often heirloom objects, passed from site also hinted artisanal activities. For the traditional Javanese and Balinese houses. one generation to the next, the 13th first time a research team had evidenced The hermitages represented on Javanese century relative dating method would be a site, which was likely part of the support reliefs of the Hindu-Buddhist period for inconclusive by itself and would require system of this important sacred site. example do not indicate the use of highly further study and substantiation through sophisticated architecture, furniture, apart other methods, such as radiocarbon Secular or Ceremonial activities? from some specific utensils. Furthermore, dating. More systematic typologies of the proximity of Kedungudi to another 15th artefacts and comparison with nearby The earthenware and kendis found in century ceremonial site, Selokelir (dated sites should also be carried out to confirm Kedungudi were of relatively common 1434 and 1442) located further up the hill dating. Field School participants group 1 quality and would support the idea of suggests Kedungudi’s close engagement (Ran Naing Lin, Lê Hoàng Quốc, Tyassanti the site being used as a settlement site with ceremonial activities. Kedungudi Kusumo Dewanti) for example was able 22 PRODUCED BY PRIVATE TELEVISION STATIONS. BAMBANG’S PRIMARY RESEARCH FOCUSES ON REGIONAL STUDIES OF THE SRIWIJAYA AND MALAYU PERIODS. HE HAS BEEN WORKING ON HIS RESEARCH TO IDENTIFY THE INFLUENCES OF SRIWIJAYA IN JAVA, SUMATRA, KALIMANTAN, THE , AND SOUTHERN THAILAND.

NURHADI RANGKUTI IS AN ARCHAEOLOGIST RESEARCHING THE HINDU-BUDDHIST PERIOD AT THE YOGYAKARTA ARCHAEOLOGY OFFICE SINCE 2016. HE COMPLETED HIS MASTER’S DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AT GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY IN 2000 AND HIS BACHELOR’S IN ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF INDONESIA IN 1984. HIS RESEARCH FOCUSED ON MAJAPAHIT SITES IN EAST JAVA; THE BATUJAYA TEMPLE COMPLEX IN WEST JAVA; HABITATION SITES ON THE NORTH COAST OF JAVA AT REMBANG LASEM, AS WELL AS PRE-SRIWIJAYA-ERA AND SRIWIJAYA-ERA SITES IN SOUTH SUMATRA AND . FROM 2006 TO 2015, HE WAS THE HEAD OF THE PALEMBANG ARCHAEOLOGY OFFICE. FIGURE 11: MONETARY EVIDENCE WAS IN THE FORM OF A FIGURE 12: GREEN-WARE AND WHITE-WARE CERAMIC SHERDS BETWEEN 1994 AND 2005, HE WORKED AT THE YOGYAKARTA NORTHERN SONG COPPER CASH. (CREDIT: AARON KAO) RECOVERED FROM A CULTURAL LAYER. SHOWING PREFERENCE ARCHAEOLOGY OFFICE AS A RESEARCHER. BETWEEN 1986 AND FOR FLUTED DESIGNS. (CREDIT: AARON KAO) 1994, HE WORKED AS AN ARCHAEOLOGIST AT THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN JAKARTA. to establish that one brick type from should be further assessed when future MICHAEL NG IS AN NSC RESEARCH OFFICER. HE GRADUATED Kedungudi was common to brick types studies brings more evidence about the WITH A B.A. (HONS) IN LINGUISTICS AND MULTILINGUAL STUDIES MINORING IN HISTORY FROM NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL in two other contemporary neighbouring antiquity of adjacent sites, such as on the UNIVERSITY. HE HAS BEEN INVOLVED IN SEVERAL sites in Belahan temple (10th-14th century) rice fields and the neighbouring water ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN SINGAPORE, INDONESIA, and Jedong temple (10th-15th century). channels. The imported Chinese ware CAMBODIA AND JORDAN. from the 13th-15th century also suggests A Settlement site in Majapahit’s Orbit that the site was not an isolated area SHINATRIA ADHITYATAMA HAS BEEN A MARITIME but was embedded in a larger network, ARCHAEOLOGIST WORKING FOR THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR Historians have long wondered about the with links to a more cosmopolitan ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH (PUSLIT ARKENAS) IN JAKARTA, nature of the links between Majapahit and urban centre, such as Majapahit’s INDONESIA SINCE 2013. HE GRADUATED FROM GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY IN 2012 WITH A BACHELOR’S IN ARCHAEOLOGY AND communities living beyond the capital capital in Trowulan, considering the AS AN EXPERIENCED DIVER, HAS CONDUCTED RESEARCH ON of Trowulan, particularly the powerful short distances between both sites. MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY SINCE 2008. HE HAS BEEN INVOLVED religious communities which were IN DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY thought to have settled at Penanggungan One can imagine that important political/ TRAINING AND MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECTS IN and other areas of the large mountain religious leaders, and pilgrims would INDONESIAN AND AUSTRALIAN WATERS. range spreading across East Java. have visited Kedungudi before climbing Whether they were considered as part the Semodo hill and visiting the Selokelir REFERENCES of Majapahit’s central polity or isolated complex. Equally crucial to future studies from its influence is a question that would be to understand the supply KINNEY, A. R., KLOKKE, M. J., AND KIEVEN, L. (2003). future research can help to answer. chain networks, consisting of craftsmen, WORSHIPING SIVA AND BUDDHA: THE TEMPLE ART OF EAST builders, and service providers. JAVA. HONOLULU: UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI’I PRESS. This preliminary research shows that SEDYAWATI, E. ET AL. (2013). CANDI INDONESIA SERI JAWA. Kedungudi was likely to have been HÉLÈNE NJOTO IS AN NSC ASSOCIATE FELLOW. SHE IS JAKARTA : DIREKTORAT PELESTARIAN CAGAR BUDAYA DAN occupied at least from the 13th to the 15th ALSO A RESEARCH ASSOCIATE AT TWO FRENCH RESEARCH PERMUSEUMAN, DIREKTORAT JENDERAL KEBUDAYAAN, century, as evidenced from the ceramic CENTRES: CENTRE ASIE DU SUD-EST AND AT AUSSER KEMENTRIAN PENDIDIKAN DAN KEBUDAYAAN. sherds. The presence and significance ARCHITECTURE URBANISTIQUE SOCIÉTÉ (PARIS). HER NSC SIDOMULYO, H. (2016). A REVIEW OF THE HISTORICAL of the terraced structures with retaining PROJECT QUESTIONS MATERIAL CULTURE EXCHANGES IN RECORD FOR EASTERN JAVA (898-1649) WITH A FOCUS ON brick and stone walls in the area may MARITIME SOUTHEAST ASIA THROUGH THE STUDY OF EARLY PERIODIZATION. UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT. suggest that the slope was altered to ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE NORTHERN COAST SULEIMAN, S. (1980). THE PENDOPO TERRACE OF PANATARAN. house a permanent or semi-permanent OF JAVA (15TH–17TH CENTURY). RECENT PUBLICATIONS VOL. II. JAKARTA: PROYEK PENELITIAN PURBAKALA, P. 14. settlement area whose activities are INCLUDE AN ARTICLE ON THE ORIGINS OF THE JAVANESE likely linked to two nearby ceremonial MOSQUE (BEFEO, 2015) AND TWO ON EAST JAVANESE PASISIR sites (Selokelir and a close-by shrine on ART (ARCHIPEL, 2014, AND ARTS ASIATIQUES, 2018). the Semodo hill). However, the nature of activities carried out in Kedungudi AARON KAO IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE ARCHAEOLOGY might have been different from those in UNIT, NSC, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. HE RECEIVED HIS Selokelir as suggested by kendi spouts BA FROM THE ROYAL MELBOURNE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND HAS A KEEN INTEREST IN POTTERY ANALYSIS AND MILITARY size discrepancy between both sites. HISTORY.AS A PART OF THE AU TEAM HE HAS EXCAVATED MANY Participants group 4 (Nikita Raghuvanshi, SITES IN SINGAPORE AND CAMBODIA. Said Effendy, Asri Hayati Nufus, Elyada Pramaresti) was able to stress that BAMBANG BUDI UTOMO HAS BEEN AN ARCHAEOLOGIST AT THE Kedungudi’s kendi spouts were larger NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH UNDER THE than Selokelir spouts and also different MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE OF INDONESIA SINCE from Trowulan’s, Majapahit’s capital city. 1982. OVER THE YEARS, HE HAS BEEN TO MANY SITES IN JAVA, SUMATRA, KALIMANTAN, AND LESSER SUNDA. IN ADDITION, HE HAS WRITTEN FOR VARIOUS NATIONAL NEWSPAPERS AND ACTED The importance of this settlement AS A SOURCE OF REFERENCE FOR SEMIDOCUMENTARY FILMS EVENTS: 23 Buddhist Accounts of Maritime Crossings in the Southern Seas

