I o WORLD ^ BANK

THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA MINISTRY OF IRRIGATION & WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CRiP

Climate Resilience Improvement Project

St r a t eg ic

E nvironmental

A s s e s s m e n t ^

S t r a t e g ic E nvironmental A s s e s s m e n t Final Report

o f D e v e l o p m e n t o f R iv e r B a s in L e v e l

F l o o d a n d D r o u g h t M it ig a t io n

I n v e s t m e n t P l a n s ( D B I P )

K ela n i R iver B a sin June 2018

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Consulting Engineers & Architects Associated (Pvt.) Ltd. No 500/5, Thalapathpitiya Road, Madiwela, Kotte, Sri Lanka Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Table of Contents Executive Summary...... XIII CHAPTER 1...... 1 1. Impacts of Climate Change and Need for the CRIP...... 1 1.1. Impact of climate change and need for the CRIP...... 1 1.1.1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change...... 2 1.1.2. Kyoto Protocol...... 2 1.1.3. Paris Agreement...... 2 1.2. Effects of Climate Change in Sri Lanka ...... 2 1.3. Need for the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP)...... 3 1.4. Background of the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP)...... 3 1.5. Objectives and Expected Outcomes of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Kelani River Basin ...... 5 1.6. Introduction to Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)...... 6 1.7. Purpose of the SEA for Investment Planning in the CRIP...... 6 1.8. Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Kelani River Basin...... 7 1.9. Impact of Flooding in the Kelani River Basin...... 10 1.10. General Methodology Followed for the SEA for Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in Kelani River Basin ...... 10 1.11. Scoping Study...... 12 1.12. Detailed Methodology to be adopted for the different sectors ...... 12 1.12.1. Hydrogeological Study...... 12 1.12.2. Hydrological /Water Resources Related Studies...... 13 1.12.3. Ecological Study ...... 14 1.12.4. Legal and Institutional Framework ...... 16 1.12.5. Social Impact Assessment...... 16 1.12.6. Participatory Planning & Consultation...... 17 1.12.7. Stakeholder Analysis...... 18 1.12.8. Mapping and Data Analysis...... 18 1.12.9. Regional Planning Study...... 18 Chapter 02 ...... 21 2. Legal and Institutional Framework Pertaining to the Implementation of Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in an Environmental Perspective...... 21 2.1. Environmental Safeguard Policies of the World Bank...... 21 2.2. Categorization of Projects According to Environmental and Social Impacts...... 21 2.3. National Environment Policies and Legislation...... 22 2.4. Environmental Regulatory Requirements for the Proposed Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in the Kelani River Basin...... 24

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin I Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

2.5. Adequacy of Existing Environmental Regulations and Policies in Order to Promote Sustainable Flood and Drought Mitigation...... 25 2.6. Adequacy of the Current Institutional Setup to Ensure Sustainable Basin Investment Plans Meet its Objective in a Sustainable Manner...... 25 2.7. Suggested Institutional Arrangements to Oversee the Implementation of Mitigation Measures 26 2.8. Establishment of a Fully Fledged Environmental Unit in the Irrigation Department-(Proposal to Strengthen the Environmental Unit within the Irrigation Department)...... 27 2.9. Overview of National Level Legislation on Environmental Protection and Management Flood and Drought Control, Disaster Management, Land Acquisition and Involuntary Resettlement...... 27 2.10. Current Administrative Structure at Central, Provincial and Local Levels...... 34 2.11. Flood and Drought Control...... 36 2.12. Environment Management and Protection...... 37 2.13. Irrigation and Agriculture...... 38 2.13.1. Department of Irrigation...... 38 2.13.2. Department of Agrarian Development...... 38 2.13.3. Department of Agriculture...... 38 2.13.4. Department of Land use Policy Planning...... 39 2.14. Land Acquisition and Resettlement...... 39 2.15. National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP)...... 39 2.16. Identified Inadequacies in Selected Legislation Related to Flood and Drought Control...... 39 2.17. The strengths & weaknesses of the Institutional Setup related to Environmental Management in the Kelani River Basin (KRB) Area...... 44 2.17.1. Strengths...... 44 2.17.2. Weaknesses ...... 45 Chapter 03 ...... 47 3. Flood and Drought Situation and Details of Proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions in Kelani River Basin ...... 47 3.1. Flood history in lower Kelani Ganga Basin...... 47 3.2. Flood Protection Structures -Lower Kelani Basin...... 48 3.2.1. Flood Dykes...... 48 3.2.2. Minor Flood Protection Schemes ...... 48 3.3. Drought...... 53 3.4. Clim ate...... 55 3.4.1. Rainfall ...... 55 3.4.2. Past Trends (Rainfall) ...... 57 3.4.3. Temperature...... 58 3.5. Major watersheds/Sub Basins ...... 58

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin II Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

3.6. Hydrology and Water Resources ...... 58 3.7. Competing Demand for Water Resources ...... 59 3.8. Proposed Interventions ...... 59 3.9. Intervention maps for Each Reservoir Site ...... 63 3.10. Trans-basin Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin ...... 70 CHAPTER 4 ...... 71 4. Baseline Information of the Kelani River Basin...... 71 4.1. Geology...... 71 4.1.1. Geology of lower region of Kelani River...... 71 4.2. Geology around the proposed reservoir sites...... 73 4.3. Soil conditions of the study region...... 76 4.4. Topography...... 78 4.5. River Morphology ...... 78 4.6. Administrative Boundaries ...... 78 4.7. Population ...... 79 4.8. Land Use...... 81 4.9. Ecological Environment in the Kelani basin ...... 83 4.9.1. Ecosystems and Habitat Types ...... 83 4.9.2. Habitat types ...... 83 4.9.3. Fauna and Flora ...... 84 4.9.4. Protected Areas ...... 85 4.9.5. Ecological changes ...... 85 4.9.6. Ecological services ...... 86 4.9.7. Existing major environmental threats ...... 86 4.9.8. Existing Ecological Environment in the areas of the interventions ...... 86 4.10. Agricultural Aspects in the Kelani River Basin ...... 95 4.10.1. Agro Ecological Zones ...... 95 4.10.2. Agro Ecology of Catchment Area along the Proposed Bunds ...... 97 4.10.3. Agricultural Activities in the Kelani river basin...... 98 4.10.4. Crop Production Systems ...... 100 4.10.5. Collapse of the Traditional Agricultural System s...... 102 4.10.6. Animal husbandry...... 102 4.10.7. Environmental Issues Relating to Agriculture...... 103 4.11. Socio-Economic Condition...... 103 4.11.1. Administrative Boundaries...... 103 4.11.2. Population Distribution ...... 104 4.11.3. Key Occupations...... 107

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin III Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

4.11.4. Human Activities ...... 108 4.11.5. Vulnerable groups in the Basin ...... 109 4.11.6. Potential conflicts among land uses ...... 110 4.11.7. Archaeological and Cultural Heritage in the Intervention Areas ...... 111 Chapter 05...... 114 5. Potential Environmental and Social Impacts of the Proposed Interventions and Mitigation Measures 114 5.1. Assessment of Hydrology/Water Resources Related Impacts...... 114 5.1.1. Positive Impacts...... 114 5.1.2. Negative Impacts...... 114 5.2. Impacts on Geology and Mitigation measures...... 130 5.2.1. Potential Impacts on Geology...... 130 5.2.2. Mitigation Measures for Geological/Hydrogeological Im pacts...... 131 5.3. Knowledge Gaps and measures to address gaps leading to investment sustainability...... 132 5.4. References to the Flood Dykes and Upstream Reservoirs in Previous Feasibility Reports...... 141 5.4.1. A critical Review of DHI Report Findings against the Current Studies...... 142 5.4.2. Research Findings...... 144 5.5. Identified potential ecological impacts...... 145 5.5.1. Bund construction: Interventions IA; IB and IC ...... 145 5.5.2. Construction of one or more upstream reservoirs...... 154 5.5.3. Other general impacts...... 155 5.5.4. Overall Ecological impacts on the Kelani river basin due to the proposed interventions . 156 5.5.5. Ecological Issues that will not be addressed during this SEA and Why...... 156 5.6. Impacts on Agriculture due to Proposed Interventions...... 157 5.6.1. Potential Impacts of Flood Bunds on Agriculture...... 157 5.6.2. Potential Impacts of proposed reservoirs on Agriculture...... 157 5.7. Potential Social Impacts of the Proposed Interventions and Mitigation Measures...... 158 5.7.1. Overall Social Impacts...... 158 5.7.2. Intervention Level Social Impacts...... 159 5.7.3. General Recommendations on social aspects...... 164 5.8. Potential impacts of the Trans-basin Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin...... 164 5.9. Anaylsis of the Overall Impact of the Proposed flood and Drought Mitigation Proposal on the Kelani River Basin Using G IS...... 169 Chapter 6 ...... 177 6. Stakeholder Consultation...... 177 6.1. Stakeholder Consultation Process...... 177 6.2. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) at the District level...... 177

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin IV Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

6.3. Highlights of the District level KIIs...... 178 6.4. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) at the Divisional level...... 182 6.5. Highlights of the Divisional level KIIs...... 184 6.6. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)...... 190 6.7. Findings of the Stakeholder Consultation...... 195 6.7.1. Validation of findings...... 197 6.8. Communication Aspects ...... 197 6.8.1. Introduction...... 197 6.8.2. Communication Challenges ...... 198 6.8.3. Project cost and benefits ...... 201 6.8.4. Communication context ...... 201 6.8.5. Past experience ...... 203 6.8.6. Umaoya project...... 203 6.8.7. Fraud and corruption ...... 203 6.8.8. Governmental and Political Risk Assessment...... 204 6.8.9. Priority Public Opinion Concerns and Messaging Approaches ...... 205 6.8.10. Media sector overview ...... 206 6.8.11. Relevant Policies Related to Communication, Consultation and Disclosure...... 208 Chapter 7 ...... 209 7. Regional Planning Perspective ...... 209 7.1. Introduction...... 209 7.2. Purpose of SE A ...... 210 7.3. TOR Objectives of Regional Planning Analysis...... 210 7.4. Methodology ...... 210 7.4.1. Stage One - Database Development and Analysis...... 212 7.4.2. Stage Two - Vision Development...... 212 7.4.3. Stage Three - The Preparation of Development Direction - SWOT Analysis...... 212 7.4.4. Stage Four - Objectives...... 212 7.4.5. Stage Five - Regional Planning Framework ...... 212 7.4.6. Acceptance...... 213 7.5. Database Development and Analysis ...... 213 7.5.1. National Physical Plan and Policy Support for Development of Kelani River Basin...... 213 7.5.2. Western Region Megapolis Master Plan - 2016...... 216 7.5.3. Proposed Major Development Projects...... 216 7.5.4. Situational Analysis of the Study A re a ...... 228 7.5.5. Status of Proposed Interventions...... 242 7.5.6. International Best Practices...... 243

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin V Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

7.5.7. Global Market for the Regional Products and Services...... 244 7.6. Vision...... 246 7.7. SWOT Analysis...... 246 7.7.1. Strengths ...... 246 7.7.2. Weaknesses ...... 247 7.7.3. Opportunities ...... 247 7.7.4. Threats...... 247 7.8. 7.7 Objectives ...... 247 7.9. Regional Planning Framework...... 247 7.9.1. Strategic Directions ...... 247 7.10. Generalized Land Use Zoning Plan ...... 248 Chapter 8 ...... 252 8. Final Conclusions and Recommendations (Kelani SEA)...... 252 8.1. Recommendations Relating to Hydrology...... 252 8.2. Recommendations Relating to Ecology ...... 254 8.3. Recommendations Relating to Sociological Aspects ...... 255 8.4. Recommendations Relating to the Agricultural Aspect ...... 256 8.5. Recommendations Relating to the Geological Aspects ...... 256 8.6. Recommendations Relating to Planning Aspects ...... 256 8.7. Recommendations Relating to Communication Aspects ...... 257 8.8. Recommendations Relating to Project Monitoring ...... 258 8.9. Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan ...... 259 8.10. Final Recommendations Based on Hydrological, Ecological and Social Considerations ...... 274 References ...... 278

List of Figures

Figure 1: Ten river basins selected for the CRIP ...... 4 Figure 2: Location map of Kelani River Basin...... 8 Figure 3: Divisional Secretariat areas in the Kelani River Basin ...... 9 Figure 4: Methodology for Regional Planning Study...... 20 Figure 5: Administrative structure at different levels of Government...... 35 Figure 6: Flood Prone Areas-Kelani River Basin (Source - Survey Department)...... 49 Figure 7: Inundation Areas-Kelani Floods-May 2017...... 50 Figure 8: Details of the Flood Dykes-Kelani Ganga (Source: Irrigation Department)...... 51 Figure 9: Flood Protection Schemes -Kelani River (Source: Irrigation Department)...... 52 Figure 10: Spatial pattern of the drought severity during Yala and Maha seasons...... 53 Figure 11: Kelani Basin-Spatial Distribution of Drought Index...... 54 Figure 12: Monthly Rainfall of Kelani Basin...... 55 Figure 13: Monthly Spatial Variation of the Rainfall Over Kelani Basin...... 56 Figure 14: Rainfall Trend Map for Sri Lanka with Kelani Basin...... 57 Figure 15: Average High and Low Temperature - Kelani Basin Stations...... 58

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin VI Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 16: Iso Yield Curves for Kelani River (After Dharmasena G T) ...... 59 Figure 17: Intervention Type 1C-Flexible Line Bund Option ...... 61 Figure 18: Intervention Type 2 -2A,2B,2C and 2D - Upstream Reservoir Development...... 62 Figure 19: Intervention Sub Type 2A-Holombuwa Reservoir ...... 63 Figure 20: Intervention Sub Type 2B-Wee Oya Reservoi r(122m)...... 64 Figure 21: Intervention Sub Type 2B-Wee Oya Reservoir (110m)...... 65 Figure 22: Intervention Sub Type 2C-Nawatha Reservoir (80m )...... 66 Figure 23: Intervention Sub Type 2C-Nawatha Reservoir (90m )...... 67 Figure 24: Intervention Sub Type 2D-Rucastle Reservoir (150m)...... 68 Figure 25: Intervention Sub Type 2D-Rucastle Reservoir (150m)...... 69 Figure 26: Approximate Location for Water Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin...... 70 Figure 27: Geology map along the Kelani River-From Kelani Outfall to Hanwella (Lower Basin)...... 72 Figure 28: Geology map around the Holombuwa reservoir area ...... 73 Figure 29: Geology map around Wee Oya Reservoir area...... 74 Figure 30: Geology map around the Nawatha Reservoir area...... 75 Figure 31: Geology map around the Rucastle Reservoir area ...... 76 Figure 32: Soil map along the Kelani River (Lower Kelani Basin)...... 77 Figure 33: Population Density Map of Kelani River Basin...... 80 Figure 34: Land Use Map of Kelani River Basin...... 82 Figure 35: Smaller micro-catchments of the Kelani river basin...... 84 Figure 36: Protected areas within Kelani basin...... 85 Figure 37: Home gardens along the lower Kelani River...... 87 Figure 38: The taller trees remaining along the Kelani River used as roosting sites by birds & bats...... 87 Figure 39: The taller trees remaining along the Kelani River in the Hanwella area...... 88 Figure 40: Shrub habitats along the lower reaches of the Kelani river bank...... 88 Figure 41: Components of the water budget - Precipitation, surface inflow, surface outflow, ground water inflow and ground water outflow - the balance between them affects the storage capacity of a wetland...... 89 Figure 42: The area surrounding the proposed Holombuwa reservoir...... 90 Figure 43: The disturbed nature of the left bank and moderately thick riverine vegetation on the right bank and the posts of the existing hydrometric station along the left bank...... 90 Figure 44: Habitat use around the proposed Wee Oya reservoir...... 91 Figure 45: The landscape in the area that would be inundated as a result of the Wee Oya reservoir...... 92 Figure 46: Existing weir along the Wee Oya constructed for cultivation purposes...... 92 Figure 47: Proposed dam site of the Wee Oya reservoir...... 92 Figure 48: Riverine vegetation along Wee Oya (left) and upstream of the dam site (right)...... 93 Figure 49: The spread of the Nawatha reservoir showing the innundated forests...... 93 Figure 50: Right bank at proposed dam site near the road to Kitulgala and right the dam site of the proposed Nawatha reservoir with rural home gardens...... 94 Figure 51: Riverine vegetation along the banks of the Kelani near the proposed location of the Nawatha reservoir ...... 94 Figure 52: The land use in the inundated areas of the Nawatha reservoir...... 94 Figure 53: The landscape in the inundated area of the Rucastle reservoir...... 95 Figure 54: Left bank vegetation and downstream near the proposed dam site of the of the Rucastle reservoir ...... 95 Figure 55: Comparison of Rainfall - Kelani Catchment and WL3 AEZ...... 97 Figure 56: Proposed Flood Bunds and Agro ecological Zones of the Kelani River Basin...... 101 Figure 57: Population Map of Kelani River Basin...... 105 Figure 58: Vulnerable sites in the Lower Kelani River Basin...... 111 Figure 59: Map showing archaeological sites in the Kelani River Basin...... 113 Figure 60: Illustration of Flood Lift and Recessional Delays...... 116 Figure 61: Illustration of Higher Spatial Flood Spread...... 116 Figure 62: Flood Bund Induced Flood Lift from Hanwella to Glencourse...... 117

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin VII Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

igure 63: Flood Spread in Kelani Basin for 25 Year Flood without the proposed flood dykes...... 119 igure 64: Flood Spread in Kelani Basin for 25 Year Flood without the proposed flood dykes...... 120 igure 65: Spatial Flood Lift Variation after Flood Dyke Construction ( "With Dykes" - "Without Dykes" 121 igure 66: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes...... 122 igure 67: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Main Roads...... 123 igure 68: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and GN Divisions...... 124 igure 69: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Land Use...... 125 igure 70: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Population Density ...... 126 igure 71: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Archeological Places ...... 127 Figure 72: Proposed Gates and Pumping Stations under MCDUP by SLLRDC...... 129 Figure 73: Coincidence of High Rainfall Events Colombo Catchment with High Water Levels of Kelani River ...... 133 Figure 74: Additional Flood Mitigation Options...... 135 Figure 75: Typical Retarding Basins for Kelani River ( Source - JICA Report , Kalani Flood Management) 137 Figure 76: Kelani River Outfall Shape in 2005 and 2017...... 138 Figure 77: Sand accumulation on the left bank of the outlet...... 139 Figure 78: Direction of sand movement during NE M onsoon...... 139 Figure 79: Direction of sand movement during Southwest Monsoon...... 139 Figure 80: Changes in the wave direction due to the main breakwater of Colombo port during SW monsoon ...... 140 Figure 81:No sediments by passing Colombo headland...... 140 Figure 82: Kelani river outfall with shore protection features...... 140 Figure 83: The Colombo wetlands (encircled) that will receive a greater measure of protection...... 146 Figure 84: Inlet channels into the river (shown by an arrow)...... 147 Figure 85: Reed beds serving as roosting sites...... 148 Figure 86: Land uses in lower Kelani Flood Plane area...... 162 Figure 87: Unauthorized Settlement block in filled-up marshy land in Kerawelapitiya GND...... 163 Figure 88: Potential flood victims living in the temporary dwelling at right embankment-Peliyagoda .... 164 Figure 89: Approximate Location for Water Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin...... 165 Figure 90: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Wildlife A reas...... 170 Figure 91: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Forest areas...... 171 Figure 92: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Soil Map...... 172 Figure 93: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Geology Map...... 173 Figure 94: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Archeological Sites...... 174 Figure 95: Overlay of Kelani Floodand Drought Mitigation interventions on Population Map...... 175 Figure 96: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Land use map...... 176 Figure 97: KIIs held with Divisional Stakeholders in the Gampaha District - December 2017...... 183 Figure 98: KIIs held with Divisional Stakeholders in the Colombo District - January 2018...... 184 Figure 99: Focus Group Discussions conducted at various social and livelihood groups ...... 195 Figure 100: Flow Chart of Methodology...... 211 Figure 101: National Physical Plan (Source: NPPD)...... 215 Figure 102: Western Region Megapolis Plan, development themes (Source: WRMMP)...... 216 Figure 103: Generalized Landuse Zoning Maps of Kelani RiverBasin and Western Region Megapolis Projects ...... 217 Figure 104: Proposed Spatial Structure, WRMPP ...... 220 Figure 105: Western Region Megapolis Master Plan, 2016 - Major Zones highlighting Mirigama Industrial Zone ...... 221 Figure 106: Mirigama, well connected to Kandy Road, Negombo Road and Kurunegala...... 222 igure 107: Kotadeniyawa having good road connection with Mirigama, Giriulla, Negombo and Divulapitiya ...... 222

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin VIII Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 108: Mirigama Industrial City Concept Plan and (2) Proposed Activities in the Industrial Cluster.(Source: WRMPP) ...... 225 Figure 109: Mirigama Industrial Township Master Plan (Source: WRMPP)...... 226 Figure 110: Colombo Trincomalee Economic Corridor ...... 227 Figure 111: Topography of the Kelani River Basin (Survey Department Contour Data)...... 228 Figure 112: Sub Basins (Source: Survey Department) ...... 229 Figure 113: Land Use Kelani River Basin...... 230 Figure 114: Abandoned Chena Cultivation Land in the Hill Country (Source: NAP) ...... 232 Figure 115: Soil Erosion on Steep Slopes (Source: NAP ...... 232 Figure 116: Environmentally Sensitive Areas...... 235 Figure 117: Wild Life Conservations Areas in the Basin...... 236 Figure 118: Archaeological Sites...... 238 Figure 119: Areas with land slide potential (Source: NBRO)...... 238 Figure 120: Cumulative Number of People Affected by Floods - 2002 - 2012)...... 239 Figure 121: Predicted Deviation in Rainfall due to Climate Change...... 240 Figure 122: Global Seasonings and Spices market by End-use US$ Million (2013-2023)...... 245 Figure 123: Generalized Landuse Zoning Map of Kelani River Basin...... 250 Figure 124: Generalized land use zoning map of Kelani Basin (Western Region Megapolis Plan and Proposed development directions)...... 251

List of Tables Table 1: Major flood Disasters in Sri Lanka ...... 2 Table 2: Cost of Flood Damage in Sri Lanka...... 3 Table 3: Existing Acts and Policies that have bearing on the environment, in connection with the Kelani River Basin area ...... 29 Table 4: Flood Level Classification in Kelani River Basin...... 47 Table 5: Flood Level Classification in Kelani River Basin...... 47 Table 6: Frequency of Classified Flood Events...... 48 Table 7: Morphological features of the Kelani River...... 78 Table 8: District wise area of the Kelani River Basin...... 79 Table 9: Land Use distribution in Kelani River Basin...... 81 Table 10: Rainfall and Soil types in Agro-ecological Zones...... 96 Table 11: Summary of the land use in KR B ...... 98 Table 12: Comparison of paddy cultivation in densely populated (DP) and less populated (LP) DS divisions in Colombo and Gampaha districts...... 99 Table 13: Extent of Export Agricultural and Fruit crops in KRB 2014...... 99 Table 14: Estimation of Animal Population in the Kelani River Basin in 2014...... 102 Table 15: Administrative Districts falling to Kelani Ganga Basin by area...... 103 Table 16: Demographic Data of Kelani River Basin by DS Divisions - 2011...... 106 Table 17: Distribution of Occupation by Sector in Kelani River Basin Area (Main 4 Districts)...... 107 Table 18: Main Institutions falling into the Kelani River Basin - Intervention Areas...... 109 Table 19: Poverty headcount index and poverty reduction by district-2002, 2012/13...... 109 Table 20: Archaeological and Cultural Heritage sites in Kelani River Basin...... 111 Table 21: Flood protection related concerns 1992 and 2017...... 142 Table 22: Comparison of former and recent flood protection work related studies...... 143 Table 23: Hydrological Positives and Negatives of Flood Dykes and Reservoirs...... 144 Table 24: Present land use pattern in the inundation areas of the proposed reservoirs...... 158 Table 25: Impact of Proposed Upper Kelani Basin Reservoirs on people and buildings...... 160 Table 26: Stakeholders met at the District level Key Informant Interviews (July-Aug 2017)...... 177 Table 27: Divisional level KIIs and FDGs held during December 2017 - January 2018 period...... 183 Table 28: Main Highlights of the Divisional level KIIs...... 184 Table 29: Focus Group Discussions held in Lower Kelani River Basin (January 2018)...... 190 Table 30: Findings of the Focus Group Discussions in Lower Kelani River Basin (January 2018)...... 190

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin IX Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Table 31: Summary Results of Findings (Social, Gender & Community levels)...... 196 Table 32: Public concerns and messaging approaches...... 205 Table 33: Telephone subscription statistics...... 207 Table 34: Industrial Clusters, Planned by W RM PP...... 218 Table 35: Sub Basins of Kelani River...... 229 Table 36: Land Use of the Kelani River Basin...... 230 Table 37: Population Distribution of the Basin by GN Divisions...... 233 Table 38: Wildlife Conservation Areas in the Kelani River Basin...... 235 Table 39: Percentage Decrease in Northeast Monsoon Rainfall...... 240 Table 40: The causes of Kelani River flooding and the potential sustainable approaches to prevent flooding ...... 243 Table 41: Causes of Kelani River Flooding and Potential Sustainable Approaches to prevent Flooding ... 256

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin X Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

List of Abbreviations AEZ Agro Ecological Zones AMSL Above Mean Sea Level AOGCM Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Model AP Affected Person BBB Build Back Better CBO Community Based Organization CEA Central Environmental Authority CFA Central Fragile Area CRIP Climate Resilience Improvement Project CTEC Colombo-Trincomalee Economic Corridor DAC District Agricultural Committee DMC Disaster Management Centre DOA Department of Agriculture DSD Divisional Secretariat Divisions DWLC Department of Wildlife Conservation EA Environmental Assessment EAC Export Agricultural Crops EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPL Environmental Protection License FD Forest Department FIM First Inter Monsoon FO Farmer Organizations FGD Focus Group Discussions FTZ Free Trade Zones GA Government Agent GIS Geographic Information System GND Grama Niladhari Divisions GoSL Government of Sri Lanka GSMB Geological Survey and Mines Bureau HCI Head Count Index HCR Head Count Ratio HIES Household Income and Expenditure Survey HPBPL House Hold Population below Poverty Line HH House Hold IEE Initial Environmental Examination INGO International Non-Governmental Organization IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IWMI International Water Management Institute KII Key Informant Interviews KRB Kelani River Basin LARK Land Acquisition and Resettlement Committee LB Left Bank LFA Logical Framework Analysis LHG Low Humic Gley MCDUP Metro Colombo Urban Development Project

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin XI Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

MCM Million Cubic Meters MIWRM Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management MSL Mean Sea Level NAP National Action Plan NBRO National Building Research Organization NDMC National Disaster Management Center NDRSC National Disaster Relief Services Centre NEA National Environmental Act NGFPS Nilwala Ganga Flood Protection Scheme NGO Non -Governmental Organization NIRP National Involuntary Resettlement Policy NPPD National Physical Planning Department NWSDB National Water Supply and Drainage Board OP Operational Policies OPL Official Poverty Line PAP Project Affected People PMU Project Management Unit PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RAP Resettlement Action Plan RB Right Bank RDA Road Development Authority RDC Resource Development Consultants RPM Resident Project Manager SEA Strategic Environment Assessment SIA Social Impact Analysis SLLRDC Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Cooperation SLCDMP Sri Lanka Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme SWM South Western Monsoon TOR Terms of Reference TRC Telecommunication Regulatory Authority UDA Urban Development Authority USPF Urban Sector Policy Framework UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNCCDP United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification WMO World Meteorological Organization WRB Water Resources Board

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin XII Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood i£A and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Executive Summary

The impacts of global warming and climate change are now a reality, and its effects are being felt mostly in small island nations such as Sri Lanka. The increased frequency of catastrophic weather events such as cyclones, droughts and unprecedented rain is being experienced in many countries including Sri Lanka.

The impact of droughts and floods in Sri Lanka causes a colossal damage and incurs a heavy cost to the Government, amounting to millions of rupees for flood and drought relief almost every year. In addition to this, there is loss of life and property. In view of this, finding a permanent solution to flood and droughts in major river basins is an imperative.

The Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP) is an ongoing project implemented by the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management (MIWRM) with funding support from the World Bank. The objective of the project is to "Reduce the vulnerability of exposed people and assets to climate risks and to improve the Government's capacity to respond effectively to climate disasters"

Ten river basins have been selected to be studied under the CRIP. The ten river basins include the Mundeni Aru, Kelani River Basin, Mahaweli River Basin, Attanagalu Oya basin, Gal Oya, Maha Oya, Kala Oya, Deduru Oya, Malwatu Oya, Gin Ganga and Nilwala Ganga.Out of the ten river Basins selected under the project, four river basins, namely Kelani, Attanagalu Oya, Mahaweli and Mundeni Aru have been selected as needing interventions on a priority basis.

Of the two major investment components of CRIP, Component 1 aims to improve the understanding of climate risk, enhance the country's knowledge base and capacity, and develop a long-term investment plan to mitigate floods and drought risks in the ten river basins. The final output of this Component would be the development of basin investment plans comprising of detailed structural and non- structural drought and flood risk mitigation proposals, together with the flood and drought risk knowledge bases, for the ten basins. In addition, feasibility studies for a selected set of structural interventions in each basin will also be completed as an output of Component 1. These investment plans and feasibility studies are expected to serve as guiding documents for major investments for long term flood and drought mitigation interventions to be funded by the government and donors, including the World Bank.

In order to support the investment decisions and plan and implement the prioritized interventions in a socially and environmentally sustainable manner, the basin investment plans must be complemented with Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs) in the context of flood and drought risk mitigation of the ten river basins. The present SEA study is for the Kelani River Basin.

Given that the SEAs will serve more broad and strategic purposes for the planning and implementing of the basin investment plans, it is required to complete the SEA for the Kelani River Basin area as a priority, in order to prepare Social and Environmental Management Plans for the selected priority interventions for flood and drought mitigation.

The proposed Flood and drought mitigation proposals for the Kelani River Basin consist of the following proposals;

1. Flood walls or levees constructed on either side along the Lower Kelani from Hanwella to Colombo, offering protection upto a 1:25 year flood. Three possible bund configurations have been considered as follows; • Zero bund line option

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin XIII Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

• 50ft bund line option • Flexible bund line option

Out of these three options the flexible bund line option is the most likely to be selected for implementation.

2. The second proposal consists of one or more upstream reservoirs to raise the level of protection up to a 1:100-year Flood. Four reservoirs, namely Holombuwa, Wee-Oya, Nawata and Rucastle have been proposed. 3. Another potential intervention has been added later, namely the diversion of excess Kelani River water from the Norton Bridge area in the Kelani Ganga to the Diyagala area of Mahaweli Ganga during the wet season.

Some of these interventions have environmental and social impacts which require to be identified early on, in order to either avoid or mitigate them to acceptable levels. Almost all of the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions will require to undergo full scale Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) under the provisions in the National Environmental Act. Detailed investigations on the potential environmental and social impacts will therefore be necessary at the EIA stage for all these interventions.

According to the Terms of Reference, the main objective of the Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Flood and Drought mitigation proposals for the Kelani River basin is to;

• Identify, assess and describe the likely significant effects on the environment of the basin in implementing the basin investment plans as well as the most important environmental and natural resource-related constraints bearing on the implementation of any related structural and non- structural intervention.

• Provide the GoSL agencies and development partners with relevant knowledge and information (both quantitative and qualitative) to assess the adequacy of environmental considerations and safeguard measures to be incorporated with the proposed interventions of the basin investment plan. This information should help ensure that environmental concerns are appropriately integrated in the decision-making processes at the stages of programming, planning, implementation and monitoring of the interventions.

• Assess the degree to which the existing policies, laws, regulations and the institutional capacity of the GoSL applicable to address the major environmental sustainability challenges related with the flood and drought risk mitigation.

• Recommend at strategic level on how potential; negative social and environmental effects can be minimized and how positive effects can be optimized. Particular focus will be given to the adequacy of institutional structure and capacities at the national and local levels, as well as of the regulatory framework, to address key environmental concerns associated with the proposed basin investment plans.

The Strategic Environmental Assessment study has revealed that the main impacts due to the proposed flood and drought mitigation proposals are on Hydrology and Hydrogeology, Ecology, Agriculture, Aesthetics as well as social impacts due to involuntary relocation and loss of livelihood. The flood bunds in particular have a major hydrological impact and special attention has been paid to this aspect in the SEA. In addition to this, as required by the Terms of Reference, the Regional Planning perspective was also considered comprehensively as described in chapter 7 of the report.

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The SEA study has revealed that there are both positive and negative impacts of the proposed reservoirs and flood bunds.

In general reservoirs offer multiple benefits such as Irrigation, Hydropower, Flood Protection and Drought Control. The positive impacts of the reservoirs include;

(1) Reduction of flood discharge due to flood routing through reservoirs. (2) Reduction of flood level in the downstream areas due to upstream reservoirs. (3) Increase water retention of groundwater discharge in the reservoir bed and command areas (4) Drought mitigation

One of the potential negative hydrological impacts of the proposed reservoirs is that, a potential dam breach could advance a flood wave downstream, resulting in very severe damage. Dam breaches are however extremely rare and the probability of a dam breach is very low. The possibility of this could be further reduced by carrying out dam break model studies and through routine standard dam maintenance.

Although the proposed reservoirs will reduce upstream discharge input to flood dykes, the water level impact on the distal downstream may be low or insignificant. The reduction of discharge input to the downstream flood plain due to the construction of the reservoir/s should be determined as accurately as possible prior to their implementation.

As for the ecological impacts of the proposed reservoirs, the loss and fragmentation of riverine forests is of concern and clearance of riverine vegetation should be avoided. In cases where this is unavoidable, measures must be taken to replant a thick strip bordering the river and the reservoirs to ensure continuity of the riverine strip. The most important direct negative impact would be the loss and fragmentation of the protected rainforests as a result of the proposed Nawatha reservoir.

In addition to the loss of forest areas, reduced down stream flow, particularly during the dry season, would inevitably occur with the construction of the upstream reservoirs, with consequential impacts on fish migration, drying of river banks and downstream salinity intrusion. The latter is currently hampering the ability of the river to supply drinking water to the Colombo area. Therefore, measures must be in place to address each of these issues.

As far as the social impacts are concerned, out of the identified Interventions, the measures to increase upstream flood detention by construction of 4 reservoirs have positive impacts in general, owing to their effects on flood mitigation and providing of possible power generation, enhancing or augmenting irrigated agriculture and maintaining a high-water table for upland cultivation of small plantation holding and homestead nature, as a whole. The negative impacts on the other hand are derived mainly from the displacement of present prime agricultural lands (Tea, Rubber, Coconut, MEC, Paddy, & livestock) and some settlements.

With regard to impacts on archeological sites, the residents living in the proposed Holombuwa Reservoir area has viewd negatively on potential damages to the archeological site at Dadigama Kotawehera, which need to be looked into at a detailed SIA process (Re. Case -1 in the communication Section).

The 4 reservoir Interventions will result in considerable relocation, resettlement and inundation of present plantation, homestead farming and some grazing lands, in the Kegalle District. Of the 4 Reservoir, Holobuwa is located in Warakapola and Galigamuwa DSD, Wee Oya in Bulathkohupitiya DSD, Nawata in Yatiyantota DSD and Rue Castle in Deraniyagala DSD.

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In relation to the second intervention, which are the proposed flood bunds, the positive impacts include the provision of good protection on the flood plains for the floods under the design return period and reduce flood damage substantially in congested areas. The confinement of the flood spread within the dykes will therefore convert the areas beyond the dykes to a flood free zone for the floods of under the design return period. In addition, due to the provided Free Board, the dykes could confine flood of even higher return period up to the top level of the dyke occupying the Free Board zone.

The positive social impacts of the flood bunds are that, frequent flood victims in the Lower Kelani Basin will be relieved from floods, unhygienic practices relating to toilet waste disposal and garbage dumping will be halted / minimized and the previously flood vulnerable area, as a whole, will be safer than before for socially and economically feasible livelihoods and land use practices.

There are however, major hydrological impacts of the proposed flood dykes since the flood dykes are long and run continuously from Hanwella to the outfall as a flexible line varying between 0ft and 50ft. There will be flood impacts immediately upstream of the starting point of the flood dykes as follows;

1. Flood lift due to dykes (backwater effect) 2. Longer inundation time of a threshold 3. Longer recession time 4. Higher spatial flood spread (inundation of an extra area which is normally inundated

The flood bunds will create considerable backwater upstream and will impact existing bridges due to high velocity and backwater. The flood dykes could also get overtopped by floods of a higher return period which will create a disaster situation. In addition to this, pumping stations will be required in order to drain local catchment flows.

These issues require to be very carefully studied in order to ensure that the measures adopted in order to mitigate the floods in one location do not result in transferring the problem to another location. The variation of the flood lift reaches its peak around 23km chainage within the flood bunds. Flood lifts are low near the sea and near Glencourse river gauging station. However, the flood lifts corresponding to 50 and 100-year return period at the beginning of the flood bunds at Hanwella are 1m and 1.9m and such flood lifts are critical as according to most international guidelines on flood lifts, the maximum allowable flood lift is 0.3m.

Another issue is that Extreme rain events in Colombo generally coincide with high water levels in the Kelani River, thereby hindering the storm water drainage into the river. This coincidence means that most of the time both "High Kelani" and "High Colombo" water levels occur, warranting the need for pumping stations for the Colombo Catchment. The proper functioning of pumping stations is crucial in times of high rainfall and high Kelani water in order to prevent flooding of Colombo. There are many issues related to the maintenance of such pumps as well as the assurance that they perform during high rains and stormy weather as there are potential power outages at such times.

As for the ecological impact, the construction of the flood bunds could have an adverse impact on the Colombo wetlands. At the lower reaches the creation of the bund may hinder the flow of water to and from the elaborate channel network which originates or drains into the Kelani River. The dependency of the Colombo wetlands, which are now considered important in terms of its ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, is linked to the river and its tributaries. Special attention should therefore be paid to the maintenance of the existing hydrological regimes, through the creation of adequate water flow channels where needed.

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As for the social impacts of the Flood embankments, it will result in a reduction in social costs due to displacement and distress (including loss of life) caused by flooding. These positive impacts will, however, be offset by the costs of land acquisition and the high cost of construction of the flood bunds. Furthermore, due to the loss of assets and livelihoods, compensation payments will have to be made to local households and businesses adversely affected by the construction activities.

A large number of inhabitants (both squatters & private owners) occupying the most vulnerable areas adjacent to the Lower Kelani River Bank will need to be relocated and compensated while a considerable area presently under cash crops (Coconut, Rambutan, MEC & Vegetable) and forest, will be lost due to Flood Bund construction.

The Flood Bunds are also seen as an artificial construction that will take away the scenic beauty of the river basin, and will curtail the public, the free access to the natural water body.

In relation to the potential impacts on archeological and cultural sites, there are a total of 65 such sites spread in the four main districts of the Kelani Basin. These sites include ancient temples, rock temples, cave paintings, protected monuments, ancient forts and dikes, ancient Buddhist campuses and others.

A preliminary evaluation of impacts on archaeological sites using GIS data does not show any major impacts on archaeological monuments or sites. However, a more detailed study of the area in question will be required during the social study and EIA in order to determine whether any undocumented cultural, religious or historical sites will be affected. Furthermore, there are some religious buildings and associated land that may be affected that would also require further investigation during the EIA stage.

With respect to the existing legal framework in the country for dealing with Floods and droughts, there are existing provisions available for flood and drought mitigation under the Irrigation Ordinance No 32 of 1946 and Flood Protection Ordinance No 4 of 1924 Amended by Act no 22 of 1955. The existing provisions in these acts which are outdated are totally inadequate in order to deal with floods and droughts effectively. Both of the above-mentioned acts are now being replaced by an Act to amend the Irrigation Ordinance (chapter 453) and the new Flood Risk Management Act.

An evaluation of the existing Policies, Laws and Regulations and Institutional Capacity to address environmental issues and major sustainability challenges, reveals that the existing legal framework in the country is sufficient to tackle the environmental issues that may arise during the implementation of the flood and drought mitigation proposals. The proposed flood and drought mitigation projects are located within areas which come either under the jurisdiction of the Central Environmental Authority. The National Environmental Act no 47 of 1980 has provisions for conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment for the proposed flood and drought mitigation proposals prior to implementation. EIA is a legal requirement under this Act, and therefore detailed environmental Assessments in the form of Initial Environmental Examinations or full scale Environmental Impact Assessments will be required for all of the proposed interventions, along with formal environmental approval from the Central Environmental Authority.

As far as regular monitoring of these projects are concerned, although there is an existing procedure at the CEA for the monitoring of projects approved subsequent to an EIA, the efficacy of such monitoring, including the frequency of monitoring is hampered by the large number of projects requiring to be monitored, along with the lack of adequate human and other resources such as vehicles.

It is therefore proposed that a Project Coordination and Monitoring Committee consisting of the following organizations is set up under the Department of Irrigation for the purpose of planning as well as monitoring the implementation of the proposed interventions.

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• Irrigation Department (to chair the meeting) • CRIP Project • Central Environmental Authority • Department of Agriculture/ Ministry of Agriculture • Ceylon Electricity Board • District/Divisional Secretaries of the relevant districts • Relevant Local Authorities • Forest Department • Department of Wildlife Conservation • Department of Archaeology • Urban Development Authority • Provincial Irrigation Engineers

It is also proposed that a fully-fledged Environmental Unit is established at the Irrigation Department manned by suitably qualified environmental professionals. This could be done by strengthening the existing Environmental Unit in the Department by staffing it with qualified environmental professionals. Setting up of such a unit at the irrigation Department would be a useful exercise as the Irrigation Department is involved in the planning many of the largest projects in Sri Lanka, which often have many environmental impacts. Setting up of the environmental unit will result in environmental inputs being provided to projects at the planning and design stage itself, thereby avoiding potential issues arising at the EIA stage. The proposed unit could take up the task of regular monitoring of the proposed projects under the CRIP along with independent monitoring by the Central Environmental Authority, in order to ensure compliance with EIA approval conditions.

In conclusion, possible other options for flood mitigation in the Kelani River should be fully investigated for their feasibility and cost, prior to implementing the proposed flood bunds, which have been shown to have several adverse impacts if implemented in the present form. Adoption of other flood control measures as indicated below, could result in the reduction of the length and height of the flood bunds or eliminate them altogether. It is recommended that the following alternate options for flood control are fully investigated for their feasibility prior to deciding on the best option or combination of options.

a) Trans-basin diversions whereby the use of flood water in drought-stricken areas, will be optimized, resulting in gainfully utilizing the flood waters rather than simply sending it to the sea, thereby gaining maximum returns on investment to the national economy. In this regard it is strongly recommended that the proposed intervention to divert Kelani Water at Norton Bridge to the Mahaweli is investigated fully for its flood reduction potential as well as for potential environmental and social impacts, in order to decide on the most cost effective and sustainable solution.

The following options should also be investigated in order to arrive at the optimal solution with the least environmental and social cost and the highest benefits.

b) Redirecting the settlements in the flood plain to new areas including the new economic centers planned by the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development.

c) Construction of smaller reservoirs upstream at suitable locations (useful also for mitigating drought)

d) Creating flood bypass channels (E.g. green channels to bypass meanders)

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The best option or combination of options should be selected only after a comprehensive Environmental and Economic Analysis, including an Extended Cost-Benefit Analyses of each option has been completed. The optimum solution should be that with the least environmental, social and ecological impacts, incurring the lowest monetary cost and highest benefits.

According to the provisions in the National Environmental Act, all the proposed interventions are "Prescribed Projects" which require full scale Environmental Impact Assessments. Since the study of alternatives is a prerequisite of the EIA process, the above-mentioned study of all potential alternatives for flood control in the Kelani River Basin, will also result in fulfilling this essential requirement of the EIA process.

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CHAPTER 1 1. Impacts of Climate Change and Need for the CRIP

1.1. Impact of climate change and need for the CRIP Global Warming and its resultant Climate change are one of the major challenges of our time and add considerable stress to our societies and to the environment. From shifting weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that increase the risk of catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in scope and unprecedented in scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these impacts in the future will be more difficult and costly.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide an objective source of scientific information. The year 2013 provided more clarity about human-generated climate change than ever before. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Fifth Assessment Report, which looked at the science of climate change. It was categorical in its conclusion: climate change is real and human activities are the main cause. The report further stated that;

• From 1880 to 2012, the average global temperature increased by 0.85 °C.

• Oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished and the sea level has risen. From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded due to warming and ice melted. The sea ice extent in the Arctic has shrunk in every successive decade since 1979, with 1.07 x 106 km2 of ice loss per decade.

• Given current concentrations and ongoing emissions of greenhouse gases, it is likely that the end of this century will see a 1-2° C increase in global mean temperature above the 1990 level (about 1.5-2.5° C above the pre-industrial level). The world's oceans will warm and ice melt will continue. Average sea level rise is predicted to be 24-30 cm by 2065 and 40-63 cm by 2100 relative to the reference period of 1986-2005. Most aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries, even if emissions are stopped.

There is alarming evidence that important tipping point, leading to irreversible changes in major ecosystems and the planetary climate system, may already have been reached or passed. Ecosystems as diverse as the Amazon rainforest and the Arctic tundra may be approaching thresholds of dramatic change through warming and drying. Mountain glaciers are in alarming retreat and the downstream effects of reduced water supply in the driest months will have repercussions that transcend generations.

Extreme weather events and catastrophic natural disasters including cyclones, floods and droughts occur with more frequency due to the impacts of climate change. The adverse impacts of climate change will be felt most in small island nations such as Sri Lanka.

In comparison to many other countries the per capita emission of Green House gases is comparatively low in Sri Lanka. As far as the impacts of climate change are concerned, however, as an island nation Sri Lanka will feel the brunt of climate change and sea level rise. In view of this adaptation to these phenomena is of extreme importance.

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1.1.1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The UN family is at the forefront of the effort to save our planet. In 1992, its "Earth Summit" produced the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as a first step in addressing the climate change problem. Today, it has near-universal membership and 197 countries have ratified the Convention and are Parties to the Convention. The ultimate aim of the Convention is to prevent "dangerous" human interference with the climate system.

1.1.2. Kyoto Protocol By 1995, countries launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change, and, two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed country Parties to emission reduction targets. The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. The second commitment period began on 1 January 2013 and will end in 2020. There are now 197 Parties to the Convention and 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. 1.1.3. Paris Agreement At the 21st Conference of the Parties in Paris, Parties to the UNFCCC reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future. The Paris Agreement builds upon the Convention and - for the first time - brings all nations into a common cause to undertake take ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to assist developing countries to do so. As such, it charts a new course in the global climate effort.

The Paris Agreement's central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. 175 world leaders have signed the Paris Agreement. 1.2. Effects of Climate Change in Sri Lanka Closer to home, Sri Lanka is also experiencing the impacts of Global Warming and Climate Change in the form of catastrophic weather events such as floods and droughts. The major flood disasters which occurred in Sri Lanka and the cost of flood damage are given in Table 1 and 2 below.

Table 1: Major flood Disasters in Sri Lanka

Year Affected People

1969 1,000,000 1983 1,250,000 2003 695,000 2011 1,060,324 2014 1,100,020 2016 500,000 Source: Disaster Management Center

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Table 2: Cost of Flood Damage in Sri Lanka

Year Cost of Flood Damage in Rupees 1989 5,250,000,000.00 1992 37,500,000,000.00 2010 15,750,000,000.00 2011 30,000,000,000.00 2016 108,515,209,350.00 Source: Disaster Management Center 1.3. Need for the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP) It is clear from the data given in the above table that the damage caused by floods and droughts and the cost to the Government in providing relief to the victims of flood and droughts is colossal. Reducing the vulnerability of exposed people and assets to floods and droughts is therefore an urgent requirement in the country. In view of this situation the Government of Sri Lanka (Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management) has formulated the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP), to be funded by the World Bank. 1.4. Background of the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP) The Climate Resilience Improvement Project is an ongoing project implemented by the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Management (MIWRM) with funding support from the World Bank. The objective of CRIP is to "Reduce the vulnerability of exposed people and assets to climate risks and to improve the Government's capacity to respond effectively to climatic disasters." The Project is considered an entry point intervention of the GoSL for a long-term engagement in disaster risk mitigation in the country. The implementation of CRIP commenced in 2013 and is scheduled to be completed in 2019.

Of the two major investment components of CRIP, Component 1 aims to improve the understanding of climate risk, enhance the country's knowledge base and capacity, and develop a long-term investment plan to mitigate floods and drought risks in ten river basins. The final output of this Component would be the development of basin investment plans comprising of detailed structural and non- structural drought and flood risk mitigation proposals, together with the flood and drought risk knowledge bases, for the ten basins. In addition, feasibility studies for a selected set of structural interventions in each basin will also be completed as an output of Component 1. These investment plans and feasibility studies are expected to serve as guiding documents for major investments for long term flood and drought mitigation interventions to be funded by the government and donors, including the World Bank.

The river basins have been selected to be studied under the CRIP as indicated in Figure 1 below. The ten river basins include the Mundeni Aru, Kelani River Basin, Attanagalu Oya Basin, Mahaweli River Basin, Gal Oya, Maha Oya, Kala Oya, Deduru Oya, Malwatu Oya, Gin Ganga and Nilwala Ganga. Out of the ten river Basins selected under the project, four river basins, namely Kelani, Attanagalu Oya, Mahaweli and Mundeni Aru have been selected on a priority basis to be studied under this assignment.

Ten nature of these proposed interventions are such that their implementation may lead to irreversible changes to the existing environment. In order to support the investment decisions and plan and implement the prioritized interventions in a socially and environmentally sustainable manner, the basin investment plans must be complemented with SEAs in the context of flood and drought risk mitigation of the ten river basins. Under the Phase I, four selected river basins, namely Mahaweli Ganga Basin, Attanagalu Oya Basin, Kelani Ganga Basin and Mundeni Aru Basin have been selected as needing interventions on a priority basis. The present SEA study is for the Kelani River Basin area.

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Given that the SEAs will serve more broader and strategic purposes for the planning and implementing of the basin investment plans, it is required to complete the SEA for the Kelani River basin area as a priority in order to prepare social and environmental management plans for the selected priority interventions for flood and drought mitigation.

Figure 1: Ten river basins selected for the CRIP

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1.5. Objectives and Expected Outcomes of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Kelani River Basin The overall objective of the SEA for the Kelani River Basin is to ensure that social and environmental concerns are appropriate and adequately integrated in the prioritization, investment decision, planning and implementation of structural and non-structural interventions for flood and drought risk mitigation proposed in the basin investment plans of the ten river basins mentioned above. It is anticipated that the findings and recommendations of the SEAs may also provide vital information required by the GoSL in putting in place required legal, policy and institutional mechanisms for flood and drought risk mitigations, as well as the other development interventions in the ten river basins.

According to the Terms of Reference given, the specific Objectives of the SEA are to:

• Identify, assess and describe the likely significant effects on the environment of the basins in implementing the basin investment plans as well as the most important environmental and natural resource-related constraints bearing on the implementation of any related structural and non- structural intervention. • Provide the GoSL agencies and development partners with relevant knowledge and information (both quantitative and qualitative) to assess the adequacy of environmental considerations and safeguard measures to be incorporated with the proposed interventions of the basin investment plans. This information should help ensure that environmental concerns are appropriately integrated in the decision-making processes at the stages of programming, planning, implementation and monitoring of the interventions. • Assess the degree to which the existing policies, laws, regulations and the institutional capacity of the GoSL applicable to address the major environmental sustainability challenges related with the flood and drought risk mitigation. • Recommend at strategic level on how potential; negative social and environmental effects can be minimized and how positive effects can be optimized. Particular focus will be given to the adequacy of institutional structure and capacities at the national and local levels, as well as of the regulatory framework, to address key environmental concerns associated with the proposed basin investment plans.

The expected outcome would be an assessment of the baseline environmental circumstances and environmental issues associated with various development options of the basin investment plans to allow for informed and transparent decision-making in the identification and selection of investments to improve climate resilience of infrastructure, settlements and land stability within the selected river basins The SEA will be used to broadly examine, in an integrated manner, the linkages and cumulative impacts of potential scenarios related to the proposed interventions of the basin plans on physical, biological, and other environmental aspects. A key safeguard issues such as natural habitats, forests, pest management, physical, cultural resources, and dam safety should be broadly addressed as part of the SEA process. It would identify critical areas in each basin that require specific attention, such as critical natural habitats, areas with physical, cultural importance, etc. It would also be used to inform the scope of the activity / project-specific Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), Initial Environmental Examinations (IEEs) and other safeguards instruments that will be necessary during the investment period. The Terms of reference for the SEA Study is given in Annexure 1 of this report.

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1.6. Introduction to Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is the systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental effects of a policy, plan or programme and its alternatives. Although the emphasis is on examining environmental effects, most SEA's may also identify significant economic and social effects which are integral parts of the development processes. In short, the purpose of SEA is to promote integrated decision making, for sustainable development.

Unlike project level ElA's, SEA does not require in depth analysis, as the focus is more on sustainability issues. Similar to typical environmental assessments, the process of conducting SEA involves answering a series of questions during the development of a policy, plan or programme. In answering these questions, any potential negative impacts of the plan or proposal can be identified and avoided or mitigated. At the same time potential positive impacts could be enhanced.

The benefits of the SEA are as follows;

• SEA provides a means for systematically incorporating environmental, as well as social and economic considerations into policies, plans and programmes as well as any planned interventions. • SEA allows for the consideration of cumulative and synergistic effects. As such, the cumulative impact of a series of smaller projects on the environment could be better understood through a SEA. • SEA facilitates the implementation of more environmentally sustainable projects. SEA helps identify the most practicable alternatives for achieving positive outcomes and minimizing potentially adverse effects of policies, plans or programmes, thereby resulting in the implementation of more environmentally sustainable projects. • SEA strengthens the decision making process for policies, plans and programmes. • SEA helps to avoid site selections with serious environmental issues, thereby assisting agencies to select the most appropriate sites. • SEA may also reduce the requirements of detailed study during individual project ElA's.

1.7. Purpose of the SEA for Investment Planning in the CRIP

Of the two major investment components of CRIP, the Component 1 aims to improve the understanding of climate risk, enhance the country's knowledge base and capacity, and develop a long-term investment plan to mitigate floods and drought risks in the ten river basins. The final output of this Component would be the development of basin investment plans comprising of detailed structural and non- structural drought and flood risk mitigation proposals together with the flood and drought risk knowledge bases for the ten basins. These investment plans and interventions will be determined through a comprehensive technical analysis of flood and drought risks of each basin. In addition, feasibility studies for a selected set of structural interventions in each basin will also be completed as an output of Component 1. These investment plans and feasibility studies are expected to serve as guiding documents for major investments for long term flood and drought mitigation interventions to be funded by the Government and donors including the World Bank. The nature of these proposed interventions is such that their implementation may lead to irreversible changes to the existing environment.

According to the Terms of Reference given, the SEAs will have to be prepared in relation to the basin level investment plans for flood and drought risk mitigation for the ten basins that will be developed by the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) under the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP) in view of this and in order to support the investment decisions and plan and implement the prioritized interventions in

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a socially and environmentally sustainable manner, the basin investment plans require to be complemented with SEAs in the context of flood and drought risk mitigation of the ten river basins.

The SEA is an integral part of a basin investment plans, and therefore the MIWRM is required to carry out SEA is for all 10 basins, but this TOR is to carry out the SEAs only for the 4 priority river basins as follows. The GoSL has selected four river basins out of the ten basins that need interventions on priority basis to mitigate the risks. These four river basins are: (i) Mahaweli Ganga Basin; (ii) Attanagalu Oya Basin; (iii) Kelani Ganga Basin and (iv) Mundeni Aru Basin. Some of the urgent flood risk mitigation proposals of the basin investment plans of the four priority basins would be considered for financing under a proposed follow on project to CRIP (CRIP II) within the budget envelope agreed between the Bank and the GoSL later. The preparation of the proposed CRIP II is now underway.

Given that the SEAs will serve more broader and strategic purposes for the planning and implementation of the basin investment plans, it is required to complete the SEAs for the above four basins as a priority in order to prepare social and environmental management plans for the selected priority interventions of CRIP II. 1.8. Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Kelani River Basin As described above, there were four river basins which were selected on a priority basis for carrying out feasibility studies and Strategic Environmental Assessments. This report is the Strategic Environmental Assessment report for the Kelani River Basin for which flood and drought mitigation Measures have been proposed on a priority basis under the World Bank funded Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP).

The Kelani River has a total catchment area of 2292 km2 and a total length of 145 km. It originates near Adams Peak and Kirigalpotta areas (about 2,200m above mean sea level) in the Central hills and flows via Kithulgala, Avissawella, Hanwella through flood plains and reaches the sea at Colombo. The average annual rainfall of the basin is around 3,450 mm, corresponding to a volume of about 8,660MCM out of which nearly 64% discharges into the Indian Ocean.

The Kelani River is the third largest watershed in the island and its Basin is home to over 25% of the Sri Lankan population. The ecosystem of the Kelani River Basin supports socio economic activities such as agriculture, mining, urban development, industrial, development, tourism and power generation among others. The water needs for drinking, environmental services and others from the Kelani River will increase continuously as the Greater Colombo and Western Region grows. According to the Western Region Megapolis Plan, the population in the Western Province is expected to reach about 8.0 million by the year 2030 (Mallawatantri, Rodrigo and De Silva. 2016)

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Figure 2: Location map of Kelani River Basin

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Figure 3: Divisional Secretariat areas in the Kelani River Basin

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The Lowland, Submontane and Montane forests that are located in the middle and upper reaches of the Kelani River Basin are inhabited by a large number of endemic and threatened plants and animals. (Jayasuriya ET. Al., 2011).

There are 17 water supply schemes along the river which is the primary source of drinking water to over 4 million people living in the Greater Colombo area and over 10,000 industries and businesses depend on the natural resources and services provided by the basin. There are three dams across Maskeliya Oya and Kehelgamuwa Oya which provide electricity, though Maussakele, Canyon, Laxapana, Castlereigh and Norton Bridge reservoirs.

The location map of the Kelani River basin and Divisional Secretariat areas in the Kelani River Basin are presented in the Figure 2 and Figure 3 above, respectively. 1.9. Impact of Flooding in the Kelani River Basin Over the past few years, the most frequent natural disasters in Sri Lanka have been caused by floods. The most recent floods and landslides in 2016 were the most severe in recent history and affected almost half a million people. The worst flooding occurred in the districts of Colombo and Gampaha, due to the rising water level of the Kelani River.

Floods in Colombo Districts affected 228,871 persons in 54,248 families in the 10 DS divisions consisting of Colombo, Homagama, Kaduwela, Kesbewa, Kolonnawa, Kotte, Maharagama, Padukka and Seethawaka. The worst affected division countrywide was Kolonnawa where 155,062 people were affected which is 81 percent of the total population in the DS division. (Source: Ministry of National Policies and Economic Affairs and Ministry of Disaster Management, 2016.)

Floods in the Gampaha District affected 74,003 persons in 17,485 families in the 13 DS divisions. Out of 13 DS divisions, 10 divisions are within Kelani River Basin Area. Attanagalla, Biyagama, Dompe, Gampaha, Mahara, Ja-Ela, Kelaniya, and Wattala DS divisions were severely affected by the 2016 flood.

With regard to education and health services, 101 of the 172 schools damaged in the floods are in these two districts causing disruption to school education. The damage to the health services was reported to be highest in the Colombo district followed by Kegalle and Gampaha. Water and sanitation services were also hard hit in these two districts. 78 percent of the total estimated damages to toilets and wells in the top five severely affected districts are in these two districts.

The environmental impacts of floods were felt acutely in parts of the lower Kelani Basin area due to the mix of sludge from industries, leachate from municipal solid waste dumps and sewage from septic tanks, which mixed with the flood water thereby creating a toxic waste. Waste Dumping sites in Colombo and Gampaha were affected as some went under floodwater, while others like Meethotamulla suffered partial collapse. 1.10. General Methodology Followed for the SEA for Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in Kelani River Basin The main aim of the Strategic Environmental Assessment will be to evaluate the present status of the environment of the Kelani River basin and to highlight any environmental concerns and issues pertaining to the existing environment during the implementation of investment plans for flood and drought control. An assessment of this nature at the early stages of the planning process will assist in adopting the required measures in order to avoid any environmental or social issues altogether, or if avoidance is not possible to adopt suitable mitigation measures in order to minimize such impacts, thereby implementing the proposed interventions in a more environmentally sustainable manner. The SEA will to a great extent highlight any key

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 10 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin issues prior to planning the detailed interventions for flood and drought mitigation thereby allowing the adoption of the required mitigation measures.

During the baseline study the environmental conditions of the Kelani River basin were studied mainly using published data and studies. The river system, Geology and soil structures, climate, as well as the terrestrial, aquatic ecosystems were studied. Kelani river basin supports three main vegetation formations, i.e. tropical wet evergreen forest (lowland rain forests) in its lower to mid reaches, and the sub­ Montane and Montane forests at higher elevations (Jayasuriya, Kitchener & Biradar, 2006). In relation to fauna and flora within the Kelani River Basin, the area lies within three major floristic regions, namely Northern Wet lowlands, Foothills of Adam's Peak and Ambagamuwa. As the Kelani River Basin falls within the wet zone it is extremely rich in biodiversity with high species richness, many endemics and some point endemics, and high numbers of rare and threatened species. As far as protected areas are concerned, overall the Kelani catchment has three wildlife sanctuaries (7,518 ha), 16 proposed forest reserves (11,423 ha), 13 forest reserves (2,585 ha) and a catchment area of 2,304 ha allocated for drinking water reservoirs. The locations of such protected areas as well as other environmentally sensitive areas which are not yet under protection status require to be kept in mind during the planning and implementation of flood and drought control actions within the Kelani River Basin.

Due to the highly urbanized nature of the lower Kelani Basin, social impacts due to involuntary relocation and loss of livelihood are important considerations during the implementation of the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions and the SEA study has identified the potential social issues which may arise as a result of implementation of the flood and drought mitigation measures.

The geological features of the area are also an important aspect when planning any flood or drought mitigation measures in the Kelani basin. As such the SEA study will be able to identify any landslide prone areas within the basin which will be useful during the planning of interventions and the proposed reservoirs in particular.

Current policy, legal and institutional framework related to environmental protection, flood and drought, river basin management, and water resources management was identified and the adequacy of the prevailing legal framework was evaluated. The institutions responsible for flood and drought control, agriculture, water supply, Local and Provincial institutional structures were identified, along with the adequacy of the existing institutional capabilities to ensure the sustainability of the proposed measures.

Since at this point of time the basin interventions for flood and drought control are at a conceptual stage it will not be possible to go into a detailed assessment of the exact impacts of such interventions on the environment. It is also not required to go into a detailed assessment for the SEA, as detailed Environmental Impact Assessments will be required at the implementation stage of the proposed projects. The SEA study will identify any critical issues and /or areas which the planners are required to keep in mind when planning the flood and drought control actions in the Kelani River Basin. An analysis will be carried out on the potential environmental and social impacts of the proposed interventions in the SEA study, although detailed field studies will not be carried out at this stage.

Since the success of the SEA study is highly dependent on reliability of the information gathered and the stakeholder understanding and acceptance of the project components and the intended benefits derived from the project, a people friendly approach was adopted from the initial stage of the study. Therefore a participatory and consultative approach were adopted during the study.

Although a separate comprehensive social assessment is being conducted for the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions, a social assessment was also undertaken within the SEA, following the accepted assessment approaches and norms and a participatory consultation plan was drawn up with a view to creating

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 11 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin community awareness regarding the basin investment plans in selected locations. Awareness raising and consultations was carried out with the participation of key stakeholders. Awareness programmes were held in order to capture public perceptions.

In addition to the above a regional planning exercise was also carried out as per the requirements of the TOR. 1.11. Scoping Study A scoping exercise was carried out in order to decide on the scope and focus of the SEA report for the Kelani River Basin. The scoping exercise was carried out in order to clearly focus the assessment on the key environmental issues of importance during the implementation of the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions under CRIP.

The scoping meeting was held after the first site reconnaissance visit, and based on the details provided of the proposed flood mitigation interventions for the Kelani River Basin, the major impact areas of the river basin of the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions were identified as follows;

• Impacts on terrestrial ecology including riverine forests, wetlands, protected areas and sensitive habitats • Impacts on hydrology/hydrogeology • Social impacts including loss of livelihood and involuntary relocation of people • Impacts on agriculture • Impacts on archaeological and cultural/religious sites • Aesthetic impacts due to the two bunds • Beneficial impacts due to flood and drought mitigation, water supply

The above-mentioned areas will be the focus of the SEA report as these are expected to be the most significant impacts from the proposed flood mitigation interventions for the Kelani River Basin.

The detailed scoping report is given in Annex 03 of this report. 1.12. Detailed Methodology to be adopted for the different sectors The respective methodologies which were adopted for the identified sectors during the Strategic Environmental Assessment Study is briefly described in the following sections. It should be noted that since this is a SEA which does not usually go in for in depth analysis as in the case of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), the study looked at the major environmental and social issues in a strategic manner. The SEA has also identified further studies which will be required at the EIA stage. 1.12.1. Hydrogeological Study As the first step of the methodology the general geological and hydrogeological baseline for the entire basin and the specific geological and hydrogeological baseline for the proposed areas of interventions was established, in the following manner.

Available spatial information such as geological maps were obtained. This data gave a basic idea of the geological/hydrogeological setting of the overall basin in the form of geological strata and aquifer configuration.

In the data collection process, mainly detailed spatial data (Detailed Geological maps of 1:10,000 scale from GSMB) and information from other available publications were obtained for the areas where there will be proposed basin interventions from the CRIP project.

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These data threw light on the, fracture zones and other vulnerable geological conditions in the project intervention areas especially the proposed reservoir sites and their expected command areas. By integrating the proposed interventions on 1:100,000 geological maps of GSMB, a preliminary GIS analysis was made to identify vulnerable areas. Geological impacts and mitigation measures for each intervention were analyzed and reported.

1.12.2. Hydrological /Water Resources Related Studies 1.12.2.1. Literature Survey Since there are numerous past studies which deals with the flooding issues of Kelani Basin which has been referred to in proposing the currently proposed interventions under the study "Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility/Feasibility Study - WS Atkins and others October 2017 (Masain Report and appendices) only that study was used as the main reference for the Hydrological study. Additional literature was used to obtain details of rainfall trends for Kelani Basin. 1.12.2.2. Establishment of the Hydrology/Water Resources Baseline The hydrological baseline for the basin was established in general and the hydrological baseline for the proposed interventions were looked at in detail which were sufficient for the SEA scope. Basic hydrological parameters established were;

(1) Sub catchments of the basin

(2) Rainfall at selected stations and rainfall iso-heights

(3) Specific yields for sub basins through Iso- yield curves

1.12.2.3. Methodology of Hydrological Impacts /Water Resources Related Impacts Assessment Major interventions (See Chapter 3) were studied in fair detail to find the hydrology/water resources related impacts to propose mitigation action. The major reservoirs, rivers and tributaries within Kelani Basin were considered as hydrological hotspots in the face of ensuing intervention options for investments. The river sub basins relevant to the interventions (mainly for the upstream reservoirs and downstream flood bunds) were delineated for detailed understanding.

• Rainfall studies were carried out by consultants using past studies to check whether the recent climatic change in rainfall patterns had been considered. Existing rainfall trends for the basin were identified from the studies reviewed.

• Proposed reservoirs, dykes were reviewed, and possible hydrological and other combined impacts were verified using the available information on the Pre-Feasibility Study report by WS Atkins and others.

• According to the previous flood records, severe floods had occurred several times. Therefore, model reports were reviewed to see whether the flood forecasting method has been considered.

• The impact on the coastal morphology of Kelani Outfall because of the interventions were studied as a coastal impact. 1.12.2.4. Methodology for Proposing Mitigation Measures for Hydrology Related Impacts Suitable broad mitigation action was proposed to alleviate or minimize the identified hydrological impacts.

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• The proposed structural interventions are "Mitigation Measures by Design" for the baseline hydrological impacts such as flood damage and water scarcity.

• Mitigation measures for the additional hydrological impacts (positive or negative) arising out of the proposed interventions were proposed.

• Allocation of environmental flow requirements for the downstream of the proposed reservoirs were a necessary mitigation measure. However, details of such measures cannot be elaborated at this stage as reservoir configuration details or operation studies are not available.

• Recommendations on dam break analysis and identification of the inundation areas if a dam break occurs have been proposed.

Gaps of the existing studies were identified thorough review of the study Pre-Feasibility Study report by WS Atkins and others and further hydrological studies required before the implementation of the proposed interventions were outlined. Please see Section 5.3. "Knowledge Gaps and measures to address gaps leading to investment sustainability". 1.12.3. Ecological Study The general project area comprises four reservoirs associated with the upper section of the Kelani river basin (Holombuwa, Wee Oya, Nawatha and Rucastle) and the construction of the embankment in the lower reaches of the basin from Hanwella to Colombo. The SEA is intended to consider the impacts of each project on the broader landscape.

Some of the potential interventions will result in adverse impacts on biota, but the magnitude would depend on the extent of inundation, the proximity of the interventions to the river and the resultant changes in hydrological regimes, as well as the extent of changes in the habitats involved, all of which in turn will impact biota. Impacts will be mainly linked to the hydrological alteration, inundation of new areas, clearance and disturbance of vegetation for construction activities, extraction of raw materials for the construction of associated facilities such as access roads.

The assessments of these impacts will require a detailed study of the proposed inundation areas and the layout of the river network as well as the distribution of vegetation types and the protected areas. Field work primarily focused on areas where the greatest negative impacts were expected to occur.

In addressing the needs of the SEA and the TOR for the ecologist, the approach taken was to make a holistic assessment of the ecological impacts of the proposed projects centered on the Kelani river basin. Thus, an overall assessment was made with respect to the distribution of aquatic and terrestrial habitats, the interrelationships between the different biotic elements and the ecological services they offer, all of which contribute to the sustainability of the river basin ecosystem. This included an assessment of the present status of these biotic elements, and the measures of protection they receive with special reference to the declared protected areas. Falling in line with the aims of the SEA, the proposed and already implemented (if any) drought and flood management measures and the resultant impacts on the identified biotic elements were also examined. The information derived was made use of to formulate the Environmental and Social Management Framework for the Kelani River Basin.

The overall ecological assessment comprised the following phases:

• Phase I - Review of existing information

- Before field work was undertaken it was necessary to first examine all available information pertaining to the Kelani river basin that would have some bearing on its ecology. This allowed detailed assessments to be made in several areas of interest. For instance, prior to field visits, one could obtain

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 14 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

information on types of habitats found through the study of land use maps, while examining hydrologicalmaps allowed the study of stream networks, catchment areas, flood retention zones etc. Accordingly, the following tasks were completed. Reviewed all available information on resource profiles, EIA or IEE reports, biodiversity survey reports - Collated information on habitat types, critical / sensitive habitats (due to the presence of threatened, endemic, rare species) - Predicted importance of ecosystems in providing ecological services (e.g. important river basins, wetlands). - Obtained protected area maps - The inclusion of areas within the river basin falling under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department (FD), Department of Wildlife Conservation(DWLC), Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Co-operation (SLLRDC), the Urban Development Authority (UDA) and the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) - Reviewed maps and layout of existing development projects centered around the river basin - Reviewed layout of implemented and proposed drought and flood mitigation plans - Made initial assessments with regard to the overall impacts and identification of ecosystem elements that may be adversely impacted by these interventions

• Phase II - Field work Three field sessions were conducted i.e. survey of the proposed reservoir sites, a survey of the terrestrial and aquatic habitats and the boat ride to assess impacts on bank vegetation. Site evaluations were based on a rapid assessment survey. The review of the above information sources allowed the identification of critical / sensitive habitats and areas that required greater focus due to the predicted adverse impacts. Accordingly, the following tasks were completed.

- Assessment of the distribution of habitats focusing on the identified critical / sensitive habitats, the current status and threats to these elements, effects of previous floods and drought issues and adverse impacts - Physical inspection of on-going and proposed project sites with respect to possible threats to forests and wetlands. Dredging points, to assess quantity of water and the annual levels of fluctuation and the presence of riparian vegetation. - Met with stakeholder agencies that are responsible for flood and drought mitigation plans to discuss the potential issues which may arise during the implementation of these interventions in the Kelani River basin. - Gathered information on previously reported issues pertaining to biodiversity such as fish mortality, eutrophication, spread of invasives and filling up of marshy lands.

• Phase III - Report preparation and analyses The final report was formulated using the collected information also incorporating feedback from stakeholders.

- Formulated report on feasibility of interventions based on gathered overall ecological information - Held interactive discussions between the consultants - Proposed overall conservation and/or mitigation measures to be adopted during the implementation of the drought and flood mitigation interventions in order to ensure that there will be no adverse impacts on protected areas or sensitive habitats and species - Formulated an Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan that would ensure long term sustainability of the entire river basin.

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1.12.4. Legal and Institutional Framework The review of the legal & institutional framework looked into the policies, laws, institutions, the capacities of the government sector to address the major environmental issues associated with various development options of the Kelani River basin development plans. Although the major part of the SEA comprises of issues which are technical and scientific nature, the legal and institutional component plays a vital role, since all the physical components are necessarily associated with the institutional set up and people.

In evaluating the existing legal framework and assessing the prevailing institutional framework, the following steps have been taken during the study.

• Identified around 30, existing ordinances, Acts, Regulations etc. categorized into four subject areas i.e. environment management, flood & drought control, agriculture & irrigation, land acquisitions & resettlement, pertinent to the project and examined its adequacy in order to ensure smooth project implementation without legal impediments. The major provisions of the legislations which have relevance to the project and the shortcomings of these legislations were also identified.

• The National, Provincial, District, & Divisional level institutions which have a bearing on the Basin Investment Plan are identified and their capacities assessed to undertake managerial tasks and confront with the new challenges. During the study some of the responsible officers at different levels, such as District Secretaries, Divisional Secretaries, and the District Heads of Departments etc. have been interviewed in order to gather the required information.

• Reviewed the existing literature, study reports etc. documented on the legal and institutional aspects of the Kelani River Basin development interventions to identify the gaps and assess the sufficiency of legal and institutional arrangements to promote sustainable flood and drought risk mitigation.

• Identified the key stakeholders whose inputs are critical for the success of the project, such as government officials at different levels especially the Grama Niladharies and the, community leaders who were consulted in order to gather most reliable information.

• Conducted meetings with the Stakeholders at district, division, and the village levels. The participants of the meetings comprised district, divisional & village level officers of the relevant government agencies. At the meetings the consultants made the officials aware of the present SEA & the interventions of the Kelani River Basin flood & drought risk mitigation and conducted an open discussion in order to generate more ideas and obtain their views. The divisional level meetings were held at the Kelaniya, Wattala, Ja-ela, Biyagama, Dompe, Gampaha, Colombo, Kolonnawa, Kaduwela divisional secretariats.

• The strengths and weaknesses of the existing institutional setup has also been identified through the information collected during the meetings with the officials at different levels, studying of various reports on the relevant subject area and also media reports on the subject. 1.12.5. Social Impact Assessment The Assessment on the social aspects of the Kelani River Basin (KRB) was conducted in three phases, which followed as a sequential process:

1) Document review, tool development and finalization, preparation for fieldwork, refinement and finalization of assessment plan, and provide inputs required for Inception Report

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2) Detailed field work for stakeholder consultation and development of an analytical Social Impact Assessment (SIA) framework to present findings 3) Report preparation, presentation of findings, feedback and incorporating feedback and provide input for the final report. The activities identified related to Social and Gender impact assessment in KRB, are as listed below.

• A concise socioeconomic and demographic profile of the communities living in the areas where the river basin is located, together with supporting Maps • Land ownership pattern in the river basin, including incidence and extent of encroachments of public space within the river basin • Types of uses of river basin - economic development, livelihoods, cultural, religious, recreational; (Past and Present) • Social, economic and cultural linkages of women & children to the river basin, and likelihoods of any vulnerable households / person's dependent on/linked to the river basin / diversion systems etc. • Availability and location of physical, cultural, archeological resources and sacred places connected to river basin • Ownership, institutional stakeholders, management and maintenance of river basin (Past and Present) • Public perceptions and concerns of ongoing and proposed development interventions • Identification of human habitats in the river basin that require land acquisition for development, cause damage to built-structures and could impact on livelihoods, and categorize the different zones of the river basin based on potential social impacts and process relating to land acquisition. 1.12.6. Participatory Planning & Consultation Stakeholder consultations were carried out using Focus Group Discussions (FGD) involving the project stakeholders and community leaders and activists to ascertain outputs, particularly relating to the following:

• Assessment of stakeholder involvement and community participation in broader utilization of the river basin • Potential for community participation, socio-economic and community development interventions under ongoing and proposed projects & programmes • Capture local knowledge of the different uses of land and water bodies in the River Basin and how they function at present, their reasons for land degradation and depletion of water quality • Disaster preparedness of local people for prolonged droughts, floods and other natural hazards, • Document experiences of past interventions for system rehabilitation / reconstruction; potential interventions for rehabilitation / reconstruction • Capture local knowledge about droughts and flood events in the past and other historical / scientific facts about the overall river basin • Understand the socio-economic links people have with the river basin, which is needed to justify the proposed SEA efforts • Capture public perceptions and concerns of proposed River Basin Development and related interventions and their suggestions and proposals. The overall idea of the social Assessment was to make use of the knowledge and desire of the local community on the River Basin Development and related interventions to suit their needs and for effective use and future Operation and Maintenance. The desktop review of the documents from CRIP office and District and Divisional Secretariats in Gampaha, Colombo and Kegalle Districts helped to explain the socio-economic, gender, and

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 17 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin resettlement conditions as well as the participatory consultation process of the region. This methodology helped the preparation of the overall Social Management Framework in the Kelani River Basin.

1.12.7. Stakeholder Analysis Stakeholder discussions/meetings were conducted in three levels. i.e.

• District level (District Heads of Colombo, Gampaha and Kegalle districts) • Divisional level (Selected DS Divisions in 3 districts directly affected by floods) • Community level (affected communities of different livelihoods, selected at random)

The Consultant used the following methods during Stakeholder discussions/meetings;

• Community Brainstorming with Affected Persons (APs) for two-way information dissemination / awareness creation • Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), with District and Divisional level stakeholders • Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) representing different social groups / communities

These were conducted using two distinct Questionnaire guides for government office bearers and general public, respectively. 1.12.8. Mapping and Data Analysis The available spatial and non-spatial data was collected and compiled for the SEA as required. Where necessary, field work was carried out for the collection of additional information using GPS. The data was then analyzed for different themes as required for the SEA.

1:50,000 scale data and other spatial data such as rainfall, flow, population and socio-economic data was required and used for preparation of SEA for Kelani River Basin.

1:50,000 scale Land use, Roads, River, Tank, Contour (to generate slope & Digital Elevation Maps -DEM) Administrative boundaries (such as District, Divisional Secretariat Boundaries-DSD, Grama Niladari Division Boundaries GND, Local Authority Boundaries), Agro-ecological zones, Forest Reserves, Wildlife Areas, Archeological Sites & other sensitive Areas, Geology, & Soil.

In order to analyze the impact of the interventions on the basin as a whole, the map of the proposed interventions were overlaid on the following maps.

• Map of Forest Areas including Conservation Forests and Proposed Forest Reserves • Map of Environmentally Sensitive Areas • Map of Archaeological sensitive sites • Population Density Maps • Map of Landslide Hazard Areas • Geological Maps 1.12.9. Regional Planning Study It is evident that the objectives for Regional Planning listed above in the TOR are scientifically oriented towards developing a flood mitigation plan based on land use and ecological perspective, which in fact is considered to be the "International Best Practice" of flood and stormwater management. They are also conceived in harmony with the National Physical Planning Objectives considering land use, hydrological, and ecological approach to disaster management as against pure structural interventions. The purpose of this exercise is to prepare a regional planning background document for regional planning/regional planning framework.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 18 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Therefore, the typical methodology adopted in the preparation of a regional development plan cannot be used. Instead, a simplified planning process as illustrated in Figure 04 below is adopted.

1.12.9.1. Stage One - Database Development and Analysis The following are the main sources of references in the database development process;

(i) National Physical Planning Policy and Plan prepared by National Physical Planning Department (NPPD) for the planning period of 2011-2030. (ii) Western Region Megapolis Structure Plan prepared by the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development. (iii) Existing, and proposed national and regional level projects that will have direct or indirect impacts on the change in the land use and settlement pattern of Kelani River basin (iv) National Action Plan (NAP) for combating land degradation in Sri Lanka, prepared by Natural Resources Management Division of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy. (v) Kelani Ganga Flood Protection Study (Main Report - Final, 1992), by Danish Hydraulic Institute In association with Lanka Hydraulic Institute. (vi) Colombo Trincomalee Economic Corridor, preliminary proposals prepared by consultants for Asian Development Bank. (vii) Existing spatial, social, economic, and environmental systems in the region with special reference to Kelani River Basin. (viii) International research publications on the global market for the regional economy. (ix) Legislations and policies governing and impacting Kelani River Basin development; (x) Information of Divisional Secretariats related to human settlements, relocation aspect public/economic infrastructure available and future needs; (xi) Public perception and concerns on ongoing and proposed development initiatives; (xii) Stakeholder consultation meetings

1.12.9.2. Stage Two - Vision Development Depending on the analysis of the existing situation a regional plan requires establishing a vision. The rest of the sections of the plan is aimed at achieving the set vision. 1.12.9.3. Stage Three - The Preparation of Development Direction - SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis was considered to be the appropriate tool to understand the future development directions. 1.12.9.4. Stage Four - Objectives The SWOT analysis will direct the foundation for the future development direction, and thus will form the foundation for the establishment of specific objectives for the formulation of regional planning framework.

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Figure 4: Methodology for Regional Planning Study 1.12.9.5. Stage Five - Regional Planning Framework The outcome of the study is to prepare a Regional Planning Framework that will form the foundation for decision making in the SEA. The regional planning framework will consist of;

• Generalized land use zoning plan • Land classification by "sensitivity." • Land classification by natural disasters • Potential positive impacts due to national and regional mega projects • Future development directions for sustainable development

1.12.9.6. Acceptance A regional planning process typically goes through a comprehensive consultation process. However, the regional planning framework prepared under this assignment, cannot be based on such comprehensive processes due to the time and resource limitations. Thus, two stakeholder consultation meetings and community consultations during the field trips were considered for discussions for possible feedbacks.

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Chapter 02

2. Legal and Institutional Framework Pertaining to the Implementation of Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in an Environmental Perspective

2.1. Environmental Safeguard Policies of the World Bank The World Bank group, in its operational directives has stipulated that all investments made in World Bank funded projects should be environmentally sustainable. The environmental safeguards and concerns of the World Bank group are endorsed by the operational policies of the group. These policies form the guiding principles for assessing the environmental and social acceptability of the project. The World Bank's safeguard policies are listed below.

OP 4.01 - Environmental Assessment OP 4.04 - Natural Habitat OP 4.09 - Pest Management OP 4.11 - Physical Cultural Resources OP 4.12 - Involuntary Resettlement OP 4.20 - Indigenous People OP 4.36 - Forests OP /BP 4.37 - Safety of Dams OP /BP / 7.50 - Projects on International Waterways OP / BP 7.60 - Projects on Disputed Areas

Environmental Assessment (OP/BP/GP 4.01), Natural Habitats (OP/BP/GP 4.04), Forests (OP 4.36), Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12) and Physical Cultural Resources (OP 4.11) are the operational policies of the World Bank which are most relevant to the project.

World Bank safeguard policy OP/BP/GP 4.04 requires that all required measures are adopted in order to conserve and protect existing designated protected areas such as National Parks and Sanctuaries, Managed Elephant Ranges, Elephant Corridors designated under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, as well as Conservation Forests declared under the Forest Ordinance and Environmental Protection Areas declared under the National Environmental Act. The SEA will also take into consideration Proposed Forest Reserves identified by the Forest Department which are expected to be declared as Conservation Forests in the future as required under OP 4.36. In addition to this during the proposed reservoir construction there will be involuntary Resettlement as well as potential impacts on Physical and cultural resources. These issues will be identified at the SEA stage and detailed studies will require to be carried out on these aspects at the EIA stage as required under OP 4.12, OP 4.11 and OP 4.20 respectively. 2.2. Categorization of Projects According to Environmental and Social Impacts Under Operational Policy 4.01 (Environmental Assessment), the Bank has categorized projects according to their environmental and social impacts. The Bank undertakes environmental screening of each proposed

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 21 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin project to determine the appropriate extent and type of Environmental Assessment (EA) needed. The Bank classifies the proposed project into one of four categories, depending on the type, location, sensitivity, and scale of the project, as well as the nature and magnitude of its potential environmental impacts.

Category A : Category A projects are likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented. These impacts may affect an area broader than the sites or facilities subject to physical works. The EA for a Category A project examines the project's potential negative and positive environmental impacts, compares them with those of feasible alternatives (including the "without project" scenario), and recommends any measures needed to prevent, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for adverse impacts and improve environmental performance. For a Category A project, the borrower is responsible for preparing a report, normally an Environmental Impact Assessment (or a suitably comprehensive regional or sectoral EA).

Category B: Category B projects have potential adverse environmental impacts on human populations or environmentally important areas - including wetlands, forests, grasslands, and other natural habitats - which are less adverse than those of Category A projects. These impacts are site-specific; few if any of them are irreversible; and in most cases mitigation measures can be designed more readily than for Category A projects. The scope of EA for a Category B project may vary from project to project, but it is narrower than that of Category A assessment. Like Category A, a Category B environmental assessment examines the project's potential negative and positive environmental impacts and recommends any measures needed to prevent, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for adverse impacts and improve environmental performance.

Category C: Category C projects are likely to have minimal or no adverse environmental impacts. Beyond screening, no further EA action is required.

Category D: This special category for environmental projects was included in the original Operational Directive on Environmental Assessment issued in 1989. This category was deleted in the 1991 revision of the Operational Directive and is no longer in use. It was originally used to classify environmental projects for which a separate environmental assessment may not have been required due to the fact that the environment was a major focus of project preparation.

Category F: A Category F project involves investment of Bank funds through a financial intermediary, in subprojects that may result in adverse environmental impacts. (Also known as Category FI.)

Note: Category D and F are not applicable to CRIP. 2.3. National Environment Policies and Legislation Although Strategic Environmental Assessment is not yet a legal requirement in Sri Lanka, a decision of the Cabinet of Ministers was taken in 2006, states that all new Policies, Plans or Programmes should be subjected to Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) prior to implementation of the proposed new Policy, Plan or Programme. As such the proposed flood and drought mitigation proposals will fall under the category of a plan/programme for which SEA is required as per the above-mentioned Cabinet Decision.

The main legislation relating to environment, that will apply for flood and drought mitigation proposals is the National Environmental Act (NEA) and its regulations. The two main regulatory requirements under the National Environmental Act are the Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (EIA) and the Environmental Protection Licensing (EPL) procedure.

Sri Lankan national legislation under the National Environmental Act No. 47 requires that an Environmental Impact Assessment or an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is conducted prior to implementation of

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 22 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin certain "prescribed projects" The type of projects requiring EIA or IEE is given in a Gazette Notification No. 772/22 dated 18th June 1993. (Please see Annex 2 of the report)

As such the legislative provisions on environmental protection and management in Sri Lanka are adequate to ensure sustainable flood and drought risk mitigation. This is further discussed in Table 3(Section 2.9) below.

There are number of Acts and regulations related to the implementation of development activities within river basins of Sri Lanka. The most relevant enactments are given below.

• National Environmental Act No 47 of 1980 and Amendment Acts of 1988 and 2000 • Agrarian Development Act No.46 of 2000 • Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act No.13 of 2005 • Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation Act • The Forest Ordinance no 16 of 1907 and its amendments • Land Acquisition Act No.9 of 1950 • National Involuntary Resettlement Policy(NIRP) • Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance No 2 of 1937 and its amendments • Fisheries Ordinance 1941 and its amendments • Soil Conservation Act, No. 25 of 1951 as amended in 1996 • The National Heritage Wilderness Area Act No. 3 of 1988 • Mines and Minerals Act no 33 of 1992 • Urban Development Authority Law, No.41 of 1978 and its amendments • Municipal/Urban Council/Pradeshiya Sabha Laws • Irrigation Ordinance No 32 of 1946 and Irrigation Act No.48 of 1968 and its amendments • Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1981 • State Lands Encroachment Act No.08 of 1954 • Flood Protection Ordinance No.04 of 1924 and subsequent amendment

In addition to the above mentioned Acts there are several major Policies which have a bearing on the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions in the Kelani River Basin as indicated below;

• Urban Sector Policy Action Plan 1996-2015 • Urban Sector Policy Framework (USPF) of 2003 • National Physical Planning Policy of 2006 • National Environment Policy of 2003 • National Land Use Policy of 2009 • National Policy on Disaster Management of 2013 • The National Wetlands Policy and Strategy of 2006 • The National Watershed Management Policy of 2004 • The National Forest Policy of 1995 • The National Wildlife Policy of 2000

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2.4. Environmental Regulatory Requirements for the Proposed Flood and Drought Mitigation Interventions in the Kelani River Basin

The latest pre-feasibility/feasibility studies carried out by WS Atkins International and Green tech Consultants Pvt Limited in 2017, has proposed a two stage strategy for flood mitigation for the Lower Kelani Basin.

Stage 1: a set of flood embankments from Hanwella to the river mouth, including the tributaries entering the main channel, protecting the area at a 1:25 year return period level of protection.

Stage 2: a set of reservoirs in the mid-upper basin to capture the flood waters generated in the upper catchment to bring the full level of protection to a 1:100 year return period. These would be developed as multipurpose reservoirs, contributing to water supply for domestic and industrial uses, inter basin transfer of water to the dry zones and hydropower generation, in addition to their prioritized flood mitigation function

The proposed projects including the flood bunds and the construction of upstream reservoirs are projects which require to undergo an Environmental Impact Assessment under the provisions in the National Environmental Act. According to Part I of the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation (No 772/22 of 18.06.1993), the projects listed below require either Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) prior to implementation. (Please refer Annex 2 of the report for the list of "Prescribed Projects "under the NEA)

• All river basin development and irrigation projects excluding minor irrigation works (as defined by Irrigation Ordinance Chapter 453) • Conversion of Forests covering an area exceeding 1ha into non- forest use. • Clearing of land areas exceeding 50ha • Involuntary resettlement exceeding 100 families, other than resettlement effected under emergency situations

Since the construction of the proposed upstream reservoirs will encompass all of the above mentioned categories the upstream reservoirs are "Prescribed Projects" in terms of the National Environmental Act.

In addition to the above mentioned projects, Part III of the above mentioned EIA gazette specifies the following environmentally sensitive areas. Projects of any magnitude within such environmentally sensitive areas require to undergo either an EIA or IEE prior to implementation.

• 60 meters from a river or stream bank and having a width of 25 meters or more at any point of its course; • 100 meters from the boundaries of or within any area declared under the National Heritage Wilderness Act; the Forest Ordinance; • any archeological reserve, ancient or protected monument as defined or declared under the Antiquities Ordinance (Chapter 188); • any areas declared under the Botanical Gardens Ordinance; and • within 100 meters from the boundaries of or within any areas declared as a Sanctuary under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance.

One of the specific environmentally sensitive areas under Part 111 of the EIA gazette is defined as follows "60m from the bank of a public stream as defined in the Crown Lands Ordinance (Chapter 454) and having a width of more than 25m at any point of its course. As such the proposed flood bunds will require to be subjected to an IEE or EIA prior to implementation. The decision on whether an IEE or EIA is required will be

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 24 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin decided by the Central Environmental Authority. In view of the scale of impacts of the proposed flood bunds, especially potential social impacts, it will most likely have to undergo a full scale EIA.

The environmental regulatory requirements under the national laws and the World Bank requirements for the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions are summarized in Annex 02 of this report.

Since the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions will require detailed Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) or an Initial Environmental Examinations (IEE) at a later stage, the SEA report will serve as a guide to the EIA process and also identify any critical issues or areas within the Kelani River Basin in relation to the proposed interventions proposed under CRIP as described in detail in Chapter 3 of this report. The SEA report will also identify the additional studies which require to be carried out prior to implementation of the project. 2.5.Adequacy of Existing Environmental Regulations and Policies in Order to Promote Sustainable Flood and Drought Mitigation It is clear the existing environmental policies and regulations are adequate in order to promote sustainable flood and drought mitigation, as almost all of the proposed flood and drought mitigation proposals will require to be subjected to either and Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or a full scale Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) under the legal provisions in the National Environmental Act. The proposed flood bunds and the upstream reservoirs will require to be approved by the CEA, subsequent to an IEE or an EIA as the case maybe.

Although the current legal set up and environmental regulations under the National Environmental Act are adequate in order to promote sustainable flood and drought mitigation, a major weakness in the process is in the post EIA monitoring process. Although the EIA process itself is conducted in a comprehensive manner and the EIA approvals are issued subject to many conditions which require to be met by the project proponent, the monitoring of the implementation of such conditions is not always up to the desired level. This is mainly due to the many resource constraints in the form of human and financial resources and the large number of projects handled by the project Approving agencies such as the Central Environmental Authority. The post EIA project Monitoring is the weakest link in the EIA process in Sri Lanka.