SPECIAL NSC LECTURE SERIES: ‘1819 AND BEFORE: SINGAPORE’S PASTS’

— BY MARK HENG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1 (L-R): MR KWA CHONG GUAN AND DR. ANDREA ACRI (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 14 August 2018 – Dr. Andrea which the crews would try to cast about how older Malay manuscripts Acri, Associate Fellow at the Nalanda- overboard in hopes of calming storms had Indic influences and Sanskritic Sriwijaya Centre (ISEAS) and Assistant to no avail; the monks managing to elements possibly borrowed from late Professor in Tantric Studies at the supernaturally calm the sea and save the Tantric Buddhist cults, and that Vajrayāna École Pratique des Hautes Études (PSL ship by meditating and reciting scriptures, Buddhism was present in the region University, Paris), delivered his lecture sometimes leading to intervention by before Mahāyāna Buddhism pervaded on “Buddhist Accounts of Maritime protective deities. He also showed it and Theravāda Buddhism became Crossings in the Southern Seas”. This how these motifs have been found in popular with growing royal patronage. was the third instalment in the Nalanda- other materials, including texts that the He also elaborated on the audience’s Sriwijaya Centre’s special series of monks would have read, which serves input on the importance of attending to lectures commemorating Singapore’s as evidence of intertextuality and cross- the often neglected Malayo-Polynesian bicentennial anniversary, “1819 and pollination between genres. Furthermore, elements and Austronesian influences in Before: Singapore’s Pasts”. Dr. Acri monks collaborated with one another, Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit texts, analysed the trope of the miraculous and oral transmission may have been at and noted that since the biography genre avoidance of shipwreck in Chinese, play. These accounts shuttle between was well-established earlier in China but Sanskrit, and Tibetan narratives of imagination and reality, with actual not in India, scholars have had to rely on Buddhist monks travelling across practices in seamanship described Chinese hagiographies of Indian monks. Asia by sea and highlighted elements alongside supernatural elements. of intertextuality and a similar motif The discussion also allowed Dr. Acri to in the Sejarah Melayu. More than 50 Dr. Acri shared how these were talk about how the presence of other participants from local and overseas adapted for regional landscapes and religions might have hindered the spread institutes of higher learning and incorporated into local beliefs, reflecting of Indic religions westwards, while the research, non-profit societies, private the concerns of traders and seafarers, winds, merchant networks, and cultural firms, the government, the media, such as the growth and propagation of commonalties facilitated their spread and the public attended this talk. “saviour cults” focusing on protective to Monsoon Asia; how factors besides deities in coastal areas across the the rise of Hinduism and Islam led to Dr. Acri sought to contextualise Singapore Buddhist world. He suggested that the decline of Buddhism in South and as a historical and contemporary strategic similar motifs in the Classical Malay Southeast Asia with monks and artisans node in Maritime Southeast Asia by chronicle Sejarah Melayu’s account of leaving monasteries and academies for comparing different texts from different Sang Nila Utama’s sea voyage hints at East Asia; and how the cultural focus on contexts written in different languages. its pre-Islamic heritage as a composite the feminine in Southeast Asian religions He began with the network of monks text drawing from Sanskritic material in led to the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara adhering to different schools of Buddhism a narrative cycle going back to Śrīvijaya. becoming a female goddess there, even who travelled between South Asia and He pointed out that the trope recounting though those on board merchant ships East Asia. Most preferred the easier, the need to jettison precious cargo tended to be male. Finally, he shared cheaper, and safer maritime routes to (i.e. the protagonist’s supernaturally about how famous monks recommended the overland routes and stopped in endowed possession) to calm the storm Śrīvijaya as a place of Buddhist learning Southeast Asia, where ideas, beliefs, and avoid being shipwrecked is found for Chinese monks travelling to Nalanda and practices were exchanged and in the monk Vajrabuddhi’s travelogue to wait for the winds, learn basic Sanskrit, Buddhism flourished. Buddhist texts and and Sang Nila Utama’s episode in the and speak to great masters, where texts monks’ (auto)biographies, such as those Sejarah Melayu, and that it could reflect were traded, translated, and discussed. of Faxian and Atiśa, presented a mix of a “magico-ritual” and a “royal” motif in literary images and realistic, factual data the former and latter source, respectively. MARK HENG WAS FORMERLY A RESEARCH OFFICER WITH indicating the perils of oceanic journeys These authorised both protagonists’ THE NSC, ISEAS, AND ALSO WORKED WITH THE REGIONAL lineages and legitimised their status in and the setbacks that they encountered at SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STUDIES AND THAILAND STUDIES sea, from imaginary, supernatural beings foreign lands, one as a tradition’s initiator, the other as a kingdom’s founder. PROGRAMMES, ISEAS. HE GRADUATED FROM UNIVERSITY (e.g. marine monsters, nāgas) to mighty COLLEGE LONDON WITH AN MSC IN URBAN STUDIES (2016), storms, unfavourable winds, pirates, and unskilled or unscrupulous crews. Dr. Acri posited that the author of the WHICH HE PURSUED ON ISEAS’ TUN DATO SIR CHENG-LOCK Dr. Acri explained how these travelogues Sejarah Melayu was inspired by earlier TAN M.A. SCHOLARSHIP. HE ALSO HOLDS A BSOCSCI (HONS) IN feature recurrent, often well-known, sources such as textual accounts and GEOGRAPHY FROM THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE literary tropes in Buddhist hagiographical oral narratives popular during the Hindu- (2015). literature: the monks carrying precious Buddhist period, reworking them to suit cargo (e.g. Sanskrit texts, Buddhist the Islamic fashion of the time. A lively scriptures) on board mercantile ships, Q&A session followed, where he shared EVENTS: 24 The 21st Congress of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association

— BY FOO SHU TIENG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1: KHAI DINH MAUSOLEUM, WHICH IS PART OF THE UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE COMPLEX OF HUE MONUMENTS. (CREDIT: S. T. FOO)

The 21st Congress of the Indo-Pacific presented on “Recent Researches entitled “Faunal and Ceramic Remains Prehistory Association (IPPA) was on Vietnamese Archaeology” and Dr. from Koh ker Habitation Sites” by Kyle held from 23-28 September 2018 in Phan Than Hai (Director of the Hue Latinis, Ea Darith, Voeun Vuthy, Károly Hue, Vietnam, with over 500 papers Monuments Conservation Centre) Belényesy, Foo Shu Tieng, and Huon delivered, including one by the author presented on the “Hue Cultural Yav. The preliminary result from the on “Risk Sensitive? Coastal-Hinterland Heritages and the Conservation.” 2017 NSC Archaeological Field School, Resource Exploitation Patterns during which was held in collaboration with the Late Pleistocene to the Middle The plenary session then included APSARA National Authority, was given Holocene in the Straits of Melaka.” excellent presentations by Prof. Hirofumi in a paper entitled “Archaeological Matsumura (Sapporo Medical University) Results from the Late Angkorian Tonle The IPPA, which holds a congress on the “Dispersal of anatomical modern Snguot Hospital Site” by Kyle Latinis, every four years, has a mandate to homo sapiens in East Euraasia and Sahul Ea Darith, Károly Belényesy, Khieu promote cooperation in the study of in the Context of the ‘Two Layer’ Model”, Chan, Chhay Rachna, and Huon Yav. the prehistory of eastern Asia and the Prof. John N. Miksic (National University Pacific region. Although there is an of Singapore) on “The Use of Prehistory in The author also joined site visits to the emphasis on prehistory, the Congress the Historical Archaeology of Southeast Hue citadel; the Minh Mang, Khai Dinh has since expanded the scope of Asia,” and Dr. Rasmi Shoocongdej and Tu Duc mausoleums; and the Chia presentations to include other topics (Silpakorn University) on “Southeast Tienh Mu (pagoda), which are part of from the historic periods. This congress Asian Archaeology in 21st Century.” Each the UNESCO world heritage complex in particular had a heavier emphasis highlighted the current understandings, of Hue Monuments. The site visits on the archaeological sciences, which gaps, and challenges for the field. were invaluable learning experiences. uses scientific techniques for the A copy of the trip report along with a analysis of archaeological materials There were several NSC-related copy of the powerpoint presentations in order to assist primarily with dating presentations at the IPPA. The were deposited with the ISEAS library. and interpretations of site formation. results from the 2015 and 2016 NSC Archaeological Field Schools, which FOO SHU TIENG IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT NSC. SHE WOULD In the Congress’ opening programme, were held in collaboration with APSARA LIKE TO THANK NSC AND ISEAS FOR SPONSORING HER TRIP TO A/P Dr. Nguyen Giang Hai (Director of Authority and National Authority for THE IPPA. the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology) Preah Vihear, were given in a paper EVENTS: 25 Portuguese and Dutch Records for Singapore before 1819

SPECIAL NSC LECTURE SERIES: ‘1819 AND BEFORE: SINGAPORE’S PASTS’