The Irrigation Department which will be the main implementing agency for the project requires to ensure that regular monitoring of the project is carried out in order to ensure that the project is adhering fully to the EIA approval conditions stipulated by the CEA.

Independent monitoring of approved projects by the project, approving agencies which in this instance will be the Central Environmental Authority is also a prerequisite in order to ensure that the conditions under which the project was approved are diligently complied with, by the project proponent.

Although the current Sri Lankan legislation in the form of the National Environmental Act no 47 and Regulations promulgated under it are deemed sufficient to ensure sustainable flood and drought mitigation, there are some inherent weaknesses associated with the current legislation in relation to flood and drought control. These weaknesses in specific legislation are given in the last section of this chapter.

2.6.Adequacy of the Current Institutional Setup to Ensure Sustainable Basin Investment Plans Meet its Objective in a Sustainable Manner As mentioned in the previous section the monitoring of the implementation of the required mitigation measures is a pre requisite in order to ensure that the Flood and drought mitigation measures for the Kelani

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 25 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

River Basin are carried out in a sustainable manner and do not cause any damage or adverse impacts to the environment.

It should be noted that the Central Environmental Authority which is the main project approving agency under the EIA regulation usually appoints a monitoring committee consisting of all major stakeholders to the project, in order to monitor project implementation and to resolve any issues that may arise during this phase. This monitoring committee could therefore be made use of to monitor project implementation and to ensure that the project approval conditions are fully complied with. However, since this monitoring committee is chaired by the CEA the Irrigation Department or the CRIP will not have a major say regarding the frequency of the meetings or the members in the committee.

At the local level, there are several committees such as the District Coordinating Committee (DCC) which oversees all development activities within the district including central government and provincial council activities. The DCC comprises of national and local level politicians, officials representing government organizations within the district as well as NGO representatives. This committee is a powerful coordinating and decision making body at the local level, which also sanctions, developmentprograms within the district and also resolves development and environment related issues.

At the District level in addition to the DCC, there are other committees such as the District Agricultural Committee (DAC), District Environment Committee and District Disaster Management committee which are chaired by the District Secretary.

The above mentioned committees at the local level could also monitor the implementation of the project to a certain extent. However, since the above mentioned committees deal with a large number of development projects at the local level, including issues related to these projects, it is unlikely that these committees will be able to provide the required attention to the projects implemented under the CRIP.

2.7. Suggested Institutional Arrangements to Oversee the Implementation of Mitigation Measures In such a scenario it is proposed that a Project Coordination and Monitoring Committee is set up within the Irrigation Department itself, consisting of the following organizations for this purpose.

• Irrigation Department (to chair the Committee) • CRIP-PMU • Central Environmental Authority • Department of Agriculture/ Ministry of Agriculture • Ceylon Electricity Board • District/Divisional Secretaries of the relevant districts • Relevant Provincial Councils and Local Authorities • Forest Department • Department of Wildlife Conservation • Department of Archaeology • Provincial Irrigation Engineers

The above Project Coordination and Monitoring Committee should meet every month at the implementation stage of the project in order to discuss the progress and any issues regarding project implementation. It should be noted however that Project Coordination and Monitoring Committee per se will not be able to monitor

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 26 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin the implementation of the Flood and drought mitigation interventions on the field. The solution to this is the setting up of a separate Environmental unit within the Irrigation Department for the purpose of monitoring the CRIP Project as well as the other major projects being implemented by the Irrigation Department.

2.8. Establishment of a Fully Fledged Environmental Unit in the Irrigation Department-(Proposal to Strengthen the Environmental Unit within the Irrigation Department) It is also proposed that a fully-fledged Environmental Unit is established at the Irrigation Department manned by suitably qualified environmental professionals. This could be done by strengthening the existing Environmental Unit in the Department by staffing it with qualified environmental professionals. Setting up of such a unit at the irrigation Department would be a useful exercise as the Irrigation Department is involved in the planning of many of the largest projects in Sri Lanka, which often have multiple environmental impacts. Strengthening of the existing environmental unit will result in environmental inputs being provided to projects at the planning and design stage itself, thereby avoiding potential issues arising at the EIA stage. The proposed unit could take up the task of regular monitoring of the proposed projects under the CRIP along with independent monitoring by the Central Environmental Authority and Coast Conservation Department in order to ensure compliance with EIA approval conditions and to ensure that no adverse environmental impacts take place.

The section below gives an overview of the national level legislation relating to Flood & Drought Control, Environmental Management and Protection, Irrigation and Agriculture and land Acquisition and resettlement all of which are relevant to the proposed Flood and drought mitigation proposals.

2.9. Overview of National Level Legislation on Environmental Protection and Management Flood and Drought Control, Disaster Management, Land Acquisition and Involuntary Resettlement

The constitution of Sri Lanka, gives pride of place to the preservation and improvement of the environment for the benefit of the community. Chapter 6, Article 27 (14) of the Constitution states that the protection, prevention and improvement of the environment for the benefit of the community is a directive principle of the state. Similarly, Chapter 6, Article 28 (f) of the Constitution declares that the protection of nature and conserving its riches is a fundamental duty of every person in Sri Lanka. Thus, both the state and the citizens of the country have a responsibility towards environmental protection.

A large number of legislative Acts pertinent to various sectors have been enacted on the subject of environment, in order to protect, conserve, maintain, and for the careful use of natural resources, since colonial times. Most of the laws were enacted as ordinances and have been subsequently amended to suit the present context. The purpose of the present study is to carry out a preliminary assessment on these laws, policies and the institutional set up pertaining to sustainable flood and drought risk mitigation and to ensure that the basin investment plans meet its objectives without yielding negative environmental consequences.

The existing Acts and Policies that have bearing on the environment, in connection with the Kelani River Basin area are identified and mentioned in the Table 33 below. The Acts and policies are categorized into four subject areas as follows;

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1) Flood & Drought Control 2) Environment Management and regulation 3) Irrigation & Agriculture 4) Land Acquisition & Resettlement

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Table 3: Existing Acts and Policies that have bearing on the environment, in connection with the Kelani River Basin area

Act \ Policy Institution Main Objective of the Act Major provisions Relevance Environmental protection

1) National Environmental Act No 47 of Central Environmental This is an act to establish the Central Environment Provisions with respect to, Environmental All the development activities of the basin 1980 and its Amendment Acts No 56 Authority Authority which is the national level agency for management, protection and monitoring. investment Plan have to follow the EIA process. of 1988 and 2000. environmental management and protection. Approval of Projects (EIA provision) Environmental protection Licensing Provision (pollution Control) 2) National Environment policy and Ministry of Mahaweli National Environment policy provides the direction The Sec. 4 of the policy identifies the strategies for The policy provides directions to protect conserve Strategies Development and to conserve & manage Sri Lanka 'Environment in all economic sectors ; & manage the natural resources of the basin area. Environment aspects. 1)forestry & wildlife conservation 2)agriculture, plantations, land development & mining,3) fisheries, coastal & marine area management Sec 5 , identifies strategic approach to natural resources, 3) Fo rest Conservation Ordinance No Forest Conservation This ordinance deals with conservation, protection, Chapter 02 This Act is relevant to the project since there are 16 of 1907 and its Amendment Act Department and sustainable management of forest resources some protected forests as well as some proposed Reserved & conservation of forests No 65 of 2009 which would be applicable to the forest resources forest reserves within the project area. found within the project area. Sec.03, 05,06,07, The last amendment Act no 65 of 2009- An Ordinance to consolidate and amend the law relating to the conservation, protection and sustainable management of the forest resources and utilization of forest produce, to provide for regulations for the transport of timber and forest produce and other activities related to such transport. 4) Fa una and Flora Protection Department of Wildlife This is an Ordinance which provides for the Sec. 02 of the Ordinance deals with the constitution The Department of Wildlife Conservation is Ordinance No 02 of 1937 and its Conservation protection and conservation of the fauna and flora of of Natural Reserves, Strict Natural Resources, Jungle empowered by the ordinance to protect conserve Amendments(last amendment Act Sri Lanka and its habitat, for the prevention of Corridors, Marine Resources, Buffer Zones & & manage the fauna & flora of the basin area No 22 of 2009 commercial and other misuse of such fauna and flora sanctuaries. and their habitat, for the conservation of biodiversity of Sri Lanka. 02A. Management Plans for National Reserves & Applicable if project area lies within any designated Sanctuaries protected area or if species of special interest are 02 B. Assessment of impact of activities within affected in anyway. National Reserves & Sanctuaries 5) Fe lling of Trees (Control) Act no 9 of Department of Forest This is an Act to provide for the prohibition regulation Sec. 02& 04 of the ordinance provide laws to Since the construction of reservoirs in particular 1951, Amendment No 30 of 1953 and conservation or control of felling of trees. prohibition of felling trees & penalties for violation of may require felling of trees the provisions of this Amendment No 1 of 2000 The interventions would necessitate the felling of the law Act are relevant to the project. trees within private or state lands and hence its applicability 6) Coast conservation act No 57 of Department of Coast This is an Act to make provisions for a survey of the Sec. 12. Coastal Zone Management Since the lower section of the proposed flood 1981, Amendment Act No 64 of Conservation coastal zone and preparation of a coastal zone Sec. 16. EIA bunds may come within the area of jurisdiction of 1988. (The last amendment Act is No management plan to regulate and control Sec. 24 Permits for the occupation of the foreshore or the Coast Conservation Department, the development activities within the coastal zone and to sea beds provisions of this Act will apply to the project. 49 of 2011) make provision for the formulation and execution of Sec.25 prevention of intrusion waste or foreign the scheme of work for coastal conservation matters in the coastal zone Regulations - 1. Appraisal of proposed develop activities in the designated coastal zone.

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Act \ Policy Institution Main Objective of the Act Major provisions Relevance 2. Issue of permits - Any person desiring to engage in the development activities will be required to obtain a permit. 3. EIA will be required in the case of development activities 7) No 14 of 19 87 Pradeshiya Saba Act Local Authorities An act to provide for the establishment of pradeshiya (Part 3) powers and duties as thoroughfares, building All proposed development activities within & No 15 of 1999 (amendment) Act sabas with a view to provide greater opportunities along thoroughfares Pradeshya Sabhas require the approval of the for the people to participate effectively in decision (Part 4) Powers duties as to public health, drainage, relevant Pradeshya Sabha. making process relating to administrative and latrines, public utility services, water supply development activities at local level (Part 8) Procedures ad legal proceedings 8) Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Sri Lanka Land SLLRDC was established under this act. The Part 1 - Declaration of reclamation and develop The provisions of this law will apply particularly development cooperation act No 15 Reclamation and objectives of the act are to reclaim and develop areas during the implementation of the proposed flood of 1968 and amendments development marshy and low line areas and retain the custody Sec. 2 A Provision against filling or developing a bunds. cooperation management and control of such lands. reclamation development area. 9) Antiquities Ordinance No 9 of 1940 Department of An act to provide for the better prevention of the Archaeological reserves. There are number of archaeological sites within Amended Act No 24 of 1998 Archaeology antiquities of Sri Lanka and sites and buildings of Sec. 33 (1 & 2) Declaration of archeological reserves. the Kelani River Basin which may be affected by historical or archaeological importance in Sri Lanka the project activities. 10) Ur ban Development Act No 41 of Urban Development To promote integrated planning and implementation Sec.02 Declaration of areas as suitable for Since many of the areas around the proposed 1978 Authority of economic, social and physical development of the development by the minister by a gazette flood bunds as well as some of the reservoir areas area declared by the minister in-charge of the subject notification. fall within the jurisdiction of the UDA, the of urban development provisions in this Act will be applicable. 11) Mines and Mineral Act No 15 of 1958 Geological Survey and This is an Act to provide for the establishment of This authoritative government institution is Since implementation of both the proposed flood and Amendment Act No 33 of 1992 Mines Bureau Geological Survey and Mines Bureau to regulate empowered to map the countries geology and to bunds as well as the reservoirs will require the use and Amendment Act No 66 of 2009 (GSMB) exploration for mining, transportation, processing, explore its mineral resources of a considerable quantity of construction material National Mines Policy trading in or export of minerals for the transfer to such as sand, soil and quarry material the approval such Bureau of the functions of the Department of of the GSMB will be required for the extraction Geological Survey for the repeal of the Salt and transport of such material. Ordinance, The Radioactive Minerals Act No 46 of 1968 and the Mines and Minerals Law No 04 of 1973. 12) Road Development Authority Act. No Road Development The act provides for the establishment of the road Sec. 9 (1 & 2) - .Since the flood bunds may intercept some areas 73 of 1981 Authority development authority 1. Powers duties and functions of the authority belonging to the RDA their approval may be are stated in sub sections( a - n) required. 2. In excise perform and discharge the duties in corporation with government departments, corporations and local authorities.

Flood and Drought Control

13) Flood Protection Ordinance No.04 of Department of An Ordinance for the protection of areas subject to (Sec. 3) - Power to declare any area in Sri Lanka a Since the basin is a flood prone area the law is 1924, Act no. 22 of 1955 Irrigation damage from floods .The minister in charge of the flood area. directly relevant. subject of irrigation is given powers to declare any (Sec.4) - Preparation of schemes for promotion of area in Sri Lanka a flood area and the director of flood area. irrigation is required to prepare a scheme for the (Sec.9) - Regulation for Management of Flood area. protection of such areas. 14) Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act Disaster Management An act to provide for establishment of national Sec. 2 (1) Establishment of National Council for Disaster management including flood & drought No. 13 of 2005 Centre (DMC) council for disaster management , disaster Disaster Management. risk mitigation is the main purpose of the project. management center, appointment of technical Sec. 8 (1) The provisions in this law are therefore relevant. advisory committee, preparation of disaster Establishment of DMC management plans etc. Sec. 11 (1) - Declaration of state of Disaster Sec. 15 (1) - Award of compensation

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Act \ Policy Institution Main Objective of the Act Major provisions Relevance 15) Draft Flood risk Management Act of Flood Risk An Act to replace the flood Protection Ordinance The draft Act makes provisions for assessment and As flood mitigation is one of the main objectives of Sri Lanka Management No.04 of 1924 & Amendment Act No 22 of 1955. sustainable management of flood risk by the the project, the provisions in this new act will be Authority proposed flood Risk Management Authority. directly relevant. (Proposed) The draft act has provisions for establishment of a A new set of Flood Risk Management Authority, Flood Risk institutions would be Management Centre, Flood Operation Centre, Inter established under Organizational flood Risk Management committees, proposed law. The district Flood Operation Centre, District Flood River Basin Flood Advisory & Management Committees and River Basin Committees would Flood Committees. have direct impact on the river basins 16) National Policy on Disaster Disaster Management The National Policy on Disaster Management spells Sec. 9 of the policy lays down the The policy provides policy directions for the Management 2010 Centre (DMC) out the national regime for disaster management a.Legal basis for National policy which provides for measures to be taken for flood & drought risk the protection of life of the community mitigation of the vulnerable community in flood b. Effective use of resources for preparedness and prone areas. prevention. c. Enhancement of public awareness d. Capacity building among persons living in the areas. Water Resource Board Act. No 29 of Water Resource Board The objective of the act is to conserve and ensure the The major provisions in this act are as follows; The act provides legal provisions for conserving 1964 sustainable utilization of water resources of the and sustainable utilization of the water resources country by using new technologies and management a. The control, regulation and development including in the country and is therefore relevant to the tools Kelani River basin area. the conservation and utilization of the water resources of the country. b. Promotion, construction, operations and maintenance of schemes of irrigation, drainage, flood control and hydraulic power. C .Control of soil erosion d. Prevention of the pollution of rivers, streams and other water causes. e. Formulation of national policies relating to water resources 17) National Water Supply and Drainage National Water Supply This is a law to provide for the establishment of a The duties of the board are; The act provides the legal provisions for supplying Act No 2 of 1974 and Drainage Board public authority known as the National Water Supply 1. Develop, provide, operate and control an efficient, water for the public, domestic & industrial and Drainage Board (NWSDB). The objective of the coordinated water supply and distribute water for purposes of the area. Especially in supplying water act is to develop, provide, operate and distribute for domestic purposes during the drought. public, domestic or industrial purposes. water for public, domestic or industrial purposes and Therefore the provisions of this law are relevant to 2. Establish, develop, operate, control an efficient, to establish an efficient and coordinated sewerage the CRIP. system. coordinated sewerage system etc.

Agriculture & Irrigation

18) So il conservation act No 25 of 1951, Soil Conservation An act to make provisions for the conservation of soil Sec. 1 A - Establishment of soil conservation Board The act has provisions to survey and investigation No 24 of 1996 Board resources for prevention or mitigation of soil erosion Sec. 3 - The functions of the board to ascertain land degradation due to flood and and for the protection of land against damage caused Sec. 5 - Declaration of erodible areas. drought and salinization of the basin area and is by flood and drought Sec. 6 - Regulation of erodible areas. therefore relevant

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Act \ Policy Institution Main Objective of the Act Major provisions Relevance Sec. 4 - Surveys and investigations as to nature and extent of soil erosion 19) Irr igation Ordinance No 32 of 1946 Department of Irrigation ordinance provides the legal basis relating Sec.03) Constitution of District Agricultural Since the functions of the Irrigation Department Irrigation to major irrigation works. committees (DAC) are based on the provisions in this Act, it is directly The major part of the Basin Investment Plan comes Sec.11) Meeting of proprietors to make rules in relevant to CRIP. under the purview of the Dept. of Irrigation. The relation to cultivation in an irrigable area. Irrigation Ordinance is the only law which provides Sec.33) Construction & maintenance of irrigation the legal basis to the major irrigation work. The DAC work. which is an important committee in the field of Sec.64) protection of irrigation work & conservation agriculture is established under the provision of this of water. ordinance 20) Draft Act to amend the Irrigation Department of An Ordinance to amend and consolidate the Law The Law provides powers and duties of Commissioner, Since the functions of the Irrigation Department Ordinance No 32 of 1946(Chapter Irrigation relating to irrigation. imposed of irrigation rates, power to except certain are based on the provisions in this Act, it is directly 453) The existing ordinance has many inadequacies, since lands from irrigation rates, farmers organization to relevant to CRIP for the last 70 years it has not undergone any major impose a levy constitution of District Agricultural amendment. Committees, Project Management Committee in The Amendment Act has been drafted, in order to respect of specified major irrigation work, advisory address the inadequacies of the existing law. committees in respect of major irrigation work etc. 21) Agrarian Development Act No 46 of Department of An act to provide for matters relating to landlords This Act has provisions for the utilization of Since agriculture is an important sector within the 2000 Agrarian Development and tenant cultivators of paddy lands, for the agricultural lands in accordance with the agricultural Kelani Basin the provisions of this Act are relevant Amended Act No 46 of 2011 utilization of agricultural lands in accordance with policies for the establishment of agrarian to CRIP. the agricultural policies, for the establishment of development councils, to provide for agricultural land agrarian bank, to provide establishment of agrarian tribunals development councils The Agrarian Development Act provides the legal & to provide for the repeal of the agrarian services Act institutional basis for the development of agriculture No 58 of 1979. in the area. It has become necessary to set out a national policy in The establishment of Agrarian Development relation to the rights of tenant's cultivators and the Councils, farmer organizations, maintenance of restrictions to be imposed on persons using minor irrigation work. agricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes in Legal provisions for preventing utilization of paddy lands for purposes other than paddy cultivation. order to ensure maximum utilization of agricultural lands for agricultural production. 22) State Land Ordinance Act No 13 of Ministry of Lands All state owned lands are governed by the Sec. 2 - The President in name and behalf of the Since a major part of the Kelani River Basin 1949 provisions in this Act. country may grant lease, sell or otherwise dispose of consists of state lands, the provisions of this Act state lands under the provisions of this Act are relevant to CRIP. Under this provisions state lands can be disposed for development activities of the area. 23) Crown Land Ordinance of 1947 Do Unauthorized settlers in state lands could be evicted Sec.03. Notice to issue to party in unauthorized Since some of the lands to be acquired for project under this law position or occupation to vacate land activities may be occupied by unauthorized Sec. 10 - Order of ejection. settlers, this Act is relevant to CRIP. 24) La nd development Ord.No.19 of Do An ordinance to provide for the systematic Sec.20) State land could be alienated through a land Alienation of lands in the basin area could be 1935 development & alienation of crown lands kachcheri done under this law Sec.23) persons are selected to issue permits/grants at the land kachcheri Sec.24) Permit/grants are issued to the selected persons in a prescribe form Sec. 42) Prevention of disposition of lands without prior approval of the authorities.

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Act \ Policy Institution Main Objective of the Act Major provisions Relevance 25) State Lands ( Recovery of possession) Do An act to make provision for the recovery of Sec 03) Where the Authority is of the opinion that Unauthorized occupiers of state lands in the basin act No 07 of 1979 possession of State lands from persons in any person is in unauthorized possession or area could be evicted under this law. unauthorized possession or occupation. occupation of any state land they may be served with a quit notice. Once this notice is issued the person is obliged to comply with it. 26) La nd Acquisition Act No.09 of 1950. Do An Act to make provision for the acquisition of lands Part 1) - Preliminary investigation and declaration of Any private lands required and servitudes for public purposes. intended acquisition. For effective implementation of Basin Investment Sec. 2) - Investigation & selecting lands for public Plans can be acquired under this law. The Sec. 38 purposes of the Act may be used for the expediting of Sec. 4) - Notice of and objections to intended acquisition. acquisition. Sec. 5) - Declaration that a land or servitude is required for a public purpose. Sec. 38 (a) - Where it becomes necessary to take immediate possession of any land on the ground of any urgency, at any time after a notice under sec. 2 is exhibited. 27) State Lands Encroachment Do An ordinance to make provisions for prevention of Sec. 2 - Information of encroachment. Since the encroachment of state lands is a Ordinance 1840 & amendments encroachment of state lands Order for delivery up of possession. hindrance to development activities as well as Penalty on disobedience of order or renewed protection of natural resources the provisions of encroachment. this act be made use of during implementation of CRIP 28) Involuntary Resettlement Policy Do The national policy to assure that relocated persons' Sec. 4 Policy principals The negative effects of the land Acquisition Act 2001 standard of living is comparable to that at the time a. Involuntary resettlements should be avoid or can be mitigated by adherence to the directives of of displacement reduced the NIRP. However, this has no legal status at b. Where involuntary resettlement is unavoidable, present. affected people should be assisted or re­ established c. Gender equality and equity ensured d. Affected persons should be fully involved in the selection of relocation sites e. Replacement lands should be an option for compensation in case of loss of plan. 29) National Land Use Policy of Department of Land Rational utilization of lands as a resource, in the Land Use Policy Planning. A land use plan for the basin area is essential for Sri Lanka Use Policy Planning national interest, in order to ensure food security, a a) Create the legal background of implementing the better utilization of lands in the area. As the SEA high quality of life, equity and ecological national land use policy. for the Kelani Basin is looking at this aspect, this sustainability. b) prepare a National Land Use Plan law is relevant to the project. The Department of Land Use policy Planning is 3)Provide technical guidelines to utilize the limited Responsible for preparation of such a plan. resources 4) Issue directives to ensure the conservation & future existence of land resources.

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2.10. Current Administrative Structure at Central, Provincial and Local Levels

The 9th schedule of the 13th Amendment of the Constitution has listed out the functions of the Provincial Councils and the Central Government. The functions mentioned in list 1 are devolved subjects and are carried out by the Provincial Councils and the functions in list 2 which is the reserved list, are carried out by the institutions directly under the Central Government while functions of list 3 (concurrent list) are to be carried out by both the Central Government and Provincial Councils.

The Governors of the of the Western, Sabaragamuwa, & Central province represent the Central Government in the provinces and coordinate with both the Provincial Council and the Central Government. The District Secretaries of Colombo, Gampaha, Kegalle, Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura, and Kandy are the heads of the respective districts, and function directly under the Central Government. From a legal point of view the District Secretary has a very weak position in the administration but in reality, he wields more power beyond the legal responsibility.

The Divisional Secretary (DS) plays a dual role. He has to perform the Central Government functions as well as the provincial council functions within the division. However, the DS is under the direct supervision of the District Secretary.

The local government set up at the divisional level is also an important feature of the local administration. The local authority directly comes under the Provincial Council. The local authorities comprise of Pradeshiya Sabhas, Urban Councils and Municipal Councils. In the Kelani River Basin area, parallel to the DS divisions, 37 local authorities are in operation in the seven districts. The chart below illustrates the administrative structure at different levels of Government.

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Figure 5: Administrative structure at different levels of Government

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The following section describes the institutions which are responsible for Flood and Drought Control, Environmental Management and Protection and Irrigation and Agriculture.

2.11. Flood and Drought Control There are few institutions directly involved in flood and drought control activities.

1. Department of Irrigation

The Department of irrigation is one of the important institutions which has a responsibility in flood control. The Director Irrigation is given powers through the Flood Protection Ordinance No 4 of 1924 and Amendment Act No 22 of 1955. After the enactment of the proposed new Flood Risk Management Act of Sri Lanka, the Director General of Irrigation will be entrusted with additional powers and responsibilities with regard to flood control.

2. Soil Conservation Board

The Soil Conservation Board has been established under the Soil Conservation (amendment) Act No 21 of 1996. According to section 2 (1) of the act, one of the duties of the Director General is to survey and investigate the nature and extent of land degradation due to various factors including floods and droughts and to enable the minister to determine the areas which should be declared as conservation areas.

3. National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) and Disaster Management Centre (DMC)

The National Disaster Management Centre was established in under the Ministry of Social Services and Social Welfare in 1996 under a cabinet directive. The NDMC is responsible for the management of post disaster relief activities and for providing housing assistance to disaster victims. Disaster preparedness, planning, mitigation activities, data collection, maintenance and awareness activities are all functions of the NDMC. In 2007 NDMC was renamed as the National Disaster Relief Services Centre. (NDRSC)

After the tsunami disaster situation in Sri Lanka, the Disaster Management act No 13 of 2005 was enacted. The Disaster Management Centre was established under this act as the executing agency of the National Disaster Management Council.

These two institutions come under one ministry and have similar functions to perform, leading to duplication of work. However, both institutions have a role to play in flood and drought mitigation. Both of these institutions have their officials at the district and divisional levels functioning through the Divisional Secretariat.

4. Water Resources Board

The aim of the Water Resources Board is to conserve and ensure the sustainable use of water resources by using new technologies and management tools. The services of the board extend to developing water resources to meet the growing demands of the country's domestic, institutional and agriculture sectors.

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5. National Water Supply and Drainage Board

The National Water Supply and Drainage Board (commonly known as NWSDB) is the national organization responsible for the provision of safe drinking water and facilitating the provision of sanitation to the people in Sri Lanka. The organization had its beginning as a sub department under the Public Works Department for Water Supply and Drainage. In 1965, it became a division under the Ministry of Local Government. From 1970, this division functioned as a separate department under the Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Highways and remained so until the present board was established in January 1975 by an act of Parliament.

The main functions of the National Water Supply & Drainage Board (NWSDB), which presently functions under the Ministry of Water Supply & Drainage are the operation and maintenance of water supply and sewerage schemes, implementation of new urban and rural water supply projects, carrying out sector planning, feasibility studies, detailed designs, tender documentation, contract administration, project supervision and research and development work in the water and sanitation sector.

2.12. Environment Management and Protection A large number of institutions with responsibility for environmental management and protection have either direct or indirect responsibility in protection of the environment in the Kelani River Basin. Some of these institutions are listed below.

1. Central Environmental Authority 2. Department of Forest Conservation 3. Department of Wildlife Conservation 4. Department of Coast Conservation 5. Local Authorities 6. Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 7. Department of Archeology 8. Urban Development Authority 9. Geological Survey and Mines Bureau

All though the above mentioned institutions have responsibilities to protect the environment of the basin area, the Central Environment Authority (CEA) is the national level agency for environmental management and protection.

The Ministry of Environment and Mahaweli Development has overall responsibility in the affairs of the CEA with the objective of integrating environmental considerations in the development process of the country. The CEA has been given wider regulatory powers under the NEA through its amendment No 56 of 1988 and Amendment Act No 53 of 2000.

Environment Protection licensing (EPL) process for industries, EIA/IEE, issuing of environmental recommendations and site clearances, Environmental Education and Awareness, Scheduled Waste Management Licensing, responding to public complaints related to environment and environmental monitoring are the main services of the CEA. The subject of Environment is a devolved subject while the central government also has controlling powers since the subject is a concurrent subject.

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2.13. Irrigation and Agriculture

The functions of the following institutions have a direct impact on irrigation and agriculture development in the basin area.

1. Department of Irrigation 2. Department of Agrarian development 3. Department of Agriculture 4. Department of Land Use Policy Planning

2.13.1. Department of Irrigation The Department of Irrigation plays the most important role in relation to Kelani River Basin flood and drought mitigation plans. Construction of new reservoirs, restoration and rehabilitation of major irrigation tanks and maintenance of existing tanks come under the purview of this department. In addition to this the Irrigation Department is responsible for flood control activities. The functions laid down in the flood control ordinance are entrusted to them. Since the ordinance does not have sufficient legal powers, a new act titled the Flood Risk Management Act has been drafted with more powers vested with the Director General of Irrigation. A new institutional structure would also be introduced in order to implement the act.

The Divisional Irrigation Engineers are responsible for the operation, maintenance and improvement of irrigation, drains and flood protection for each division under their purview. The Director Irrigation of the district coordinates the functions of the divisions.

2.13.2. Department of Agrarian Development The Department of Agrarian Development was established in 1958 under the Paddy Lands Act No 2 of 1958. At present the Department implements the Agrarian Development Act No 46 of 2000 and amended act of 2011. The main functions entrusted to the Department are;

1. Protection of rights of the cultivators 2. Utilization of paddy lands in accordance with the agricultural policies 3. Establishment of agricultural tribunals 4. Institutional structure of farmer organization 5. Establishment of Agrarian Development Councils and Farmer Organizations

The Agrarian Development Councils and Farmer Organizations operating in base areas with community participation and Agrarian Development Officers at the divisional levels and Agriculture Research and Development Assistants provide the institutional support for the agricultural activities of the area.

The District Assistance Commissioners monitor the activities of the field level officials and the Agrarian Development Council and farmer organizations. The department is also responsible for the construction and maintenance of minor irrigation work of the area. 2.13.3. Department of Agriculture The Department of Agriculture in the Eastern province is responsible for ensuring food security and demand driven environmentally friendly production in collaboration with the farming community.

The field officers of the department operate through agrarian development centers in the basin area. The agricultural extension officers provide extension services to the farming community through the agriculture research and development assistants working at field level.

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2.13.4. Department of Land use Policy Planning

This department was established with a view to introducing scientific land use planning procedures. The institution was up graded to a department in 2010. The department is in operation in 19 districts. The District Offices are headed by Assistant Directors and Field level officers are attached to DS officers in order to perform land use planning activities at the field levels. 2.14. Land Acquisition and Resettlement The land acquisition act No 9 of 1950 allows the government to acquire private lands for public purposes. The minister could direct the acquiring officer of the area to publish a notice to be exhibited at selected locations in the area.

Although the act does not define "Public Purpose" the Supreme Court has defined the term public purpose as public utilities that benefit the community as a whole.

Land acquisition will be required when the proposed Flood and drought mitigation plans for Kelani River Basin are implemented. This is especially relevant to relocation of people due to construction of the reservoirs. The act had not made any provisions to resettle the people who are displaced due to the acquisition, although provisions are made to pay compensation to the land owners and the settlers. 2.15. National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) The NIRP was the approved by the cabinet in 2001 in order to address the shortcomings of the Land Acquisition act mentioned above. Some of the main principles of the NIRP are mentioned below.

1. Minimization and mitigation of negative impacts of involuntary resettlement - Steps to be taken to avoid involuntary resettlement by reviewing alternatives to and within the project.

2. Guarantee adequate compensation for affected persons in a timely manner - Compensation is based on full replacement cost including transactions costs, and is calculated to include the loss of land, structures, other assets and income. Compensation is not limited only to persons with documentary evidence of their interest in land. The policy also provides for the authorities to re-establish income sources and livelihoods of affected persons.

3. Inclusion of affected persons in the relocation and resettlement process - The policy provides for resettlement action plans of varying levels of detail - depending on the number of families being displaced - to be published, and to be made publicly available. Further, affected persons are to be fully involved in the selection of relocation sites. Through this process, affected persons are made active stakeholders in the process.

Although NIRP was introduced over a decade ago, it has yet to be adopted into legislation in Sri Lanka. The failure to pass laws in this regard has resulted in affected persons being unable to rely on NIRP principles in the case of their lands being acquired. 2.16. Identified Inadequacies in Selected Legislation Related to Flood and Drought Control Although, the current Legislative Acts, Ordinances, Regulations and Policies are adequate to promote sustainable flood & drought mitigation measures with regard to the Kelani River, there are some inherent inadequacies in some legislation which were identified during the study.

Since several of the legislation related to flood and drought control were enacted during the colonial time, environmental concerns have not been taken into account, since the main objective of the legislation was the

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 39 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin exploitation of natural resources, revenue collection and maintenance of law & order. Therefore the laws were not enacted with conservation and resource management in mind. However, the subsequent amendments to these Acts have been able to address the shortcomings. The legislation which were enacted in the post independent period, especially in the latter part of the 1970s had placed more emphasis on the management of resources and prevention of pollution due to heightened awareness on environmental issues during this period.

The following inadequacies in legislation related to flood and drought control and environmental management and protection have been identified.

1) National Environment Act (NEA)

a) The Central Environment Authority (CEA) has the authority under the NEA to issue directions to local authorities (LA) on a number of subject areas, particularly in relation to unauthorized discharge of solid waste. But the law does not provide measures to ensure compliance or sanctions for non­ compliance.

b) As far as the EIA process and the project approval process is concerned, the scope of the CEA is limited to "Prescribed Projects" through the amendment Act of 1988.As such projects outside the list are exempt from EIA or IEE.

c) The subject of environment is in both the Provincial Council list (list 01) and the Concurrent List (List 03), of the 9th schedule of the 13th amendment of the Constitution. However, the powers & functions of the Provincial Council with regard to the subject of environment is not defined clearly, thereby leading to confusion regarding the role of the Central Government and the Provincial Councils in relation to environmental matters.

d) The CEA is not able to take direct action against violations of the NEA provisions. Action could only be taken through the courts which takes a relatively longer time.

e) The post EIA project monitoring mechanism is not stipulated in the NEA and is the weakest link in the EIA process.

2) Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation Act. (SLLRDC Act) Although the SLLRDC has the power to take legal action against persons who reclaim low lying lands illegally, and those who engage in construction without permission, the Corporation has no powers to demolish and remove such structures. Legal action against violations take a relatively long time and during such time the person could complete the unauthorized construction.

3) Antiquities Ordinance

The fines imposed by the ordinance in order to protect archaeological resources and artifacts, is totally insufficient and requires to be increased, in order to provide adequate protection.

4) Urban Development Authority Law

a) The legal provisions in the law are applicable only to urban areas declared under sec. 03 of the law. Thus more than 80% of the country's geographical area does not come under the UDA Act which is a relatively powerful Act.

b) With the delegation of planning activities to the local authorities which have no qualified personal and equipment it is difficult to ensure effective monitoring.

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5) Mines and Minerals Act

Since illegal sand mining adversely affects the environment the current penalties require to be increased in order to minimize the illegal mining activities.

6) National Thoroughfares Act

There are currently no provisions in the Act to address environmental issues.

7) Flood Protection Ordinance

a) The Flood Protection Ordinance was enacted about 94 years back and amended once in 1955. For the past 60 years the ordinance had not been amended in order to address issues related to flooding.

b) Although flood is a subject area of the Director General of Irrigation, the Government Agent has been appointed as the flood authority which sometimes leads to administrative problems.

c) Lack of a proper institutional setup to undertake implementation of flood control and prevention activities.

d) Adequate Powers are not vested with the Director General of Irrigation.

e) A coordination mechanism has not been introduced by the ordinance. 8) Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act.

a) Roles of the government institutions which are involved in disaster management activities, are not clearly defined, which leads to overlapping and confusion.

b) There is no reference to the private sector and the community which have a major role in disaster situations.

c) There is no specific reference to early warning systems.

d) Provincial Councils and Local Authorities have been overlooked by the Act.

e) The minister in charge of the subject of Local Government and Provincial Councils is not named as a member of the National Council for Disaster Management.

9) National Water Supply and Drainage Act.

a) Supplying of water to unauthorized buildings is common in the Kelani River Basin. The existing provisions in the Act are not adequate to prevent this situation. b) Releasing industrial waste water to water sources of the NWSDB polluting the water is a common occurrence in the Biyagama Industrial Zone. The current provisions of the act are not strong enough to prevent them.

10) Water Resource Board Act.

The Provincial Councils are not included into the Inter-Department Advisory Committee which is a notable shortcoming.

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11) Soil Conservation Act.

a) The current Act deals only with soil erosion and does not consider other aspects of land degradation.

b) The Soil Conservation Board has not been established as yet.

c) The Soil Conservation Fund could be established only after the establishment of the Board.

d) The Act does not cover lands outside the gazetted areas.

e) The Act is not implemented effectively since the Board which is the implementing agency of the act, has not been established as yet.

12) Irrigation Ordinance.

a) Although there are many shortcomings in the Ordinance no significant amendments have been made after 1946. b) The overall powers of execution of the provisions in the Act are vested with the Commissioner General of the Department of Agrarian Services though the subject of irrigation comes under the purview of the Department of Irrigation. c) A complete list of irrigation offences are not in the Ordinance which is necessary in order to take legal action. d) There is no clear definition of major & minor irrigation works in the Act. e) Department of Irrigation is not entrusted with powers to take legal action against persons who commit offences under the Ordinance. f) There are no provisions to protect the reservations of the reservoirs, structures, rivers, canals, etc. The protection of these structures has not been given to the Department of Irrigation. g) The Government Agent (GA) is entrusted with the construction and maintenance of irrigation works though he has no supporting staff to do so. Practically it is done by the Department of Irrigation.

13) Agrarian Development Act.

a) Minor irrigation is a devolved subject under the 13th Amendment of the Constitution. But the provisions in the Act (Sec.83, 84) allow the Department of Agrarian Services which is a Central Government Institution to handle the minor irrigation works. This situation leads to duplication and overlapping. b) Farmer Organizations (FO) are established based on the administrative boundaries (GN Divisions). But some irrigation systems cover more than one Grama Niladhari Division. There are instances when certain irrigation systems have to be maintained by several FOs which may create problems. c) Penalty for offences under this Act (Sec.96) is a fine not exceeding Rs.5, 000.00 or 6 month imprisonment or both. However, a fine of Rs.5, 000.00 is not sufficient in today's context.

14) State Land Ordinance

a) The main inadequacy of this law is the declaration of reservations in public streams. The procedure to be adopted in this regard is cumbersome. b) The implementation authority of this law is the Land Commissioner, whereas the management of these streams rests with other state agencies.

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As a result of this situation, declaration of reservations in most of the public streams including Kelani River has not taken place.

15) Land Development Ordinance.

a) The main inadequacy of this law is that no implementation mechanism is in operation. b) Regulations have not been made to monitor unauthorized use of lands in hilltops, sloppy lands etc. c) The penalties for offences under this Act, are not adequate.

16) Land Acquisition Act.

a) The procedure for land acquisition is such that the completion of an acquisition takes a long time. (Minimum of 72 weeks.)

b) The payment of compensation to land owners is also delayed due to the long procedures.

c) The owners of the lands acquired under this law have no right to claim for alternative land for his lost opportunity. Even in case of acquisition of business premises are not given alternative lands.

d) The market value of the land is not taken into account when calculating the compensation and it is calculated on the basis of the government valuation. In some cases, compensation is decided by the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Committee (LARK) and compensation is paid on the market value. For example, Southern Highway, Central Highway etc. This shows that there is no uniformity in paying compensation.

e) In the acquisition under the sec.38 of the Act, the land owner is denied of a "right to objection" given by sec.04 of the Act.

f) The lands could be acquired only for "Public Purposes" but there is no definition of "Public Purpose"

g) There is no provision in the Act to make the resettlement of victims of land acquisition compulsory.

h) The principals of the National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) are not included into Act as yet.

17) Proposed Flood Risk Management Act of Sri Lanka

There is a proposed act to replace the existing Flood Protection Ordinance and to make provisions to establish a Flood Risk Management Authority, National Steering Committee for Flood Risk Management and a Flood risk Management Centre etc.

This draft act makes provisions for assessment and sustainable management of flood risk by the Flood Risk Management Authority for all types of floods with minimum impact to the lives, livelihood, properties, environment and the economy of the country.

18) The proposed Act to amend the Irrigation Ordinance (Chapter 453)

An act has been drafted to amend the existing Irrigation Ordinance. When this proposed act is enacted, almost all the inadequacies which have been identified above (No. 12) in the Irrigation Ordinance will be addressed.

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2.17. The strengths & weaknesses of the Institutional Setup related to Environmental Management in the Kelani River Basin (KRB) Area. 2.17.1. Strengths 1. A large number of government officials in various capacities are working in the KRB area.

2. It includes the officials at the district, divisional and village levels. Five officials belonging to five different government agencies are working at the village level.

3. Other than the district & divisional officials, approximately 5500 officials are working at the village level alone in the basin area. Accordingly, there is one village officer per 110 families approximately.

4. The Ministry of Home Affairs is implementing a program to house all 5 village officers under one roof. This is called "Seva Piyasa" Through the Seva Piyasa, the community could obtain government services from one place, rather than going to multiple locations to meet the officials. For example, in the Kerawalapitiya GN Division in Wattala Divisional Secretary's Division, the "Seva Piyasa" is already established and Grama Niladhari, Samurdhi Niladhari, Economic Development Officer, Public Health Midwife and Agriculture Research and Development Assistant have their offices in the "Sewa Piayasa"

5. Almost all the government institutions are empowered by a strong legal system (Ordinances, Acts, Laws, and Regulations)

6. Funds for development activities come from various sources. The funding sources are the line ministries, decentralized budget, provincial council funds, donor funds, etc.

7. Divisional Secretariat System is well established and most of the government services could be obtained from the divisional level itself without going to the district secretariat or the line departments. There are 35 D.S. Secretariats functioning in the basin area.

8. The Agrarian Development Centers provide all services (supply of agricultural inputs and providing extension services & legal support) required by the farming community.

9. There are 37 local authorities operating within the KRB. The Local Authorities (Municipal Council, Urban Council, Pradeshiya Sabhas) also provide services, especially relating to solid waste management and other common amenities. After the establishment of new local authorities, there will be an elected representative in each village.

10. District Coordinating Committee (DCC), District Agriculture Committee (DAC), and Divisional Coordinating committee, Divisional Agriculture Committee function as monitoring a coordinating mechanism. The functioning of DCCs under the political leadership is a positive feature of this coordinating mechanism.

11. The District Secretaries of the respective districts provide leadership to the development activities and to review the progress.

12. The Divisional Secretaries provide leadership in distributing donations coming from various sources and other relief work in flood / drought situations.

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2.17.2. Weaknesses 1. Although there are a large number of government officials working in the KRB area, there is a dearth of officers in some essential categories. There is lack of technical staff both at the district and divisional levels. The Divisional Secretaries (DS) often complain that development activities are hampered due to the non-availability of trained staff. For example, earlier an Environment Officer was attached to each D.S. Secretariat and subsequently he was withdrawn and attached to the District Office of the Central Environmental Authority.

2. The D.S. has to play dual roles. He has to implement development projects and programmes of the Provincial Council as well as the Central Government. The D.S. is responsible to both the Provincial Council and the Central Government which may lead to managerial problems.

3. There are two institutions coming under the purview of the Ministry of Disaster Management, namely, the National Disaster Relief Centre and the National Disaster Management Center which have similar functions to perform, leading to duplication of work.

4. There is large scale illegal filling of paddy lands, marshy lands, unauthorized constructions, encroachments, unauthorized settlements etc. despite strong legal provisions which could prevent such illegal activities. Many environmental related issues crop up due to these activities. The relevant government institutions do not take proper actions to prevent these activities due to various reasons, including external interferences. For example, there are hundreds of unauthorized settlers living in the Muthurajawela marsh with the blessings of some political leaders.

5. Although there are legal provisions to demarcate the reservations of streams including Kelani River, action has not been taken by the relevant authorities to this effect.

6. There is serious shortcomings in law enforcement. Law enforcement is sometimes given low priority due to political pressure, corruption or due to the negligence of officials and there is no punitive or disciplinary action taken against such officials for negligence or willful inaction.

7. The Divisional. Secretariat is the implementing agency for many government service delivery activities. D.S. gets instructions, guidelines etc. from different institutions which are contradictory sometimes. For example, in flood disaster situations the D.S. gets instructions from the Disaster Management Center (DMC) Insurance Trust Fund, Ministry of Home Affairs, and District Secretary etc. in distributing donations or paying compensation. But there is no uniformity in the instructions given.

8. The majority of the officers in the government institutions are female. Sometimes 70-80 %of the staff consists of females. For example, in some of the Divisional Secretariats the officers, in various categories, including Grama Niladaries are female. This is a serious issue in disaster situations where the officers have to work round the clock attending to the relief work. So, in these situations, female officers work with great difficulties.

9. There are several institutions which have authority to grant permission to fill lands such as the Department of Agrarian Development, Department of Irrigation, Central Environment Authority, Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation etc. But there is no apex body to take a final decision.

10. The demarcation of boundaries of the wetlands is necessary to protect them from encroachments. But action has not been taken so far with regard to the Muthurajawela Wetlands; despite continuous requests by the relevant D.Ss. As a result, encroachments are taking place even at present.

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11. Lack of knowledge about various laws and regulations among the officials is a serious weakness. The laws are amended very often but the officers in the districts and the divisions are not aware of these changes. This should be addressed urgently.

12. Coordination among the institutions is poor. There is no proper coordinating mechanism. The only available mechanisms are the DCC & DAC which have a limited scope.

13. The Department of Land Use Policy Planning plays an important role by preparing land use plans for the districts and divisions. Nevertheless, the department is not empowered by an Act.

14. There are adequate legislation on environment management. However, implementation is often inadequate due to various reasons ranging from insufficient funds, lack of qualified personnel, lack of policy directives and external interferences etc.

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Chapter 03

3. Flood and Drought Situation and Details of Proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions in Kelani River Basin 3.1. Flood history in lower Kelani Ganga Basin Kelani Ganga has a long and fairly well documented history of flooding. A river gauge has been in place at the Nagalagam Street location from as far back as 1837 until now. Floods occurred sufficiently frequently that classifications were derived for flood levels at Nagalagam Street, as shown in Table 4. The classification is somewhat arbitrary and is not related to extent of flood damages but is a good indicator of how frequently floods of varying magnitude occur. Table 5 shows the historic floods with their classified flood magnitude while Table 6 describes the frequency of classified flood events.

Table 4: Flood Level Classification in Kelani River Basin No. Flood Classification Water Level at Nagalagam Street (ft AMSL) 1 Minor Flood > 5 ft. 2 Major Flood > 8 ft. 3 Dangerous Flood > 10 ft. 4 Critical Flood > 12 ft.

Table 5: Flood Level Classification in Kelani River Basin

Water Level Water Level (ft AMSL) Flood (ft AMSL) Flood Year / Month Year / Month Nagalagam Classification Nagalagam Classification Street Street

1837 13.50 Critical 1939 May 9.35 Major 1872 11.90 Dangerous 1940 May 11.00 Dangerous 1891 9.80 Major 1942 Jul 8.17 Major 1904 9.90 Major 1947 Aug 12.85 Critical 1906 10.80 Dangerous 1952 May 8.25 Major 1913 11.00 Dangerous 1955 Oct 8.00 Major 1922 12.60 Critical 1966 Sept 8.67 Major 1925 11.50 Dangerous 1966 Oct 9.00 Major 1928 Jul 9.08 Major 1967 Oct 9.17 Major 1930 May 10.91 Dangerous 1971 Sept 7.33 Minor 1930 Oct 9.83 Major 1989Jun 9.20 Major 1933 May 9.95 Major 2011 May 5.41 Minor 1936 May 9.43 Major 2016 May 7.64 Minor 1937 May 10.33 Dangerous Source: Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility/Feasibility Studies-W. S Atkins International and Greentech Consultants for the Ministry of Irrigation and water Resources Management

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Table 6: Frequency of Classified Flood Events

Since (Year) Number of Events Equal to or Greater Than Classification (return period 1:x) Since 1837 Since 1917 Since 1967 Since 1997 Since 2007 Flood Classification (180 years) (100 years) (50 years) (20 years) (10 years)

27 21 5 2 2 Minor or > (1:7) (1:5) (1:10) (1:5) (1:5) 26 21 5 1 1 Major or > (1:7) (1:5) (1:10) (1:20) (1:20) 10 6 0 0 0 Dangerous or > (1:18) (1:17) (n/a) (n/a) (n/a) 3 2 0 0 0 Critical or > (1:60) (1:50) (n/a) (n/a) (n/a) n/a - No occurrence Source: Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Pre-feasibility / Feasibility Study October 2017-WS Atkins et. al.

Flood prone areas for the Kelani Basin have been identified by the Survey Department and those flood prone areas are presented in Figure 6 below. The flood which took place on May 2017 has been depicted Figure 7 showing the flood spread area. 3.2. Flood Protection Structures -Lower Kelani Basin 3.2.1. Flood Dykes There are two flood dykes called North Bund and South bunds which protect Colombo City from Kelani River flooding. These flood bunds are very old structures which still play an important role in flood protection upto about 10-year return period. The length of the North Bund is 2km and this bund mostly runs parallel to the Right Bank of the Kelani River. The south bund is oriented at an angle to the river. In addition, there are four minor flood bunds called Mabola, Wattala, Gothatuwa and Ambatale. Details of these flood dykes are given in Figure 8 below. 3.2.2. Minor Flood Protection Schemes From around Pugoda upto the river outfall there many minor flood protection schemes on both banks of Kelani River. There are lateral gated structures which prevents water entering the sub catchment areas of the minor flood protection schemes when the flood water level of the Kelani Basin is high. When Kelani river water level is low and during local floods the gates will be opened to drain out excess water to Kelani River. Thus, these minor flood protection schemes play a very important role in irrigation and flood protection in the lower reaches of Kelani River. The details of the minor flood protection schemes are given in Figure 9 below.

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Figure 6: Flood Prone Areas-Kelani River Basin (Source - Survey Department)

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Figure 7: Inundation Areas-Kelani Floods-May 2017

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Figure 8: Details of the Flood Dykes-Kelani Ganga (Source: Irrigation Department)

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Figure 9: Flood Protection Schemes -Kelani River (Source: Irrigation Department)

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3.3. Drought Kelani Basin is not a severe drought prone basin usually, as the basin is in the wet zone and the catchment of Kelani Basin originates of the Peak Wilderness area of the Central Massif which is rich in vegetation cover and rainfall. The months with the lowest rainfall are February and March during which time there could be drought impacts occasionally. The most prominent drought impact is the salinity intrusion to Ambatale water treatment plant which occurs due to the upstream drive of the tidal wedge due to the low river discharge in Kelani River. This impact is well felt as most of the areas of Colombo City are supplied with water from the Ambatale water treatment plant. One of the reasons which necessitated the proposals for the construction of upstream reservoirs in the Kelani Basin is the salinity intrusion issue affecting the drinking water supply.

Details of the drought conditions in the agro ecological regions of Sri Lanka had been studied in the research paper entitled "Identification of drought prone agro-ecological regions in Sri Lanka-R.D. Chithranayana* and B.V.R. Punyawardena-January 2007, Natural Resource Management Centre, Department of Agriculture, No.5 Sarasavi Mawatha, Peradeniya. The spatial pattern of drought during Yala and Maha is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Spatial pattern of the drought severity during Yala and Maha seasons.

It is seen from these maps that there could be a mild drought on a small part of the Kelani River Basin during Maha Season. During most other times, the basin remains under wet conditions.

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Drought proneness of Kelani Basin has also been studied using the drought disaster frequency as published in "Natural Disaster Risks in Sri Lanka: Mapping Hazards and Risk Hotspots Lareef Zubair et. al. - Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies - World Bank -2006)

Drought disaster incidence frequency was constructed by aggregating the numbers of droughts that have been recorded in each district. Major droughts as categorized by the Department of Social Services were weighted by 1.5, medium droughts by 1.0, and minor droughts by 0.5. Details of the results are presented in Figure 11 below adding the Kelani Basin outline onto the figure.

Figure 11: Kelani Basin-Spatial Distribution of Drought Index

(Source: Natural Disaster Risks in Sri Lanka: Mapping Hazards and Risk Hotspots Lareef Zubair and Vidhura Ralapanawe, Upamala Tennakoon, Zeenas Yahiya, and Ruvini Perera- Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies - World Bank -2006)

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It is seen from the map above that Kelani Basin falls into the lower part of the moderate drought incidence zone in the overall Sri Lankan context (i.e. 0, 1-4 and 5-8) as Kelani basin occupies portions of Colombo, Gampaha, Kegalle and Nuwara Eliya districts. 3.4. Climate 3.4.1. Rainfall The Kelani basin is in the wet zone of Sri Lanka with an annual rainfall varying from 2,500 mm to 6,500 mm over the elevation range of the basin. The basin is ranked third in the country in terms of water resources, receiving an average annual precipitation of 3,718 mm, or 8,521 million cubic meters (MCM) of rainwater annually. This large amount of annual rainfall is a factor in flooding, as much of the total rainfall comes as intense storms.

There is also a significant variation in rainfall over the year. This is apparent in Figure 12 below, which shows the annual distribution of rainfall by month. There are two distinct rainy seasons, both significant in terms of monthly rainfall, one associated with the Southwest Monsoon during the period April to June and the other during the period of the Northeast Monsoon in September through November. Most of the major floods have occurred during the Southwest Monsoon period, but some (more than 25% of the total over the last 200 years) have also occurred during the Northeast Monsoon period. The annual monthly rainfall in the area is bi-modal in distribution.

Rainfall (mm)

Figure 12: Monthly Rainfall of Kelani Basin Source-: Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility / Feasibility Study October 2017 -WS Atkins et. al.

Monthly variations of spatial rainfall over the basin area are given in Figure 13 below.

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Figure 13: Monthly Spatial Variation of the Rainfall Over Kelani Basin

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3.4.2. Past Trends (Rainfall) To get an idea of the rainfall trends of Kelani Basin the spatial information provided in the paper entitled "Changes in Rainfall in Sri Lanka during 1966 - 2015 K.L.A.A. Karunathilaka, H.K.V. Dabare and K.D.W. Nandalal ENGINEER - Vol. L, No. 02, pp. [39-48], 2017 © The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka" was used. Kelani basin was superimposed on the rainfall trend map for Sri Lanka given in the paper referred to.

Figure 14: Rainfall Trend Map for Sri Lanka with Kelani Basin

It is evident from the map above that the middle and upper parts of the Kelani Basin are subjected to negative trends, whereas the lower parts of Kelani basin are subject to positive rainfall trends. It should be noted that the negative rainfall trends in the upper and middle catchments of Kelani basin are a cause for concern as water resources of Kelani Basin mostly gets generated from the middle and upper catchments. The observed negative trend in the hinterland of the basin further strengthens the fact that upstream storage of the basin will have to be increased to mitigate drought risk. A small part of the basin close to the central massif has recorded an extreme decrease in rainfall trend of 5mm per year.

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3.4.3. Temperature Long term temperature variation of the 4 stations Colombo, Ratnapura, Hatton and Kithulgala are presented below. The month March records highest temperature for all stations. Details are given in Figure 14 below.

°F “C

104 40

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 10 11 12

• F °C 86 30

Kithulgala

01 02 03 04 05 C6 07 10 11 12 Figure 15: Average High and Low Temperature - Kelani Basin Stations (Source: https://en.climate-data.org) 3.5. Major watersheds/Sub Basins Kelani Basin by itself is a watershed (i.e. one of the river basins of Sri Lanka out of 103 basins). The catchment above the gauging station in Glencourse is important as it constitutes the general upper catchment (hinterland) as the catchment below Glencourse up to the outfall is relatively flat and flood prone. 3.6. Hydrology and Water Resources According to the publication Water Resources of Sri Lanka - Manchanayaka P and Madduma Bandara C M - National Science Foundation - 1999 following values regarding hydrological and water resource related parameters have been indicated for Kelani Basin.

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• Catchment Area= 2292km2 • Mean Annual Precipitation Volume 8660 MCM • Mean annual Discharge Volume to Sea = 5579 MCM • Annual Discharge as a % of Precipitation = 64.4% (i.e. the runoff coefficient is approximately 0.60) Water resources of Kelani River could be understood for the overall basin with the aid of the "Modified Iso Yield Curves" after Dharmasena G T. Results are presented in Figure 15 below.

Iso Yield Curves - Kelani Basin

Legend

------Iso Yield Curves NE Monsoon ------Iso Yield Curves SW Monsoon ------Kelani_Streams □ Kelani_Basin

Figure 16: Iso Yield Curves for Kelani River (After Dharmasena G T)

3.7. Competing Demand for Water Resources Competing water demand for water resources will arise in the case of Irrigation (which is the largest share), hydropower, water supply and riparian flow. Such demand issues are already present and demand issues will arise for the proposed upstream reservoir interventions. However, irrigation demand mostly prevails at the downstream reaches of the river where there are minor flood protection schemes. In the upstream areas where there is hydropower demand the irrigation demand is limited. The occasions where concurrent irrigation, water supply and hydropower demands are not present and such demands are solitary for most of the places of the basin.

3.8. Proposed Interventions Proposed CRIP interventions for Kelani Basin are two-tier. Following interventions have been proposed for flood and drought mitigation in the Kelani river basin at present. 1. Intervention Type 1-Flood walls or levees constructed on either side along the Lower Kelani (From Hanwella to Colombo) protecting up to a 1:25 year Flood. Three optional bund types have been considered.

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• Intervention Sub Type 1A- Zero bund line option- Bund will run almost on the river bank • Intervention Sub Type 1B- 50ft bund line option-Bund will run 50ft from each river bank • Intervention Sub Type 1C- Flexible bund line option- Bund will run flexibly

2. Intervention Type 2-One or more upstream reservoirs to raise level of protection up to a 1:100-year Flood. Four reservoirs namely Holombuwa, Wee-Oya, Nawatha and Rucastle • Intervention Sub Type 2A- Construction of Holombuwa Reservoir [ FSL=73m MSL] • Intervention Sub Type 2B- Construction of Wee Oya Reservoir [Option1 FSL=122m MSL, Option2 FSL = 110m MSL- Reduction of dam height] • Intervention Sub Type 2C- Construction of Nawatha Reservoir [Option1 FSL=90m MSL, Option2 FSL= 80m MSL- Reduction of dam height] • Intervention Sub Type 2D- Construction of Rucastle Reservoir [Option1 FSL=110m MSL, Option2 FSL= 150m MSL-Upstream shift of dam axis]

The possible locations identified for the construction of reservoirs are, Holombuwa, Wee-Oya, Nawatha and Rucastle. Those locations are presented in the Figure 17 below.

3. Intervention Type 3-Incorporation of Minor Flood Protection Schemes into the flood bund system from Hanwella to sea.

Note: This Intervention Type 3 is incorporated into Intervention Type 1.

4. Intervention Type 4 -Diverting water in the wet season from the Norton Bridge area in the Kelani Ganga to the Diyagala area of Mahaweli Ganga

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Figure 17: Intervention Type 1C-Flexible Line Bund Option

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Figure 18: Intervention Type 2 -2A,2B,2C and 2D - Upstream Reservoir Development

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3.9. Intervention maps for Each Reservoir Site

Figure 19: Intervention Sub Type 2A-Holombuwa Reservoir

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Figure 20: Intervention Sub Type 2B-Wee Oya Reservoi r(122m)

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Figure 21: Intervention Sub Type 2B-Wee Oya Reservoir (110m)

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Figure 22: Intervention Sub Type 2C-Nawatha Reservoir (80m)

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Figure 23: Intervention Sub Type 2C-Nawatha Reservoir (90m)

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Figure 24: Intervention Sub Type 2D-Rucastle Reservoir (150m)

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150000 155000

Figure 25: Intervention Sub Type 2D-Rucastle Reservoir (150m)

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3.10. Trans-basin Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin Diverting water in the wet season from the Norton Bridge area in the Kelani River to the Diyagala area of Mahaweli Ganga has been considered in the past. It has been estimated that 350 MCM per annum can be diverted. The diversion will require a 6 km tunnel from Norton Bridge to Diyagala. The impact on the water resources of both basins will be assessed through the modelling exercises. See Figure 26 for details.

Figure 26: Approximate Location for Water Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin

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CHAPTER 4 4. Baseline Information of the Kelani River Basin

4.1. Geology Precambrian high-grade metamorphic rocks covered the 90% of the island of Sri Lanka and rest is sedimentary. Metamorphic terrain is subdivided in to four main units depending on metamorphic facies. These units are Highland complex, Vijayan complex, Wanni complex and Kadugannawa complex. Basement rock of the upper part of the Kelani basin composed with Highland complex rocks and lower part with Vijayan complex rocks. Most abundant rock types in the basin are Hornblende Biotite Gneisses, Granite to Granitic Gneiss, Charnockites, Charnockitic Gneiss and meta sediments.

Laterite (Cabbok) is a very common secondary formation which occurred in Gampaha and Colombo districts. Due to its vesicular structure, it gives significantly potential on shallow aquifer system in the lower reach of the basin. A large stretch of quaternary deposit of unconsolidated sands covers the coastal area. This formation bears the shallow fresh water aquifers. A special type of a lagoonal deposit is the peat swamp at Muthurajawela. It composed of debris of several generations of forest, brackish water vegetation and swamp growth, which has been swept in to marshes. Alluvial deposits cover considerable area of the basin. These deposits bare large quantities of fresh groundwater. (Refer Figure 27-Geology map of the Kelani River Basin).

Landslides and slope failures are one of the most devastating natural hazards occur in the study area. Other than human influence; rainfall frequency and geology has significant impact on occurrence of landslides in the basin. 4.1.1. Geology of lower region of Kelani River Geology map along the lower Kelani River is given in Figure 27. Kelani River around the Hanwella area straddles along the dominant fracture zone, in the Western limb of the Pugoda Symform. However, after the Hanwella area the river completely changes its direction by around 900 and moves towards the river mouth going through a dominant fracture zone developed across the rock layers. Along this section, the river passes by crossing Antiform and Synform structures present in the basement rock. Therefore, it is recognized that the movement of water in the Kelani River is effectively controlled by the brittle structures at the basement. The general strike of the rock layers trend from North-West to South-East direction and dip towards the west.

The rock layers closer to the river mouth area is dominantly covered by residual soils. Therefore, very rarely are rocky outcrops encountered. However, the following rock types are dominant along the river basin and most of them show a meta-sedimentary origin.

• Garnet-sillimanite biotite gneiss • Cordierite gneiss • Hornblende- biotite gneiss • Biotite hornblende gneiss • Charnockitic gneiss

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Figure 27: Geology map along the Kelani River-From Kelani Outfall to Hanwella (Lower Basin)

Garnet-sillimanite biotite gneiss

Garnet-sillimanite biotite gneiss is the dominant rock type present in the area. This rock is categorized as the meta-sedimentary rock. According to field and map observations weathering conditions of the rock can vary from place to place. In the area this rock usually consists of mineral cordierite and graphite.

Cordierite gneiss

Cordierite gneiss is also considered as a meta-sedimentary rock which consists dominantly consisting of mineral cordierite. Cordierite gneiss usually consists of mineral k-feldspar, biotite and quartz. In addition, sillimanite and garnet is usually present. However, due to relatively high chemical weathering in wet zone those rock outcrops are less common in the Kelani river bank. Most of the rock layers are covered by alluvial sediments.

Charnockitic gneiss

Charnockitic gneiss is the major rock type present along the proposed land (Figure 27). The charnockitic gneiss is demarcated by narrow bands. In general, charnockitic gneisses are restricted outcrop, often ridge- forming, typically coarse grained with charnockitic brown greasy luster, may lack of hypersthene. Due to the massive ridge forming structure of the charnockites few fractures are commonly present. However, charnockitic gneiss in the proposed site is demarcated part of the Antiform and Synform Structures. It is evident that weaker conditions are common on such rock, than that of massive charnockitic gneisses in the other areas.

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Hornblende- biotite gneiss and biotite hornblende gneiss

Hornblende- biotite gneiss and biotite-hornblende gneiss are also common rock types in the area which dominantly consist of mineral hornblende and biotite. This rock layers are relatively thicker than other rocks in the area. Also, these rock types have higher chemical weathering conditions than the other type of rocks and are, therefore, usually not exposed to the river banks.

4.2. Geology around the proposed reservoir sites Intervention Sub Type 2A- Construction of Holombuwa Reservoir [FSL=73m MSL]

^ Chamockitic gneiss Biotite hornblende gneiss 0 0.51 2 Miles | Pegraatitic granitoid gneiss □ Undifferentiated protcrozoic gneiss I 1 I I I I I I I thick residual soil layer

Figure 28: Geology map around the Holombuwa reservoir area

According to the geological map of the Geological Surveys and Mines Bureau (Scale 1:100,000). The Holombuwa Reservoir is located around a Synform structure. The major rock types present around the reservoir are given in the Figure 28. The reservoir is extended across the basement rock layers which directed from north-west to southeast. The middle region of the reservoir is covered by undifferentiated gneisses that demarcated by the hinge of the Synform. Middle area is predominantly covered by thick residual soil layer. However, western region of the reservoir is covered by thin marble (crystalline limestone) layers which can expect karst topographical conditions. Therefore, stability of the reservoir water can be changed by those marble layers which are highly dependent on the level of chemical weathering in the rocks. In general, it could be assumed that those marble layers are very weak with extensively developed brittle deformations due to the proximity to the limb of a major Synform structure.

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Intervention Sub Type 2B- Construction of Wee Oya Reservoir [optionl (FSL=122m MSL) and option 2 (FSL=110m MSL), reduction of dam height]

Figure 29: Geology map around Wee Oya Reservoir area.

Geological map around the Wee Oya reservoir is given in Figure 29 above. Rock layers around the Wee Oya reservoir area are regionally folded. However, there is no dominant Antiform or Synform structure. Western margin of the reservoir is demarcated by charnockitic gneiss extended from north to south direction. The reservoir is located on sound basement rock of garnet-sillimanite biotite gneiss. However, weathering resistant of the garnet-sillimanite biotite gneiss rock is relatively lower. Also depend on brittle deformations (fractures) stability of the basement can be vary in different locations. Northern regions of the reservoir margin are covered by quartzite formation. Quartzite is highly fractured rock that develops extensive fracture system which promotes easy passage on groundwater flow. Therefore, Wee Oya reservoir is useful on possible groundwater recharge in the region. Due to availability of quartzite rock formation stability of reservoir water can be change. However, detail investigations are necessary for study the movement of groundwater and to study extent of brittle structures in the region.

Intervention Sub Type 2C- Construction of Nawatha Reservoir [Option 1 (FSL=90m MSL) and option 2 (FSL= 80m MSL), reduction of dam height]

Geology around the Nawatha reservoir sites of the Kelani River is given in the Figure 30. It can be clearly observed that the reservoir extends across the general strike direction of the basement. However, some regions of the reservoir extend along the strike direction of the rock which may reflect fractures along the strike or rock contact boundary. There are no dominant Antiform and Synform structures around the Nawatha reservoir site. This shows that the structural deformation is less around the Nawatha during the

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 74 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood i£A and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin origin of the basement. In addition, the basement of the reservoir area seems to be formed by a massive sedimentary deposit. The Nawatha reservoir direction clearly shows that the reservoir is located along the dominant East-West fractures in the basement (Figure 30). The general directions of the reservoir and river tributaries clearly indicate the mixture of river patterns including dendritic and rectangular patterns around the sites.

Figure 30: Geology map around the Nawatha Reservoir area

The major rock type present in the Nawatha reservoir is garnet sillimanite biotite gneiss. Most of the reservoir area has massive formation of garnet sillimanite biotite gneiss. However, some regions of the reservoir are interlarded by quartzite. Especially, quartzite bands present across the reservoir region are very useful on groundwater recharge process around the site (Figure 30). In addition, due to the availability of quartzite bands stability of reservoir water can be change drastically due to development of easy passage on groundwater movements. In general, due less availability of carbonate rocks such as marble, basement seems to be stable around the Nawatha reservoir. Around the meta-sedimentary formation pegmatitic granitoid gneisses are also present which indicate the concordat meta-igneous formations.

Intervention Sub Type 2D- Construction of Rucastle Reservoir [Option 1 (FSL=110m MSL) and option 2 (FSL= 150m MSL), upstream shift of dam axis]

Geological map of the Rucastle Reservoir is given in Figure 31. The reservoir is extended from north-west to south-east direction which demarcates the strike direction of the basement rock formation. Therefore,

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 75 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin the reservoir seems to be developed along a strike valley in the basement rock. The strike valley may develop along the weaker zone of the rock contact boundary. According to geological map observation there is no significant geological impact from the basement rock. Basement around the proposed reservoir also has sound rock formation.

150000 155000 160000

Figure 31: Geology map around the Rucastle Reservoir area 4.3. Soil conditions of the study region General soil map of the study area is given in the Figure 32 below. Most of the rock layers in the study area are covered by thick residual and transported soil deposits. Either side of the Kelani River is demarcated by transporting alluvial soils, residual soil layers bellow the alluvial overburden could be expected as well. Due to this high thickness, soil layer basement rock layer outcrops are less common along the riverbanks.

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Figure 32: Soil map along the Kelani River (Lower Kelani Basin) Alluvial deposits

Alluvial deposits are dominant along the river banks and consist mostly of fine grained clay soils. Most of the alluvial clay deposits are formed by past flood events. The alluvial deposits of the river banks have contrasting layering which demarcates climatic changes during the past. Those alluvial formations are well developed in the lower regions of the River Basin, especially from Kaduwela to Colombo.

In addition to the clay deposits in the river banks, sand deposits can be identified in the middle regions of the Kelani River. According to research observations these sands are extensively developed in the river basin throughout the year. Grain size variations of the sand deposit in the river varies from place to place. Most of the finer sands reach up to the Kelani River mouth. Conversely, coarse sand is dominantly deposited in the bends of Meander formation.

Meander Formation

Meander development along the Kelani River is common after the Hanwella area. According to field observations, it is clearly seen that the erosion side of the meanders is extensively eroded, in the river banks. It is also observed that the eroded sediments are deposited on the other side of the River Bank due to slower rate of the river flow. Due to this meander development, the impact of the river bank is significant.

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Lateritic soil

The major in-situ weathered soil type present in the region is laterite, which is extensively developed on either side of the Kelani River. The soft and hard laterite is common in the area based on their aluminum and iron concentration. The laterite is considered as the terminal product of the chemical weathering of the basement rocks. Also, the hard laterite is highly resistant to erosion and surface runoff is more dominant in the hard laterite than infiltration. It is well known that the hard laterite is useful for stable foundation constructions than alluvial deposits. 4.4. Topography Kelani basin can be divided in to three distinct topographical units of lower (below 100m AMSL), middle (100 to 300m AMSL) upper peneplains (above 300m AMSL). The Kelani River Basin landforms vary significantly and includes 11 landforms, namely, Mountain, Escarpment, Hill and Ridge, Ridge and Valley, Hill and Valley, Mantled Plain (gently undulating to rolling plains), Rock Knob Plain (rough and broken relief of extensive tracts), Erosional Remnant (isolated, steeply rising bedrock controlled hills and ridges), Flood Plain, Coastal Plain, Sand Dune and Beach (Cooray, 1984). Slope steepness in the Kelani River Basin ranges from steep slopes with 25- 30% slopes in the Eastern parts to flat terrain in the lower Western portions. 4.5. River Morphology Morphological characteristics of the Kelani River indicates that it has a relatively high drainage density of 1.788km for square kilometer indicating lower permeability of the landscape leading to higher runoff volumes. Kelani River is indicated by a relatively high bifurcation ratio which is reportedly at 4.09 where flood peaks will be low but longer. The flow of the river changes during the monsoon period and the dry season. For instance, during monsoon the river flow is 800-1500 m3/s and during the dry season it is about 20-25 m3/s.

Table 7: Morphological features of the Kelani River Stream Order Number of Streams Mean Length (km) 1 4,490 0.15 2 1,112 0.79 3 296 1.69 4 70 2.69 5 15 8.98 6 4 18.41 7 1 55.18

4.6.Administrative Boundaries The Kelani river basin extends over three provinces: Western (34.3% of the basin), Sabaragamuwa (47% of the basin) and Central Province (18.6% of the basin).

The Kelani River flows through seven districts and 37 local authority areas in the island and the larger section of the basin belongs to the Kegalle district which is about 44%. It is followed by Colombo (19.1%), Nuwara Eliya (18.4%) and Gampaha (14.7%) respectively.

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Table 8: District wise area of the Kelani River Basin District Area (km2) Percentage (%) Colombo 446 19.1 Gampaha 343 14.7 Kalutara 12 0.51 Kandy 4 0.17 Kegalle 1,028 44.0

Nuwara Eliya 430 18.4 Ratnapura 70 3.0 Total 2,333 100.0

4.7. Population As per the Census of 2011, total population of the Kelani River basin is more than 4 million. Highest density of population is recorded as 49,840 per sq. km in Aluthkade West in Colombo DS area where lowest density of 22.25 per sq.km is recorded in Dekalkanda in Daraniyagala DS area of Kegalle District. Population density of the Kelani basin is presented in the Figure 33 below.

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Figure 33: Population Density Map of Kelani River Basin

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4.8. Land Use Thirty three percent (1/3) of the Kelani River Basin area is covered with rubber cultivation, while 10.2 percent area is covered with tea. 24.6% of the area is covered with homestead. Out of the total extent of 235,784 ha, only 24,090 ha of land are forest which represent 10.2 percent of the total land extent of the area. A relatively higher percentage of the Montane and Sub-Montane forests are located in the Eastern part of the basin. Large extent of paddy lands which represent 7.8 percent of the total area is found in the medium and lower reaches of the basin. Coconut plantations are around 5 percent.

The land use distribution of Kelani River Basin is given in the Table 09 and Figure 34 below.

Table 9: Land Use distribution in Kelani River Basin Land Use Distribution - Kelani River Basin Area

Lane use (in ha) Total Western Province Central Province Sabaragamuwa Province Basin Level

Type Area (Ha) Colombo Gampaha Kalutara Kandy Nuwara Eliya Kegalle Ratnapura Percentage | Built Up Area 807.45 697.47 106.40 0.34 Chena 216.20 42.62 3.21 168.14 0.09 Coconut 11817.02 2114.85 8147.15 12.23 1539.29 2.93 5.01 Forest 24089.97 1199.59 13.93 97.41 12208.15 9225.24 1345.60 10.22 Grassland 10.38 9.51 0.88 0.00 Homesteads/Garder 58063.19 17305.64 15420.75 139.34 14.03 4004.43 19646.73 1532.12 24.63 Marsh 2046.33 1238.32 723.78 84.20 0.88 Other cultivation 2663.10 198.24 130.54 96.02 1090.53 1142.28 5.44 1.13 Paddy 18315.82 6134.35 6554.18 279.65 205.95 4594.78 546.99 7.77 Reservoir/Tank 994.00 97.71 15.83 0.02 749.69 1.52 129.24 0.42 River/Stream 2937.03 691.12 449.68 454.57 1302.42 37.87 1.25 Rock 1651.12 35.39 549.38 1043.79 22.56 0.70 Rubber 78913.38 14953.81 2110.74 533.20 2.79 652.87 55781.85 4878.21 33.50 Sand 59.14 52.30 6.56 0.03 Scrub land 5392.12 442.12 378.13 13.11 1455.78 2873.58 229.45 2.30 Tea 27807.17 20.34 3.12 230.09 21618.99 5885.07 49.54 11.80 Unclassified 0.66 0.66 0.00 235784.08 45188.48 34096.25 967.54 453.48 43252.19 103037.20 8780.81 ioo.oo| Source: Survey Department

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Figure 34: Land Use Map of Kelani River Basin

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4.9. Ecological Environment in the Kelani basin 4.9.1. Ecosystems and Habitat Types The Kelani basin can be divided into three distinct topographical units that encompasses three peneplains i.e. lower (below 100m AMSL), middle (100 to 300m AMSL) upper (above 300m AMSL) (Cooray, 1984). This topographical variation occurring from the interior hilly terrain to coastal flat lands has resulted in the Kelani River Basin covering a range of land forms, from hillocks, ridges in its upper reaches to flood plains and coastal plains in the lower reaches. Although the flow of the river is influenced by the rainfall and tends to be torrential during the monsoonal periods, since the river basin is located within the wet zone there is considerable flow throughout much of the year in the main river as well as in its tributaries.

4.9.2. Habitat types The area where the proposed interventions would occur falls primarily within the districts of Kegalle, Gampaha and Colombo. The fact that the entire area lies within the wet zone and spans across an elevational gradient, means that the Kelani river basin supports three main vegetation formations i.e. tropical wet evergreen forest (lowland rainforests) in its lower to mid reaches, and the sub-montane and montane forests at higher elevations (Jayasuriya, Kichener & Biradar, 2006). Rainforests are markedly stratified and characterized by tall and dense canopies. Lianas are an essential floral component here, while epiphytes, mainly composed of ferns, orchids, lichens, fungi and bryophytes, are also abundant. Numerous epiphyllous mosses and liverworts add diversity to its plant life forms. The sub-montane forests have less distinct strata. Species here are more or less those found in the lower regions. Montane forests occur above 1500 m in the Central Highlands in the Upper Kelani river basin. Thus, cool and wet conditions that prevail here along with abundant mist, relatively strong winds and elevated solar radiation determine the nature and form of the vegetation at the higher altitudes. The trees are generally short in stature and branched and have microphyllous and leathery leaves (Rajakaruna, 2015).

The Kelani River is the third largest watershed in the country. The importance of the river in terms of habitats and biota, is partly due to its spread through a multitude of streamlets and smaller tributaries which in turn nourishes and creates smaller river basins. It is reported that around 117 micro­ catchments are supported by the Kelani River. Many of the streams and river networks are lined by strips of riverrine vegetation. The lower reaches include areas within the Colombo district which passes through Kaduwela, Sri J'pura Kotte and Kolonnawa. These areas comprise low lying flood retention zones which are essentially marsh habitat. The sustenance of these urban wetlands is heavily dependent on the inflow from the Kelani River. These lowland areas wetlands are now severely fragmented.

Within the Kelani river basin there are a number of important forests that support a rich component of biodiversity, although the large majority of them are found in the upper reaches. Overall, a forest cover of 237 km2 (10.2%), marsh 24 km2 (1%), water bodies 46 km2 (2.1 %) and scrub 68 km2 (2.9%) are included within the Kelani river basin (Figure 36).

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Figure 35: Smaller micro-catchments of the Kelani river basin

Apart from the natural land use types, many anthropogenic land use types are found in the area. Among these are rural home gardens (mainly in mid and upper reaches), settlements in the lower reaches and plantations consisting paddy, rubber and tea and other minor crops. Several large and medium scale privately owned tea and rubber estates are located in the Kelani river basin. Further, there is a large number of small and medium scale plantations of coconut and cloves located within the Kelani river basin. Rambutan and Durian are two of the major fruit crops grown in the Kelani valley. Additionally, banana, pineapple and a range of other vegetables are grown in the Kelani river basin. About 34 % of the Kelani river basin falls within the Western Province, where the population density is at its peak. Therefore, in comparison to the other areas of the basin, here a significant proportion of the natural habitats have been cleared for human settlements, roads and infrastructural facilities.

4.9.3. Fauna and Flora The Kelani River Basin lies within three major floristic regions, namely Northern Wet lowlands, Foothills of Adam's Peak and Ambagamuwa. As the Kelani River Basin falls within the wet zone it is extremely rich in biodiversity with high species richness, many endemics and some point endemics, and high numbers of rare and threatened species. Although detailed work has not been carried out systematically across the entire river basin, a few studies covering a limited number of sites have demonstrated its biotic wealth. An endemic plant, Balanocarpus kitulgalensis is recorded in the Kelani river basin from the Parawalatenna forest reserve near the Kitulgala rest house. Similarly, the plant Vetica luwesiana was recently discovered near We Oya, a tributary of the Kelani River Basin. Several points endemic fauna are also found in the Kelani River Basin. This includes Pethia bandula and Systomus asoka. Apart from fish several species of butterflies and damselflies (e.g. Archibasis oscillans - found in the Hanwella area) and freshwater crabs (e.g. Perbrinckia cracens) occur in this river basin. Among the recorded threatened species are 16 dragonflies, 23 butterflies, 9 amphibians, 11 reptiles,

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25 birds and 28 mammals. With respect to fish, 27 nationally threatened fish species are recorded and includes eight critically endangered (CN), 15 endangered (EN) and four vulnerable (VU) species (IUCN database).

4.9.4. Protected Areas As is the case in the entire wet zone, much of the natural habitats, particularly the lowland rainforests, are highly fragmented and remain as pockets in an urbanized landscape. Any remnant forest patch here would hold high levels of biodiversity and hence warrants strict protection. Many of the forests here are under the Jurisdiction of the Forest Department or the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC). Overall the Kelani catchment has three wildlife sanctuaries (7,518 ha), 16 proposed forest reserves (11,423 ha), 13 forest reserves (2,585 ha) and a catchment area of 2,304 ha allocated for drinking water reservoirs. The majority of these are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department which is also said to be in the process of expanding these reservations. At the lower most extreme, particularly within the Colombo area, the SLLRDC proposes to holistically manage the urban wetlands as a protected area, particularly to safeguard flora and fauna displaced as a result of urbanization.

Figure 36: Protected areas within Kelani basin Source: R & D, CEA based on Department of Wildlife / Forest department

4.9.5. Ecological changes Throughout the Kelani river basin, progressive expansion of human settlements, industries and the road network has resulted in the replacement of natural habitats by human modified environments. The population in the western parts of the basin is expected to expand with the new development initiatives including the Western Region Megapolis Plan. Low lying areas will be increasingly filled for settlements and for infrastructural facilities such as roads and bridges. While such alterations within the river basin are inevitable, the sustainability of the natural resources and ecosystem services would be vital to ensure the sustainability of the new initiatives. This would therefore, necessitate more stringent conservation actions. The loss of biodiversity and the displacement of fauna together with

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 85 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin other issues such as the spread of invasive, soil erosion and pollution are also increasingly threatening the remnant natural habitats and water courses particularly within the lower reaches of the Kelani River Basin.

4.9.6. Ecological services Due to the varying nature of the ecosystems, the ecological services they provide are wide and varied. The rainforests serve as water sheds while at the same time being important for numerous other services such as carbon sequestration, regulation of the climate, supporting biodiversity including many endemics, and purifying air and water. The wetlands in the lower reaches on the other hand are of special significance due to its capacity to regulate water flow and flood retention, acting as pollution sinks, trapping and stabilizing soil and supporting biodiversity. The biodiversity in the area as a whole supports several green businesses while at the same time facilitating the maintenance of rural livelihoods and tourism. 4.9.7. Existing major environmental threats Encroachment, forest fragmentation and land degradation: The expansion of the population in urban centers and agricultural activities such as tea and rubber small holdings has resulted in encroachment of the few remaining natural habitats. Further, infilling of marshes due to expansion of human settlements has resulted in a gradual reduction of the natural wetlands in the basin. On the upper reaches of the basin extensive agriculture in steep lands with crop types not suitable for the landscape features, has been identified as a major issue resulting in land degradation and loss of natural habitats. Severe fragmentation of remnant rainforest patches has also occurred in this region.

Industrial Pollution: Two large industrial zones with central waste treatment facilities are located at Seethawaka and Biyagama. In addition, a large number of industries are located outside the industrial zones along the river. The river drains the most populated province in the country thus, there are many industries releasing treated and untreated industrial effluents into the river. According to the CEA (2015), the water quality at Thulduwa and Seethawaka ferry monitoring sites did not conform to the ideal standards. The river is also contaminated with heavy metals (Hemachandra and Pathiratne, 2017).

4.9.8.Existing Ecological Environment in the areas of the interventions Intervention Type 1: Flood walls or levees constructed on either side along the Lower Kelani (From Hanwella to Colombo) This intervention will be along either bank of the river from Hanwella to Colombo. Much of this area is heavily disturbed due to human settlements (Figure 37) roads and other man-made structures. Home gardens, small scale mixed plantations of tea, rubber and coconut or vegetables (Figure 39) are also found along the banks. Rivers have a natural strip of riverine vegetation, these together with other associated riverine habitats are considered as one of the most diverse, dynamic and complex ecosystems. Some floral species grow as tall canopy trees (Figure 40) and are of importance for primates and birds while others may be shrub-like (Figure 38) and so be important for smaller creatures such as the reptiles and amphibians. Much of these habitats are cleared now and remain as isolated patches.

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Figure 37: Home gardens along the lower Kelani River

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Figure 39: The taller trees remaining along the Kelani River in the Hanwella area

Figure 40: Shrub habitats along the lower reaches of the Kelani river bank

Other important natural ecosystems that have a direct link with the river at the lower reaches are the marshes and tributaries. Hydrological balance, particularly the processes of surface inflow and drainage (surface outflow), are of utmost importance in regulating and maintaining the water flow of

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wetlands (Figure 41). The cluster of remnant wetland isolates located in the lower reaches of the Kelani river are now an important target for holistic management under a proposal of the SLLRDC.

Figure 41: Components of the water budget - Precipitation, surface inflow, surface outflow, ground water inflow and ground water outflow - the balance between them affects the storage capacity of a wetland.

These wetlands are fed by tributaries of both the Bolgoda and the Kelani rivers while drainage also occurs via these tributaries back into the river. These wetlands currently serve as important habitats of wildlife. Several critically endangered plants and animals have been recorded here. Among them are the otter (Lutra lutra), fishing cat (Prionorious viverrinus) and the western purple faced leaf monkey (Semnopithecus verulus). Many other endemic and threatened fish and birds inhabit these wetlands. The wetlands are also home to migrant bird species. Similarly, many endemic and threatened plants (e.g. Aganope heptophylla) are found in these wetlands and the associated tributaries.

The three following bund options have been considered.

(IA) Intervention Sub Type 1A- Zero bund line option- Bund will run almost on the river bank

As the bund will be erected on the river bank the habitats that would be included within this area are primarily stretches of riparian vegetation and sand banks. Some built up structures on the bank itself may also be affected. Several inlet channels (canals and tributaries) also open out to the river on both banks.

(IB) Intervention Sub Type 1B- 50ft bund line option-Bund will run 50ft from each river bank The linear 50 ft strip from either bank of the Kelani River would include a considerable amount of anthropogenic habitats such as built up habitats, human settlements and home gardens. Some of it would be under rice paddies as well as under other plantation crops such as rubber and vegetables. This area may also include marshes and riparian vegetation. The bund would therefore traverse through a mixture of habitats. The area may also have some tributaries which are connected to the river.

(IC) Intervention Sub Type 1C- Flexible bund line option- Bund will run flexibly The habitats it will traverse through will depend on the location and the selected bund option.

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Intervention Type 2-One or more upstream reservoirs 2A- Construction of Holombuwa Reservoir The Kelani River near the proposed Holombuwa reservoir meanders through the Kegalle district. The weir will be constructed across Gurugoda Oya. This stream is lined with a relatively narrow but moderately rich stretch of riverine vegetation on the right bank while the left bank is mainly under rural home gardens (Figure 42) A road runs along the left bank. The area in general is under tea and rubber small holdings as plantation crops. A tributary which drains into the Gurugoda Oya is known to support a population of the Critically Endangered fish Pethiya Bandula.

Figure 42: The area surrounding the proposed Holombuwa reservoir

Figure 43: The disturbed nature of the left bank and moderately thick riverine vegetation on the right bank and the posts of the existing hydrometric station along the left bank.

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2B- Construction of the Wee Oya Reservoir

The Wee Oya Reservoir in the Kegalle district lies in the Yatiyanthota area. The boulders and rocky nature of the stream bed has given it a unique morphology with fast flowing sections, deep pools and shallow and slow flowing areas which in turn provide ideal habitats for freshwater fish, crabs and terrestrial and aquatic herpetofauna and invertebrates. The stream was also lined with somewhat disturbed but relatively thick riverine forest stretches. Home gardens and naturalized rubber plantations are found scattered along its banks (Figure 44). The habitats associated with Wee oya would be particularly important for fish, birds and small mammals and primates. A previous study in Wee Oya itself has reported a range of fish species which include many endemics and threatened species (Silva et al. 2015). This diversity could be expected to occur throughout the tributaries of the Kelani basin.

Figure 44: Habitat use around the proposed Wee Oya reservoir

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Figure 45: The landscape in the area that would be inundated as a result of the Wee Oya reservoir

Figure 46: Existing weir along the Wee Oya constructed for cultivation purposes

Figure 47: Proposed dam site of the Wee Oya reservoir

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Figure 48: Riverine vegetation along Wee Oya (left) and upstream of the dam site (right)

2C- Construction of the Nawatha Reservoir Located within the Kegalle district, the Nawatha Reservoir also falls within the Yatiyanthota division and is associated with a strip of riverine forests while some land is under tea, rubber, other mixed crops and rural home gardens (Figure 50) Being in the wet zone, many of these habitats especially the riparian zone will hold high levels of biodiversity. More importantly, the proposed reservoir will also result in the inundation of four small patches of forests i.e. Pokunuwala (8 ha), Kelani Valley (35 ha), Badullwatte (30 ha) and Kithulgala (42 ha) totaling 115 ha (Figure 49). These forests are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. The inundation would cause the fragmentation of a contiguous stretch of wet zone forests. Also, the upper most point of inundation of the proposed reservoir would be in close proximity to a Broadlands project site which is now under construction. The river here is known for the rocky pools and banks popularly used for white water rafting. This section of the stream is known to support many species of endemic and nationally threatened fish (e.g. Channa ara and Systomus asoka). The proposed reservoir is in close proximity to the main roads (A4/A7).

Figure 49: The spread of the Nawatha reservoir showing the innundated forests

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Figure 51: Riverine vegetation along the banks of the Kelani near the proposed location of the Nawatha reservoir

Figure 52: The land use in the inundated areas of the Nawatha reservoir

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2C- Construction of the Rucastle Reservoir

The Rucastle Reservoir lies in Deraniyagala and will be constructed across the Seethawaka Ganga. This area is located in close to the Rucastle estate. Much of the area is under tea and rubber with some coconut. Here too the importance of the existence of a healthy strip of riverine vegetation for the wellbeing of the stream cannot be over emphasized (Figure 54)

Figure 53: The landscape in the inundated area of the Rucastle reservoir

Figure 54: Left bank vegetation and downstream near the proposed dam site of the of the Rucastle reservoir 4.10. Agricultural Aspects in the Kelani River Basin 4.10.1. Agro Ecological Zones The Kelani River passes through the Wet Zone of the country and is further sub divided in to 10 Agro Eecological Zones(AEZ) covering Low, Mid and Up country based on elevation. Elevations of these AEZ varies from almost zero to 2000m, mean temperature from 130 C to 29 0 C and rainfall from 1525 to 3600 mm. Points of higher rainfall experienced in Sri Lanka have been recorded in the middle of the

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Kelani River Basin. The total volume of water falling within the basin is estimated at 7,865 Million Cubic Meters (MCM) with about 43% of the rainfall ending up in the Indian Ocean. The main soil group in the basin consists of Red Yellow Podsols in association with various sub classes and low Humic Glay soils found in valley bottoms which have been mainly developed in to paddy cultivation.

Due to this different climatic and topographic variation, entirely different land use systems with picturesque scenery is experienced throughout the watershed. More importantly, the agricultural crops grown and animal husbandry activities of the area play an important role in enriching the national economy. Table 10: Rainfall and Soil types in Agro-ecological Zones AEZAREA Rainfall Soil types (Sqkm) % IU3b 6 0.3 > 1700mm WL1a 898 38.1 > 3200mm RYP, RYP with dominant A1 layer WL1b 187 7.9 > 2800mm RYP, LHG WL2b 122 5.2 > 2200mm RYP, RYL, LHG WL3 425 18.0 > 1700mm RYP with Lateritic soil, LHG, Regosol in costal side WM1a 300 12.7 >3300mm RYP, Lithosol WM2b 13 0.5 >1800mm RYP, RBL, IBL, LHG WU1 209 8.9 >3100mm RYP, Lithosol, Mountain Regosol WU2a 83 3.5 >2400mm RYP WU2b 98 4.2 >2200mm RYP, Lithosol, Mountain Regosol WU3 17 0.7 >1100mm RYP Total 2358 100.0 RYP Red Yellow Podsol RBL Reddish Brown Latesol RYL Red Yellow Latesol LHG_ Low Humic Glay IBL_Imature Brown loam

WL1a is the largest AEZ of the basin area and covers about 38% of the area. This zone is located mainly in the middle part of the basin within Kegalle and Ratnapura districts. It is the area receiving the highest rain fall in the country since three rainfall mechanisms with the exception of the North Eastern Monsoon, are more active in this area. Only January to March shows some dryness. As the annual rainfall exceeds 3200 mm frequent floods are reported in the lower areas of this zone. Landslides are being reported in steep lands where biotidenize is the major rock type. This process takes place, as the feldspar mineral converts in to clay mineral which turns slippery in wet conditions. Rubber, tea and mix crops in home gardens are the dominant land use in the highlands, while paddy cultivation takes place in LHG soils in the low lying areas. Export agricultural crops and fruit trees like Durian, Jack and Kithul are the common tree types found in home gardens.