— BY EVELYN TAN ISEAS RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1: ASSOC. PROFESSOR PETER BORSCHBERG DURING HIS PRESENTATION. (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 9 October 2018 – Peter (long island), and falsa demora (tricky they did not settle in Singapore in the Borschberg, former Associate Fellow place). While these varied toponyms 1800s, which explains why majority of at NSC and Associate Professor at create uncertainty over how Singapore Eurasians in Singapore could trace their the History department of the National was perceived then, they ascertain that origins not to Singapore, but other trading University of Singapore, delivered a Singapore was not an unknown place ports in the region, such as Malacca. seminar titled “Portuguese and Dutch before 1819. Overall, as foggy as these Records for Singapore before 1819”. records may be in their details of pre- Prof. Borschberg spoke of the value of 1819 Singapore, they provided a nuanced EVELYN TAN IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE REGIONAL SOCIAL Portuguese and Dutch sources to the representation that is still needed in AND CULTURAL STUDIES, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. historiography of pre-1819 Singapore. The understanding Singapore’s history. SHE RECEIVED HER BA IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES FROM seminar was the fourth in the Nalanda- THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE (NUS). SHE IS CURRENTLY INVOLVED IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH Sriwijaya Centre’s special series of Comparing the magnitude between THEMATIC GRANT PROJECT ON IN SOUTHEAST lectures commemorating Singapore’s Portuguese and Dutch records, Prof. ASIA: COMPARATIVE GROWTH, POLITICS, AND NETWORKS IN bicentennial anniversary, “1819 and Borschberg remarked that the Dutch URBAN CENTRES. Before: Singapore’s Pasts”. It drew more accounts generally offer more substantial than 70 participants, including diplomatic insights for reconstructing the local corps, students and faculty members conditions in Singapore and surroundings. of tertiary institutions, public servants, Unlike most of the Portuguese records, museum staff, and members of the public. Dutch records are more diverse and comprehensive. This is understandable Prof. Borschberg outlined some broad as the Dutch came to the region at a later issues with textual and cartographic period as a competing trading company records of pre-1819 Singapore. Of against the Portuguese. Faced with the textual records, only a meagre 5% challenge to be on equal footing with yield in-depth details that contribute to their European competitor, the Dutch reconstructing pre-1819 Singapore’s had to collect as much information as history. The significance of the information possible, such as products for trade, gleaned is often limited by the legibility market mechanisms, taxes, gifts, royal and coherence of the texts, as well as the courts and Portuguese trading activities. authors’ intentions. For instance, letters of Portuguese missionary Francis Xavier The Q&A segment that followed brought comprise mostly ecclesiastical details home several important points. Firstly, the that offer little relevance to Singapore’s highly contested waters of the Singapore historiography. Meanwhile, cartographic Straits were known as a security hazard records display inconsistent placement located south of the navigational landmark of a site and many orthographic now known as Pedra Branca, due to variants of place names (often mirrored the high risk of sea attacks. Secondly, in written records). For example, the Singapore imported most of its food exact location of Singapore was at products, except for some fruits that times confused with areas in . the Orang Laut would barter for textiles. In addition, Singapore was known by Lastly, as the Portuguese and Dutch saw many references and meanings, such as Singapore essentially as a transit point “Baxingapara” (gateway), “Pulau Panjang” for upstream trade in Johor and Malacca, EVENTS: 26 The Localisation of Buddhism in the Wider Landscape of Bagan

— BY FOO SHU TIENG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1 (L-R): DR. TAI YEW SENG AND PROF. ELIZABETH H. MOORE. (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 30 October 2018 – Prof. pre-Bagan systems transmitted by oral dynasty at the end of the 13th century Elizabeth Moore (Associate Fellow, tradition (pasat yazawin). The most well- CE and comparable models of empire. NSC, and In-Region Liaison for the known walls are the 11th century ‘forts’ The seminar ended with discussion of the SOAS Southeast Asian Art Academic built to purportedly protect the Bagan relationship between the wider landscape Program, University of London) gave a talk empire from mixture with various Shan of Bagan and the nomination dossier for entitled “The Localisation of Buddhism kingdoms to the east. Shan chronicles, Bagan currently under consideration by in the Wider Landscape of Bagan.” She however, record several of the sites as the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. discussed her research to document the occupied by Shan Sawbwas. These spread of art historical, inscriptional, and and other records of the interchange S. T. FOO IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT, archaeological data on the heritage of with Shan groups during the Bagan NSC, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. SHE RECEIVED HER Bagan outside the capital. Prof. Moore period, profile a far more permeable and MA BY RESEARCH IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES FROM THE has used five criteria —inscriptions, walls, negotiated borderland than is suggested NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE (NUS) AND HAS HELPED TO FACILITATE FIELD STUDY PROGRAMMES BOTH AT ISEAS temples, images, and water features – to by the north-south line of structures along AND NUS IN CAMBODIA, THAILAND, AND INDONESIA. assemble a region-specific inventory the edge of the Shan Plateau. (See also organised by river valleys that forms ‘Buddhism on the Shan Plateau: Bawrithat the core of her in-progress book. and Intein’, NSC Highlights No.9).

The main concentration of the inventory is In addition, while the wider landscape in six valleys located in the central part of of Bagan inventory includes walls linked the country. The most consistent criteria to the epigraphic and chronicle records, were temples and monasteries, reflecting many elements do not fit the texts. The the centrality of Buddhism in the social majority of the temples have retained life of villages to this day. Inscription tangible and intangible links to Bagan stones of the Bagan period, some still heritage in connecting their present in situ, record donation of temple lands, identity to the monks and kings of Bagan. people and goods to these places. Many She concluded by suggesting that while of these document renovations, repairs, the court may have been the preferred and land donations to an existing place partner for its economic stimulus and rather than imposition of a new court- religious stature, that the success of the led religious structure and supporting Bagan empire did not lie in its hegemonic lands. Thus while the focus of her study rule but in the continual negotiations with is the 11th to 13th century CE, the pre- a fluctuating series of river valley cultures. Bagan land organization and material culture is relevant for understanding Chaired by Dr. Tai Yew Seng (Visiting the ongoing processes of integration. Fellow, ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute), the 60 min lecture was attended by an In matching texts to the on-the-ground audience of 26 people, including scholars, evidence, ancient walls, generally brick students, and members of the public. The and earthen, were proving to be the most 30 min Q&A session included questions ambiguous. Some can be linked to terms on the antiquity lacquer at Bagan, found in inscriptions, others to chronicle intra-regional languages and dialects, accounts, and in some river valleys, to relationships with the Mongol Yuan EVENTS:UPCOMING EVENTS 27 Banks, Raffles and the Poison Tree of Java: Botanical Exchange in the Late 18th and Early 19th Centuries

— BY EVELYN TAN ISEAS RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1 (L-R): DR. IAIN SINCLAIR AND DR. SARAH TIFFIN (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 11 December 2018 – The to educate readers about botany caught Banks’ attention, kickstarting latest in the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Lecture through poems, the inclusion of Forsch’s Raffles’ connection with Banks. With this Series was Dr. Sarah Tiffin’s seminar article was heavily criticised for lending connection, Raffles’ active promotion entitled “Banks, Raffles and the Poison credibility to the unscientific narrative. of the Southeast Asia’s economic Tree of Java: Botanical Exchange in the potential laid the groundwork for the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Dr. Tiffin noted that the notoriety of eventual acceptance of a more long- Centuries”. Dr. Tiffin, an independent Forsch’s article resulted in efforts by lasting British presence in Singapore. Australian-based scholar, spoke of celebrated botanists such as Banks to the roles of Sir Joseph Banks and Sir ascertain the true nature of the upas Dr. Tiffin highlighted some important Stamford Raffles in encouraging botanical through scientific investigations. Banks points in the Q&A session that followed. investigations of the upas (or poison actively encouraged these investigations Firstly, she explained that Raffles intended tree) of Java, within the context of the within the international botanical circle to further dispel the myths surrounding ’s global botanical network. throughout the British empire, over the tree and Java by mentioning the upas These investigations, Dr. Tiffin argued, which he had a huge influence, given briefly in his book, “History of Java”. were a response to the widespread his reputation in the British botanical Secondly, misconception of the upas grotesque imaginations of the upas, such network. He deemed these investigations had persisted since the 14th century as its use as a metaphor for impropriety especially necessary so as to restore among British audiences, as several and immorality in British literature. The the integrity of the botanical network, reports mentioned telltales of incredible seminar drew more than 30 participants, which was briefly threatened when ideas about and the including museum and public service Forsch’s fabulous article on the upas was upas. Lastly, she found that the latest staff, as well as members of think tanks, published shortly after Banks admitted use of the upas as a metaphor was in tertiary institutions, and the public. Forsch into his botanical circle. a document on the city development of Glasgow in the 1980s, where the Dr. Tiffin attributed the British As for Raffles’ contribution in the upas represented the negative qualities imaginations of ghastly upas tree to J. investigations of the upas, Dr. Tiffin surrounding the rich urban development. N. Forsch’s sensational article in the remarked that it opened up opportunities London Magazine in 1783. In it, Forsch for him to establish connection with EVELYN TAN IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE REGIONAL SOCIAL claimed to have witnessed firsthand the Banks, which would improve his AND CULTURAL STUDIES, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. noxious and lethal nature of the tree. reputation as both a naturalist and SHE RECEIVED HER BA IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES FROM THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE (NUS). SHE IS However fabulous his narrative was, his an enlightened administrator. Raffles commissioned Thomas Horsfield, CURRENTLY INVOLVED IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH reputation as a surgeon in Java assured THEMATIC GRANT PROJECT ON CHRISTIANITY IN SOUTHEAST an American scientist based in Java, that his article was widely seen as the ASIA: COMPARATIVE GROWTH, POLITICS, AND NETWORKS IN most factual account of the upas at and instructed him to prioritise the URBAN CENTRES. the time. The upas rose to infamy after scientific investigations on the upas. Forsch’s article was reproduced in full as The prioritisation was a response to an explanatory note in a popular poem by the advice from William Marsden, a an eminent physician, Erasmus Darwin. Sumatra-based British personnel, who Despite being wholly unconvinced by was aware of Britain’s growing interest the narrative, Darwin could not pass in the recently published French papers on the opportunity to hitch his wagon that described the upas in scientific to the article’s fame. However, given terms. Horsfield’s papers on the upas and Darwin’s reputation and serious intent other materials that Raffles sent to Britain EVENTS: 28 What More Can Archaeology Tell Us about Singapore’s Past?

SPECIAL NSC LECTURE SERIES: ‘1819 AND BEFORE: SINGAPORE’S PASTS’

— BY FOO SHU TIENG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1: PROFESSOR JOHN. N. MIKSIC DELIVERING HIS LECTURE AT ISEAS. (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 29 January 2019 – Professor been elements of truth to the texts. The lecture was attended by an audience John. N. Miksic, Associate Fellow at of 63 people, including those from the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre (NSC), Prof. Miksic argued that while there were the ministries, the business sector, ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute (ISEAS) still pristine areas in Singapore to be had researchers, students, and members of and Professor at the National University with archaeological potential, he stated the public. During the Q&A, audience of Singapore’s Southeast Asian Studies that their current preservation would allow members asked about the possibility of Department, delivered his lecture at for a better understanding by others in the finding the Singapore stone in Calcutta ISEAS on “What More Can Archaeology future as the archaeological process was and whether there were comparable Tell Us about Singapore’s Past?” The ultimately an irreversible and destructive inscriptions from the period. Miksic lecture was the fifth instalment in NSC’s one, and as better archaeological theory replied that while there were unsuccessful special series of lectures commemorating and methods were being developed. exploratory forays in the past, there Singapore’s bicentennial anniversary, was still a chance. As for comparable “1819 and Before: Singapore’s Pasts.” Prof. Miksic identified a number of inscriptions, Prof. Miksic mentioned that specific areas for future study that it would be more difficult to ascertain Although archaeological investigations could be done on currently available as Malay script kept to the same into Singapore’s 14th-15th century data—the ancient ecology of ancient conventions for much longer, making it Temasek occupation period at various Singapore; comparisons of 14th harder to date as compared to Javanese sites in the Civic District since the 1980s century Singapore with other sites, scripts. When asked about his current have made Singapore one of Southeast whether contemporaneous or from a priorities, Prof. Miksic replied that it was Asia’s most well-understood port cities different period; finding and reading the storage; analysis; and finally, display and of the period, Prof. Miksic argued in his fragments of the Singapore Stone; a public education. Finally, when asked lecture that there was still much more new survey of known prehistoric sites whether Singapore would allocate more to be done. He outlined the finds from from the colonial period in Singapore; money for heritage and culture, he said several excavations in the Civic District the potential of archaeological science that he was hopeful, as the Singapore area, showcasing a rare one-of-a-kind analysis on the source of raw materials government now had begun to provide porcelain compass from China, fragments for imported objects (such as glass heritage research grants, and that the of a porcelain pillow, and Chinese glass and gold) found in archaeological Prime Minister himself had stated that beads finds from Fort Canning, and the contexts in Singapore as a way to depict Singapore’s history started in 1299. evidence of metallurgy at the Singapore value chains and trade routes; and in Cricket Club. In doing so, Prof. Miksic the field of maritime archaeology. also paid recognition to the many people S. T. FOO IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT, who had volunteered their time and efforts Prof. Miksic also outlined the potential NSC, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. SHE RECEIVED HER to the study of archaeology in Singapore, of residue analysis studies on certain MA BY RESEARCH IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES FROM THE highlighting the organizing and work that artefacts which could give better NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE (NUS) AND HAS HELPED TO FACILITATE FIELD STUDY PROGRAMMES BOTH AT ISEAS was done to spearhead earlier efforts. information as to their origin, use, and AND NUS IN CAMBODIA, THAILAND, AND INDONESIA. possible re-use. Prof. Miksic also shared Prof. Miksic also contrasted the the first results of a database project archaeological finds with extant historical from the Cricket Club project where raw sources that point to a settlement in technical data could be shared and thus Singapore from the period, noting that compared more easily (http://epress. like the Sejarah Melayu had outlined, nus.edu.sg/sitereports/), and he invited the Cricket Club excavation and St. others not only from Singapore but others Andrews excavations did unveil a from Southeast Asia to do the same. white sandy beach; there may have EVENTS:UPCOMING EVENTS 29 The Mysterious Malay Jong and Other Temasek Shipping