WL3 AEZ covers about 18 percent of the lower part of the basin. RYP soils in this area is associated with soft or hard lateritic soils which has high infiltration, soil depth and better aggregate stability which helps in minimizing soil erosion. It is the driest AEZ in the wet zone and has been described as a minor drought prone area. First Inter Monsoon (FIM) and South Western Monsoon (SWM) rains are less effective in this AEZ and the driest period is from January to March. However, the rainfall received during the following months is sufficient to maintain the soil moisture requirement of perennial crops. In addition, this rainfall pattern facilitates sufficient intermittent sunlight to grow a wide range of fruit crops like Rambutan and Pineapple.

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WM1a fall in to the South Western slope of the basin in Nuwara Eliya, Kegalle and Ratnapura. The areas receiving the highest rainfall in the country such as Kenilworth (Ginigathhena) and Wewalthalawa (Yatiyanthota) are situated in this area. Land use in this area is limited to Tea cultivation and natural forests

WL1b AEZ located in Western border to WL1a AEZ shows a similar land use to DL1a but less rainfall is experienced as the South West Monsoon is less effective in comparison to WL1a. Dry period runs up to March from December. Rubber, Mix home garden crops and paddy in low lands are the major land use types

WU1 AEZ is located mainly in the Ambagamuwa DS Division and some parts of Ratnapura district. This is also a highest rainfall receiving area and similar to WM1a AEZ, tea, forest cultivation and natural forests are the major land uses.

WU2a and WU2b AEZ are located in Ambagamuwa and Nuwara Eliya DS divisions having a good combination of rainfall and sunshine year-round and is famous for quality tea and vegetables.

WL2b AEZ is located in the Northern part of the Kegalle district Eastern border. Land uses are similar to WL3 AEZ, but this zone receives more rainfall as the South West Monsoon is more effective in this zone.

4.10.2. Agro Ecology of Catchment Area along the Proposed Bunds Almost the whole catchment area along the proposed bund area, except some parts of Pusseli Oya and Wak Oya catchments, are included to the WL3 Agro Ecological Zone (AEZ) which is considered as the driest Agro Ecological Zone of the Wet Zone. This AEZ, as shown in the Figure 55 below, gets very little contributions from the first inter-monsoonal rains during March and April, as well as the Northeastern Monsoonal rains, from December to January, in comparison to other parts of the Kelani catchment. Contribution from the South Eastern monsoon and likewise 2nd Inter-monsoon rains too are comparatively low as shown in the Figure 55 below. Consequently, contribution from the tributaries of the downstream is also relatively low in terms of volume and energy in comparison to the Main River and two distinct wet and dry periods could be identified in the rainfall pattern.

Figure 55: Comparison of Rainfall - Kelani Catchment and WL3 AEZ

Source: -CRIPDBIP-NAT-Z-RP-0402_Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Pre2.pdf, October 2017, Department of Irrigation, Sri Lanka. -Dr. Punyawardana, BVR, Rainfal and Agro Ecological Zones of Sri Lanka, 2008, Department of Agriculture, 2008, Sri Lanka.

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The peak rainfall period coincides with the highest rainfall period in the main river. As the flow height of the main river is comparatively high in comparison to the tributaries, meeting points of the main river will be inundated with back flow flooding during this period. May- June and October are the most possible months of such floods. 4.10.3. Agricultural Activities in the Kelani river basin The Table below indicates that Kelani Basin is very rich in agricultural perennials like tea, rubber, coconut and home garden crops which are very favorable for better watershed management. Approximately 84% of the Kelani River Basin consists of such crops. Accordingly, the total agricultural land cover is about 91 percent of the total area of the basin including 8 percent of paddy cultivation. These crops contribute substantially to the national economy while promoting self-sufficiency in food.

Table 11: Summary of the land use in KRB Land Use Extent(ha) % Common Districts Rubber 78914 33.47 Kegalle, Ratnapura Homesteads/Gardens 58262 24.71 All districts but mainly in Colombo and Gampaha Tea 27807 11.79 Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura, Kegalle Paddy 18280 7.75 Colombo, Gampaha, Kegalle, Coconut 11638 4.94 Colombo, Gampaha, Kegalle, Other cultivations 2663 1.13 Forests 24090 10.22 Other 14125 5.99 Total 235779 100.00

Some important particulars about the agricultural activities in Kelani River Basin are described below. 4.10.3.1. Paddy Cultivation 18280 ha has been recorded as Paddy lands which covers about 7.75 percent of the total land area and is scattered throughout the low lying areas of the basins. However, only about 10520 ha (54%) of these lands had been asweddumized and only 61 and 22 percent have been cultivated in 2014/15 Maha and 2015 Yala season respectively.

It is important to note that most paddy lands in urbanized area in Colombo and Gampaha districts has shown less asweddumized. It was further revealed that these non asweddumizedlands have remained fallow for 15 to 20 years and are being subjected to illegal filling for other purposes, such as for building construction. According to information given by the relevant authorities, most of the time no action is taken in this regard, as these lands were not been properly demarcated in any plans or maps. The same situation prevails within the Muthurajawela reserves also.

On the contrary, a considerable number of farmers in Biyagama and Dompe DS divisions in Gampaha District and Hanwella and Kaduwala, DS divisions are still engaged in paddy cultivation where it is their principle livelihood. Lower cultivation extents have been reported in the Yala season mainly due to the high rainfall and poor drainage conditions prevailing during this period. About 53 percent of paddy lands in Kegalla District has been asweddumized and 65 percent of them are cultivated during the Maha season but Yala cultivations remain very low at 10 percent, due to the above reasons.

Parcel size of majority of paddy lands are less than 0.4 ha and productivity is about 3.5mt/ha or less where it is not profitable as an enterprise. Both the shortage and high cost of labour, non-availability

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 98 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin of suitable machinery, are some of other reasons for neglecting paddy cultivation. In addition, the recent trend of climate change scenario has also aggravated this situation. Delays in commencement of the rainy season, damage of yields due to prolonged rainy or dry periods especially in the Maha season are also contributory factors to this situation.

Table 12: Comparison of paddy cultivation in densely populated (DP) and less populated (LP) DS divisions in Colombo and Gampaha districts District DS Divisions Paddy Land (ha) Cultivated (ha) Total Asweddumized 2014/15 2015 Maha Yala Colombo DP Colombo, Kolonnawa, Kotte 2104 404 (19) 125(31) 76(19) Maharagam, Thimbirigasyaya LP Hanwella, Homagama, 9280 5075(55) 2229(44) 1258(25) Kaduwala, Padukka Gampaha DP Jaela, Gampaha, Kalaniya, 1970 73(9) 57(78) 9(12) Mahara, Wattala LP Attanagalla, Biyagama, Dompe 4538 2781(61) 2226(80) 424(15)

Source Statistical Hand Books 2014 of Respective districts, Department of Census and Statistics 4.10.3.2. Other crop Cultivation Other type of crops are included in to annual biennial crops. But, there are no significantly important crops like vegetable, yams and other field crops in relation to watershed management. It is reported however that there are vegetable cultivations in Dompe DS division in the past which has failed due to the no availability of an organized marketing system. Rubber cultivation covers about 78,914 ha or 33.47 percent of the land extent and is mainly confined to the Kegalle district or the middle part of the basin where rainfall is much higher. It is the single largest rubber cultivation within any river in the country and contributes to better catchment management. Low price of manufactured rubber and shortage of labour has hindered the development of this sector. There is a trend to replace rubber with tea or cinnamon.

Home steads and Gardens are the largest land use category in the Kelani Basin and covers about 58,262 ha or about 25 percent of the total land area. These are scattered throughout the basin but is mainly concentrated in the lower reaches of the basin where rapid urbanization has taken place. Export Agricultural Crops (EAC), timber, fruit and some other tree type cultivations are included in this category. Some crops cultivated under this category are given in the Table 13 below.

Table 13: Extent of Export Agricultural and Fruit crops in KRB 2014 Export agricultural crops Fruit Crops

Crop Extent(ha) Crop Extent(ha) Cinnamon 134 Mango 1617 Coffee 397 Lime 134 Pepper 990 Jack 1785 Cashew 628 Banana 2005 Cloves 67 Papaw 304 Betel 495 Pineapple 1567 Arecanut 773 Rambutan 958 Source: Statistical Hand Book 2014, Department of Census and Statistics

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The Kelani Basin area is very popular for betel, cashew, pineapple and rambutan cultivations. Growing pineapple under coconut is also a specific agricultural practice in this area. These areas are however shrinking during the past two or three decades due to fragmentation of these lands for residential purposes.

Coconut is the next category, accounting for 11638 ha or 4.94 percent of the land area. This is a major coconut growing area in the country although the land under coconut cultivation is shrinking due to fragmentation of coconut lands for residential purposes, as in the case of homesteads and gardens.

All these perennial crops play a vital role in minimizing soil erosion and improving infiltration. Any development intervention which replaces this cropping system will seriously affect the basin management process. 4.10.4. Crop Production Systems As described under the 4.10.2, favorable moisture and sunny conditions specific to WL3 AEZ is more favorable for cultivation of a range of food crops, especially fruits, in addition to paddy cultivation. Together with these advantages, an economically viable and nature friendly agricultural system has evolved in this area which is well adapted to flooding conditions. Accordingly, this area had been an agriculturally rich area some four or five decades ago. Accordingly, Paddy cultivation had been limited to the lower part of the terrain which has poor drainage conditions and therefore, more vulnerable to flooding. Land preparation period in paddy cultivation falls immediately after the flooding periods, and uses the water collected during heavy rainy periods. The Paddy fields are surrounded by strong bunds in order to facilitate water collection. Similarly harvesting was done during the driest periods of the year. This process has been instrumental in playing a vital role in minimizing flood risk. According to the information on land use, there are about 13,000 ha of paddy lands in the area

Paddy cultivation has been successfully carried out during both Yala and Maha seasons two or three decades ago and it had been the principle occupation and livelihood of the people in the area. The government too has intervened occasionally to uplift paddy cultivation in the area in many ways. Constructing minor flood controlling devices to minimize the damages is a one such intervention. Presently, the importance of such devices has been neglected as farming has assumed low priority.

Likewise, all other highland crops had been cultivated considering the drainage conditions of the soil catena. Accordingly, wide range of crops from annuals to perennials have been cultivated. In addition to commonly grown coconut, jak, bread fruit, arecanut etc., this area is specially recommended for quality fruit production. Such as Rambutan, Cashew and Ppineapples. Malwana is famous island wide for quality Rambutan.

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Figure 56: Proposed Flood Bunds and Agro ecological Zones of the Kelani River Basin Source: Map prepared by GIS specialist of the SEA Team

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4.10.5. Collapse of the Traditional Agricultural Systems Except for areas near Colombo, large scale human settlement activities has not taken place in this area due to the flood risk, as a result of which this area is regarded as a less developed region in terms of basic facilities and infrastructure development. This situation has changed during the last three or four decades with the establishment of the Free Trade Zone (FTZ) in Biyagama and due to the development activities taking place round Baththaramulla due to the declaration of Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte as the Administrative Capital of the country. Construction of factories and warehouses took place in Kelaniya, Malwana, Kaduwela and Hanwella outside the Biyagama FTZ.

As a result, this area has been transformed in to a dominantly industrial, service and residential region, with human settlements replacing the agriculture dominant areas. This situation has badly affected paddy cultivation as many farmers are giving up farming and are employed in factories, building sites and similar economic activities. Presently paddy cultivation is limited to only 20% of the total available area. The subsistence nature of paddy cultivation in terms of economic returns as well as the shortage of labour has aggravated this situation resulting in a drastic drop in paddy cultivation.

Many land owners have already sold out, at least a part of their lands, including paddy lands, for other types of development activities. Many of these lands have developed haphazardly with no consideration of the environmental harmony of the area. In many instances, no formal approvals are obtained from the relevant agencies. Roads have been constructed by filling drainage paths, reservations have been encroached, and the walls of houses and work places have become barriers to rapid water out flow during rainy periods. The cumulative result of these informal activities is heavy property damage even after a minor flood. The recent flood in 2016 May is a typical example in this regard, which caused heavy damage to the area, even though it has been recorded as a minor flood. 4.10.6. Animal husbandry Weather conditions in the basin is very favorable for animal husbandry enterprises although the entire potential has not yet been tapped. Table 14 below gives some information about the present status of the animal population in the basin.

Table 14: Estimation of Animal Population in the Kelani River Basin in 2014 Category Neat Cattle Buffalo Goats Pigs Cock/Hens

Population No 26,340 13,678 12819 13,436 1,216,248 Source: Statistical Hand Books 2014, Department of Census and Statistics Cattle herd keepers in the area are very keen to genetically improve their animals frequently. Dry zone farmers are prepared to purchase male and female animals from Dompe or Biyagama area for genetically upgrading their existing herds. Ambagamuwa is the leading milk producing DS division of the KRB area which produces about 70% of milk production in the basin, with only 17% of total cattle population in the KRB.

Most of large scale poultry entrepreneurs are reported from Dompe, Kaduwela, and Padukka and Ambagamuwa DS divisions.

More than 75% of swine populations are in large scale farms in Kaduwela Ds division. There are poultry keepers with piggeries in order to facilitate recycling of broiler production waste, which is the main reason for a high population of Swine in the Kaduwela DS division.

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The area where the flood bunds are being proposed is well suited for intensive livestock keeping and is being underutilized at present. Most of uncultivated paddy and lands under matured coconut cultivations could be utilized to develop this sector, although sufficient attention has not yet been paid by the relevant authorities at present. Development of lands for this purpose should be considered in the future in order to minimize the threat of these lands being converted into nonagricultural purposes. 4.10.7. Environmental Issues Relating to Agriculture Available literature indicates that several issues in terms of watershed management, have arisen in relation to agricultural activities in this area. Land fragmentation, Soil degradation, water pollution, unwise use of fertilizers and agro-chemicals are issues.

As described earlier, fragmentation of home gardens and coconut plantations in to small lots of 250 square meters for residential purposes is a critical issue in terms of watershed management as soil infiltration is affected, while soil erosion is aggravated. This factor is a major contributory factor for the large volume of water flow with a heavy load of silt and sand in waterways even after a short period of rain.

More than 60 percent of paddy lands have been abandoned without cultivating any crops at all. Even when these lands are cultivated, farmers obtain a very low profit or suffer losses. This is the main reason for allowing paddy lands to fallow, and pressure is rising to use these lands for nonagricultural purposes. It is suitable to utilize these lands for the cultivation of more profitable crops or to utilize these land for water retention purposes, in view of the dwindling wetland areas in urbanized areas.

There is a strong possibility of waterways being polluted due to agro chemical use in paddy and other crops. Although this has not been sufficiently proved, it is important to pay attention to this aspect due to the many uses of Kelani River Basin water, including for drinking purposes.

The adoption of soil conservation measures is also very important and attention should be paid to the high cost incurred in practicing such measures. 4.11. Socio-Economic Condition 4.11.1. Administrative Boundaries By catchment area Kelani Ganga Basin is the seventh largest watershed in Sri Lanka, extending over three provinces, Western Province covering 773 km2 or 34 percent of the basin area, Central Province, covering 419 km2 or 19 percent of the basin area, and Sabaragamuwa Province covering 1,100 km2 or 47 percent of the basin area.

Table 15: Administrative Districts falling to Kelani Ganga Basin by area No. District Area in Kelani Basin Area in Kelani Basin (km2) (%) 1 Kegalle 1,016.6 44.4 2 Colombo 451.7 19.7 3 Nuwara Eliya 424.5 18.5 4 Gampaha 328.0 14.3 5 Ratnapura 64.6 02.8 6 Kalutara 4.8 00.2 7 Kandy 2.0 00.1 Total 2,292.2 100.0 (Source: Adopted from Atkins Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility/Feasibility Study, Oct 2017)

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The KRB contains varying proportions of the administrative districts of Kegalle, Colombo, Nuwara Eliya, Gampaha, Ratnapura, Kalutara and Kandy. These are listed in Table 15 above in order of percentage of the total basin area. It is apparent that almost half of the basin is in Kegalle District. Almost the whole of the basin is within the four Districts of Kegalle, Colombo, Nuwara Eliya and Gampaha, while Ratnapura, Kalutara and Kandy combined constitute only 3 percent of the basin area. 4.11.2. Population Distribution The demographic and socio-economic data was collected and analyzed by district and divisions, aggregating GN Division-wise data that fall into for the Kelani River Basin (KRB) area. This information is based on several sources, which include Census & Statistics Department 2011, District Statistical Handbook 2015-2016, and Divisional Level Resource Profiles 2015-2016. Other relevant information was gathered from data sheets provided by the line Departments of Agriculture, Agrarian Services, Forest, and Disaster Management Units of the 3 main districts falling into the Basin.

In accordance with availability of segregated data, the vital statistics were collected by total land area falling into 7 Districts, 35 DS Divisions and 1088 GN Divisions belonging to the KRB, which are summarized into DS Divisions as shown in Table 15.

The tapering Upper Kelani Basin is mainly located in Ambagamuwa DSD of Nuwara Eliya District while the bulk of the broader Middle Kelani Basin is spread over 9 DSDs coming under Kegalle district. Being the most vulnerable and critical area, the Lower Kelani Basin drains through 17 DSDs falling into Colombo and Gampaha Districts. The total land area of the Kelani basin is 2,985 sq.km which accounts for 4.6 percent of the total land area of Sri Lanka.

As indicated in Table 16, the total population in the basin is over 3.02 million, with an average density of 1012 person per sq.km in 2011. The total population in the basin by 2017, at an average annual growth rate of 1.0 (mid 2015) stands grossly at 3.21 million persons, which is an overall increase of 6.3 percent in 6 years. Population density gradually rises along KRB from upper to lower basin, showing a range of 100 - 600 persons per sq.km in both upper and middle basin areas while a range of 1,000 - 8,000 persons per sq.km are recorded in the lower basin, where the vulnerability is very high.

Most highly populated DS divisions in the lower Kelani are Thimbirigasyaya (8,173 per km2), Kolonnawa (7,327), Sri Jayewardenepure-Kotte (6,326 per km2), and Maharagama (4980 per km2) in the Colombo district and Kelaniya (6,203 per km2), Ja-ela (3,959 per km2), Wattala (3,935 per km2), Biyagama (3,099 per km2) and Mahara (3,070 per km2) in the Gampaha District.

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Figure 57: Population Map of Kelani River Basin (Source: Adopted GIS Maps of the Consultants Team - 2018)

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Table 16: Demographic Data of Kelani River Basin by DS Divisions - 2011 NAME OF DS No. of TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL BELOW 15-59 OVER AREA POP. DIVISION GNDs Population Male Female 15 YRS YRS 59 YRS Sq. km Density District (Per km2) 1. Seethawaka 69 114,648 56,041 58,607 26892 72530 15226 145.86 786 2. Homagama 36 107,472 53,061 54,411 69235 24566 13671 56.89 1,889 3. Thimbirigasyaya 11 139,694 72,174 67,520 31,456 45,637 16,526 13.15 8,173 4. Sri Jaya' Kotte 18 94,578 45,841 48,737 18,787 60,371 15,420 14.95 6,326

Colombo 5. Padukka 42 61,116 29,953 31,163 14,180 38,047 8,889 97.53 626 6. Maharagama 30 146,404 70,769 75,635 30,000 94,335 22,069 29.40 4,980 7. Kolonnawa 46 190,875 94,115 96,760 48,768 120,381 21,726 26.05 7,327 8. Kaduwela 57 252,100 124,096 128,004 54,948 162,376 34,776 87.70 2,875 9. Colombo 31 303,332 153,122 150,210 80,798 156,978 30,100 15.26 1,988 10. Wattala 36 152,538 73,785 78,753 36,805 97,338 18,395 38.76 3,935 11. Mahara 59 158,728 77,812 80,916 37,915 101,093 19,720 51.70 3,070

(C 12. Kelaniya 37 136,092 66,982 69,110 30,648 88,727 16,717 21.94 6,203 .c (C a 13. Ja-Ela 08 37,857 18,227 19,630 8,686 23,925 5,246 08.30 3,959 (CE 14. Gampaha 09 18,381 9,096 9,285 4,321 11,658 2,402 07.65 2,403 ID 15. Dompe 131 150,942 73,921 77,021 36,008 93,984 20,950 180.56 804 16. Biyagama 49 186,862 92,322 94,540 43,657 122,121 21,084 60.30 3,099 17. Attanagalla 12 12,822 6,297 6,525 2,950 7,952 1,920 17.37 738 18. Horana 07 13,667 6,693 6,974 3,142 8,617 1,908 17.91 763

> 19. Pasbage Korale 02 3,459 1,573 1,886 1,010 2,015 434 17.80 194 ~o c a20. Ganga Ihalakorale 03 5,191 2,517 2,674 1,367 3,124 700 21.97 236 21.Yatiyanthota 31 55,776 26,999 28,777 14,259 33,420 8,097 173.7 321 22. Warakapola 28 33,261 15,914 17,347 7,710 20,119 5,432 71.22 467 23. Ruwanwella 34 57,727 27,934 29,793 14,195 34,840 8,692 121.48 475 24. Kegalle 32 36,102 17,045 19,057 8,391 21,866 5,845 61.2 590 25. Galigamuwa 30 42,935 20,529 22,406 10,674 25,693 6,568 77.34 555 Kegalle 26. Deraniyagala 26 45,983 22,270 23,713 11,524 27,925 6,534 222.07 207 27. Dehiovita 39 80,975 39,279 41,696 20,294 49,577 11,104 193.26 419 28. Bulathkohupitiya 28 51,751 24,656 27,095 13,190 30,699 7,862 131.59 393 29. Aranayaka 12 12,091 5,893 6,198 2,964 7,282 1,845 48.88 247

UJ 30. Nuwara Eliya 07 21,615 10,441 11,174 6,733 12,301 2,581 137.89 157 z 31. Ambagamuwa 70 195,146 92,790 102,356 57,926 114,468 22,752 473.35 412 32. Ratnapura 07 12,408 6,060 6,348 3,257 7,579 1,572 123.21 101 (Cr 3 33. Kuruwita 10 23,977 11,794 12,183 5,971 14,829 3,177 67.79 354 (C ■Mc 34. Imbulpe 08 10,269 4,969 5,300 2,776 6,134 1,359 52.17 197 (C cc 35. Eheliyagoda 33 53,771 26,511 27,260 12,631 33,690 7,450 98.65 545 TOTAL 1,088 3,020,545 1,481,481 1,539,064 774,068 1,776,197 388,749 2,985 1012 (Source: Department of Census & Statistics, Population & Housing Census - 2011)

The sex ratio of the population is 96.2 (No. of males per 100 females), which is a little above the national sex ratio of 93.7 in the year 2012. According to age distribution, percentage of persons falling into the workforce category of 15 -59 years is 58.8 leaving the dependency rate of 41.2 percent, which include the younger population of below 15 years of age (25%) and older population above 59 years age (16%). The number of total working population in KRB is around 1.8 million, which translates to 21.7 percent of the national labor force of 8.3 million.

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4.11.3. Key Occupations The distribution of occupations in KRB is determined by the location-specific factors mainly the level of urbanization and industrialization as well as the space taken up by the rural population and nature. Three economic sectors of Agriculture, Industry and Service show a very interesting pattern along the Basin, where importance of Agriculture sector is much higher in the Upper Kelani (67% in Nuwara Eliya), moderate in Middle Kelani (23.5% in Kegalle), and much lower in Lower Kelani (4.6% in Gampaha & 1.8% in Colombo) area. Share of the Agriculture sector in whole of KRB is as low as 14.2 percent. While Industry Sector takes second place with overall 30.6 percent, Service Sector shows the highest contribution to the region with 55.2 percent (see Table 17).

Table 17: Distribution of Occupation by Sector in Kelani River Basin Area (Main 4 Districts) Category Colombo Gampaha Kegalle Nuwara Eliya* Total

Agriculture No 15,352 41,890 76,050 206,868 340,160

% 1.8 4.6 23.5 67.1 14.2

Industry No 236,581 349,712 107,492 36,595 730,380

% 27.7 38.8 33.2 11.9 30.6

Services No 601,851 510,193 140,585 64,816 1,317,445

% 70.5 56.6 43.4 21.0 55.2

Total No 853,784 901,795 324,127 308,279 2,387,985

% 35.8 37.8 13.6 12.8 100

Note: Data relevant to all DSDs under 4 main Districts were used for this table. (Source: Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey 2014, Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka)

Of the 3 components of Agriculture sector, crop cultivation is predominant in the form of plantation, in which estate and small holder tea cultivation is the highest in upper KRB, Rubber cultivation takes the second place mostly in Middle KRB and small holder Coconut, vegetable and home-gardening are prevalent in both Middle and Lower basin. Notably in the Kegalle district, industry and service sectors are still dominant, but significant percentage (23.5%) of employers are engaged in agriculture related activities like rubber and tea plantations, garden type cultivations like fruits, export agriculture crops and paddy cultivation. Accordingly, labour percentage is as high as 70 percent in Bulathkohupitiya, Yatiyantota, Daraniyagala, Dehiovita and Ruwanwella DS divisions.

The importance of the livestock component is less and it is practiced in the Middle KRB, as a supplementary occupation of some rural families. Fisheries sector on the other hand, is a principle livelihood in Lower basin adjacent to the coastal belt of both Gampaha district (Wattala, Ja-ela & Peliyagoda DSDs) and Colombo district (Colombo DSD). Inland fishery in Kelani River, its tributaries and Mangroves is also practiced as a seasonal occupation in the Lower Kelani, by a limited segment of people, who are full-time fishermen doing both marine and inland fishery.

Industry Sector is higher in the Lower Kelani, where Gampaha district is the highest with 38.8 percent, and Colombo District contributes to 27.7 percent, owing mainly to the concentration of large and medium scale factories under the FTZs in Biyagama and Katunayake. Being in the Middle Kelani Basin, Kegalle

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 107 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin district too contributes to a high concentration of large and medium scale factories, showing 33.2 percent of all sectors.

As discussed above, the Service Sector is the largest and its importance in the regional economy increases at a rapid pace along the basin from upper (21%) to lower basin (70.5%). Over 95 percent of employees in both Gampaha and Colombo districts are engaged in industry and service sectors together while principle livelihood in KRB falling to Nuwara Eliya (Ambagamuwa & Nuwara Eliya DSDs) is plantation - related.

Of all the river basins, Kelani is the most populous owing to the fact that it occupies significant land areas of 3 highly populated Districts of Sri Lanka, namely Colombo, Gampaha and Kegalle Districts with varying proportions of land. Along its flow path, Kelani also has given way to a very fertile flood plane, which represents variety of land use practices starting from plantation agriculture (Tea & Rubber) in the upper basin, medium and smallholder cultivation of cash crops (Coconut, MEC, Fruits, Vegetables) in the middle basin, and commercial activities of an industrial and service nature in the lower basin. The complexity of occupation is very high in the lower basin area falling into the Colombo district that comprises formal industries and services as well as informal enterprises and services of an illegal nature, of which reliable and updated data is not available.

The significant fact in relation to the land uses, is the gradual decline of paddy cultivation in the flood plain, caused by conversion of most low-lying paddy as well as wetlands into residential places, by filling them mainly in DSDs in the Colombo and Gampaha districts. Most of the paddy and OFC cultivations are carried out under rain-fed condition and only small extents of irrigated agriculture are reported under a few major and minor irrigation schemes, particularly in the Kegalle District. 4.11.4. Human Activities By the remarkable location of KRB starting from sparsely populated central hill country to densely populated low country and being in the Wet zone with highest rainfall distribution have naturally made it susceptible to seasonal flooding. Nonetheless, over the recent years the negative impacts of natural disasters in the basin have been aggravated by adverse human activities, which include the following:

1) Encroaching low-lying natural wetlands, marshy lands and mangroves for different land uses, reducing the water retention capacity, 2) Gradual filling of lowlands including paddy and marshes for human habitats and industries 3) Illegal habitation in the most vulnerable immediate river banks belonging to Irrigation Dept. 4) Excessive sand and gem mining in the river bed, and 5) Removal of riverine vegetation in the most vulnerable lower Kelani banks Although the above human activities are common during recent years, the potential opportunities for socially and environmentally feasible economic activities are abundant, which have not been systematically harnessed owing to lack of a 'Regional Development Plan' for the basin as a whole, in relation to national and regional interest. Therefore, any development intervention must pay to tap these opportunities while conserving the environment and improving the living condition of the vulnerable segment of people in the basin.

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Table 18: Main Institutions falling into the Kelani River Basin - Intervention Areas Stakeholder Type Colombo District Gampaha District Kegalle District Nuwara Eliya District (All DNDs) (DSDs in KRB (DSDs in KRB (DSDs in KRB only) only) only) DS Offices 13 13 11 02 Local Authorities 13 19 12 04 GN Divisions 557 1,177 573 77 Agrarian Centers 11 15 09 02 Schools 405 536 390 149 Health Institutes 20 10 34 17 Source: 1. Divisional Resource profiles (2015/2016); 2. District Statistical Handbooks - 2016

The institutions that are available for providing services to people living in the KRB, are well spread out in terms of access to services and basic amenities like regional administration, social welfare, agrarian services, education and health, as shown in

Table 18 above. 4.11.5. Vulnerable groups in the Basin The whole of the Western Province is ranked the lowest in the Poverty Head Count Index of Sri Lanka by the Department of Census and Statistics in 2002 and 2012/13. District-wise, Colombo shows the lowest poverty index (1.4%) and Gampaha district is the second lowest (2.1%) in the same Index and their relative reduction from 2002 values stand as high as 76.7 percent and 80.9 percent, respectively. This is an indication of relatively high economic growth in the two most populous districts of the country, in terms of higher level of the economic and business climate, relatively higher living standards and general wellbeing of people as well as their ability to access basic socio-economic infrastructure facilities.

In contrast to Colombo and Gampaha districts of the Western Province, the Poverty Head Count Index in more rural districts of Kegalle and Nuwara Eliya is in the middle values of 6.7 percent and 6.6 percent respectively, but their relative reduction from 2002 values also stand as high as 79.1 percent and 71.3 percent, since their Poverty Indexes have dropped sharply since the base year of 2002 (Table 19).

Table 19: Poverty headcount index and poverty reduction by district-2002, 2012/13 No. District HIES 2002 HIES 2012/13 Absolute Relative %% Reduction % Reduction % 1 Colombo 06.0 1.4 04.6 76.7 2 Gampaha 11.0 2.1 08.9 80.9 3 Kegalle 32.0 6.7 25.3 79.1 4 Nuwara Eliya 23.0 6.6 16.4 71.3 (Source: Household Income & Expenditure Survey Aug 2015 Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lankaj

Head Count Index (HCI) is as the percentage of population below the poverty line and is widely used to measure poverty in Sri Lanka. The poverty is measured according to Head Count Ratio (HCR), which represents the number of persons living under the poverty line as a percentage of total population. The value of the Official Poverty Line (OPL) of Sri Lanka was Rs. 3028.00 real total expenditure per month for

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the survey period of 2009/2010. The monthly values of OPL are obtained by inflating the base value of the OPL, Rs. 1,423.00 established in its base year 20021.

According to the Poverty Indicators published by the Department of Census and Statistics under its Household Income and Expenditure Survey of 2016, 'Poverty Index' in the Western Province is 1.7 percent incidence of poverty, which is the lowest of the country (National rate of 4.1 percent). The two main districts of the Western province, Colombo and Gampaha districts show 0.9 and 2.0 percent of poor people with a poor population of 19,796 and 45,827 people respectively. Poverty Index in Kegalle is 7.1 percent, which is the highest of the four main districts falling to KRB, while Nuwara Eliya too shows a fairly high index of 6.3 percent. The contribution to total poverty of the four KRB districts is 20.4 percent or one fifth of the national total. These figures mainly reflect the prevailing poverty situation in the basin. However, it was found that there are considerable differences in poverty indices both DSD-wise and GND- wise, owing to the higher concentration of vulnerable families living closer to the disaster-prone flood plain, particularly in the lower Kelani Basin.

Although the overall socioeconomic background is satisfactory across the basin, there are poverty pockets in the lower basin owing to congestion in human settlements, where shanty-type temporary housing is located, and they lack basic amenities particularly sanitary facilities. GN divisions on both Left and Right Banks (including existing flood bund area) within 5 km from Kelani Estuary have such dwellings which are usually occupied by tenants of daily paid labour and people involved in various illegal livelihoods, like drugs, alcohol, theft, prostitution etc.

According to the Key Informants and FGD findings from basin intervention sources, the main causal factors that have contributed to the vulnerability in the local poverty pockets in the lower KRB are:

1. High concentration of unhygienic dwellings created by increasing low-income individuals working closer to Colombo city and suburbs. 2. Lack of law enforcement to remove unauthorized shanties and temporary and permanent buildings along the lower river bank due to negative political influence. 3. Lower standard of living conditions caused by congestion and temporary nature of occupation by low-income groups. 4. Lack of awareness creation and low education levels of the people living in the disaster-stricken areas, leading to a voluntary withdrawal from such locations. 5. Non-existence of an alternative settlement plan as a measure to halt unauthorized structures.

4.11.6. Potential conflicts among land uses The main potential conflict among different livelihoods exists once again in the lower basin caused by the high demand for human settlement and thus it is observed that vast areas of land previously used for permanent crops like Coconut, Rubber and other cash crops have been taken away for housing mainly by the private sector. The land fragmentation and blocking out of cropland have also caused not only increasing crop prices but also permanent removal of traditional vegetable plots in the flood plane.

1 Source - www.statistics.gov.lk/hIES/HIES2009 10 final report

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Semi-permanent houses built on the Left River Bank Temporary houses built on filled marsh in Kelawarapitiya Figure 58: Vulnerable sites in the Lower Kelani River Basin 4.11.7. Archaeological and Cultural Heritage in the Intervention Areas According to archeological Map of KRB, there are a total of 65 archeological sites spread in the 4 main districts as shown in Table 20 and Figure 59. Of these sites include ancient temples, rock temples, cave paintings, protected monuments, ancient forts and dikes, ancient Buddhist campuses and any others.

Table 20: Archaeological and Cultural Heritage sites in Kelani River Basin S.N District Nature of Monument /Archaeological Type Total Number 1 Colombo Ancient Temples, 22 Paintings Cave Temples Ancient Forts Ancient Posts / Pillars Ancient Churches / Mosques Ancient Dike Old Wallawwa (Mansion) Old Cemetery Ancient Pirivena (Buddhist Campus) 2 Gampaha Raja Maha Viharaya (2 Nos.) 14 Hindu Kovil Protected Monument (8 Nos.) Ancient Pirivena (Buddhist Campus) Cable Bridge Old Bridge 3 Kegalle Rock temple (3), 24 Stone Script Temple - Paintings Ancient Fort Cave Temple (11 Nos.) Ancient Temples (7 Nos.) 4 Nuwara Eliya Viharaya, Paintings 04 Raja Maha Viharaya Cave Temple Old Bridge Total 65

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4.11.7.1. Impact on Archaeological sites and monuments According to Pre-feasibility/Feasibility study by Atkins and the evaluation by the SEA team using GIS (Refer Section 5.8), the preliminary evaluation of impacts on archaeological sites does not show impacts on any archaeological monuments or sites, except for one location. The residents living in the proposed Holombuwa Reservoir area has viewed negatively on potential damages to the archeological site at Dadigama - Kotawehera, which need to be looked into at a detailed SIA process (Re. Case -1 in the communication Section).

However, a more detailed study of the area (Archaeological Impact Assessment) will be required in order to determine whether any undocumented cultural, religious or historical sites will be affected. Furthermore, there are some religious buildings and associated land that may be affected that would also require further investigation.

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Figure 59: Map showing archaeological sites in the Kelani River Basin

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Chapter 05 5. Potential Environmental and Social Impacts of the Proposed Interventions and Mitigation Measures

5.1. Assessment of Hydrology/Water Resources Related Impacts The hydrological impacts could be both positive and negative because of the interventions. The intervention design process is a mitigation-by-design process by itself which has the flexibility of mitigation of the negative impacts to enhance the positive impacts. 5.1.1. Positive Impacts The major positive impacts are;

Reservoirs

(1) Reduction of flood discharge because of flood routing through reservoirs.

(2) Reduction of flood level in the downstream areas because of the upstream reservoirs.

(3) Increase water retention and groundwater discharge in the reservoir bed and command areas and help drought mitigation

Flood Dykes

(1) Confinement of flood spread within the dykes and convert the areas beyond the dykes to a flood free zone, for the floods of design return period.

(2) Due to the provided Free Board, the dykes could confine floods even of higher return periods up to their top level.

5.1.2. Negative Impacts The negative impacts are as follows;

5.1.2.1. Baseline Negative Impacts Impact: There is a decreasing trend of rainfall in the middle and upper part of the basin and as a result prolonged drought could occur

Mitigation Measure: Increase basin storage by the proposed reservoir construction and investigate the possibility of the construction of small storage reservoirs for water retention and for the use of water supply. Preserve natural storage areas, changes to the operational procedures for water resources management and allocation, carry out agricultural improvements, make changes to maximize water use efficiency, use of different crop types to increase resilience, improve knowledge of groundwater reserves and use potential, improved groundwater management to avoid groundwater mining and create buffer storage for use during dry periods and improve zoning laws and their enforcement for urban and rural development.

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Impact: Flood damage will increase in future because of increasing development.

Mitigation Measures:

• Implement structural interventions such as reservoirs, dykes, small reservoir construction etc.

• Formulate real time flood forecasting considering the basin hydrology.

• Other non-structural mitigation options such as improvements in land management, preserving natural flood storage, delineation of flood risk zones and other zones such as flood attenuation areas and catchment conservation, preparation of risk maps.

The recently established Center for Urban Water (http://www.curwsl.org/ ) under the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development is currently CUrW S MODELLING v Sts STATE OF WATER RISK MANAGEMENT 3 MONITORING AND CONTROL developing comprehensive state of the art flood forecasting models Center for Urban Water and other activities. Currently the The Center for Urban Water is being set up for flood control and water management in Metro Colombo, to become operational in 2018. Its primary function is activities are only confined to the the control of pumps and gates that are being implemented under the Metro Colombo Urban Development Project. Colombo Basin and Grama Niladhari (GN) level forecasting is possible within an hour. These real time flood warning and forecasting activities should be extended to Kelani Basin too in collaboration with the Department of Irrigation. 5.1.2.2. Reservoirs Impact: Dam breaches (extremely rare) could advance a flood wave downstream causing environmental and social damage.

Mitigation Measure: Carry out routine standard dam maintenance. Carry out dam break model studies and assess the flood damage area. Establish warning systems to warn downstream users. 5.1.2.3. Flood Dykes Impact: Since the flood dykes are long and it will run continuously from Hanwella to the outfall as a flexible line varying between 0ft and 50ft, these flood dykes confine the flood flow upto 25-year return period to the flood dykes there will be flood impacts immediately upstream of the starting point of the flood dykes. These impacts are;

1. Flood lift due to dykes (backwater effect) 2. Longer inundation time of a threshold 3. Longer recession time 4. Higher spatial flood spread (Inundation of an extra area which is not normally inundated)

These impacts are illustrated in Figure 60 and Figure 61.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 115 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

W ith dyke

, / 1-Flood L ift ( B ackw ater)

Time

Figure 60: Illustration of Flood Lift and Recessional Delays

Figure 61: Illustration of Higher Spatial Flood Spread

Variation of the flood lift along the Kelani River was computed using the results (Flood Levels) of the MIKE 11 model runs for the flood scenarios "Without Flood Dykes" and "With Flood Dykes:" corresponding to the return periods 50 and 100 years. The difference of the flood levels between the scenarios cited above shows the flood lift. Results are given in Figure 62.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 116 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Flood Bund Induced Flood Lift from Hanwella to Glencourse (From River Mouth to Glencourse! 2.50

OHUW^UlCls|MlOOKh)lU^Ui(riMOOlCOHNWJkUiOIM»U)OHNWt>Ui(Jl'J»tfOh‘ NW AW Distance to Upstream km

• 25Year -Flood Lift (m) » 100 Year -Flood Lift (m) w— Maximum Allowable Flood Lift

Figure 62: Flood Bund Induced Flood Lift from Hanwella to Glencourse

It is seen from the above graph that the variation of the flood lift reaches its peak around 23km chainage within the flood bunds. Flood lifts are low near the sea and near Glencourse river gauging station. However, the flood lifts corresponding to 50 and 100-year return period at the beginning of the flood bunds at Hanwella are 1m and 1.9m and such flood lifts are critical as according to most international guidelines on flood lift, the maximum allowable flood lift is 0.3m. Although the Consultant could not find out direct guidelines related to the upstream flood lift of flood dykes there are various guidelines which specify the allowable amount of backwater for bridges and flood plain developments. Some of them are cited below. Among them are some of the Sri Lankan guidelines.

■ Defra/Environment Agency, Flood and Coastal Defense R&D Programme, Afflux at bridges and culverts, Review of current knowledge and practice. The maximum afflux allowable for bridges for 100-year return period is 0.3.

■ State of Florida Department of Transportation Drainage Handbook, Bridge Hydraulics -July 2012. Allowable backwater at immediate upstream of a bridge is 0.3m.

■ Backwater is within the range (Backwater <150mm) of Road Development Authority (RDA) Bridge Design Manual -1997 (Page 20)

■ International guidelines go up to 1 foot (300mm) -e.g. Hydraulic Design of Safe Bridges Federal Highway Publication No. FHWA-HIF-12-018 -April 2012

■ For Southern Expressway Kalu Ganga Bridge Irrigation Department allowed 7.4 inches 185mm. For a Bridge span 310m.

■ Guidance for Flood Risk Analysis and Mapping -Floodway Analysis and Mapping November 2016- Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)-USA status thus.

"Floodway surcharge values must be between zero and 1.0 ft. If the State (or other jurisdiction) has established more stringent regulations, these regulations take precedence over the NFIP regulatory standard. Further reduction of maximum allowable surcharge limits can be used if required or requested and approved by the communities impacted.", and "If a stream forms the boundary between two or more States and/or tribes, either the 1.0-foot maximum allowable rise criterion or existing floodway agreements between the parties shall be used."

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Depth variation of the spatial flood spread in Kelani Basin "With" and "Without" flood dykes have been computed by WS Atkins who are carrying out the pre-feasibility/feasibility studies for Kelani Basin and the results are shown in Figure 63 and Figure 64.

The SEA Consultant using the flood depth raster files provided by WS Atkins computed the net flood lift variation over Kelani Basin when the proposed flood dykes come into operation using GIS treatment. The resultant flood spatial lift details have been presented in Figure 65. Special attention was paid to the flood spatial ranges of the flood lift upstream of the proposed flood dykes. The variation ranges (0.0m- 0.15m-, 0.15m-0.30m and above 0.3m) the flood lift upstream of Hanwella are presented in Figure 66. This figure shows that a considerable area has a flood lift 0ver 0.3m which exceeds the flood allowable flood lift value given in most of the international and local guidelines cited earlier. This critical flood lift redden area was viewed together with the themes such as Main Roads, GN Divisions, Land Use, population density and archeology to illustrate the critical nature of the flood lift impacts. These themes along with the flood lift are illustrated in Figure 67, Figure 68, Figure 69, Figure 70 and Figure 71.

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Figure 63: Flood Spread in Kelani Basin for 25 Year Flood without the proposed flood dykes Source: Kelani Flood mitigation strategy Pre-Feasibikty /Feasibility study (WS Atkins, 2017)

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Figure 64: Flood Spread in Kelani Basin for 25 Year Flood without the proposed flood dykes Source: WS Atkins Feasibility Studies

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Figure 65: Spatial Flood Lift Variation after Flood Dyke Construction ( "With Dykes" - "Without Dykes" Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 121 ha Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 66: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes

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Figure 67: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Main Roads

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Figure 68: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and GN Divisions

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Figure 69: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Land Use

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120000 130000 140000

120000 130000 140000

Figure 70: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Population Density

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Figure 71: Variation of Flood Lift Ranges upstream of the proposed flood dykes and Archeological Places

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Mitigation Measures: (for the flood lift upstream of flood dykes)

1) Dyke length reduction to further downstream - This will reduce backwater as extra flood plain areas will be allowed to be flooded. Further model investigations are necessary to find a suitable termination point for the dykes. 2) Dyke length increase further upstream to a high elevation area. -Although this will increase backwater the increased backwater will be confined to high elevated area reducing the damage by flood lift. Further model investigations are necessary to find a suitable termination point for dykes. 3) Flood warning and evacuation -This is a disaster management measure and the standard procedures could be followed. 4) Resettlement - People in the flood vulnerable area could be permanently resettled elsewhere 5) Road raising within limits- After studies vulnerable roads could be raised to enhance the passability. 6) Protection or Relocation of important monuments- If there are any archeologically, culturally or religiously important monuments, such monuments may be relocated if permissible. If not, other measures will have to be worked out depending on the local conditions.

Impact: Due to the increased velocity of flow between flood bunds scouring may increase in bridge piers or abutment foundations.

Mitigation Measure: Increased velocity should be obtained from model studies and using soil properties new scour depths should be calculated and based on the results additional scour protection should be provided. Bridge piers and abutments should be periodically inspected especially before and after flood times.

Impact: The existing pumping stations and proposed pumping stations (which will be constructed before the proposed flood dykes) which will be cutoff by the flood dykes.

Mitigation Measure: Pumping stations located off river will have to be protected by extending the flood dykes along the local catchment stream. In some cases, e.g. the proposed Ambatale pumping station which will be located off the Low-Level Road and a flyover for the Low Level Road may be necessary to cross for the local catchment canal (Madiwela Est Diversion Canal) because of the extension of the flood dyke.

Locations of the existing and proposed pumping stations (by SLLRDC) are presented in Figure 72. Some of the pumping stations e.g. the proposed North Lock pumping station is already in the construction stage and the designs of some of the pumping stations (e.g. Ambatale Pumping Station) is in the finalization stage.

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Figure 72: Proposed Gates and Pumping Stations under MCDUP by SLLRDC

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5.2. Impacts on Geology and Mitigation measures 5.2.1. Potential Impacts on Geology Impacts - Dyke Construction • There is no significant impact from basement geology in the area on proposed dyke construction due to stable terrain conditions. Also, the proposed construction is going on across to the strike of the basement rock hence stability of the foundation is relatively high. In addition, there are no significant impacts on groundwater recharge from the proposed dyke constructions.

• Sedimentation in the river bed will be the major issue after the proposed construction, as sediments transported from the upper watershed area can accumulate within the river bed. Due to the imbalance of the sedimentation, tributary channels can be blocked, especially during the rainy period. In the river banks there are locations which are prone to erosion. Foundations of dyke construction at such locations will not be stable during periods of heavy rainfall. Some areas of the river bank have unstable conditions and dominant with minor landslides and tensional cracks. Such locations will impact on stability of the proposed dyke constructions during periods of heavy rainfall.