SPECIAL NSC LECTURE SERIES: ‘1819 AND BEFORE: SINGAPORE’S PASTS’

— BY MICHAEL NG NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1: DR. MICHAEL FLECKER SPEAKING AT ISEAS. (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Friday, 15 February 2019 – The lecture throughout Southeast Asian waters. Ships from hybrid construction techniques on the mysterious Malay Jong and Other from both Southeast Asian and Chinese Temasek Shipping presented by Dr. When approaching the topic of the traditions may have also plied the sea Michael Flecker, a maritime archaeologist Malay Jong, Dr. Flecker covered some route around Singapore. The Longquan, with 30 years of experience in shipwreck Portuguese sources which described Phu Quoc and the Au wreck were excavations and research in Southeast the Jong and how it was constructed. examples of ships which manifested a Asia, was attended by an audience of By piecing together information combination of Southeast Asian and 60 people from various government, from various historical drawings and Chinese ship construction elements; private, and educational institutions, records, he was able to provide a good known as the South China Sea tradition. as well as members of the public. description of the Jong and provided a hypothesis on its shape and size. The lecture concluded with the It is a known fact that Singapore has been possibility of surveying the area around a major trading centre since the 14th Dr. Flecker also spoke of the possible the Raffles Lighthouse. Unlike most century. However, little is known of how type of ship that may have come from parts of Singapore’s southern coast people came to Singapore to trade; what the Indian subcontinent or Arab world. which have been reclaimed or subject they travelled on; and how these goods In addition to drawings of Arab ships to heavy shipping traffic, the Raffles arrived in Singapore. According to Dr. that he highlighted in the presentation, Lighthouse area is relatively untouched Flecker, it is a challenge to identify the the 9th century Belitung shipwreck and may be a site for shipwrecks types of ships that came to Singapore remains one of the best examples which may hold information on the because there have been no ancient of such ships as the design had vessel types that passed through shipwrecks reported within Singapore changed little over the centuries. The Singapore over the centuries. waters and no shipwreck of the mysterious archaeological data from this shipwreck Malay Jong has been found anywhere. provides a lot of information related to During the Q&A session, Dr. Flecker This absence of wrecks means that the construction of such ships. This addressed questions and comments there is no evidence of the types of ships data was used to construct a full- relating to the material, construction that travelled to Singapore. However, sized replica, thus providing a better and operation of the ships, the cargo Dr. Flecker presented information from understanding of how these ancient ships and crew implements and the other historical sources and from terrestrial may have appeared and performed. definitions of the term Jong. Notable and maritime archaeological sites to questions such as the appearance of illustrate and postulate the possible He also covered the possible Chinese the Hybrid Jongs and the iron trade in types of vessels which plied the seas ships which may have plied the route Southeast Asia highlighted the multitude during the Temasek period and beyond. from China down to Southeast Asia and of research possibilities which can help Singapore. Comparing the archaeological further the understanding of maritime He started the lecture by introducing remains found on land in Singapore interactions within Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian ‘lashed-lug’ vessels. with other shipwreck data, it is plausible He explained that such vessels that Chinese Junks may have sailed were common from the 3rd to 14th down the South China Sea to trade MICHAEL NG IS AN NSC RESEARCH OFFICER. HE GRADUATED century. Archaeological data from within Singapore’s waters. Shipwrecks WITH A B.A. (HONS) IN LINGUISTICS AND MULTILINGUAL shipwrecks elsewhere such as the found in the Paracel Islands, the Bakau STUDIES MINORING IN HISTORY FROM NANYANG Jade Dragon Wreck, Java Sea Wreck, Wreck in Indonesia, and the Binh TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY. HE HAS BEEN INVOLVED IN SEVERAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN SINGAPORE, Flying Wreck, Lingga Wreck, Thuan Wreck in Vietnam offer strong INDONESIA, CAMBODIA AND JORDAN. Cirebon Wreck and Punjulharjo evidence that Chinese ships which Wreck have indicated the strong sailed down to this area may have had presence of ships of such construction either a V-shaped or flat-bottomed hull. EVENTS:UPCOMING EVENTS 30 Workshop on Chinese Ceramics

— BY AARON KAO NSC RESEARCH OFFICER

FIGURE 1: DR. TAI YEW SENG SPEAKING AT THE FIRST SESSION OF THE ONE-DAY WORKSHOP. (CREDIT: ISEAS - YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE)