Impacts - Reservoir Construction

Intervention Sub Type 2A- Construction of Holombuwa Reservoir

• The Holombuwa Reservoir area is geologically stable. However, a potential major impact of the Holombuwa Reservoir is the impact of marble rocks on the availability of reservoir water. According to geological maps few marble bands are present, however several other layers can be expected around the reservoir site.

• Hinge area of the fold in Holombuwa Reservoir can be a geologically weaker zone which can impact on the stability of the reservoir.

Intervention Sub Type 2B- Construction of Wee Oya Reservoir

• There is no significant negative geological impact from Wee Oya Reservoir. However excess recharge of groundwater due to the reservoir through the quartzite layers can positively impact on groundwater availability. In addition, due to changes in groundwater recharge possible contamination can be expected.

Intervention Sub Type 2C- Construction of Nawatha Reservoir

• According to geological map observation, Nawatha Reservoir is located on geologically stable terrain. Therefore, there is no significant negative impact from this reservoir. However, quartzite bands available across the reservoir, can positively impact on the groundwater recharge around the reservoir.

• The possible expansion of reservoir capacity can significantly impact on the stability of slopes in the upstream area of the proposed reservoir.

• Upstream landslides towards the reservoir during the proposed development can be expected due to rapid fluctuations of the groundwater table.

• Potential upstream landslides could reduce the reservoir capacity significantly.

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Intervention Sub Type 2D- Construction of Rucastle Reservoir

• There is no significant impact from the proposed reservoir. However detailed geological and geotechnical investigations are recommended prior to implementation of the proposed development.

• Expansion of the reservoir area will impact on stability of the upstream slopes and groundwater table in the proposed new reservoir area. Groundwater table movement above from the present level will destabilize the slope. 5.2.2. Mitigation Measures for Geological/Hydrogeological Impacts

Mitigation Measures- Dyke Construction

• Proposed contraction along the meander type formation should be done after special investigations. Erosion sides of the River Banks should be considered differently in order to maintain the stability of the foundation. It is important to provide some space for sediment deposition on the sides of the meander regions.

• Foundations on alluvial deposits should be erected after detailed geotechnical investigations. Foundations of the proposed construction can be stable if investigations reveal basement rock and hard laterite formations..

• Foundation designing in erosion prone areas should be done with expert advice. Gabion walls could be recommended at such locations in order to protect the stability of the dyke.

• Possible landslide prone river banks should be investigated prior to dyke construction. Retaining walls should be designed at such locations under the guidance of geological/geotechnical experts.

Mitigation Measures- Reservoir Construction

Intervention Sub Type 2A- Construction of Holombuwa Reservoir

• In order to mitigate the impacts of marble rocks on reservoir water, it is necessary to conduct detailed geological, geophysical and geotechnical investigations along the marble layers in order to identify the extent of rock formation as well as the weaker zones of the rock formation.

• If weaker zones are present in the marble, necessary precautions should be adopted, based on geotechnical observations.

• Based on geo-technical investigations in the hinge area of the fold, necessary improvement of soil and rock shouldbe implemented.

Intervention Sub Type 2B- Construction of Wee Oya Reservoir

• In order to prevent possible contamination of ground water, continuous monitoring of groundwater quality and yield is proposed for Wee Oya Reservoir

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 131 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Intervention Sub Type 2C- Construction of Nawatha Reservoir

• In order to mitigate impacts due to excess recharge of groundwater around the reservoir, continuous monitoring of the quality of the water is recommended.

• Detailed investigation of slope conditions in the upstream area is necessary prior to the proposed development. Possible tensional cracks in the reservoir margin should be investigated. Slope stability techniques should be applied prior to construction.

• It is strongly recommended that the National Building Research Organization (NBRO) should carry out investigations in the area, prior to the proposed development.

Intervention Sub Type 2D- Construction of Rucastle Reservoir

• Geological and geotechnical investigations are necessary prior to proposed development, especially along strike valley areas.

• Slope of the new reservoir area should be investigated prior to the proposed development under the guidance of experts. Possible tensional cracks in the proposed reservoir area should be investigated properly and unstable slopes should be stabilized before the proposed development. 5.3. Knowledge Gaps and measures to address gaps leading to investment sustainability As feasibility studies have not been fully concluded and studies are still ongoing, it is difficult to identify the knowledge gaps. However, following important concerns are recorded here as knowledge gaps for the benefit of the ongoing feasibility studies and the ensuing detailed designs and implementation.

Gaps:

Extreme rain events generally coincide with high water levels in the Kelani River hindering storm water drainage into the river. This coincidence means that most of the time both "High Kelani" and "High Colombo" water levels occur, warranting the need for pumping stations for the Colombo Catchment. Details of this phenomenon appear in the Metro Colombo Urban Development Project (MCUDP) Report entitled "Study on Rainfall in Colombo and Hanwella water level". One example coincidence of high rain event and Kelani River water level is presented in Figure 73.

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Figure 73: Coincidence of High Rainfall Events Colombo Catchment with High Water Levels of Kelani River Source: Nandalal (2012) Metro Colombo Urban Development Project (MCUDP) Report Solution

Design of pumping stations should be considered in tandem with the design of flood bunds.

Most of the time, extreme storm surge events in the

sea coincide with extreme rainfall events in the

Colombo catchment. Wijayarathna (2017) through a

study has found that 57% of the time the said

coincidence occurs. This coincidence means that 57%

of the time both "High Colombo" and "High sea i.e.

Kelani" water levels occur reconfirming the need for

pumping stations for the Colombo Catchment. Summary of the details are given below.

For the period 2001 - 2011

Total Extreme Surge events = 178 Total Extreme Rainfall events (exceeding 100mm) = 44 Number of surges coincided with rainfall = 25 Percentage occurrence of combined effect = 57% (after Wijayarathna N)

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Solution

Design of pumping stations should be considered in tandem with the design of flood bunds.

Gap When carrying out model studies extreme water level setups induced by wind, sea waves and storm surges under cyclonic and non-cyclonic conditions were not considered. This applies to the downstream boundary of the model.

Extreme Event Combination 1- Non-Cyclonic Event Mean High Water Spring (MHWST) = 0.30m MSL Wind setup = 0.3m MSL Wave setup = 0.4 m MSL Total = 1.0m MSL

Extreme Event Combination 2- Cyclonic Event Average Tide = 0.30m MSL Cyclone wind and low pressure induced water level setup = 0.5m MSL Wind setup = Not applicable (taken care of under cyclone setup) Wave setup = 0.4 Total = 1.2 m MSL To the figures obtained above predicted sea level rise due to Climate change should be added.

Solution Carry out sensitivity analysis of flood profiles, recessional delays and predict worst case flooding impacts.

Gap It is essential to consider additional mitigation measures such as controlled sand mining in cross sections to even out the river bed profile, investigate meander bypassing and widening narrow river sections to facilitate flood flow, retarding basins for flood storage and retardation, green flood passages. The meander bypass could be a "Green Passage" with flood walls but without a deep channel. See the example below.

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Figure 74: Additional Flood Mitigation Options

A Typical Green Channel

Solution Investigation of the strategic use of alternatives such as setting back levees, restoring river meanders, and flood proofing can reduce flood risk or protect against flood damage. The new flood management approach aims to reduce flood risk or flood damage without the construction of new dams by accomplishing the following three integrated goals.

• Reducing runoff • Riparian & in-river flood management • Separating the people & the threat

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 135 Removal of high lying areas on a floodplain

Opening up a narrowing by setting dikes back farther, and at the same time creating a nature area

The impact exerted by the measures above should be included in the hydraulic model runs and tested.

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Figure 75: Typical Retarding Basins for Kelani River ( Source - JICA Report, Kalani Flood Management)

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Gap Behavior of the Kelani River Outfall should be understood. Following key facts will be very helpful.

• No significant change in the width of the river mouth in the recent past.

• Outlet is about 150m wide (comparable with the immediate upstream section of the river).

• Both sides of the outlet are protected beaches (Groynes and Tombolos).

• Low amount of sand migration due to beach protection structures.

• Controlled sand mining at outlet to avoid sand bar formation

• No impact due to Colombo harbour and the Port City.

Figure 76: Kelani River Outfall Shape in 2005 and 2017.

The Kelani river outfall is relatively stable compared to the two neighboring outlets draining into the open sea on the west coast; Kalu Ganga Outlet in the South and Ma Oya outlet on the North. While the other two show significant morphological changes over time, Kelani River outlet remains very stable. However, during dry periods at the Kelani outlet, almost two thirds of the 150m wide outlet on the left bank becomes very shallow leaving only about 50m for the river flow. As shown in the Figure 77, breaking waves is an indication of shallow waters with depths as low as 1 to 2m. Due to the sand scarcity at this site, this sand bar does not grow beyond this and disappears at the onset of the next rainy season.

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Figure 77: Sand accumulation on the left bank of the outlet

Sand movement direction during the Northeast Monsoon period is from North to South due to the waves arriving from a North-Western direction generating a longshore current from North to South (Figure 78). However, during the South West Monsoon period, longshore sediment movement is from South to West (Figure 79). Since the South West wave climate dominates at the West coast of Sri Lanka, the net sediment movement at Kelani outlet is from South to North.

February 2014 Northeast June 2014 Southwest Sand 1 Monsoon period Monsoon period m Jan % * movement 1 ▼

Wave Wave 4 t' 'Sdirection . y direction ▲

- 'M 1 Sand . ■ ji ■> s % ■ movement lllllr • ; W / ’ ’ . ' Mf. ■ ' , • / . t. B J ! Figure 78: Direction of sand movement during Figure 79: Direction of sand movement during NE Monsoon Southwest Monsoon

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 139 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Colombo headland Figure 82: Kelani river outfall with shore protection features

At present there are no sediments bypassing the Colombo headland where the main breakwater of the harbour is located (Figure 81). The sea bed just outside the Colombo harbour is so deep that there is hardly any hydrodynamic action which can drive the sediments at the sea bed. Therefore, even with the construction of the Port City, which is further on the South side of the harbour, there will be no change in the sediment transport pattern.

It is expected that there can be a slight change in the sea wave direction at the Kelani outfall during the Southwest (SW) monsoon period due to the new breakwater of the Colombo harbour. Waves arriving generally from SW direction, refract at the Colombo headland which is extended further

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 140 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin offshore with the new main breakwater. When the waves arriving at the Kelani outfall, their directional change can be so high that they may not be able to maintain the South to North dominant sediment transport pattern as in the past. This can reduce the sediments coming from Kelani River moving towards North along the shoreline and therefore some sediment accumulation can be expected around the outlet. This can happen only during dry periods when the river flow is low. However, due to the sand scarcity of the Kelani flow during the dry periods it is highly unlikely the river mouth will be obstructed by sand accumulation due to the new developments in the wave climate. However, with the construction of flood dykes flood velocity of the river will increase. This velocity increase will increase the sand movement through the river towards the sea increasing sand accumulation. This sand accumulation may sometimes not take place at the river mouth, but it will occur further Northwards to the river outfall as the net littoral drift is towards North.

Solution Periodical monitoring of the beach on either side of the river mouth for possible accretion and controlled removal of sand

5.4. References to the Flood Dykes and Upstream Reservoirs in Previous Feasibility Reports Flood Dykes Reference was also made to a very important past study regarding the Kelani Basin flood protection. The report is the "Kelani Flood Protection Study - Main Report (Final), Danish Hydraulic Institute, Lanka Hydraulic Institute Ltd. - March 1992". This report will be hereinafter referred to as the DHI Report.

Reference was made to Section 4.5.1 - Embankments. It states thus;

"The recommendations made in the TECHNOPROMEXPORT Study of 1961 were examined in part for this option. Embankments running along both banks of the river from Pugoda to Colombo were considered. Simulations were carried out for 100 and 200-year floods, for a distance, between embankments of 500 and 1000 meters. " (Page 4-21)

"As is to be expected, the reduction in off-site stream storage caused by the construction of continuous embankments has caused peak flood water levels to rise dramatically. The existing embankments in Colombo would require to be raised substantially if this option were implemented. Again, it can be observed that the bridges in Colombo act to constrict the flow, and to create a backwater effect upstream. The implementation of this scheme should therefore be made in conjunction with the construction of a flood bypass channel around the bridges, or removal of the bridges. Various options for a flood bypass channel were proposed in the 1961 study extending from Talawatte and running North of the river to the sea. Construction of such a scheme would involve numerous road, rail and canal crossings as well as substantial land acquisition." (Page 4-24)

The option involving total embanking of the river was rejected at this stage on the grounds of prohibitive costs, construction complexity and adverse social implications (Page 4-33).

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Upstream Reservoirs The DHI report too has mentioned a combination of upstream reservoir development for hydropower, irrigation and flood control somewhat similar to the current reservoir arrangement. The considered reservoirs (even considered in the TECHNOPROMEXPORT Study -1961 and CEB/Lahmeyer Masterplan- 1988)are

1. Nawatha Parussella - offers flood control capacity

2. Yogama - Offers flood control capacity

3. Broadlands

4. Dabar

5. Holombuwa - considered as a secondary site

According to the DHI report out of these sites flood control benefits are offered on Nawatha Parussella Reservoir.

(DHI Report Pages 4-24 to 4-26)

On studying the operations of Nawatha-Parusella Reservoir the DHI report has come to the following finding.

"The most substantial reduction in flood levels is obtained in the upstream areas near the dam. Further downstream, the reductions are more modest, and in Colombo the effects of the dam are minimal" "Similarly, it was decided not to investigate further the possibility of flood control reservoirs, as the preliminary results indicated only marginal benefits for such an expensive option."

(DHI Report Page 4-33)

5.4.1. A critical Review of DHI Report Findings against the Current Studies The DHI study was concluded in March 1992 and after 25 years the flooding issue persists in alarming proportions. The following table (

Table 21) gives an overview of the flood related concerns of the DHI study and the present study. A comparison of former (DHI 1992) and recent WS Atkins 2017) flood protection work related studies.

Table 21: Flood protection related concerns 1992 and 2017 1992(DHI Study Time) 2017 (WS Atkins Study Time) Remarks Flood plain roughness is less Flood plain roughness is high with a with low number of social very high number of social infrastructure infrastructure No additional bridges across Additional bridges are present These bridges are a concern Kelani River across Kelani River - New Victoria when taken together with long Bridge, NEW Kelani Bridge (under flood dykes. High velocity and Construction), Kaduwela Bridge backwater will impact bridges (Under Construction), Nawasiri negatively Bridge near Kelani Temple Flood damage concerns are Flood damage concerns are Confirms the need for flood comparatively low extremely high which has socio protection political repercussions

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1992(DHI Study Time) 2017 (WS Atkins Study Time) Remarks Needs for flood dykes and Needs for flood dykes and upstream Flood dykes and upstream upstream reservoirs are low reservoirs are extremely high and reservoirs are extremely and only other options have main studies are focused on those. needed been studied. According to the Irrigation The protection offered by the Confirms the present need of Departments early standing present bunds is still valid to a higher flood dykes orders if the present flood degree than before. dykes (North and South bunds) were not present flood would propagate as far as to Nugegoda area. Very low climate change High climate change impacts This is a serious concern if flood impacts dykes are built without reservoirs as backwater impacts are higher

Table 22: Comparison of former and recent flood protection work related studies DHI Study Present Study (WS Atkins) Remarks Flood dykes from Pugoda to Considers flood dykes from Hanwella Colombo. Distance between to Colombo on a flexible path The backwater impact from the flood dykes 500m and 1000m between 0' and 50'(15m). The flood flood dykes presently proposed as two options. dykes may be extended upstream will be higher than those of the beyond Hanwella to reduce earlier proposed dykes (in DHI backwater impact on Hanwella area. study) Considered return periods 100 Considers 25-year, 50 years and 100 Effects are not readily year and 200 years as options. years as options comparable because of different bund configurations and different return periods. Considered flood bypass canal Considered flood bypass canal but Bypass canal is more essential in but not considered for further not considered for further studies the present context to reduce studies because of cost and because of cost and infrastructural backwater and velocity impacts infrastructural encumbrances encumbrances exerted on bridges by the flood dykes Considered Nawatha-Parusella Considers 4 reservoirs but mostly Reservoir flood level alleviation reservoir only two reservoirs will be selected benefit is preponderant to the flood discharge reduction benefit Although the DHI study is timewise outdated, some of its findings are still of use to evolve a future viable flood protection entity for the Kelani Basin to suit the current situation and more importantly the future situation in the face of climate changes.

The Hydrological positives and negatives of the Kelani Basin flood protection studies have been listed in Table 23 below.

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Table 23: Hydrological Positives and Negatives of Flood Dykes and Reservoirs Positive Negatives Flooc Protection Reservoirs Reduce upstream discharge input to flood The water level impact on the distal downstream may be dykes low or insignificant although there is a reduction of discharge input Will offer multipurpose benefits such as May not be able to substantially offer hydropower and irrigation, hydropower, flood protection, flood protection in tandem drought control etc. Flood Dykes Provide good protection on the flood Create considerable backwater upstream, will impact plains for the floods under design return bridges because of high flow velocity and backwater period and reduce flood damage substantially in congested areas. ** Flood dykes could get overtopped by floods of higher return periods creating a disaster situation ** Need pumping stations to drain local catchment flows. ** Need protection to off river pumping stations presently operating or will be commissioned before the construction of the flood dykes

5.4.2. Research Findings Flood risk can be higher with levees than without them February 9, 2016, UC Davis

Homes behind a levee in Stockton, Calif. UC Davis research shows levees can increase the flood risk of structures behind them. Credit: California Department of Water Resources People living behind levees on floodplains may not be as immune to flood damage as they think, according to results of a study led by the University of California, Davis. Levees often prevent costly flood damages and even loss of life. However, when those levees overtop or fail, and water spills onto the floodplain, the long-term damage can be far worse than if those levees were not there, the study found.

The study, published in the journal Environmental Science & Policy, estimated long-term flood risk, probabilities of levee failure, and resulting economic losses in the Sny Island levee district along the

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Mississippi River in Illinois and Missouri.Levee protection does prevent flood damages locally, but it needs to be examined very carefully, structure-by-structure, and quantified for all people and economic activities affected by that protection.

The study period preceded the massive flooding the Midwest endured this fall, which occurred in a separate section of the Mississippi River. The scientists modeled four flood conditions—2-year, 5-year, 100-year and 400-year flood levels—with and without levees. Levee failures were also modeled. The study included floodplain land excluded from flood hazard maps because it is behind levees accredited by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. The researchers noted that excluding such lands underestimates the actual flood risk nationwide.

Because levees raise flood levels in surrounding locations, they are known to export flood risk from one set of floodplain residents to their neighbors. For example, the study documented up to 8 feet of additional water imposed on the town of Hannibal, Missouri, due to the Sny Island levee.

Overall, the research team found that the Sny levee system prevents about $51 million per year in flood damages, primarily for the agricultural sector and some low-elevation properties. However, for up to a third of residential structures and 22 percent of commercial structures behind the Sny levee system itself, the flood damage risk was higher with the levees than it would have been without them, because of the catastrophic nature of levee failure.

(Source: https://phys.org/news/2016-02-higher-levees.html- content abridged)

5.5. Identified potential ecological impacts 5.5.1. Bund construction: Interventions IA; IB and IC (i) Changes in hydrological flow

The proposed bund is intended to reduce flooding of the downstream areas due to the swelling of the river, resulting from rainfall in upstream areas. This intervention could result in several negative ecological impacts of which the alterations in hydrology of the existing river network would be of special significance as it would have consequential impacts on biota and ecological services. This would be primarily if water flow between the river and its tributaries as well as between the river network in entirety and the low lying marshy habitats in downstream areas, is hindered.

(ii) Effects on wetlands: As stated previously (Figure 83) the river and its tributaries nourish marshlands lying in the lower reaches of the river basin. shows the marshes located in the Colombo area that may be impacted by the Kelani river and its tributaries. These urban wetlands will soon be gazetted as a protected area which will be under the jurisdiction of the SLLRDC. These habitats are important as they serve as important refugia for many displaced flora and fauna including the otter, fishing cat, purple-faced leaf monkey, important migrants and several floral species.

Damming may cause hindrances to the inflow and out flow of water to and from these wetland habitats. This may in the long term lead to either drying up of the wetlands if inflow is impeded, or water logging if drainage is impeded. Anthropogenic disturbances such as land filling for construction of infrastructure and settlements, clearance of vegetation and pollution are already threatening these fragile wetland habitats.

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Figure 83: The Colombo wetlands (encircled) that will receive a greater measure of protection

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1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact severe

1 C - Flexible option Impact severe

Mitigation measures: Impacts could be mitigated by providing adequate channels for passage of water from the river to tributaries, both major and minor. The capacity and locations of the culverts or gates should be decided on after detailed studies of hydrological movements between the entire downstream river/stream networks.

(iii) Hinder storm water drainage: Another important impact would be on flooding itself. As much as the importance of the river in providing a through channel for upstream rain water is emphasized, the role of the river in draining storm water from downstream areas must also be similarly recognized. The wet zone will continue to receive increasing rainfall according to climate predictions, hence, the removal of storm water from the cities as well as from natural habitats would become a critical factor that would decide on the level of downstream flooding, the very issue we are attempting to alleviate through this intervention. Rainfall in Colombo and its suburbs have increased over the recent years. Creating a bund if not properly designed would only prevent drainage of the terrestrial ecosystems thereby increasing levels of inundation. Such obstruction of flow at present has Figure 84: Inlet channels into the river (shown by an arrow) become one of the major reasons for flooding in the Western Province.

1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact moderate

1 C - Flexible option Impact moderate

Mitigation measures: Impacts could be mitigated by providing channels and ot pumping stations for the drainage of storm water. However, the required capacities and locations should be decided only after detailed studies of hydrological movements have been conducted. It is also necessary to have a proper maintenance mechanism to ensure maximum efficiency at all times.

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(iv) Fish migration

The fish in the river constantly move both up and down the river itself, as well as to and from the tributaries to the river. This follows the patterns of water flow. For example when the river swells due to rainfall upstream resulting in increasing the depth of the river, the fish move from the main river to the tributaries. One the other hand when tributaries dry up the fish would make their way towards the main river. Due to these seasonal movements the river network tends to share a common biotic assemblage at least across a single topographical plain. The creation of the bund may obstruct this movement of fish. Similar patterns of movement may occur in the case of other aquatic fauna. This may cause a reduction in the distribution of the fish across the basin and perhaps local extinction.

1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact moderate 1 C - Flexible option Impact moderate

Mitigation measures: Impacts could be mitigated if the necessary fish movement pathways are provided at all tributaries (major and minor) that are connected to the main river. This may be facilitated by the sufficient and adequately designed channels for drainage of storm water. The efficiency of these must be monitored regularly.

(v) Reduction in breeding grounds

Fish and other aquatic fauna such as amphibians and dragonflies lay eggs in the shallow waters near the banks as this area is sheltered from high velocity and is shady. A fact to note is that a large fraction of the wet zone fish in the Kelani basin comprises endemics and threatened species. The herbaceous riparian vegetation including reed patches also provide shelter for birds and other faunal species. The removal of riparian vegetation or the construction of the bund on Figure 85: Reed beds serving as roosting sites the bank itself (zero option) would be detrimental to such species.

1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact minimal

1 C - Flexible option Impact minimal

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Mitigation measures: The removal of riverine vegetation should be avoided, and the maintenance of the shallow periodically inundated banks should be considered where ever possible.

(vi) Reduced groundwater recharge in riverine zones The hindrance to flow from the river to surrounding tributaries would cause changes in groundwater replenishment in the river basin. However, the severity of the impact will depend on the nature of the bund (earth or hard structures).

Mitigation measures: As in the case of (i) & (II)

1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact moderate

1 C - Flexible option Impact moderate

(vii) Impacts on riverine biota

The proposed flood bunds, particularly the zero option, would cause a considerable loss of riverine biotic communities. The riverine ecosystem is broadly defined as the boundary of the river channel that is periodically flooded and dried out. Thus river bank communities being highly influenced by the changes in hydrology and flow patterns, are somewhat unique in structure and composition and therefore serve as ideal indicators of the health of the river itself. Large retaining walls or bunds may result in the direct clearance of riparian vegetation, while the reduction of the frequency and the intensity of overbank flooding would result in the dying of bank communities. The riverine strip is particularly important for the Western Purple face langur which is one of the ten Critically Endangered primates of the world.

Mitigation measures: The bund option selected must facilitate the retention of the riverine strip, particularly trees overhanging water for example at the following locations between Ambatale and Colombo.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 149 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood ISA and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin GPS Coordinates Habitat 1 060 57.560' N 0790 52.573' E

RB Near Naval base

2 060 58.781' N 0790 52.947'E

3 060 57.496'N 0790 52.761'E

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5 06o 57.269'N 079o 54.010'E

6 6o 57.040'N 079o 56.007' E

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Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 152 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood ISA and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin GPS Coordinates Habitat

6°57'21.5"N 79°53'49.7"E

1 A - Zero option Impact severe

1 B - 50 ft option Impact minimal

1 C - Flexible option Impact minimal

(vii) Aesthetics Any river has a natural appeal due to its landscape which includes the river, its tributaries and the vegetation. Creation of a bund would irreversibly change the landscape reducing its aesthetic particularly if the bund is constructed on the river bank as proposed in the zero option.

1 A - Zero option Impact severe 1 B - 50 ft option Impact minimal 1 C - Flexible option Impact minimal

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Mitigation measures: Avoid areas where natural vegetation and banks are found along the river. This would not apply to locations where banks have been cleared for infrastructure of housing. All bunds should be landscaped to retain the natural look.

The extent of the above impacts will vary considerably depending on the selected option. The zero option will be the worst in terms of all impacts.

5.5.2. Construction of one or more upstream reservoirs (i) Loss and fragmentation of wet zone / riverine forests Significant losses in forests will only arise with the construction of the Nawatha reservoir, where around 115 ha will be lost from four forests, namely Pokunuwala (8 ha), Kelani Valley (35 ha), Badullwatte (30 ha) and Kithulgala (42 ha), due to inundation. One of the greatest additional threats would be the fragmentation of a contiguous forest strip causing hindrance to the movement of fauna. This may have long term implications with negative consequences on the reproduction and survival of biota.

Mitigation measures: Clearance and inundation of rainforest areas should be avoided if at all possible. All activities must be done in concurrence with the Forest Department under which the jurisdiction of the forests lie. If implemented, a 1: 1 replantation is required with a suitable mix of wet zone native species. A green belt must be created around the reservoir so as to link the fragmented rainforest patches and to create the same contiguity that was lost due to the inundation. This is a critical necessity. Where inundation occurs, capture and relocation of animals is strongly recommended. Funds must be allocated for this purpose prior to the approval of a project. Non-allocation of funds has posed many problems in previous projects.

(ii) Reduction of river flow (velocity)

When dams are built to facilitate the diversion of water, downstream channels and streams are left with significantly reduced water flows. Repeated or prolonged reduction of water flow from the river systems can have severe impacts on riverine vegetation as well as on other ecosystems reliant on river water (e.g. marshes). This would be particularly significant in the dry season when the river flow would naturally, markedly reduce. Such reduction in water availability below the diversion/ impounding point may result in changes in water quality through changes in river mixing. Changes in population dynamics of faunal species could also be anticipated in all stream-associated fauna.

Mitigation measures: At least a minimal flow must be maintained during the dry season, after careful study.

(iii) Movement of fish

Diversions or impoundments may block the free movement of aquatic species such as migratory fish in the river resulting in range reduction or local extinction.

Mitigation measures: Movement of fish should be monitored and adequate flow should be maintained at all times. Suitable innovative fish passes (not traditional ones) must also be put in place at multiple locations.

(iv) Saltwater intrusion In the Kelani river basin the general climate prediction is that the basin may get more rain. Already sea level rise and sea water intrusion is evident during the low flow periods with sea water travelling up to the

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Ambathale water treatment plant. Thus, the diversion of water from upstream areas further reducing the river flow in the dry season, may aggravate salt water intrusion.

Mitigation measures: At least a minimal flow (flow) must be maintained during the dry season, after careful study of previous occurrences of saltwater intrusion. Salt barriers may have to be put in place.

5.5.3. Other general impacts (i) Spread of invasive species Mimposa pygra (S. Yodha Nidhikumba) presently categorized as an alien invasive species was observed to be spreading in abandoned areas in the Kelani basin (particularly in the lower reaches). This species grows in open areas in close proximity to water. The clearance of vegetation might facilitate the spread of this troublesome weed in the area. This is particularly detrimental to the native flora and fauna, many of which are endemic or threatened. Salvinia and water hyacinth was also seen in many of the water bodies in the area. These have the potential to spread through anthropogenic activities.

Mitigation measures: Careful disposal of Mimosa pygra is critical since this weed spreads if seeds are dispersed during transportation. Regular monitoring must be done and weeds must be removed as and when signs of spreading become apparent. Regular monitoring and removal of the aquatic weeds are also recommended.

(ii) Felling of trees for associated structures and access roads Construction of access roads, bunds and other associated structures may require the felling of trees and overall vegetation clearance with adverse impacts on biota. This may also aid in the spreading of invasive species. Disturbance may also negatively impact fauna.

Mitigation measures: Avoid the felling of large trees where ever possible. If this occurs replanting (with root balled trees) must be done at carefully selected locations.

(iii) Soil erosion The construction of the dam and associated structures and access roads particularly in steep slopes may aggravate soil erosion leading to the deterioration of river water quality in downstream areas. The greatest impact would be during the construction phase.

Mitigation measures: Appropriate measures must be taken particularly during construction to prevent soil erosion. This may be done through stone walls or other such structures been erected.

(iv)Noise and dust General impacts such as erosion, dust emission, noise pollution may also occur with adverse effects on biota. Impacts will be greatest in upstream areas where natural vegetation patches are found.

Mitigation measures: Use appropriate machinery/methods that would result in low noise levels and dust emissions.

(v) Diseases (Dengue, Malaria) No significant increases in the incidence of diseases such as malaria and dengue are anticipated over the long term. If the construction phase is unduly prolonged stagnant water might facilitate mosquito breeding and hence the spread of mosquito-related diseases.

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Mitigation measures: Take appropriate steps to prevent stagnation of water.

5.5.4. Overall Ecological impacts on the Kelani river basin due to the proposed interventions The proposed projects taken collectively may lead to the reduction of riparian habitats and the loss of wet zone forest cover which are presently under severe threat due urbanization, particularly in the Western Province. This will have an overall negative impact on terrestrial and riparian biota. Further, in the lower reaches the marsh flora and fauna which are already affected by pollution and habitat reduction, may be further affected if hydrology is affected. Salt water intrusion may be intensified in the period of low rainfall.

5.5.5. Ecological Issues that will not be addressed during this SEA and Why The following would not fall within the scope of the SEA.

(i) Fish migration - Damming of the streams and rivers would particularly impede the movement of freshwater fish along the affected stretch. However, information available on the fish present in each river/stream/tributary and their patterns of movement is still scanty. One needs information on where such migrations occur to design strategies that would facilitate their movement. This information is needed for each of the individual streams that are dammed for the proposed reservoirs. This would also apply to the movement of fish from the river to the tributaries in areas downstream where bunds are proposed.

(ii) Hydrological regime - Detailed hydrological studies would be mandatory to prevent / mitigate hindrances to water flow throughout the affected stretches of the river basin. Only then could the capacity and locations of culverts /channels and flows be determined.

(iii) Species of special conservation concern - The interpretations on the ecological effects outlined here are made on general patterns of richness observed in the different types of ecosystems and in the entire basin. However, more detailed species inventories and particularly the presence of endemic and or threatened species, need to be formulated for each of the intervention sites. Only then could the full scale of impact on flora and fauna could be assessed. This would be covered within the scope of an IEE/EIA study.

Many of the above data gaps need to be filled before projects commence. The above does not fall within the scope of an SEA. Each would have to be addressed during individual IEE or EIA studies that would precede the implementation of a given intervention.

Environmental/Social Management Framework All mitigation measures must be strictly adhered to. Often the felling of trees and other associated activities are given out to private entities as sub-contracts and are not monitored by the proponent. This has led to many of the safeguard measures being disregarded. A special task force must be set up for each intervention with representatives from all stakeholder groups, particularly from the Irrigation Department, Forest Department, Department of Wildlife Conservation and Department of Agriculture (as appropriate) to monitor activities and to take mutual decisions. Interventions must not commence until all required data gaps have been filled. Adequate funds must be allocated before projects are approved for capture and translocation of animals as this requires skilled personal and specialized techniques. Implementation of mitigation measures must be ensured via strict monitoring.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 156 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin 5.6. Impacts on Agriculture due to Proposed Interventions 5.6.1. Potential Impacts of Flood Bunds on Agriculture 5.6.1.1. Positive Impacts During the site visits at Nawagamuwa and Ihalamapitigama, it was found that a considerable extent of crop cultivations is damaged due to flooding. Consequently, vegetable cultivation has been almost given up. On some occasion's part of their permanent cultivations have also been damaged. The proposed flood bunds will offer some relief in this regard, and seasonal cultivation could commence again as an organized enterprise with minimum risk.

According to some key informants, presently a majority of poultry and swine keepers discharge their slaughter house effluents directly to the Kelani River without any treatment causing pollution of Kelani waters. With the construction of the proposed bund, this problem will be minimized to a great extent. 5.6.1.2. Negative Impacts As described earlier, flooding along the tributaries outside the bunds during heavy rainy periods is a potential major issue as shown in the hydrological analysis. If flood waters do not recede without any delay it will be harmful even for perennial crops like rambutan, coconut and pepper, in addition to annual crops like paddy and vegetables. Such incidents have been reported to the Dompe Divisional Secretary during the 2016 floods and this fact was furthur validated by farmers in Udumapitigama and Nawagamuwa during focused group discussions.

Soil acidification is another important risk factor to be considered. Rapid evacuation of flood water from outsides of flood controlling gates of tributaries leads to removal of moisture from the soil, as a result of which chemical components in the soil get oxidized to acidic compounds known as acid sulfides. These conditions are toxic to plants and retard their growth. Low lying paddy ecosystems are more susceptible to such conditions.

This factor had not been identified in the planning phase of the Nilwala Ganga Flood Protection Scheme (NGFPS) and today it has become a serious problem where more than 3000 ha's of paddy land has been almost abandoned. This risk could be expected in low lying areas in Kaduwala, Biyagama, Mahara, Kelaniya and Wattala DS divisions in particular, and should be studied in detail at the EIA stage.

A considerable number of large scale agricultural lands are found in Hanwella, Dompe, Kaduwala and Biyagama DS divisions with Coconut, Rubber, Rambutan and with other cultivations. Presently, there is very low monetary value for these lands as residential lands due to the risk of flood during rainy periods. After the completion of the proposed flood bunds, due to the reduced risk of floods, demand for these lands for residential purposes will increase. The ultimate result will be the transformation of this area to a new residential expanse, by the fragmentation of these lands. This will pose a major threat to the large scale crop cultivations including Malwana rambutan and coconut. 5.6.2. Potential Impacts of proposed reservoirs on Agriculture The construction of four storage reservoirs in Kegalle district, namely Holombuwa, Wee oya, Nawatha and Rucastle have been proposed for the flood mitigation purpose, Its effects on agricultural activities are described below. 5.6.2.1. Positive Impacts Improvement of the soil moisture regime and arial microclimate could be expected with the reservoir water storage. This is important particularly in the December - February period which, is the driest period of the

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 157 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin year in these reservoir areas. This issue requires to be further studied in the EIA stage considering the relevant factors such as land use, soil type, landscape gradient, drainage conditions etc. 5.6.2.2. Negative Impacts Table 24: Present land use pattern in the inundation areas of the proposed reservoirs No of Land Use Affected ha families Home Paddy Coconut Rubber Tea Other uses Affected gardens Holombuwa 1725 587 302 - 79 - 15 Wee oya 130 42 6 - 87 - 52 Nawatha 2330 387 93 18 1414 8 126 Rucastle - 2275 336 42 19 602 2 85 1352 443 37 2182 10 278

Source: Map sheets prepared by GIS specialist of the SEA Team

The above table indicates that reservoir interventions mainly affect home gardens and rubber plantations in the respective areas. These home gardens, known as Kandyan Forest Gardens, are diversified with many crops like export agricultural crops, coconut, jak, arecanut, kithul (Cariota urens), timber trees and many others. Paddy cultivation is more dominant in Holombuwa area in comparison to others.

As the main livelihoods of the residents in these areas are directly related to the income earned from these crops, payment of compensation should take into account the value of these lands as a major income source of the displaced persons as the displaced people have very little knowledge and experience on alternative sources of income other than farming. 5.7. Potential Social Impacts of the Proposed Interventions and Mitigation Measures 5.7.1. Overall Social Impacts It is an accepted fact that impacts on the social perspectives of a development project of any scale is not readily and easily measurable compared to ecological aspects since more qualitative analysis are applicable than quantitative in social and community-related development undertakings. Most of the social impact of the proposed interventions is rather complex since they are directly connected to human settlements and livelihoods located in most vulnerable terrain along the Kelani Basin.

The social impacts of the proposed interventions are very much dependent on the existing and potential socioeconomic situation in different segments of the basin. In this context, the consultants paid particular attention to; a) Middle Basin where all 4 Reservoir type interventions are proposed, and b) Lower Basin where Flood Embankments are proposed.

As was revealed during assessment and the stakeholder consultation, proposed interventions will be critically affected to 4 social considerations:

1) When present locations are changed or shifted, there will be possible loss of present livelihoods. which are location-specific as same or similar employment may not be provided; one can assume that livelihoods changes to rural communities engaged in Agriculture in the Middle Basin, with similar or more assured assets may accrue positive benefits; but it will not be same for most of the people who are engaged more in industrial and services sector with close proximity to their working places

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2) There will be changes in the present social and cultural lifestyle, particularly the people in the Bower Basin where Flood Embankment is proposed; in contrast to the rural agricultural people, both factory-based and service oriented employees and daily paid labor as well as illicit dealers would have severe impacts with replacement form the present locations. 3) Resettlement and / or compensation programme based on a comprehensive Resettlement Action Plan which includes adequate compensation in kind or cash, restoration of livelihoods and living standards developed based on socioeconomic studies. Paying attention to vulnerable groups and persons including women, children, the elderly, ethnic minorities and others. Formal Agreements with affected persons should be obtained prior to resettlement.

4) Over and above the social and economic impacts, the physical disruptions caused due to construction will be enormous in all locations of 5 proposed interventions. The fairly large scale earth moving and rock blasting particularly in 4 sites of Major Reservoirs will have negative impacts on population in terms of environmental pollution. However, there will be positive impacts also during construction by way of both short and long term employments to skill and unskilled labour in intervention sites, where priority needs to be given to affected persons.

During the field inspections and district, divisional and intervention site level KIIs and FDGs, it was found that proposed Upstream Flood Detention Interventions of reservoir, nature have both positive and negative social impacts, which are mainly related to relocation of present living areas and change in livelihoods pattern under all 4 Reservoirs.

While a good majority of families will lose their present residences, homestead and cultivable land, most of them will be entitled for compensation either by housing and /or cash compensation at market price. The resettlement process (RAP) needs to be handled in such a way that negative impacts are minimized and positive impacts are optimized. 5.7.2. Intervention Level Social Impacts 5.7.2.1. Reservioirs Of all the identified Interventions, the measures to increase upstream flood detention by construction of 4 reservoirs have positive impacts in general, owing to their effects on the flood mitigation and providing of possible power generation, enhancing or augmenting irrigated agriculture and maintaining a high water table for upland cultivation of small plantation holding and homestead nature, as a whole. The negative impacts on the other hand are derived mainly from the displacement of present prime agricultural lands (Tea, Rubber, Coconut, MEC, Paddy, & livestock) and some settlements.

The 4 Reservoir Intervention are proposed as interventions coming under Upstream Flood Detention Interventions, will have considerable relocation and resettlement and inundation of present plantation, homestead farming and some grazing lands, in the Kegalle District. Of the 4 Reservoir, Holobuwa is located in Warakapola and Galigamuwa DSD, Wee Oya in Bulathkohupitiya DSD, Nawatha in Yatiyantota DSD and Rucastle in Deraniyagala DSD.

The number of people identified for relocations, area inundated and number of buildings impacted by each reservoir are shown in Table 25 below:

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Table 25: Impact of Proposed Upper Kelani Basin Reservoirs on people and buildings2 Name of Max Volume Area Impact on Buildings Displacement of

Reservoir (MCM) Inundated(ha) Commercial Residential People

1. Holombuwa 137 1,007 276 1,450 7,250

2. Wee Oya 48 162 4 110 550

3. Nawatha 516 2,140 604 1,950 9,750

4. Rucastle 215 2,681 692 1,910 9,550

Total 916 5,991 1,576 5,420 27,100 Source: Adopted from Atkins Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility/Feasibility Study, No. 1- October 2017

The main interventions-wise impacts are presented separately under the titles of the interventions.

A. Holombuwa Reservoir

The reservoir is proposed to construct across Gurugoda Oya Tributary of Kelani River flowing from the North, and is located mainly in Warakapola DSD, with a total catchment area of 158 km2. It has basically an agricultural setting with plantation (Rubber, MEC), paddy and mixed garden holdings.

Positive Impacts: Being a medium size reservoir, it has positive impact in the form of relieving the flood victims in the downstream and maintain high water table in the surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods in the long run.

Negative Impacts: The main negative impacts include, a) loss of a vast agricultural area of over 1,000 ha, presently under Paddy, Rubber, Minor Export Crops and Homesteads, b) relocation of 7,250 persons (1,450 families) taking away their present livelihoods, which call for systematic resettlement, and c) loss of 276 commercial buildings and 1,450 residential buildings.

There are also negative impacts with regards to cultural impacts, mainly to the archeiological site of Kotavehera Temple in Dadigama, which possesses large extents of land. In view of the negative impact of the proposed reservoir, an organization has been formed to mobilize Buddhist people against the project (this is illustrated in Case 1 under Communication Context - 6.8.4). B. Wee-Oya Reservoir Wee-Oya Reservoir is the smallest of the four reservoir interventions proposed to construct across Wee- Oya tributary of Kelani River with a catchment area of 53 km2, it is located in North-East of KRB. Wee-Oya basin also has the similar rural agriculture setting.

2 Notes: 1A reduced version of Holombuwa was not analyzed at this stage, 2 Wee Oya reduced dam height 3 Nawatha reduced dam height 4 Rucastle dam axis moved upstream on end of the Seetawaka tributary to avoid flooding the historical town of Deraniyagala.

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Positive Impacts: It is a rather small size reservoir, and has a positive impact in the form of relieving the flood victims in the downstream to a limited extent and maintain a high water table in the surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods in the immediate surroundings. Negative Impacts: The main negative impacts include, a) loss of limited agricultural area of 162 ha, presently under Paddy, Rubber, Minor Export Crops and Homesteads, b) relocation of 550 persons (110 families) taking away their present livelihoods, which call for systematic resettlement, and c) loss of 4 commercial buildings and 110 residential buildings.

C. Nawatha Reservoir

Nawatha Reservoir is the largest of the four reservoir interventions proposed to construct across the Main Kelani River (Kehelgamu-Oya) with a catchment area of 533 km2, it is located in the East of KRB. Nawatha basin also has the similar rural agricultural setting of plantation nature (Rubber, MEC), and mixed garden and nature reserves, on the left bank of the river.

Positive Impacts: Nawatha is the largest of 4 reservoirs, it has positive impact in the form of relieving the flood victims in the downstream and maintain high water table in the surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods.

Negative Impacts: The main negative impacts include, a) loss of vast agricultural area of over 2,140 ha, presently under Paddy, Rubber, Minor Export Crops and Homesteads, b) relocation of 9,750 persons (1,950 families) taking away their present livelihoods, which call for systematic resettlement, and c) loss of 604 commercial buildings and 1,950 residential buildings.

D. Rucastle Reservoir

Like Horombuwa, Rucastle Reservoir is a medium size reservoir intervention proposed to construct across Seethawaka River (a main Tributary of Kelani River) with a catchment area of 184 km2; it is located in South of KRB, in Deraniyagala DSD. Rucastle also has the similar rural agriculture setting of plantation nature (Rubber, MEC), paddy and mixed garden and, on the left bank of the river.

Positive Impacts: Being a medium size reservoir, it has positive impact in the form of relieving the flood victims in the downstream and maintain high water table in the surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods for the potential inhabitants.

Negative Impacts: The main negative impacts include, a) loss of vast agricultural area of over 2,681 ha, presently under Paddy, Rubber, Minor Export Crops and Homesteads, b) relocation of 9,550 persons (1,950 families) taking away their present livelihoods, which call for systematic resettlement, and c) loss of 692 commercial buildings and 1,910 residential buildings. 5.7.2.2. Flood Embankments The proposal made for the Lower KRB is flood walls or levees constructed on either side along the Lower Kelani (from Hanwella to Colombo) upstream backwater, upstream extra inundation, delay in flood

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 161 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin recession, bridge scour due to velocity increase, flood ingress to offsite pumps, drainage congestion in lateral streams.

One of the key objectives of the Kelani Ganga Flood Mitigation Strategy is to minimize the displacement of people and other related disruptions. Placement of the embankments in terms of distance from the river bank is therefore a defining aspect. Three locations were tested as 3 options;

1) A 50 foot line, 2) A 0 foot line 3) A flexible line (recommended option)

The Flexible line is proposed as the best option for Flood Bank Construction; it is observed that in very general terms the urban density is much lower nearer to Hanwella and much higher nearer to the mouth of the Kelani. It is therefore possible to have a mix of embankment types in different parts of the river length. The flexible line uses the 50 feet where it is available (no buildings), 0 feet where the existing buildings are right on the river bank, and between these two lines where practicable. A flexible line has been developed for the project.

Whether it is flexible or not Flood bank is seen as an artificial construction that will take away the scenic beauty of the river basin, and also will curtail the public the free entrance to the natural water body.

Smallholder pineapple plot at Wak-Oya- Kelani LB OFC cultivation in KRB Right Bank in Palle-Mapitigama

Vegetable cultivation in Nawagamuwa-KRB - Left Smallholder Coconut cultivation in Nawagamuwa- Bank KRB-LB

Figure 86: Land uses in lower Kelani Flood Plane area

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Flood embankments will result in a reduction in social costs due to displacement and distress (including loss of life) caused by flooding. These positive impacts will, however, be offset by the costs of land acquisition for embankment construction. Furthermore, due to the loss of assets and livelihoods, compensation payments will have to be made to local households and businesses adversely affected by the construction activities.

Figure 87: Unauthorized Settlement block in filled-up marshy land in Kerawelapitiya GND

Positive Impacts: The positive impacts identified are:

1) Frequent flood victims in the Lower Kelani Basin will be relieved from floods, 2) Negative unhygienic practices relating to toilet, waste disposal and garbage dumping will be halted / minimized 3) River Basin as a whole will permanently safe for socially & economically feasible livelihoods and land use practices Negative Impacts: The negative impacts are:

1) A large number of inhabitants (both squatters & private owners) occupying most vulnerable areas adjacent to the Lower Kelani River Bank need to be relocated / compensated 2) A considerable area presently under cash crops (Coconut, Rabutan, MEC & Vegetable) and forest, will be lost due to Flood Embankment construction 3) Conflicts between CRIP-induced relocation and ongoing development (Mega-polis, Roads etc.) may occur, if close coordination among these lead projects is not seriously contemplated

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 163 Figure 88: Potential flood victims living in the temporary dwelling at right embankment-Peliyagoda

5.7.3. General Recommendations on social aspects As general recommendations from social perspectives followings are proposed:

1) Feasibility of Reservoir options need to consider together with rehabilitation of small and medium weir systems and minor tanks, 2) A comprehensive Social Impact Assessment (SIA) need to be conducted on all proposed flood mitigation interventions, as a prerequisite to the construction process, 3) A rigorous social mobilization programme need to be carried out particularly in the lower Kelani Basin with the involvement of both existing and potential inhabitants living in the embankment and low-lying areas, for making them 'voluntary resettlers, 4) The compensatory packages of housing and livelihoods opportunities, need to be higher or attractive enough to the Affected Persons, enabling smooth resettling of people, 5) The continuous practice of encroaching existing wetlands, marshy-lands, Mangroves and other low-lying areas adjacent to the river bank need to halted, with strong low enforcement prior to undertaking the proposed interventions, 6) All existing wetlands of different forms need to be preserved and developed as nature reserves and recreation parks with facilities for the use of general public, as a counter measure for illegal filling and human habitation.

5.8. Potential impacts of the Trans-basin Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin Diverting water in the wet season from the Norton Bridge area in the Kelani Ganga to the Diyagala area of Mahaweli Ganga has been considered in the past. It has been estimated that 350 MCM per annum can be diverted. The diversion will require a 6 km tunnel from Norton Bridge to Diyagala. The impact on the water resources of both basins will be assessed through the modelling exercises. See Figure 89 for details.

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Figure 89: Approximate Location for Water Diversion from Kelani Basin to Mahaweli Basin

Since very few details are available regarding this option at present, only an overall assessment has been made regarding this option. This option appears to be a win-win solution at first glance as the potential environmental and social impacts will be mainly due to tunneling which could be mitigated through the adoption of appropriate mitigation measures. Furthurmore, diversion of excess Kelani water to the dry zone through the Mahaweli will ensure that excess water is being gainfully utilized rather than simply disposed of into the sea. The major impacts of this option will be due to impacts from tunneling and therefore the report has focused mainly on this aspect. During the feasibility study and Environmental impact Assessment studies a detailed study has to be made regarding the potential impacts of tunneling.

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1.1. Geological Observation of the Area According to 1:100 000 geological map observations, the proposed trans-basin diversion tunnel trace is proposed along a geologically critical zone. The area has a steep valley topography. Norton Bridge reservoir is located on the Kelani River basin side. The reservoir area has previously identified a deep fracture zone link from upstream to downstream which has been observed as an underground water path. Therefore, Norton Bridge reservoir and Kelani River basin side along the proposed tunnel trace area could expect very deep fracture development in the basement. Groundwater availability can be expected in deeper aquifers throughout the year. In addition, many surface water sources are present around the tunnel trace especially during the rainy season. Therefore, near surface groundwater also dominant in the region. Basement geology according to 1:100 000 scale indicates dominant marble with quartzite layers around the proposed tunnel trace. 1.2 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FROM THE PROPOSED DIVERSION TUNNEL General Environmental impacts Due to Tunneling Creation of new paths to access the tunnel face may destroy the surrounding landscape and existing environmental conditions. Construction of road access is an inevitable intervention in tunneling projects that may cause significant impacts due to removal of trees, earth excavation and embankment. In general, geomorphologic alterations, changes in working surface, ground water level, potential increase of erosion phenomena, destruction of natural eco systems, emission of excessive dust, noise and vibration are adverse environmental effects of access and exit roads.

Excessive noise from construction activities is a major impact during tunneling projects.The main sources of noise are as follows; Noise from blasting for excavation tunnels Noise from drilling machines, instruments, loading, etc.

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Noise from traffic and transportation around the tunnel Noise from loading and haulage Noise from fans for tunnel ventilation

A significant adverse impact on the environment is the disposal of excavated materials during the tunnel excavation. Disposal of excavated material during tunnel construction can cause major environmental issues such as water pollution, soil contamination and pollution of natural ecosystems.

Tunneling operations can change the direction of groundwater flow and cause environmental impacts on soil chemistry. Water flows in the springs and where the water naturally comes out, may be decreased due to groundwater discharge from drainage of surrounding grounds of the tunnel site. Disposal of waste water remaining from tunneling may also have undesirable impacts on the environment due to , the possibility of contamination of these waters and potential water pollution as well as impacts on ecosystems. Potential social issues could also occur due to tunneling unless appropriate precautionary measures are adopted in order to ensure that impacts on ground water supplies do not take place. The relocation of people due to tunnel construction maybe required, in which case they require to be compensated adequately in a timely manner. Disturbances to nearby residents due to high noise and vibration levels is also a potential impact which requires to be mitigated through the adoption of appropriate mitigation measures.

ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF TUNNELING

Many of the ecological problems related to tunnel construction is associated with water inflow. The damage caused to aquifers and tunnel cracks may cause serious drainage of ground water sources. Such effects may be felt over several kilometers from the tunnel site. Apart from the severe depletion of ground water sources that may be apparent in the drying up of wells, associated reduced flow of surface water may also be a potential negative impact. There is a possibility for some springs and streams located beside the tunnel route to experience a decline in the flow (streams) or disappearance (springs). In extreme cases terrestrial ecosystems (forests, marshes) in the tunnel path may also experience drying effects. In some cases land subsidence has occurred due to tunnel construction

GEOLOGICAL IMPACTS DUE TO TUNNELING

The geological impacts from the proposed tunnel is critical and the following impacts require detailed study and adoption of appropriate mitigation measures.

• Due to the proposed tunnel development landslides could occur due to sudden changes in groundwater and due to impact of tunnel construction activities. • Unlined tunnels could impact on groundwater instability in both upper and lower regions of the tunnel. Especially with the deep fracture developments regional groundwater draw down can be expected in the upper regions. • Marble and quartzite will impact groundwater instability during the construction time. • Sedimentation in Norton Bridge reservoir is a critical issue, the proposed tunnels will divert large amounts of sediments towards the Mahaweli basin side thereby affecting the capacity of Mahaweli reservoirs. • Severe soil erosion could be expected during the proposed construction. MITIGATION MEASURES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DUE TO TUNNELINGl • It is essential to understand the potential problems that may be encountered during tunneling, and to devise suitable strategies and designs to prevent or minimize negative impacts. One must

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also have in place proactive measures that could be implemented immediately if problems arise, before it imposes greater harm. • A comprehensive geological mapping, structural mapping and geophysical investigations are essential prior to planning of the proposed tunnel. • A soil thickness and stability survey has to be conductedaround the proposed development, in addition to present levels of soil erosion. • Detailed groundwater monitoring including piezometer observation is required prior to commencing construction activities. Long period groundwater fluctuations in the region should be studied. • A detailed crack survey around the proposed project area should be carried out with a detailed landslide risk hazard assessment. • After detail surface and subsurface observations possible different alternative paths for the tunnel should be considered. • Directions of tunnel axis should be selected with the aim of minimizing potential geological impacts. • After selection of the potential alternatives, geotechnical investigations should be conducted along the selected alternatives. The geotechnical investigations should be conducted up to the possible maximum depth, in order to cover the upper and lower regions of the proposed tunnel. • According to the detailed geological observations the most suitable tunnel trace should be selected from among the alternatives. • Construction methods for the tunnel should select based on the conditions of the basement. • Regardless of the basement conditions, it is recommended to construct a lined tunnel in order to minimize potential environmental impacts. • It is essential to correctly identify and assess the distribution of aquifers and their depths before commencement of the operation which should be made a mandatory requirement of the feasibility study that would precede the project.

• Further, a comprehensive feasibility study and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) should be conducted prior to the commencement of construction activities.

The section above describes the potential environmental issues that maybe encountered during tunnel construction for the purpose of diverting excess water from Kelani Ganga to Mahaweli. Since the details regarding this option is only at a very basic conceptual stage it is not possible to predict the exact impacts that may occur as details regarding the tunneling method or the exact tunnel route is not available at present. As such the impacts described above are merely a list of potential impacts which are possible. A detailed feasibility study and Environmental Impact Assessment is required in order to accurately predict the potential impacts and their relative significance in order to decide on the required mitigation measures.

Alternative surface concrete channel for the proposed tunnel Geologically, weak conditions could be expected within the proposed tunnel area, which could severely impact on the stability of groundwater and surface water. Construction of tunnels along such a weak zone is relatively expensive. Therefore, the option of constructing a relatively low-cost surface concrete channel to divert water from Kelani River to Mahaweli River could also be investigated. The possible surface channel after a study of the of 1:50 000 contour systems is given in the geology map. However such a contour channel should be designed only after detailed geological observations as there is the possibility of landslides around the site. The construction of a surface channel will also result in more severe damage than an underground tunnel. This fact has to be taken into consideration if this option is also considered.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 168 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin 5.9. Anaylsis of the Overall Impact of the Proposed flood and Drought Mitigation Proposal on the Kelani River Basin Using GIS In order to asses the overall impact of the proposed flood and drought mitigation interventions on the Kelani River Basin. The maps of the proposed interventions were super imposed on the following maps.

• Map of Forest Areas including Conservation Forests and Proposed Forest Reserves • Map of Wildlife Protection Areas • Map of Archaeological Sites • Population Density/ Population Maps • Landuse maps • Geological Maps • Soil Maps

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 169 th\ Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 90: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Wildlife Areas

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 170 Draft Report - Kelani River Basin River Kelani - Report Draft

170000 190000 210000 230000 Figure 91: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Forest areas Forest on interventions Mitigation Drought and Flood Kelani of Overlay 91: Figure 140000

Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin River Plans-Kelani Investment Mitigation Drought and Flood Level Basin River of Development of Assessment Environmental Strategic 160000 171 170000 190000 210000 230000 Draft Report - Kelani River Basin River Kelani - Report Draft

170000 190000 210000 230000 iue9: vra fKln Fodad ruh iiain nevnin nSi Map Soil on interventions Mitigation Drought and Flood Kelani of Overlay 92: Figure Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin River Plans-Kelani Investment Mitigation Drought and Flood Level Basin River of Development of Assessment Environmental Strategic 172 170000 190000 210000 230000 th\ Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 93: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Geology Map

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Figure 94: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Archeological Sites

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Figure 95: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Population Map

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Figure 96: Overlay of Kelani Flood and Drought Mitigation interventions on Land use map

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Chapter 6 6. Stakeholder Consultation 6.1. Stakeholder Consultation Process Stakeholder Consultation of the Kelani River Basin SEA was conducted following standard information gathering techniques of; a) Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), b) Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) and c) informal discussion with affected communities under each division and intervention locations. KIIs were basically conducted at the district level with heads of departments, including the District Secretary, and at the divisional level with Divisional Secretary and the support staff as consultative meetings. FDGs were held at the GN level with groups representing different social and livelihood groups, at randomly selected locations with critical issues. Over and above these FDGs, special discussions were conducted with a few subject-matter specialists, who is working in the fields of irrigation, water management, natural disaster etc. The entire consultation process was carried out in the KRB area during the 3-months period from early October 2017 to end January 2018.

The first round of visits to the basin was mainly on the reconnaissance basis during which initial KIIs were held with Key District Heads of 3 main districts. At these visits, baseline socio-economic data and information was collected in the form of District Statistical Handbooks, Divisional Resource Profiles, and sector-wise Annual Implementation Plans and working documents. 6.2. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) at the District level The initial district level Key Informant Interviews were conducted as consultative discussions with the selected district heads that included the District Secretary, Director Planning, Director, Agriculture, Assistant Commissioner of Agrarian Services, District Forest Officer, AGM Disaster Management and other subject matter officials met at random, representing the districts of Colombo, Gampaha and Kegalle. A detailed seminar level stakeholder consultation at the district level in each of these 3 districts was not possible as desired. The stakeholders, who were interviewed at the inception, are listed by their designation in Table 26 below.

Table 26: Stakeholders met at the District level Key Informant Interviews (July-Aug 2017) A. Colombo District B. Gampaha District C. Kegalle District

1. District Secretary / GA; 1. District Secretary / GA 1. District Secretary / GA (by Phone) ADS 2. Director, Planning, DPS 2. Director, Planning, DPS 2. Director, Planning, DPS 3. Department of 3. Department of Agriculture 3. Director/Department of Agriculture Agriculture 4. DD / District Irrigation 4. District Officer/DMC 4. CE / District Irrigation Office Office 5. Addl. Director General 5. DO/Department of Export 5. District Officer/DMC /DMC Agriculture 6. Environment Officer-CEA 6. Director/ Dept. of Agriculture 6. District Environment Officer- CEA 7. Director/ Dept. of 7. AC/Dept. of Agrarian 7. Director/ Dept. of Export Agriculture Development Agriculture 8. District Forest Officer District Forest Officer

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As the main source of information, a detailed consultation in the form of both KIIs and FDGs were possible at the Divisional level involving 9 Divisional Secretariats of Colombo and Gampaha districts, which represented the most critical DSDs in the Lower Kelani Basin. While some of these discussions were held as KIIs with Divisional Secretary and one or two officials (AD/P, Disaster Officer, HQ GN Officer etc.), a few others were held as FDGs involving a representative group with sufficient information and views. Composition details of these consultative DS meetings are given in Table 27.

KII with Director Planning, at DPS Colombo KII with AGM of Disaster Management Centre- District Colombo Plate 1: KIIs held at the district level in Colombo District - September 2017 6.3. Highlights of the District level KIIs The main highlights of the District level KIIs are summarized as under different Stakeholder: A. Gampaha District: District Secretary - Gampaha (Mr. Sunil Jayalath):

There is no ownership to land up to zero meter line of the river, and all land to right bank line of KRB (Gampaha) is under private ownership, resulting in law enforcement with regard to unauthorized occupation, water pollution, Garbage dumping becoming difficult, which is partly caused by negative influence of the local politicians.

Although river reservations are made under Irrigation and Agrarian Services enactments, the legal boundaries of KRB are not gazetted, and private landowners have deeds for land adjacent to the river bank. In Gampaha district alone, there are 9,445 unsuitable land plots in disaster-prone area in both Kelani and Attanagalu Oya Basins, of which around 800 allotments are located adjacent to the Kelani Right Bank (Gampaha side). In view of the 2017 and 2018 flood damages, District Disaster officer in the DS office has prepared a flood-relief Plan under the guidance of District Secretary, and presented it to the Government for action by relevant authorities.

The issues relating to frequent flooding, illegal filling and occupation of low-lying areas and continuous encroachment of unsuitable flood-prone areas cannot be arrested due to negative politicization, which has demoralized the relevant subject matter officials.

The flood mitigation interventions should be considered with the consent of relevant stakeholders after making a rigorous awareness programme with the APs.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 178 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Director - Planning / Gampaha DPS (Ms. W.A.C. Kumudini Vithana): The District Planning Secretariat (DPS) has been involved in flood mitigation planning since the 2010 flooding, which affected both Kelani River and Attanagalu Oya basin. The DPS has been a party to collect relevant information and prepare plans for both basins, including a plan prepared by the University of Moratuwa, at the request of the then Minister of Economic Development. The final outcome of the basin development plan was never shared by the University Professor for reasons hitherto unknown.

However, the Attanagalu Basin flood mitigation district plan prepared by DPS with the contribution of relevant district level line agencies (District Secretary, Disaster Officer, Irrigation Dept. Agrarian Service Dept., etc.) in the year 2010 was implemented during the past 5 years using local funds. Being a medium scale plan to clean and restore a series of small tanks, weir systems, cutting open an alternate sea-outlet, cleaning canal systems and natural wetlands, this plan has brought about positive results in minimizing the flood threat, over the past years.

Assistant Commissioner - Agrarian Services -DAS (Ms. Sandamali): In Gampaha District, over 50 percent of the Farmer Organizations (FOs) are presently inactive due to the fact that agriculture is only a part time activity for many people, who own land plots of different extent. There are smallholder plots practicing various cash crops like leafy and other vegetables, saffron, and ginger in abandoned paddy lands and other lowland areas. Low-lying area in and around the Muturajawela marshes near the coast are used for inland fisheries as a main livelihood in Wattala and Ja-ela DS divisions.

Formation of Women's Organizations under the title of 'Sithamu' has been mobilized by DAS and approximately 1,200 societies at one per village (with 20 members) have been registered in the year 2011, with the active involvement of Agrarian Research & Production Assistants (AR&PA) of the Department. Provisions for formation of FOs have been made by the Agrarian Development Act of 2000, which was amended in 2011, and total registered FOs in the district are over 8,000. DAS has also organized 19 farmers to establish organic farms in the district under the flag of 'Sara Lanka', in which each farmer is granted a minimum of Rs. 100,000 and maximum of 500,000.

Periodical drought is prenominal in the Attanagalu Basin (in Northern DSDs) than Kelani Basin and during the drought period drinking water needs to be supplied using water-bowsers.

Legal reservation of river bank by Agrarian Act is 33 ft. on each side, and by the Irrigation Ordinance of irrigation Department - 1946 (No. 3), the reservation limit is 50 ft. on each side, and these provisions have been violated on both basins (KRB & ARB).

Deputy Director - Agriculture (Ms. Mahesha Vajirakanthi) Under the department in the Gampaha District, there are 26 AI divisions with a field staff of 75 and 6 officers totaling 81. The total registered paddy extent in the district is over 17,000 ha of which about 11,000 ha are cultivated in Maha and there is provision for an extent of around 13,000. Another 4,000 ha are used for other field crops and fruits like Rambutan, Mango, Banana and Betel.

The highly productive agriculture zones are located in Dompe, Attanagalle and Seethawaka (Hanwella) DSD area of the Kelani Basin, which belongs to the wetter WL1B Agro-Ecological Zone.

Head Quarter EOs - Export Agriculture (Mr. Premadasa & Mr. Nalaka Jayasuriya) Of the export agriculture crops, prominent crops are cinnamon and pepper, and cinnamon alone takes up 50 acres in Gampaha DSD and 30 acres in Wattala DSD totaling 80 acres (30 ha). They are cultivated as smallholder blocks of A to 5 acres, and in some areas as an intercrop with Coconut lands. Pepper cultivation is practiced more in Gampaha and Wattala DSDs. The potential for cultivating Cinnamon as an

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 179 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin intercrop with Coconut lies in Muturajawela marshy land, if systematically reclaimed leaving deep trenches for draining out excess water.

Export crop cultivation is also encouraged as intercrops in homestead and crops like Pepper, Cinnamon and Areca nut are mobilized, and around 10,000 families in 6 DSDs in both river basins are supported by DEA under a special subsidy programme, which has 65 ha of Pepper as new plantations and 35 ha of Cinnamon, totaling 100 ha.

District Forest Officer (Mr. M.A.K. Jayakody): The Kelani Basin area in the Gampaha district has Forest Reserve of 390 ha in Methirigala, and 30 ha as Forest Plantation, are located in Alawela (Pine & Hora), and there is a new reforestation programme to establish forest stands with fruit species like Durian, Rambutan and Jak, in Nittambuwa and Meerigama divisions. The mangrove areas in the Negombo zone are severely threatened by encroachers.

B. Colombo District: Assistant District Secretary - Colombo (Ms. Dilrukshi Walpola): On behalf of the DS/GA (Mr. Sunial Kannangara), the ADS furnished information regarding the recent floods in 2016 and 2017. Most affected DS divisions in the Colombo district are Colombo, Kolonnawa, Kaduwela and Seethawaka.

While the relief measures were coordinated at the district level, supplies were distributed at DSD level depending on the damage to lives and properties. There are complaints from the public on the under­ estimation of damages in some DSDs compared to others, which have been caused by the time of estimation by relevant GNs (e.g. the estimates made immediately were less (Kaduwela DSD) than the estimates done after the flood water ceased which stood high Kolonnawa DSD).

Director - Planning / Colombo DPS (Mr. Senaka P. Silva):

There is a strong justification for a holistic flood mitigation plan for KRB as relief measures taken after consecutive floods have raised the dependency syndrome in the affected people, who are reluctant to move away from the disaster-prone low-lying terrain.

There is a need for multi-disciplinary Basin Development Plan to arrest and resolve the complex nature of issues and concerns of the affected, flood victims in particular, as the majority of these affected persons are at the mercy of the periodic government relief kind assistance at the end of each disaster, instead of being seriously considered for a sustainable plan of Action.

Additional Director General - Disaster Management Centre (Mr. R.P. Samarakkody):

Important legal provisions for disaster management are available in the Disaster Management Act No. 13 of 2005, and it is widely complemented by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Management.

Furthermore, there is a Disaster Management Council chaired by H.E the President co-chaired by the Prime Minister, with representative membership from the Opposition, Stakeholder Ministers and Chief Ministers of the nine provinces. Although the subject of disaster management encompasses the clauses on disaster prevention and post-disaster relief measures, only the relief part is given emphasis by stakeholders owing to wrong government policies that have been adopted by successive government in Sri Lanka. The main requirements for River-Basin level disaster management should be adhered to:

• Identification of disaster risk on time • Government responsibility for management

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• Rational Investment for mitigation measures • Follow the Build-Back-Better (BBB) process

With all the above mentioned strong legal provisions, there is a need for mainstreaming disaster management. The responsibility should be effectively passed on to the 9 provinces through the 3-fold devolution lists, to 25 districts, to 332 DSDs and to 14,000 GNDs.

In disaster management, 4-Rs principles are applicable; i) Readiness, ii) Reduce, iii) Response and iv) Relief. In view of the rising number of potential disaster victims and space available in the basin, there will be a heavy demand for:

1) Condominium-type housing in the most affected urban and sub-urban areas in both Colombo and Gampaha districts, 2) Alternative water supply to meet increased demand, 3) Counter measures for intrusion of salt water, 4) Law enforcement to maintain reservation boundaries of the river, 5) DMC, DM Council and the DM Adversary Committee be constantly active, 6) Overall national responsibility of Disaster Management to be vested upon DMC, 7) Provincial Governments to statutory institutional power to take actions, in determining the location of industries (Zones, Estates & Factories), with assured sphere standards for workers, water, draining, effluent discharge etc. C. Kegalle District: The consultation process in the Kegalle district was confined to the district level and relevant district heads were consulted for KIIs in the absence of the District Secretary. The DSD level KIIs or FDGs were also not attempted, since lower KRB (Colombo & Gampaha districts) was subjected to intensive consultation at DSD and community levels. However, since all 4 reservoir areas are located in the Kegalle District, these locations were visited by the Team of Consultants for physical observations and random discussions with the surrounding communities.

Director - Planning / Kegalle DPS (Ms. B. Anoma Wijeratne): In the Kegalle District most affected DSDs are in the southern half of the District, namely Dehiovita, Yatiyanthota and Deraniyagala. Other divisions that are moderately affected by the floods include Kegalle, Galigamuwa, Warakapola, Bulathkohupitiya and Ruwanwella, which are located in the center region of the district.

The 3 Southern divisions in particular are located adjacent to the main river basin - Kehelgamu-Oya, within a region dominated by plantation agriculture (Tea & Rubber), nature reserves and riverine forests.

The impacts of disasters (both flood and drought) have become a priority subject in monthly DCC and DAC, in which relevant officials present their concerns in terms of prevention and relief measures. All district level stakeholders are not aware of the national level interventions that are being considered as flood mitigation undertakings.

Deputy Director - Agriculture (Ms. Danajani Bandara); Subject Matter Officers (Ms. Nayana Kumari, Mr. Kapila Niranjan & Ms. Kanchana Hunukgama): There are 15 AI Zones or ranges in the Kegalle district, and there are area specific agriculture crops that are grown with agricultural extension services of 3 SMOs.

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Under the extension service of one SMO, most prominent fruit crops coming under the KRB include Rambutan, Durian, Citrus (Orange & Lime), Avocado, and Sour-sap, which are prominent in the DSDs of Dehiovita, Yatiyanthota, Deraniyagala and Ruwanwella.

Another important SMO-based cultivation includes organic farming, flower cultivation, Bee-keeping, Mushroom cultivation, and seed paddy production. There are few AI level Farmer Organizations, as Youth Farmer Organization, Seed Paddy Farmer Organization and Women Farmer Organizations, which GND- based and account for over 200 WFOs.

Assistant Commissioner - Agrarian Services -DAS (Mr. Sumith Chandana):

There are 14 Agrarian divisions in the district, under the charge of Divisional Officers. Paddy cultivation is mainly confined to the Maha season (Oct - Feb), and there is no paddy cultivation during the Yala season. In total there are over 23,000 acres (9,580 ha), and only around 12,000 (5,000 ha) or 40 percent are cultivated during Maha, leaving the rest for Other Field Crops (OFCs).

OFCs, cash crops like Turmeric, Ginger, Maize, Vegetable and Flower cultivation are practiced in the wetter Southern divisions of the KRB. As a special cultivation practice traditional Paddy variety (Pachcha-Perumal, Suwadel etc.), are cultivated in 100 acres within the KRB area.

The crop cultivation is commonly under wild-life threat, mainly by wild boars and Monkeys. Other common issue is the labour shortage for cultivation.

Deputy Director - Export Agriculture (Mr. R.K.W. Rankethbumbura): Export Agriculture in the Kegalle district is dominated by pepper, coffee and cloves, which are spread over the WL2b AE Zone in the Western half of the district. Recent price drop in pepper is considered as a temporary setback for the pepper cultivators.

District Forest Officer (Mr. K.G. Sepala): Legal provisions for Forest Conservation are available in the Forest Ordinance 1907 with amendments in 2009. They have formulated a Conservation Forest Management Plan 2016 - 2020 with a view to bringing more forest land into forest cover of the district.

The continuous practice of building Hotels along the riverbank from Karawanella to Kalugala has been a threat, since, except the UDA-managed Kithulgala Rest House, most of the other Hotels are built on encroached land without legal titles. These illegal properties along the river need to be halted, exercising the law applicable to them. 6.4. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) at the Divisional level As the main source information for the SEA of KRB, comprehensive Divisional level consultations were conducted as KIIs in 9 Divisional Secretariat Divisions in Colombo (3 DSDs) and Gampaha (6 DSDs) Districts. These KIIs were held in each of these 9 DSDs with the participation of the Divisional Secretary, supported by key officials like AD/Planning, DO/Investigation, Head Quarter Admin GN and other relevant officers, depending on their availability. In Kaduwela and Kolonnawa DSD offices, more officers participated allowing the KII to the extended to a FDG in each location.

These consultations were conducted as general discussions and also using distinct Questionnaire Guides directed to these government office bearers with the objective of extracting firsthand information well supplemented by published documents like Resource Profiles and Statistical Handbooks. Questionnaire guides that were used for these consultations are annexed in Annex 05.

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Table 27: Divisional level KIIs and FDGs held during December 2017 - January 2018 period No. District Division Key Informant Stakeholder Other Participants 1 Gampaha Wattala Divisional Secretary Development Officer / DM Assistant Director / Planning 2 Kelaniya Divisional Secretary Disaster Officer - DMC Assistant Director / Planning DO / Investigation 3 Biyagama Divisional Secretary Disaster Officer - DMC Assistant Director / Planning HQ Admin GN/DOs 4 Ja-ela Divisional Secretary Disaster Officer - DMC Assistant Director / Planning Development Officers 5 Gampaha Divisional Secretary Development Officers Assistant Director / Planning 6 Dompe Divisional Secretary Development Officers Assistant Director / Planning 7 Colombo Kaduwela Divisional Secretary Development Officers Assistant Director / Planning Administration/HQ GN 8 Colombo Divisional Secretary Development Officers Disaster Officer - DMC 9 Kolonnawa Divisional Secretary /Assistant Administration/HQ GN Divisional Secretary Development Officers Assistant Director / Planning

KII with Assistant Director Planning, at Wattala DS Office KII with Divisional Secretary of Kelaniya DS Office

KII with Divisional Secretary of Biyagama DS Office KII with Disaster Relief Officer & HQ-GN of Biyagama DS Figure 97: KIIs held with Divisional Stakeholders in the Gampaha District - December 2017

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6.5. Highlights of the Divisional level KIIs The divisional stakeholders were quite informative and aware of the disaster situation, their impact and issues relating to their respective divisions.

It was generally observed that DSs and staff involved in flood management are well-informed about the situation, and most of them have local solutions, which are very low cost and complementary DSD level action Plans.

KII & FDG with DS and staff of Kaduwela DS Office KII &FDG with DS and staff of Kolonnawa DS Office Figure 98: KIIs held with Divisional Stakeholders in the Colombo District - January 2018

The main highlights in accordance with the findings are presented in Table 28 below.

Table 28: Main Highlights of the Divisional level KIIs No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings 1 Wattala DSD: Disaster Affected GNDs are Hekiththa, Galwetiya and Palliyawatte, and in 2016 floods, 325 families were affected; apart from built-up Stakeholders Interviewed: areas main land uses are coconut, limited homestead and Keera plots, 1) Ms. P.D.J.C. Rajika (DS) and inland pond-based fisheries (prawn), piggery and poultry farming 2) Mr. Ranjith Chandrasena available in the downstream near the coastal belt. (GN/Admin) In Wattala Division it is basically a drainage issue as rain water is 3) Mr. Nalaka Ratnaweera trapped inland failing to drain into the river with heavy flow; during (DO/DM) recent years this situation has aggravated owing to; a) filling of 4) Mr. M.N.P. Fernando wetlands for buildings, b) construction of permanent infrastructure, (AD/P) and c) increase illegal dwelling for various livelihood purposes (trade, inland fisheries etc.) No interim measures have been taken for regulating the system, other than occasional cleaning of existing canals, which are frequently blocked with garbage, industrial waste and other debris After every natural disaster (flood/drought), only relief measures are taken without taking any preventive actions for mitigating the severe impacts The occurrence of filling up and encroaching of wetlands adjacent to the river bank and inside the flood bunds by squatters is not halted by removing them by authorities (Irrigation Dept.) due mainly to political influence In immediate river bank at the Palliyawatta area is been encroached on a regular basis, but no legal action has been taken hitherto, despite repeated complains.

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No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings • Generally the low-lying croplands are abandoned and wetlands are gradually getting filled-up for unauthorized settlements; both government and private lands are visibly subjected to encroachment, showing the increasing pressure for land. • High demand for dwelling has been created by a large number of factory laborers and service sector workers, who are compelled to live in this disaster-prone area, since alternate locations are not available within the industrial zone. • Negative social issues like drug-addiction, alcoholism and prostitution are prevalent in the illegal human settlements along the Kelani River. 2 Kelaniya DSD • During the recent flood (2017), approximately 1,000 families were affected and most of these families were living in vulnerable locations, Stakeholders Interviewed: where unauthorized dwellings are prominent. 1) Ms. Pubudika S. Bandara • Out of 37 GNDs 9 GNDs were directly affected damaging houses and (DS), assets, and most affected GNDs are Peliyagoda Gangabada, Kelaniya, 2) Ms. K.D. Peliyagodawatta, Pattiya, and Pethiyagoda. Abesirigunawardane • Along the KRB right bank inside the flood-bund, which was (AD/P) constructed during 1996 - 2000, there are both private land and the 3) Ms. Danuka Wijenayaka encroached Govt.'s (ID) plots, and some private plots are fairly large (DO/Investigation) depending on the meandering nature of the River. • Provision for acquisition of unauthorized squatters under LA Act of 1996 (No.38) is possible, but its practice is hindered due to the influence of local politicians. • Unlike in the past, on the request made by the Irrigation Department, CEB would not supply power connections to encroached/unauthorized dwellings along the river bank, which was endorsed at the DCC level. • The flood impact was made to all types of livelihoods practiced by people, belonging to 3 tiers of upper, middle and lower income groups, who live in the vulnerable river bank. • Most of the unauthorized houses are rented out to employers, who work in and around Colombo as daily-paid laborers (Nattamis), factory workers, small traders in various services; the owners of such houses are living elsewhere. • Some of these dwellers are also engaged in illicit practices like smuggling, drug dealing, liquor, prostitution, and in underworld deals. • Unauthorized dumping of solid waste directly to the riverbank has been attempted with the consent of unpermitted land owners and such attempts were stopped by DS on several occasions. • Lack of safety toilets leads to unhygienic practices for disposal of excreta, particularly by the people living in temporary and semi­ permanent houses located along the KRB.

3 Biyagama DSD • DSD of Biyagama has a total of 49 GN divisions, of which 24 GNDs in the year 2016 and 23 GNDs in the year 2017 were affected, damaging Stakeholders Interviewed: 4719 families (21,482 persons) and 55 families (247 persons) 1) Ms. Chandima respectively. Suriyarachchi (DS), • In Malwana GND alone, 530 families - mainly the Muslim community 2) Mr. D. R. Jayawardane living in the urban area) were affected to the maximum, owing to its (DO/DR), vulnerable location adjacent to the river.

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No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings 3) Mr. Anurudha Wijesekara • Common problem along the basin is filling of lowland and gradual (HQ-GN) encroachment irrespective of legal provisions provided against such 4) Mr. Athula Weerasiri practices since the local politicians wouldn't allow any reversal of the (LUP Officer) practice. • The issues pertaining to encroachment taking place in the river bank area, which comes under the Irrigation Department are much discussed at the DCC and DAC, law enforcement has become impossible, owing to political influence. • However, people involved in gradual filling and encroaching in the disaster-prone divisions of Malwana, Mabima East & West, and Pamunuwela, have been sued for legal action during 2017. • The natural drainage system is blocked and disturbed in the areas adjacent to the river bank, making the free flow of rain water impossible and creating water-logged areas leading to breeding grounds for Mosquitoes, and no action has been taken against them. • Pradeshiya Sabha has approved wrong plans, and reversal of such land divisions has been difficult. • In general, communities protest at Flood Protection measures and at the same time they are quite unwilling to move from the present residences which are constantly disaster-prone. • Disaster relief assistance at a range of Rs. 10,000-25,000 per family was provided in both 2016 and 2017, for losses of houses, businesses and assets. • Flood map has been prepared for the DSD (under LUP, showing the main affected areas and zones (by D. Jayananda) using the data in 2016 and 2017; • IUCN has collected all disaster-related data including maps but they have not shared any composite document based on what they have collected (Re. IUCN Officer Mr. Mallawarchchi). • Main livelihoods in the DSD include Government sector, private sector (factories & firms) in the Free Trade Zone, small and medium businesses, private land owners with cash crops (coconut, rubber & Rambutan), and homestead farming. • Drinking water has become a prevailing issue as water is contaminated due to industrial waste diverted to the river. • In addressing these issues and finding constructive and sustainable solutions, there should be a high level mechanism in coordination with BOI, CEA and Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Irrigation & Water Management. 4 Ja-ela DSD • Filling of lands south of main Negombo - Colombo road for making them residential plot, has been an issue contributing to aggravate Stakeholders Interviewed: flood risk caused by storms. 1) Mr. E.M.R.B. Jayasundara • Land reserves in the Southern part of Muturajawela have been (d s ) encroached. 2) Ms. H.G.C. Sudarshani • Boundary of DSD needs to be opened, in coordination with the Depts. (AD/P) Of Irrigation, Wildlife, Fisheries, and Coast Conversation by exercising legal actions. • Authorities of the ongoing Muturajawela Development Project should intervene in clearing the existing land disputes.

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No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings 5 Gampaha DSD Total of 20 GNDs are affected by both river basins (KRB & ARB), and there is a need for clearing the canal system draining to Attanagalu- Stakeholders Interviewed: Oya. 1) Mr. C.P.W. Gunathilake The Gampaha - Ja-ela Main road is located in a filled-up terrain, (DS) causing floods. 2) Ms. Samantha (AD/P) With the development, the land area in front of Gampaha Bandaranayke College, an unhealthy water body has been created. Section 2 of Land Acquisition Act, has been gazetted for 40 acres of abandoned paddy in the City of Gampaha. There is a strong need for clearing the canal system within the City, as it gets easily inundated during heavy rainfalls. Encroachment in Kudiwela-Ela reservation require legal action against encroachers. The negative effects of the Central Highway construction will be minimal as it will run on over-head pillars. Drought hazard is prevalent in Gampaha, Minuwangoda & Jagoda area, during Dec - March drought months, during which drinking water has to be supplied by water Browsers; main water intake is located in Mahawita of Attanagalu-Oya. The canal and ani-cuts (Weirs) coming under major and minor irrigation systems need to be cleared / maintained regularly to mitigate floods; maintenance is not done owing to lack of funds. Annual maintenance is not attended to in some cases, as farmers have neglected this issue of inundation. Projects for drainage and irrigation improvement nature have not been initiated in recent years, and priority has given to road construction. There is also an issue of shortage of Technical Officers at ID and DAS. 6 Dompe DSD 40 and 30 GNDs (out of 133) were affected during the recent floods in 2016 & 2017 respectively; in total of 1,101 families (4,133 persons) in Stakeholders Interviewed: 2016 floods, and 383 families (1,372 persons) in 2017 floods were 1) Ms. HGJP affected. Wijayasiriwardane (DS) Most severely affected GNDs were Pugoda, Therala, Kapugoda, 2) Mr. Nissanka (DO/DM Malwana and Samanbedda. Inundation issues are prevalent in Uda-Mapitigama and Pahala- Mapitigama divisions, and flood protection measures are successful in Pugoda area. Dompe - Meepawila Road (RN. 405) gets inundated during floods. Flood effects were more in the valley and not inside or near the bund, and effects were not severe as the flooding area is less urbanized. Filling of lowland has been prohibited as a measure to minimize impacts. Damages have been more for crops than for people and properties, and the most affected crop in 2016 was Rambutan. There are several industries of different scale (large, medium & small) near the basin with effluent directed to the river. Main water intake is located at Pugoda, which supplies water to the DSD. No permits are being issued for sand mining, which was practiced by 70 families before sand mining was banned.

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No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings • The Gem project under Gem & Jewelry Authority located at Ranwala is implemented by excavating the Riverbed; It was reported to DCC and CEA, but project continues without the Ministry's formal approval. • The Asawedu Portuguese Fortress located near the river at Malwana is protected as an archeological Centre. 7 Colombo DSD • All GNDs in North Colombo got affected during the 2016 (over 35,000 people) and 2017 was a minor floods; Stakeholder Interviewed: • When flood gates are closed, the rain water get blocked out, and gates cannot be opened until the water level of the river recedes. 1) Mr. D.G. • The Old Dutch canal, which used for draining away the excess rain Wickramasinghe (DS) water in the past, was blocked and untraceable due to constructions over it. • A regulatory mechanism is required to control the flood level in the River valley by a suitable monitoring system • During the flood, water get black with the pollutants & wastes dumped into water, the CMC's Sewerage System Development Project may rectify the issue. • When flood and rain occur simultaneously situation gets worse; if there is no rain water Colombo division is safe. • Cleaning & maintaining of Muttuval Tunnel is crucial to take away the rain water. • The traditional 'Keera Kotu' (leafy vegetable plots) that occupied land area close to the river in the DSD has disappeared due to high influx of population that gave way for shanty-type dwellings built close to the river bank. • The disappearance of low-lying marshy land in the flood plane has caused frequent flood occurrences. • Over 90 percent of present land owners in the most vulnerable areas, are encroaches of either private lands or marshes in the reservations. • The majority of shanty houses are given on rent by the owners, who live outside the critical flood areas. • The concentration of high labour population mainly in Colombo DSD has been caused by the labour demand created by CGR, CMC & Pettah market over the past century; and they have become main flood victims. • This labour community and associated unlawful occupants are of low a educational level, corrupted life styles, negative social values etc.; women are also involved both in drug dealing & prostitution. • Population density is very high in Mattakkuliya area (40,000), and the vulnerable segment of population use to shift their residence and move between Kotahena, Modara & Mattakkuliya, for reasons relating to their work. • Changes by educating the young generation are being attempted by relevant officials of the DSD, including enhancing facilities at the Schools in North & Central Colombo. • An immediate solution for mitigating the flood hazard would be acquisition of 50m boundary area retrieving wetlands and restoring & maintain them as recreation parks with walking paths like Beira Lake. • If the past drainage system is restored, cleaned and maintained half of the problem (flood issue) will be solved. For a lasting solution canals

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No. Division / Participants Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings of CMC, SLRD, ID and Port Authority need to be cleaned by a well- coordinated action plan.

8 Kaduwela DSD Of the 57 GNDs 35 with 5,733 families were affected in the 2016 flood, and 2017 flood was minor; main livelihoods of 9 GNDs were affected; Stakeholders Interviewed: total estimated damages in 2016 floods, are 598 businesses, 52 fully 1) Ms. A.D. Y. Anandani damaged houses, and 1,892 partially damaged houses. (DS) The damage assessment for the timely estimation of losses was not 2) Ms. P.A.A.K. Wijesinghe done; e.g. same kind of loss for property in Kaduwela GNDs were less (AD/P) (Rs.30,000) than the Kolonnawa victims, who received 3 - 4 lakhs as 3) POs & other officials (8) compensation. 4) HQ GN & other GNs (5) Higher number of female workers attached to the DSD as GNs, POs & other posts hampered relief work during peak of flood, and external help from DMC & the ministry have been minimal. There are issues of water logging and marooning of some residential areas and cultivations, causing damage; water puddles have provided ground for mosquito breeding. Sand washing is practiced as a livelihood in areas where water stagnated plots, are located. Main occupations other than government and private sector factories, are part-time farming like homestead farming, banana and turf making, are prevalent in some areas. There are possibilities for interim flood mitigation measures, like cleaning and maintenance of neglected canal and weir systems, restoration of small tanks like Nawagamuwa - Kekiriwela DSD. 9 Kolonnawa DSD Of the total 46 DSDs, 43 divisions were affected in 2016, and a total of 31,743 persons were affected in 2016. Stakeholders Interviewed: Land ownership is private up to the river bank; but when flood 1) Mr. S. Sisira Kumara (DS) mitigation interventions are carried out, there will be acquisition of 2) Ms. Nisadi Vasana (ADS) private land from vulnerable dwellings. 3) HQ GN Illegal filling and construction goes on in private land in the form of 4) Land Officer hotels and residences. Main occupation/livelihoods include government & private sector, small & medium businesses, small industries, self-employment, labor work and illegal dealing. Social issues like drug & alcohol addiction, prostitution and underworld dealings are prevalent. The famous Garbage Hill (Potuwil-Kanda) spread over 17 acres, is being removed, and will be developed into a natural reserve; of the affected 275 families, 170 houses were given, and others will be compensated with land blocks.

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6.6. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Several FGDs were conducted to obtain and ascertain ground level socio-economic data and information from grassroots communities at different social and livelihood levels.

Table 29: Focus Group Discussions held in Lower Kelani River Basin (January 2018) No. District DS GN Division / Village Focus Group No. Participated Division 1 Gampaha Wattala Kerawalapitiya, Female Laborers 05 (F) Kudagahapitiya 2 Kerawalapitiya, Vijitha Unauthorized 11 (M-3 /F-8) MW, Squatters 3 Palliyawatte Fishing Community 05 (M-3 /F-2) 4 Kelaniya Pethiyagoda, Male Artisans/ illicit 05 (M) Colombagewatte works 5 Biyagama Malwana Small Businessmen 04 (M) 6 Colombo Kaduwela Nawagamuwa, Ranala Mixed group (upland farming, block- 06 (M-3 /F-3) making & small trade

The DS level and GND-community level FDGs were possible only in randomly selected locations, which were representative of main vulnerable groups in the Lower Kelani Basin.

The main findings of the FDGs are summarized in Table 30.

Table 30: Findings of the Focus Group Discussions in Lower Kelani River Basin (January 2018) No. Location & Focus Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings Group 1 Kudagahapitiya, Social Background: -Earliest settlers of Kerawalapitiya lives in this village, which is closer to Kerawalapitiya GND Muthurajawela marsh; a mixed community of Sinhalese and Tamils and Wattala DSD main religions are Buddhism and Christianity. -They own 'Swarnaboomi' deeds for lands Laborers Group Livelihood activities of people: -Daily laborers at the new highway construction project; Masonry, Tenant Total No. of families: farmers, raising of chicken for eggs, Dairy cattle rearing, and Toddy 285 tapping; No. of families -Industrial zone - Atlas and Shell gas factories located closer to the affected by flood: 150 village. Agricultural background: -Home gardening for daily consumption (Coconuts, Vegetables, Cattle Poultry etc.) Social Issues: -Issues between new settlers in Vijitha Mawatha & old settlers in Kudagahapitiya -Anti-social activities (drugs) of new settlers have badly affected the village -New settlers have constructed their houses blocking canals, which drains excess water. As a result, this area too gets flooded by rain water. Educational Background: -Younger generation is interested in continuing their studies in comparison to the older generation; Few schools are located nearby, and at present there are few university students among the younger generation.

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No. Location & Focus Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings Group Infrastructure: -Pipe-borne water & electricity available -Private water sealed toilets available Environment: -Pradeshiya Sabha dumps garbage to the nearby marshy land. Unpleasant odor and the pollution disturbs the lifestyle of the community -Toilet pits get flooded during rainy season -Municipal Council does not collect garbage. Therefore, plastics, polythene and other garbage are being burned by residents. Matters related to flooding: -A canal was dug by the previous government to drain excess rain water but it was not completed; It was completely closed by the new government. If this canal was properly constructed, it could have helped to solve the flooding issue. -Received LKR 10,000/- per family as an allowance for the victims of 2017 flood CBOs: -Loan group named "Lak-Jaya" has been formed. -No women's groups or societies have been formed. Other notes: -Not much support received from government agencies, other than the relief money.