Tuesday, 19 February 2019 – Chinese techniques. The second component was ceramics have long played a central role a hands-on session shortly before lunch in our understanding of Southeast Asia’s allowed participants to get acquainted ancient past. For over a thousand years, with a variety of ceramic types. By their high quality and wide-ranging style handling actual artefacts, participants have made them highly sought after were encouraged to make observations commodities throughout the maritime about the differing stylistic traits, fired clay trade route that spanned the Indian Ocean qualities, and the unique workmanship and the South China Sea. An intimate from different kilns in ancient China. understanding of Chinese ceramics The final component of the workshop is therefore essential for researchers ONE OF THE ITEMS ON DISPLAY: CHAYANG GREEN WARE introduced hallmark pottery from different of Southeast Asian material culture. WITH CARVED DECORATION, 11TH CENTURY. (CREDIT: ISEAS - parts of China and time periods, with YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE) an emphasis on specific styles found It is with this goal that the Nalanda- in pre-modern Singapore. When and Sriwijaya Centre (NSC) organised how did they come about, their unique a one-day private workshop on 19 qualities, typological evolution, and February for 35 participants which how information derived from these included AU’s researchers and artefacts can help with the dating of volunteers, as well as external academics, archaeological sites, and vice versa. curators, and conservators from the The Q&A segment raised several National Heritage Board, Heritage important points. One of which was the Conservation Centre, Asian Civilisations source for cobalt blue pigment used Museum, NUS Museum, and the in the production of the commonly Southeast Asian Ceramics Society. known blue-and-white porcelain wares. Interestingly, the pigment was This workshop was conducted by current an imported material before cobalt NSC Visiting Fellow Dr Tai Yew Seng. Dr. deposits were discovered in China. Other Tai is a ceramic archaeologist specialising questions about the temporal lifespan in Chinese ceramics and is currently of kilns, suggested the suitability of researching Chinese navigational charts archaeology as a method to determine and text. Another of his recent projects their lifespan, and the socio-political involved the analysis of ancient ceramics factors influencing pottery style evolution. recovered in the Aceh Geohazard These questions reflected the multi- Project. He is also the author of several dimensional nature of ceramic studies. book chapters and research papers.

The workshop was made up of three AARON KAO IS A RESEARCH OFFICER AT THE ARCHAEOLOGY components. The first component was a UNIT, NSC, ISEAS – YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE. HE RECEIVED HIS lecture that introduced the basic concept BA FROM THE ROYAL MELBOURNE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY of ceramics types, the raw materials used, AND HAS A KEEN INTEREST IN POTTERY ANALYSIS AND MILITARY HISTORY. AS A PART OF THE AU TEAM HE HAS and the physical characteristics such EXCAVATED MANY SITES IN SINGAPORE AND CAMBODIA. as decorations, form, and shape. The ABOVE: PARTICIPANTS GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH SOME traditional manufacturing process followed CERAMIC ARTEFACTS AND LITERATURE. (CREDIT: ISEAS - this, in addition to kiln types and firing YUSOF ISHAK INSTITUTE) CORRESPONDENCE: 31 Reflections on an NSC AU Internship

— BY FAZLEEN BINTI KARLAN FINAL YEAR STUDENT LASALLE COLLEGE OF THE ARTS

FIGURE 1: ARCHAEOLOGICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF A PIECE FROM THE TIMBER FEATURE FIGURE 2: WRITING ARTEFACTS TAGS FROM EMPRESS PLACE. (CREDIT: FAZLEEN BINTI EXCAVATED AT EMPRESS PLACE. (CREDIT: FAZLEEN BINTI KARLAN) KARLAN)

Between the months of June to August individual piece was a fragment of the (2017) argues that like art, the job of the 2018, I had a wonderful opportunity whole vessel, the collective assemblage archaeologist was to “open people’s to intern for the Archaeology Unit of artefacts showed much more about minds and disrupt received perceptions at NSC. Even though I was formally the local community than one would of society, politics, places, peoples and trained at Lasalle College of the Arts, expect, such as societal preferences material culture” and to acknowledge this was the first time in my artistic for certain sizes, shapes, and designs. that the analysis has “political intention practice that I had to consider historical and impact.” Art and archaeology is contexts more extensively. During this Although the image of Singapore’s past also intertwined in many ways. Art is internship, I became heavily involved is often portrayed as a ‘sleepy fishing meant to create a visual language based in the archaeological post-excavation village’, during my internship I was able to on encounters in which meaning can process and was able to illustrate view and touch the physical evidence of be shared between individuals and our timber features from the 14th century human activity prior to 1819. Even though ancestors. It was artists and craftsmen Empress Place excavation in Singapore, many of the artefacts were only broken who created much of the material culture located in the Civic District. From this fragments, many come from faraway that archaeologists study today, and internship, I learned much through lands, and thus showed evidence of with material culture, it is thought to be examining material culture and studying trade relations. As many of the survivable an embodiment of expression, indicative how they might fit into the bigger artefacts were ceramics, I also came to of the world which they were part of. picture of Singapore’s past. I had understand what kind of materials were However, artists often search for other to quickly learn to adapt to different used in daily environments. Experiencing ways of using the materials. As such, methods of assimilating information, the post-excavation prompted me to it was interesting for me to consider and I learned that archaeological critically think on how even though history whether certain patterns were simply illustrations are a key element of scientific is often considered from a specific used for individualistic artistic expression documentation, particularly as they viewpoint, there are still many other or whether it was something else worth can bring out the key elements and angles to consider. Singapore’s past noting for archaeological information. This nuances that photographs may not. is like a painting with multiple layers, challenge will form the underpinnings waiting to be peeled. Archaeological of my dissertation for my final year in I found that archaeology and the artistic work is able to illuminate these layers, Lasalle. As an artist, I hope that my practice had many similarities – they both and hopes to alter the impression that involvement with the Archaeology Unit required a heavy reliance on observation there was no history before 1819 or can help place value on their efforts. and documentation. During the post- that certain texts are too mythical to excavation process, which included be worthy of closer examination. The washing, sorting and packing artefacts, importance of archaeological work FAZLEEN BINTI KARLAN IS A FINAL YEAR STUDENT AT THE the main objective was to collect data and cannot be underestimated, and it is LASALLE COLLEGE OF THE ARTS. THIS INTERNSHIP WAS PART classify the artefacts according to their timely that we reflect on it as Singapore OF THE INDUSTRY AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT MODULE FOR classification typologies. At first, it was commemorates its bicentennial. THE BA (HONS) FINE ARTS PROGRAMME. SHE WOULD LIKE TO THANK MICHAEL NG FOR HIS HELP WITH THIS ARTICLE. complicated because there were many Being immersed in archaeological steps, but after repeatedly sorting the REFERENCES artefacts, I learned to discern between work, I learned that it was important different vessel parts and it eventually to understand the conditions in which BAILEY, DOUG. (2017). “DISARTICULATE—REPURPOSE— enabled me to draw relationships an artwork as well as the study of DISRUPT: ART/ARCHAEOLOGY.” CAMBRIDGE ARCHAEOLOGICAL between the objects. While each archaeology were produced. Doug Bailey JOURNAL 27(4): 691-701. NEW PUBLICATIONS 32 NSC Working Paper Series

THE NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE WORKING PAPER SERIES WAS ESTABLISHED FOR THE SWIFT PUBLICATION AND WIDE DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH CONDUCTED OR PRESENTED WITHIN THE CENTRE, AND OF STUDIES ENGAGING FIELDS OF ENQUIRY OF RELEVANCE TO THE CENTRE.

Sarsikyo: Woven Buddhist Ribbons of Myanmar

AUTHOR: VANESSA CHAN

Abstract: Sarsikyo are lengthy tablet- This article narrates the author’s woven dedicatory ribbons used originally personal interaction with the makers to secure palm-leaf manuscripts of the and users of the ribbons. Pitakas or sacred Buddhist scriptures when the latter were donated to monasteries as works of merit. Some were woven only with geometric patterns or figural decorations, but the most significant ones bear extensive woven texts, often in poetic form. These ribbons, particularly the ones containing text, appear to be unique artefacts of Myanmar Buddhism.

The Changing Landscape of the Former Linyi in the Provinces of Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên-Huế

AUTHOR: LI TANA

Abstract: This paper seeks to add to maritime history, we know little about the field of Cham studies by exploring how its coast and rivers were connected Champa’s early historical landscape. It and how they changed over time, and focuses on the lesser-known and less whether such changes in landscape understood history of Linyi, a kingdom that impacted on Champa’s maritime fortune was to become part of northern Champa in any way. This northern region will from the seventh century onward. The be the focus of this working paper. rationale for this paper is simple: we know something about southern localities such as Trà Kiệu, Mỹ Sơn, Vijaya (Quy Nhơn) and Phan Rang, but less about the northern localities of present-day Quảng Trị and the Thừa Thiên-Huế area. At the same time, while we know something about Cham

THE COMPLETE SET OF THE NSC WORKING PAPERS CAN BE ACCESSED VIA: HTTPS://WWW.ISEAS.EDU.SG/ARTICLES-COMMENTARIES/NSC-WORKING-PAPERS NEW PUBLICATIONS 33 NSC AU Archaeology Report Series

THE NALANDA–SRIWIJAYA CENTRE ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT (NSC AU) ARCHAEOLOGY REPORT SERIES WAS ESTABLISHED TO PUBLISH AND DISSEMINATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND RELATED RESEARCH CONDUCTED OR PRESENTED WITHIN THE CENTRE. THIS ALSO INCLUDES RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN PARTNERSHIP WITH THE CENTRE AS WELL AS OUTSIDE SUBMISSIONS FROM FIELDS OF ENQUIRY RELEVANT TO THE CENTRE’S GOALS.

Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Investigations at the Victoria Concert Hall

AUTHOR: LIM CHEN SIAN

Abstract: In September 2010, the the excavations were restricted to only Victoria Concert Hall and Victoria Theatre a small area of the construction impact were closed for major redevelopment zone, the archaeology team successfully works amounting to the sum of recovered approximately 654 kg of $158,000,000. The construction project artifacts and ecofacts. This preliminary saw extensive demolition works and site report details the excavation the compound within was impacted. An sequences conducted at the site. archaeological evaluation conducted in July 2010 revealed pockets of cultural deposits from both the colonial and pre-modern eras. This discovery of an in-situ archaeological reservoir led to a three-week large-scale rescue excavation in September 2011. While

THE COMPLETE SET OF THE NSC AU ARS PAPERS CAN BE ACCESSED VIA: HTTPS://WWW.ISEAS.EDU.SG/ARTICLES-COMMENTARIES/NSC-AU-ARCHAEOLOGY-REPORT-SERIES

UPCOMING EVENTS

“The Inception of Lion City” by Iain Sinclair A New Dating Method Using Magnetic Declination Extracted from Historical Sources by Tai Yew Seng

Part of the “1819 and Before: Singapore’s Pasts” special series of The magnetic north pole is a moving point at the Northern lectures commemorating Singapore’s bicentennial anniversary Hemisphere and is crucial to maritime navigation. The information on the magnetic north has been found This lecture traces the formation of Temasek, Singapura encoded in ancient travel notes, rutters (mariners’ notes), and Melaka as bases for the Indo-Malay Tribuanic dynasty and nautical charts. As the position of magnetic north founded in the thirteenth century. Whereas the name moves slowly from east to west and vice versa every few Temasek is found to be associated with trading in tin, the hundred years, it has provided scholars with useful data “lion” of Singapura is arguably synonymous with the royal to date materials which contain compass bearings. line that eventually became the Melaka Sultanate. The story of the sighting of a lion-like animal at the founding of In this talk, the dates of the compass bearings which Singapura draws on the trope of the “superior defender”, have been recorded in certain rutters and nautical charts which is repeated at the founding of Melaka and gives are identified. The Southeast Asian location which clues as to the real meaning of the city’s name. ancient Chinese navigators visited most often is singled out and used as an example to show how this method Date: 3 April 2019, 10:00-11:30 am works. The historical magnetic north information for this Venue: Seminar Room 2, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute location is first compiled in chronological sequence.

Date: 17 April 2019, 10:00-11:30 am Venue: Seminar Room 2, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute NSC Highlights is published by the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre at ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute

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