2 Vijitha Mawatha, Social Background: -Shanties / unauthorized structures Kerawalapitiya GND - -Moved to this area 6-10 years ago 171 -Some family members have come from Moneragala, Nuwaraeliya and Wattala DSD nearby Dematagoda. Livelihood activities of people: Unauthorized -Labour work, small trade (shops), 3-wheeler hiring, self-employment like Dwellers in coir industry, Food preparation Muthurajawela -There are a few Civil servants and Navy officers Marsh lands Number of families Agricultural background: affected by flood: 175 -Green leaf cultivation -Subsistent fishing Social Issues: -Unhygienic lifestyles (flies and mosquito breeding ground) -No deeds or permits for houses Educational Background: -Most of the children are schooling; schools are located nearby. -Senior community members are not educated -There are young members, who have studied up to Advance Level Infrastructure: -Some houses are constructed with wooden planks and sheets or cement blocks -Some houses are still under construction -There is no space for new houses as the land is now overpopulated -Pipe-borne water and electricity available

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No. Location & Focus Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings Group -Private toilets are available but they are not properly completed. Environment: -Houses are constructed over a filled-up marshland. Marshland was filled up to about 3 feet. -Hamilton canal flows behind the land, and there are crocodiles in the canal -Canal is highly polluted, and easily gets flooded by rain water. -Canal is blocked by constructions -Area is flooded during high tides of the sea -Municipal council does not collect garbage; therefore, plastics, polythene and other garbage are burned by residents Matters related to floods: -Low-lying land gets flooded easily, and May 2016 flood damaged them severely -Government provided food and temporary shelter during the flooding period CBOs: -Cooperate women's societies are available. There are five such groups. They collect 5 rupees per week from a member as saving. Loans are provided for emergency medical purposes, funerals, weddings etc. Rs. 3000- 4000 saved monthly. -There are many private loan groups. Daily payments should be made for these Notes: There are 5 similar villages of unauthorized settlers, in filled-up marshy lands. 3 Palliyawatte GND - Social Background: Wattala DSD -Fishing community Fishermen Group -Industrialized area with many fish canning companies/industries Livelihood activities of people: Total number of -Fishing & small trade (Boutique) families living in the CBOs: area: 150 -Lakdiya Fisherman's society with 60 members Number of families -Women's societies exist, they assist self-employment such as affected by flood: 60 lace/tatting & sewing clothes

Notes: -Fishermen own their fishing vessels - boats -Fish harvest is sold to Middlemen who later sell them to fish canning companies =May - December is the good season for fishing 4 Location: Social Background: Colombage Watte - Anti-social activities are common (drugs, prostitution etc.) Pethiyagoda GND Shanties Livelihood activities of people: Kelaniya DSD -Laborers, drug selling, sex work, & Masonry Group: -Less than 10 people are government workers Mixed Employment Social Issues: Group -Anti-social activities, some engaged in underworld deals Infrastructure: -Pipe water, electricity and toilets exists -Concrete access roads

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No. Location & Focus Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings Group Total number of Educational Background: families living in the -Young generation attends school, but their parents are not so educated area: 150 Environment: Number of families -Unhygienic with stagnant water in the drains affected by flood: 150 -This area was constructed over a filled-up lake which had retained excess water -Municipal council collects garbage every other day Matters related to flooding: -Flooded up to 1.5 feet during 2016 flood -Boats are used during floods for travelling 5 Location: Social Background: -A Muslim community, of which majority is engaged in business activities Raksapanagama, Livelihood activities of people: Malwana GND -Business (shop keepers), 3-wheel driving, -Civil service Biyagama DSD -Goat farming Educational Background: Group: -There high court lawyers, engineers and civil servants Business owners -Village mosque conducts tuition classes for children (Small-medium Infrastructure: traders) -Pipe-borne water and electricity available -An urban area with a road network Total No. of families: Environment: 180 families -Township and surrounding villages are located adjacent to the river. Matters related to flooding: -Community views that 'flood is like a funeral to us' -2017 flood was severe and lasted for 11 days -Drinking water, food and electricity was not available during flooding period -Raksapanagama becomes an island during the flood and they are unable to connect with the outside world and with relief systems. -River bend near the villages cause extreme flooding and the pressure caused by the flood water is strong; a Navy boat was also flipped over during a rescue mission, and villagers rescued drowned Navy officers -People were severely affected by flood in 2017; they lost their valuables except buildings/structures that were left -It took about 15 days to clean the township & village -Town / village gets flooded at least 5 times a year CBOs: -Mosques Management Committee started a flood assistance grant for the village about 12 years ago with the support of donors. (Current value of the grant is about 7 lakhs). During floods this grant is used to purchase food and other necessary items for villagers until they receive government aid. -Government aid received after few days of flooding as it is difficult to reach the village during floods. -Government monetary aids will be saved again as the grant. Notes: -There are two river tributaries near the main river bend; they are Pahuru Oya and Aluwinna Oya; a flood gate should be installed for the Aluwinna Oya, which can help to control strong flood waves that affect the village

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Location & Focus Highlights of the Discussion / Main Findings Group -Unity among people can be witnessed during floods; people living in highlands provide shelter for the flood victims and meals are provided by the mosque which were prepared by the villagers themselves -People get ready to vacate their homes when they receive the news of heavy rain in Hatton (upper basin); villagers are psychologically affected by continued flooding -It will be useful if a bridge is constructed connecting nearby villages 6 Location: Social Background: Ranala village; -A Sinhala community living in a coconut plantation owned by an outside Nawagamuwa GND - landlord 470 -Residents do not own any deeds or permits for lands. -Houses are rented or belongs to relatives Kaduwela DSD -They are settled here for more than 10 years Colombo District Livelihood activities of people: -Agriculture, vegetable & Koratu and leafy vegetables. Group: -Cement block making, Upland farming Group -Laborers, Drivers & small Businesses living in rented Agricultural background: location -Market gardening of long beans and snake gourd -Coconuts for daily consumption Total No. of families -Land owners sells coconut cultivation living in the area: -Few own Rambutan plantations 30 families Social Issues: Affected by flood: -Uncertainty of housing & livelihoods due to seasonal flooding 30 families Educational Background: -General level of education for adults, while the young generation go for higher education attainments Infrastructure: -Drinking water by Tube wells; pipe-borne water-line is given only to the families at the beginning of the road -Private toilets available Environment: -Garbage is burned, not collected by the Municipal Council -River is used for bathing and washing purposes Matters related to flooding: -All houses were affected by flood; flood level has risen above 6 ft. height -Annual flood occurs during May (month of Wesak), causing crop damages -When the river is over flowing people prepare to leave houses but there is no long term plan to mitigate flood Notes: -Christian church nearby helps people during disaster periods -Government provides relief funds when major floods occur -Sand-mining is prohibited causing the river to get filled-up with sand sooner.

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FDG with women group in Kelawarapitiya-Wattala DSD FDG with encroached group in Kelawarapitiya GND

FDG with Artisan Group in Pethiyagopda- Kelaniya DSD FDG with Fishing Community in Palliyawatte-Wattala DSD

FDG with mixed group in Nawagamuwa - Kaduwela DSD FDG with small businessmen Malwana - Biyagama DSD Figure 99: Focus Group Discussions conducted at various social and livelihood groups 6.7. Findings of the Stakeholder Consultation Various deliberations made in the above district, divisional and community level consultation of KII and FDG sessions plus the field level observations and views gathered by the consultants from the affected people (both present & potential), are more negative than positive.

The overall results of the district, divisional and community level discussions as well as observations made at the field level are presented in summary, as overall findings of the consultation in Table 31.

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Table 31: Summary Results of Findings (Social, Gender & Community levels) No. Main Focus Area Findings of the Stakeholder Consultations 1. Land ownership & tenure pattern of -Sole titles in more in upper and middle KRB, where more the immediate banks of the River Basin new settlements and old villages are located (Nuwaraeliya & Kegalle districts) -More encroachments of squatter and shanty nature are predominant along the river banks in the lower Kelani Basin on both river-banks (Colombo & Gampaha districts), -General land ownership outside the river banks in the lower basin is sole, including Swarnaboomi deeds and legal permits. 2. Prominence of encroachments with -Land encroachments are prominent only near immediate years in use in the past and present river banks of lower KRB, where congested dwellings are prominent mostly in vulnerable areas; most are over 20 years or more older and residents are tenants on periodic rents; others are old settlements with sole or regularized ownership. 3. Benefits/uses of the River Basin to Upper Basin: people in the neighborhood in general -Water is used for general domestic purposes; (upper/ middle/ lower) particularly in -From Kalugala to Kithulgala river is extensively used for immediate River Basin area (within recreation purposes (in boat & dingy riding) by both 100-250 m) foreign & local tourists -Basin area is mostly used for plantation crops (tea & rubber), homestead farming. Livestock farming, built-up area, natural reserves mainly on left bank side. Middle Basin: -Basin area mostly used for plantation crops (Rubber, Coconut, Rambutan & MEC), homestead farming. Livestock farming, built-up area, natural reserves gradually diminish towards the west as the population pressure increases Lower Basin: -General Domestic use and heavy pumping for human use and industrial use; -Low-lying area including mangroves and wetland are presently utilized for unauthorized filling for human settlements (from Kaduwela down to Kerawalapitiya) 4. Difference between the present and With increased population and livelihood practices, the past land-use patterns of the River River Basin is more threatened than in the past, Basins particularly in the highly congested lower basin, which calls for strict law enforcement backed by a proper management plan. 5. Use of resources of the River Basins -In the upper & middle basin large scale pumping was (Water, Sand, Gem Mining etc.) observed for both drinking and cropping purposes; -In the lower basin intensive water pumping is practiced for all purposes including industrial use. -Mining of sand on a commercial business scale has been banned and only illicit mining is observed. -Mining the river bed for Gemming is practiced near Malwana under a project sponsored by the Gem & Jewelery Authority

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6. Average number of families, whose -Roughly around 50,000 families along the basin practice livelihoods are connected to the River livelihoods relating to plantation, crop cultivation, , Basin by any means livestock farming and fishery in river and associated wetland area in all 4 districts. 7. If common or own wells are used, -Pumped river water is used throughout the basin, own whether water is available year-round and common shallow dug-wells are also used in locations or only seasonally where river is far away; -Dry pockets of Kegalle and Gampaha districts Seasonally go low or dry during the dry months of July - August, making local authorities supply water by browser 8. General motivation of the people in Several INGOs and NGOs are actively engaged in terms of natural resource community motivation and empowerment in relation to management, social integration, obtaining basic amenities and engaging in microfinance- political affiliation etc. based livelihoods, but law enforcement is minimal due to negative political influence. 9. Availability and attendance of health -District and DSD level services of both community health and community workers (CHW, PHI, and sanitation in all 4 districts, with the assistance of CDO), for general hygiene and well­ INGOs /NGOs and various donors, are available particularly being of people, during disasters. 10. Availability of Insurance Schemes for While there is no reported national insurance coverage regular flood/drought victims against other than crop insurance, large scale sources of insurance natural disasters against natural disasters not prevalent, except for personal schemes by few private Insurance agencies. 11. Whether lives of the vulnerable people INGO/NGO initiated community mobilization/ living in disaster-prone areas, are empowerment are practiced at CBO level at DS and GND secured from other threats like theft, level in key locations in the Middle & Lower basin 3 districts. violence against women, child abuse, -The rigorous social mobilization for awareness creation alcoholism etc. and training of community activists for disaster management as well as to deal with issues relating to women & children (violence, abuse), as well as alcoholism and illicit related issues.

6.7.1. Validation of findings Both stakeholder and community level findings are either based on factual empirical data and evidence or as opinions and observation backed by firsthand information. However, for formal validation, there is a need for undertaking a detailed Strategic Social Assessment on the entire basin covering all associated intervention areas, which are analyzed in Chapter 5. 6.8. Communication Aspects 6.8.1. Introduction This Communications assessment will guide the communication strategy of the Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Investment Plan (DBIP) of the Kelani River basin. It will guide the Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP) team to develop communication activities and messages appropriate to reach the stakeholders.

The main aim of a communication strategy is to increase th level of awareness and importance of the DBIP among the stakeholders. This assessment will help to understand environmental and socio economic factors that positively or negatively impact the proposed DBPI interventions and associated communication challenges and opportunities. The assessment covers the specific communication background of the project implementing areas and general communication context in the country.

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Communication can be used as a tool for ensuring transparency, accountability and effectiveness of development projects. A well-planned communication strategy is vital in the Kelani DBIP due to several reasons;

The DBIP will consist of various interventions that directly affect the environment and lives of the inhabitants of the river basin.

The Project area, Kelani river basin, covers a vast geographical area spreading across Kandy, Kegalle, Rathnapura, Colombo and Gampaha districts. The impacts of the proposed flood mitigation interventions such as construction of reservoirs and flood bunds would have huge social, economic and environmental impacts. Any adverse impact would obstruct the project implementation with public protests and political interventions as a result of miscommunication of such impacts.

There are a large number of stakeholders such as central government agencies, provincial councils, local authorities, civil society organisations and community organisations involved in project implementation. Communication with these stakeholders will have to be planned well considering protocol, traditions and bureaucracy to ensure smooth functioning of the implementation process.

Climate change is a result of human activities; therefore, climate change impacts cannot be mitigated in a sustainable manner only through engineering interventions such as construction of dams and flood bunds. It needs mobilization of communities living in Kelani river basin through education and awareness programs to adhere to environment friendly best practices, avoiding encroachment of river banks and flood plains for building houses and commercial establishments. 6.8.2. Communication Challenges Benefits of the project Since the main objective of the project is improving resilience for flood, there may be a large number of beneficiaries and these benefits can be used in a proactive communication campaign to get the support of all stakeholders.

In addition to the flood mitigation function, each of the proposed reservoirs have additional benefits. Some of these reservoirs will be used for inter-basin transfer of water for drought mitigation in the North Western Province (Holombuwa and Nawatha reservoirs). Some of the reservoirs will be used for bulk water supply. Large number of people will receive quality pipe water supply after completion of these reservoirs or improve the water supply of the current users. NWS&DB is now carrying out a feasibility study to construct Wee Oya reservoir with 48MCM water capacity with the objective of bulk water supply for Greater Colombo. Nawatha reservoir also has the potential for bulk water supply. Limitation of existing water supply capacity and increasing demand for water in the capital Colombo and other areas justify the needs of these project interventions and they can be productively used in a communication campaign. Hydro power generation is another benefit.

With these benefits, inter-basin diversion for drought mitigation, provision of drinking water and hydro power generation, the project assumes national importance. The communication strategy uses these positive aspects of the project, to counter or balance the communication challenges in relation to the negative impacts. 6.8.2.1. Flood Flood is a real life experience of the inhabitants of the Kelani River basin. People living in the river basin have been experiencing increasing severity and frequency of flood over recent time as a result of climate change.

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Project communication should be focused on broader aspects of the CRIP, improve resilience to climate change impact and should not be limited to one intervention, construction of a dam or only flood mitigation.

Due to some project interventions that PAPs may have to sacrifice their traditional land, houses, livelihoods, or social and cultural relations. However, since the project is for their benefits and with the implementation of the projects they will be better off and more resilient to such natural hazards. This can be used as the theme of the communication campaign throughout the project in order to convince the stakeholders of the benefits and to highlight the benefits rather than the negative impacts. 6.8.2.2. Land acquisition and resettlement Acquisition of lands and resettlement of the people will become controversial due to several reasons. The inhabitants in upstream areas of the Kelani basin where land requires to be acquired for reservoir construction have been living there over a long period. These lands may be inherited from their ancestors and their bond to the lands and villages, cultural and other relations are strong and therefore land acquisition will be a difficult task.

According to the Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy Prefeasibility report of Atkins 5,991 hectares of land will be inundated in the proposed four reservoirs Holombuwa, Wee Oya, Nawatha and Rucastle. The damages to buildings and the number of affected people is also significant and 6,996 buildings, 1576 commercial and 5420 residential, will be affected. Around 27,100 people will be affected. Issues will also be created due to inundation of forest reserves, farmlands, plantation estates and religious places with archeological and cultural significance.

Miscommunication and gossip have already created panic. Rumors are spreading that the displaced people will be relocated in the Puttalam district. However, according to the resettlement policy, the displaced people should be relocated within the same DS division. This spreading of misinformation can be a result of the existing communication gap.

Majority of the lands in the Kelani River basin are privately owned. The basin is highly populated compared to other river basins, especially in the downstream of the river below Kaduwela. There are houses and business ventures, home gardens, rubber and coconut cultivations and tea cultivations in the upstream of Kelani River basin. Also, there are a large number of industrial establishments, small and large, on both banks of the downstream of the River. As a result, there will be a large number of PAPs. Therefore, education and awareness of all these stakeholders on project objectives, benefits and issues will be a complex communication task.

Construction of embankments and flood walls will also lead to issues of land acquisition and relocation of the people. According to the prefeasibility report of Atkins there are three options for this embankments and flood walls. The highest number of people (5,515) will be affected by the 50-foot line while 1,166 will be affected by the 0-foot line and the number affected by the flexible line will be in between. Accordingly, the number of people who have to be relocated is significant.

Communication interventions are vital to minimize public resistance and get the public support for the project in these aspects of the project interventions. According to social safeguard policies of the World Bank the affected persons should be fully informed and consulted on compensation, relocation and rehabilitation options. Other aspects of the social safeguard policies of the World Bank requires to ensure an adequate living standard, compensation, livelihoods etc. should be communicated timely to the persons who will be affected.

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6.8.23. Water rights. Project interventions will divert rivers or alter the existing flow of water depriving existing users or creating doubts/ suspicion in the water users in the downstream. One of the objectives of the construction of reservoirs is trans-basin diversion of excess water in the Kelani basin to dry zone. Proposed Horombuwa reservoir has been identified as the source reservoir for inter-basin transfer to Deduru Oya reservoir and Deduru Oya basin in the dry zone of the North Central Province. These inter-basin diversions of rivers will become controversial issues unless the people/water users living in the downstream of the river are educated properly and in advance on the impacts on them, and measures are taken to ensure their water rights and overall economic and social benefits that the country gets through using this excess water that create floods in Kelani basin to mitigate droughts in the dry zone. 6.8.2.4. Embankments and flood walls Another proposed project intervention is the construction of embankments from Hanwella to the mouth of the Kelani River and to establish a combination of embankments, gates and pumps to protect the land adjacent to the tributaries entering the Kelani River, downstream of Hanwella. This project intervention will also be controversial because there are negative impacts as well.

According to stakeholder discussions held in Kelani river basin from Pugoda to Peliyagoda, construction of flood bunds too will create public resistance. People in Pahala Mapitigama in the Gampaha district are already experiencing the benefits as well as adverse consequences of flood bunds. There is a flood bund constructed decades ago to protect low-lying areas of Pahala Mapitigama and it is now being maintained by the Department of Irrigation. The people said that the bund is a protection for minor floods but the situation becomes worse during serious flood situations because draining water is slow as a result of this bund.

However, at 4th Milepost, Peliyagoda (at railway bridge) the people said that the flood bund is a solution for flood generally and the houses on railway lands are protected even in major floods. This is one end of the North Bund in the right bank of the Kelani River in the Gampaha district.

Expectation management should also be considered in the communication strategy related to flood protection through construction of flood bunds. One of the reasons for increasing damages from flood is encroachment of flood plains, illegal constriction of residential and commercial buildings in river banks and low-lying areas and unauthorized filling of paddy fields and marshy lands. Construction of flood bunds will provide an assurance of flood protection and will further encourage these activities. 6.8.2.5. Environment impacts Kelani basin lies within three major floristic regions, namely Northern Wet lowlands, Foothills of Adam's Peak and Ambagamuwa, Adam's Peak. Also, there are a number of important forest reservations in the Kelani River Basin. Biodiversity in the Kelani River Basin is also significantly rich. There are endemic, and threatened fauna and flora present within the Basin, some of which are critically endangered species in the National Red List.

This environment sensitivity will create resistance to the project interventions from environmental organizations. Construction of Nawata Reservoir will result in the inundation of a protected forest area. Improvement of soil water status especially during dry season, improvement of aerial microclimate are environmental benefits of the proposed reservoirs. These facts have to be communicated to relevant stakeholders in a timely manner.

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"Kelani River Water Resource Protection Foundation", an environment organization working against water pollution of Kelani River has raised concerns about this project. A proper communication campaign has to be launched to educate these organisations and the general public on environmental impacts of the project interventions. 6.8.2.6. Archaeological sites and monuments According to the feasibility study report of Atkins, preliminary evaluation of impacts on archaeological sites using GIS data does not show impacts on any archaeological monuments or sites. However, the report has proposed a more detailed study of the area in question.

Protestors against Holombuwa reservoir claim that Dadigama Kotavehera Buddhist temple, the birth place of King Maha Parakramabahu, will be fully inundated during the construction of the proposed Horombuwa reservoir. The temple owns a large extent of land that will be inundated. The views of the residents in the area on damages to the archeological site Dadigama Kotawehera is pointed out in the Case -1 in the communication context. 6.8.3. Project cost and benefits This project will get greater attention nationally due to several reasons. Project will positively and negatively affect highly populated areas in Colombo and Gampaha districts in the downstream. People living in these areas are influential politically and in other ways, since they have access to information and the majority are educated (compared to other river basins such as Mundeni Aru). Therefore, the pressure groups are better informed and more organized and therefore more influential. For instance, an organization against Holombuwa reservoir has already taken documents related to project proposals through the Right To Information Act. Therefore, the communication campaign has to be designed to educate people with different levels of education/awareness and social segments.

Project is estimated to cost US$ 95.9-39.5 million for embankment and flood walls and cost of construction of reservoirs should be justified with cost of flood damages. The damage from the flood in 2016 has been estimated at $US 270 million. 6.8.4. Communication context From the point of view of development, social and economic aspects, Kelani river basin has diverse characters. The upstream areas in Kegalle, Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and Ratnapura districts belong to rural or estate sectors while downstream areas below Hanwella and Kaduwela are urban. This diversity in social and economic status of the people has to be taken in to account in designing the communication strategy.

Communication challenges related to the two project interventions, reservoir construction in the upstream areas and flood bunds in the downstream are different. The benefits of flood protection are mainly for the people living in the low level areas of the downstream and they are beneficiaries of the project. The PAPs under reservoir construction areas may not have direct benefits even though they have to scarifice for the benefits of the others. This issue has already emerged and community organizations have been formed against the reservoir projects. Their main protest is "we have to scarifice our lands and houses for flood protection in Colombo". However, flood in Kelani river basin is not limited to Colombo and areas above Hanwella up to Avissawella and surrounding areas are frequently affected by flood

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Case 01. Field visit to Dadigama and Kotavehera areas and discussion with the members of Movement to protect Kotavehera Resistance against the proposed 4 reservoirs Ruecastle, Wee Oya, Nawatha and Holombuwa will be significant. Miscommunication has already created panic among the residents in the areas. Holombuwa reservoir is significant in this regard. The people have not been informed or educated by the respective authorities about proposed reservoir. They have got informal information from the consultants who visited the area for various studies. According to the residents NWS&DB has also carried out a study and the officials involved has told them that a reservoir will be constructed and some lands will be inundated. This informal information together with gossip has created lot of issues.

Kotawehera

Some of the information people have received and their views on the proposed Holombuwa reservoir are as follows; • The purpose of the proposed reservoir are Flood mitigation of lower kelani basin and water supply. • There will not be any direct benefit to the Holombuwa villagers from this project. • An 80-foot-high dam will be constructed. • 8,000-15,000 families will be displaced • They will be relocated in the Puttalam district • Dadigama Kotavehera, a Buddhist temple, the birth place of King Maha Parakramabahu will be fully inundated • A tunnel will be constructed under 'Dadigama Kanda'' or 'Assella Kanda' to divert the river to North Central province • Surrounding areas of the proposed reservoir will be declared as a forest reserve and people living in the area will be resettled. • Good compensation package will be given for the displaced

With all these misinformation/communication gap people have faced following issues. • All banks have stopped lending on collateral of lands in the area and therefore no housing loan or loans for the purchase of land are being issued. • Land price has gone down. • People have stopped construction and improvement of their houses. • Sales of building materials has sharply dropped Two organisations have been formed against Holombuwa reservoir. One is by the professionals and educated people and their objective is to get correct information and minimize damage or stop the construction of the reservoir. The Name of the organization is "Soothigara Surakeeme Viyaparaya" (Movement to protect the Kotavehera). They have obtained official information from the Irrigation Department through RTI Act. The other organization is based on the Dadigama, Kotavehera temple and led by the Chief Prelate. The temple owns large extents of land and the organization is mobilizing Buddhist people against the project.

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This Holombuva reservoir case demonstrates the communication gap between the DBIP and stakeholders. Similar issues can be expected from the other 3 reservoirs as well. In the proposed Nawatha reservoir 2,140 ha will be inundated while 604 nonresidential and 1,950 residential buildings and 9,750 people will be affected by the project.

There was no official announcement of the project until finance minister Mangala Samaraweera presented this proposal in November 2017 in his 2018 budget speech. After this announcement several protest campaigns were held. President Maithripala Sirisena addressing a political rally for the LG election- 2018 in Anamaduwa in January 2018 declared this Kelani river diversion as a plan to provide water to the dry zone of the North Western Province.

6.8.5. Past experience The project interventions include large scale infrastructure development projects. According to past experience, projects of this nature will have to face political and public resistance since there would be inevitable negative socio, economic and environmental issues. For example, Norochcholai coal power project faced political and public protests due to environmental concerns. The campaign was supported by the Catholic Church and some political parties. Although the social issues were minimal and environmental issues could be mitigated, the project was delayed for several years. Upper Kothmale hydro power project too was delayed several years as a result of the same political and environmental concerns. Ceylon Electricity Board conducted a massive communication campaign to promote these two projects and for educating stakeholders and the general public on the importance of the two projects to meet future power demand and the cost the nation has to pay by delaying the project. These two projects were planned and feasibility studies and EIAs were completed in early 1990s. The construction work of the two projects were started only in 2006. 6.8.6. Umaoya project Massive environmental and social issues caused by the Umaoya development project has created an unfavorable political environment for these proposed project interventions. The environmental disaster caused as a result of water leaks in the Umaoya tunnel have been widely discussed in the media and a massive demonstration campaign has been launched by the PAPs. This disaster is also used by opposition political parties against the present government and the previous government that launched the project. Professionals involved in preparing the EIA report for the project have been taken to task by the media and the general public. Feasibility study of the project too has been challenged. As a result, the general public is now more aware and concerned about project feasibility, environmental feasibility reports and technologies use. Therefore, education and awareness of stakeholders on project feasibility, SEA, EIA, project feasibility and other legal obligations and approvals are important and they should be made available to stakeholders and project preparation should be done transparently. 6.8.7. Fraud and corruption Fraud and corruption in mega infrastructure development projects is another public concern that should be paid attention during project communication. The Anti-corruption campaign initiated after the 2015 presidential election has claimed large scale fraud and corruption in mega infrastructure development projects, although these allegations are yet to be proved.

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6.8.8. Governmental and Political Risk Assessment Understanding the political environment is essential for the successful implementation of the project. Since the DBIP covers a large geographical area in the Western and Sabaragamuwa provinces the political context and associated political risks are high and complex. According to existing governing structure of the country where the central government, provincial councils and local authorities have powers on rivers/river basins at various levels the political leaders in each level too have interests and concerns over the project interventions in terms of the point of view of their voters in particular.

According to Sri Lankan political context mega development initiatives usually create political issues since there are inevitable externalities. The Accelerated Mahaweli Development Project in 1978 faced criticism and opposition political parties, environmental organisations and some academics pointed out that acceleration of the project would create a host of environmental issues. However, political stability of the government with 5/6 majority in the Parliament could overcome this opposition in order to implement the project.

Later governments were not so comfortable in the implementation of similar projects. As mentioned above the Norochcholai Coal Power Plant project was delayed nearly a decade due to protests from the peoples' movement led by church. The main issue was displacement of few fisher families and assumed environmental issues. The communication gap was the main reason for the project delay and the political risk for the project interventions had not been properly identified and addressed. The project was launched in 2006 after addressing these issues by providing alternative and better resettlement options for dislocated people and by the creation of greater awareness regarding the national importance of the power project.

The Upper Kothmale Hydropower Project too was dragging on for decades due to political reasons. Displacement of a large number of people created this political issue. This project was launched in 2006 after providing better housing for the displaced people and a nationwide campaign to promote the need for the project.

Droughts and frequent power cuts over several years and parallel communication campaign started by the CEB around 1998 helped to minimize the resistance to the two power projects. Strong government and weak opposition during 2005-2014 too supported the implementation of these project.

In national politics today, the government is politically not much comfortable compared to the government in 1978 that launched Accelerated Mahaweli Development Program. The present government consists of different political parties with different political views and interests. Also, the internal democracy in the government as well as in the cabinet has allowed ministers to campaign for different views that they believe in. This composition and the nature of the government poses a political risk to this project. Also, there is democratic freedom in the country that environmental organisations and pressure groups to carry out campaigns against the project if there are negative impacts.

This is the main challenge similar mega development projects will have to face today. Since the country has more democratic freedom today, political parties can mobilize people easily against this kind of projects if the communication campaign fails. Political instability emerged after the Local Government Election 2018 on February 10 will increase the political risk. In an unstable political environment campaign against negative impacts of the project will be aggravated and political determination will be weakened. Communication challenges will become serious under this situation.

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6.8.9. Priority Public Opinion Concerns and Messaging Approaches Considering the above mentioned communication and political context there will be misperceptions or concerns regarding the DBIP. These misperceptions and concerns need to be addressed and broad messaging strategies should be developed in the communication strategy. Public concerns and messaging approaches are listed below.

Table 32: Public concerns and messaging approaches Public Concerns Messaging Approach Flood mitigation • Explain climate change impacts, changing monsoon rain pattern, high frequency and severity of flood. • Flood damages to the economy, individuals and governments expenditure for relief measures. • National level awareness and specifically focused campaign for vulnerable areas to get the support from flood affected people. • Focused messaging approach to PAPs to justify the national benefits of the project against what they have to scarify, loss of houses, lands etc. and reduce resistance to project interventions. Other benefits of the • Explain drought mitigation objectives in the dry zone by inter-basin project diversion of water. • Water supply : increasing demand due to population growth, scarcity of safe drinking water, need for bulk water supply to Colombo and other potential beneficiaries that will receive better water supply. • Hydro power generation Land acquisition and • Participatory communication approach to get feedback from PAPs on their resettlement grievances. • Immediate two way communication intervention in proposed reservoir construction areas to eliminate panic caused by communication gap. • Explain the areas to be inundated in proposed reservoirs, details of compensation packages, resettlement areas, alternative lands given for the PAPs. • Emphasize according to social safeguard policies their living standard will not go down after resettlement. Water rights • Emphasize the measures that will be taken to ensure the water rights of the river/tributary users. Targeted approach to the PAPs. Embankments and • Emphasize the scale of expected flood protection and technical details of flood walls protection to major and minor flood situation. • Measures taken to drain out of water flows

Environment impacts • Explain the bio diversity in the project affected areas, limitations of such diversity in highly populated areas and due to land use pattern. • Safeguards measures taken to protect endemic and threatened fauna and flora present within the Basin. • Legal obligations to address environment issues and measures taken such as SEA and EIA • Direct communication with concerned environmental organizations.

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Public Concerns Messaging Approach Archaeological sites • Legal obligations to conserve such places, necessary approvals and and monuments measures taken • Measures taken to protect such places High project cost • Justify the project cost with economic and social costs of flood and government expenditure on relief measures. Corruption • Explain the standards of bidding and contracting measures taken to be transparent in the process.

6.8.10. Media sector overview Media consumers in Sri Lanka are a heterogeneous group and their expectations keep changing. With income rise and as media outreach grows, consumer behavior gets more complex. Mass media is the main force that shape public opinion and especially in politics. These development projects too will become matters of political importance where political parties, regional politicians and pressure groups will highlight and resist the negative socio, economic and environmental impacts. Therefore, mass media should be used proactively to promote the Basin Investment Plan.

There are around 15 entities in the Newspaper industry and they publish around 40 newspapers, daily and in the weekend, in Sinhala, Tamil and English languages. Globally the general trend is declining newspaper readership and circulation in the print form and shift to online editions. In Sri Lanka too most of the leading newspapers have launched their online editions with free access or paywall. Media researches have not identified a declining trend in newspaper circulation and instead new newspapers are coming into the market. Therefore, newspaper still plays an important role in influencing public opinion.

In Sri Lanka there are 16 entities engaged in broadcasting and two of them are state owned and the rest privately owned. They operate over 50 radio channels in Sinhala, English and Tamil.

There are 12 entities engaged in TV broadcasting and two states owned and the rest privately owned and they operate 21 free-to-air terrestrial channels. In addition, there are cable TV channels and IP TV channels. Indian TV channels are popular among the Tamil community in the North, East and Estate sector.

TV is the most popular and effective communication mode. The sector is highly competitive with 21 channels. Radio is regaining its position with the listeners now having an easy access device, the mobile phone, to tune into their favorite channel. Radio broadcasting is competitive media sector and there are around 50 channels. Radio is also popular among vehicle users because listening is easy while driving or traveling rather than reading newspapers or watching TV.

In addition, there are several international broadcasters operating radio stations from outside Sri Lanka. They target Sri Lankan audiences but the audience is limited to a few educated and urban media consumers. However, these international broadcasters are perceived as being highly credible by audiences compared to the biased public and private local channels. These channels are; All India Radio, BBC World Sinhala Service (Sandeshaya), BBC World Service Tamil Service (Tamilosai), China Radio International Sinhala Service, China Radio International Tamil Service, Radio Veritas Asia. Many of these stations have moderate sized audiences. Most of the International news agencies such as AFP, Reuters and AP and international news channels such as BBC, CNN, and Aljazeera have stationed their reporters in Colombo.

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According to Census 2012, 78.3% households have at least 1 TV set, 68.9% have a radio set, 42.4% fixed telephone, 78.9% mobile phone, 15%, desk top computer, 5% lap top computers. According to the statistics of the Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (TRC), by June 2017 telephone subscription statistics were as follows.

Table 33: Telephone subscription statistics Description Number Number of Fixed Access Telephone Subscriptions 2,514,154 Fixed Access Telephone Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2016 Dec) 12.0 Number of Cellular Mobile Telephone Subscriptions (90 days) 28,113,153 Cellular Mobile Subscription per 100 inhabitants (2016 Dec) 123.7 Fixed Narrowband Subscriptions 2,242 Fixed Broadband Subscriptions 1,058,287 Mobile Broadband Subscriptions 4,418,799 Source: Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (TRC), June 2017

With increasing internet penetration, internet based social media is becoming popular especially among the young generation as a news media. Social media is now being used in political communication and business communication effectively. This can also be used effectively in development communication as well. Mobile internet subscription is the highest 80.7% and increasing and expanding to rural areas as well.

Since there is a large number of TV and Radio channels and newspapers, the media sector has the necessary conditions for healthy competition to expect balanced media coverage. However, this is not in practical use and generally the media sector is biased and each media organization acts on its own political or business motivation and agenda. The media ownership is the main factor for this and most of the media organisations are owned by politicians or their close associates or leading business persons with political affiliation. Competition has been able to manage this biased media practice to some extent but at critical moments these media institutions carry out campaigns according to a set agenda. Media practices of the state owned media organizations is always pro government. Generally, the audiences trust news from private radio and TV channels as well as private newspapers.

Under these circumstance, utilization of mass media in development communication is challenging. Private media carry out investigative journalism in order to reveal fraud and corruption in development programs, projects and other government dealings while state media do the damage controlling part. In the reporting of social environmental issues of such development projects the media usually promote only the negative aspects. News reports on positive aspects of such development projects are hardly seen in private newspapers or TV and Radio channels. Business sections of private newspapers occasionally give coverage to development news. State owned media carry out development communication campaigns. However, state media has relatively low public attraction and credibility as they always carry the positive and promotional campaigns and damage control role of the government.

Data on newspaper circulation and radio and TV ratings can be obtained from media research organizations. There are two media research organisations Lanka Market Research Bureau (Pvt) Ltd (LMRB) and Survey Research Lanka (Pvt) Ltd (SRL) engaged in this research. The limitation of these research studies includes inadequate sample size and coverage. Advertising industry use these research data and can be used in the development communication campaign in choosing mass media to reach the target audience. Nielsen Lanka (Pvt) Ltd also track radio and TV channels and the data and provide independent verification to advertisers. The ministry of Mass Media has conducted a media research in

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2015 together with the Department of Mass Communication of the University of Kelaniya with wider coverage and large sample, but the report has not been published.

Sri Lanka does not have independent community TV or Radio channels. The Mahaweli Community Radio (MCR) channel started in 1981 by Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), UNESCO and Danish International Development Agency is an important communication initiative during the implementation of Mahaweli Development Project. It proved to be a success at the initial stages but failed later, after donor funding ceased. Still the Channel is operating from Girandurukotte, with a small staff and with limited short wave frequency. MCR is owned by the SLMA and the SLBC and can be used in development communication with upgrade and modernization.

6.8.11. Relevant Policies Related to Communication, Consultation and Disclosure In August 2016, the Sri Lankan Parliament enacted the Right to Information Act No. 12 of 2016. The preamble to the RTI Act states that it aims to "foster a culture of transparency and accountability in public authorities". The new Act grants Sri Lankan citizens the right of access to information in the possession, custody or control over an estimated 4,500 public authorities. The development projects now have to be more transparent and all the information related to project has to be made readily available within the stipulated timeframe once any citizen request them. All government organisations have to appoint a responsible officer to provide this information.

Proactive communication is an important aspect of the RTI applicable for development projects. According to the Act certain kinds of information are disclosed on a proactive basis. Under section 9(1)(a) of the Act, a duty is placed on Ministers to communicate details regarding 'projects' initiated by their Ministries three months prior to the project's commencement. A 'project' is defined as a venture that: (a) exceeds one million United States Dollars (in the case of foreign funded projects), and (b) exceeds five hundred thousand rupees (in the case of locally funded projects).

In addition, there are other disclosure requirements under various Acts related to project preparation and implementation. Relevant officers (ie. Sociologist, environment specialist) of the PMU are responsible for providing them and the communication officer is responsible for make them available for relevant stakeholders. These Acts are

• The National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) • The National Environment Policy of Sri Lanka (2003) • The National Environmental Act of 1980 • According to The National Language Policy all the official documents should be offered in both Sinhala and Tamil languages.

Project communication should ensure relevant information is accessible to all stakeholders, including PAPs and beneficiaries with limited literacy and/or access to communication technology in formats utilizing simple language or other forms of communication

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Chapter 7 7. Regional Planning Perspective 7.1. Introduction The Kelani River originates from the Central hills near Adam's peak and traverses about 145 km through the south-western slopes of the Island till it meets the sea at the northern boundary of the city of Colombo. The catchment of the river is entirely situated in the wet-zone of the country. It drains approximately 2,292 sq. Km. of land area (Survey Department, 2007) with average annual rainfall of about 2400 mm. It is the second largest river basin and fourth longest river in Sri Lanka. The lower reach of Kelani River lies between northern latitudes of 6°47' to 7°05' and longitudes of 79°52' to 80°13' and occupies an area of 1200 square kilometers. It covers the floodplains from Glencourse gauging station up to Nagalagama Street gauging station in Colombo. The total length of the river in this section is about 60 km. Lower and middle reaches of the Kelani River flowing through Colombo and Gampaha districts within the Western Province, wherein the highest population density and the highest density of industries exist. Survey Department has divided the basin into 20 sub-basins. The sub-basins are of different sizes varying from about 4,000 ha to 120,000 ha. The lower reach of Kelani River flows in three administrative districts namely, Colombo, Gampaha and Kegalle. The location of Sri Lanka near the equator in the Indian Ocean, its size, and it is an island, topography, rainfall pattern, and biological diversity have made it a distinctive country. Due to the complexity and distinctive environment investments made in major projects need to be analyzed considering global, national and regional perspectives, as impacts of such investments may bring serious negative results if such investments are narrowly defined. Sri Lanka is considered to be biologically the most diverse country in Asia. 103 rivers, mostly originating from the Central Hills, the topographical formation of three pene planes (low, middle and central hills), and the North East, and South West monsoons have created the diversity which is so complex and sensitive requiring the preparation of sustainable spatial plans before investments in any economic development activities. The ancient civilization had well understood this diversity and the sensitivity in Sri Lanka. The ancient hydraulic civilization by meaningfully integrating such complexities and sensitivities concentrated the development activities in the dry zone while utilizing the water resources in the wet zone for economic development. No evidence can be found in the ancient civilizations for concentrating development activities in environmentally sensitive areas. The deviation from such a well-conceived land use planning system and settlement pattern can be considered to be the fundamental cause of most of the natural disasters the country is facing today. It is inappropriate that the regional planning in Sri Lanka still is based on the Provincial Administrative boundaries, due to the establishment of Provincial Councils. However, when considering the long-term sustainable development, the preparation of river basin development plans/sub-regional plans within the provincial level regional planning perspective can be considered as a prerequisite. Due to the complexities and sensitivities as discussed above, and the size of the country, it is important to consider the national spatial planning and regional spatial planning policies in the process of preparing river basin development plans. The conventional regional planning systems have undergone a landmark change during the last twenty years, primarily due to the change of the world economy, and related environmental issues. Firstly, the globalisation has created widespread impacts throughout countries, regions, and cities. Thus, even a small island country like Sri Lanka should first need to consider the global aspects, particularly global opportunities and threats to expand its markets. Secondly, development of regional plans for ecological regions (i.e. River Valley, Climatic zones etc.) has now been considered to be more sustainable for the long-term stability of respective economies. Thirdly, investments in projects/programmes are not processed in isolation but is appraised within a larger geographical perspective (i.e. inter-regional/national)

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7.2. Purpose of SEA According to the guidelines of the CEA, Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) are prepared for programmes or plans. However, the SEA for Kelani River Basin is prepared for several proposed engineering interventions. The objectives of those interventions are very narrow - disaster management related to the flood. Since a River Basin Plan is not available for Kelani River, the purpose of this addendum to the main SEA report is to prepare a preliminary regional planning document/regional planning framework for Kelani River basin. Preparation of a Regional Plan or a River Basin Plan is a time-consuming exercise to be undertaken by a team of experts consisting of all the relevant subjects. In the absence of such a Team, this chapter will form a background document for regional planning/regional planning framework for the SEA team to make decisions related to the proposed interventions 7.3. TOR Objectives of Regional Planning Analysis The objectives of the Regional Planning Analysis of the Kelani River Basin Strategic Environmental Assessment is to address the objectives specified in the guidelines on Page 51 of the "TOR" (Section 7) - regional planning analysis as listed below; i. prepare regional development and broad-based land use and zoning plans to demarcate the areas where future development to be restricted/controlled/allowed;

ii. identify areas where inappropriate development to be avoided to reduce the risk of flooding and droughts within the river basin;

iii. avoid new developments for increasing flood risk elsewhere, including which may arise from surface water run-off;

iv. avoid drought situations by naturally seeping water into the soil and improve ecology and environment;

v. ensure effective management of residual risks for development permitted in floodplains;

vi. introduce appropriate guidelines for human settlement to keep floods and drought-prone areas free from human habitation; vii. Introduce evacuation and resettlement plan, policy, guidelines and identify potential areas for relocation of affected parties. viii. Improve the understanding of flood risk among relevant stakeholders and ensure that the requirements of national law in relation to natural environment and nature conservation are complied with at all stages of flood and drought risk management.

ix. Appraise the local level administration set up (Divisional Secretariats and Local Authorities) on the requirement of strict adherence and follow up on the land use and zoning planning concept and development regulations.

7.4. Methodology It is evident that the objectives for Regional Planning listed above in the TOR are scientifically oriented towards developing a flood mitigation plan based on land use and ecological perspective, which in fact is considered to be the "International Best Practice" of flood and stormwater management. They are also conceived in harmony with the National Physical Planning Objectives considering land use, hydrological, and ecological approach to disaster management as against pure structural interventions. As mentioned in section 7.3 the purpose of this document is to prepare a regional planning background document for

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 210 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin regional planning/regional planning framework. Therefore, the typical methodology adopted in the preparation of a regional development plan cannot be used. Instead, a simplified planning process as illustrated inFigure 102 is adopted.

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7.4.1. Stage One - Database Development and Analysis (i) The following are the main sources of references in the database development process; (ii) National Physical Planning Policy and Plan prepared by National Physical Planning Department (NPPD) for the planning period of 2011-2030. (iii) Western Region Megapolis Structure Plan prepared by the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development. (iv) Existing, and proposed national and regional level projects that will have direct or indirect impacts on the change in the land use and settlement pattern of Kelani River Basin (v) National Action Plan (NAP) for combating land degradation in Sri Lanka, prepared by Natural Resources Management Division of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy. (vi) Kelani Ganga Flood Protection Study (Main Report - Final, 1992), by Danish Hydraulic Institute In association with Lanka Hydraulic Institute. (vii) Colombo Trincomalee Economic Corridor, preliminary proposals prepared by consultants for Asian Development Bank. (viii) Existing spatial, social, economic, and environmental systems in the region with special reference to Kelani River Basin. (ix) International research publications on the global market for the regional economy. (x) Legislations and policies governing and impacting Kelani River Basin development; (xi) Information of Divisional Secretariats related to human settlements, relocation aspect public/economic infrastructure available and future needs; (xii) Public perception and concerns on ongoing and proposed development initiatives; (xiii) Stakeholder consultation meetings

7.4.2. Stage Two - Vision Development Depending on the analysis of the existing situation a regional plan requires establishing a vision. The rest of the sections of the plan is aimed at achieving the set vision.

7.4.3. Stage Three - The Preparation of Development Direction - SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis was considered to be the appropriate tool to understand the future development directions.

7.4.4. Stage Four - Objectives The SWOT analysis will direct the foundation for the future development direction, and thus will form the foundation for the establishment of specific objectives for the formulation of regional planning framework.

7.4.5. Stage Five - Regional Planning Framework The outcome of the study is to prepare a Regional Planning Framework that will form the foundation for decision making in the SEA. The regional planning framework will consist of;

■ Generalized land use zoning plan ■ Land classification by "sensitivity." ■ Land classification by natural disasters ■ Potential positive impacts due to national and regional mega projects ■ Future development directions for sustainable development

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7.4.6. Acceptance A regional planning process typically goes through a comprehensive consultation process. However, the regional planning framework prepared under this assignment, cannot be based on such comprehensive processes due to the time and resource limitations. Thus, two stakeholder consultation meetings and community consultations during the field trips were considered for discussions for possible feedbacks.

7.5. Database Development and Analysis 7.5.1. National Physical Plan and Policy Support for Development of Kelani River Basin

National Physical Plan and Policy 2010-2030 prepared by the National Physical Planning Department (NPPD) and approved by the Government was the first national-level spatial plan prepared for Sri Lanka. The plan sets out the national spatial strategies for re-distribution of the population to strategically selected locations. Based on the NPPP, NPPD prepared a high priority project proposals listing the projects of international and national level for investment. The Government approved the plan on the 9th January 2011. As a whole, the NPPP is based on the following strategic policies;

(i) Conservation of Protected Area Network (PAN) that includes "Central Fragile Area" (CFA) and other wildlife and forest reserves, sanctuaries, etc. (ii) Conservation of Coastal Fragile Area (CFA) (iii) The Concentration of settlements in five metro regions and creation of nine metro cities. (iv) Connection of the metro regions by high-speed road and rail network (v) Optimizing the economic advantage of the strategic location of the country (especially sea and air routes) (vi) Exploit the marine resources of "Exclusive Economic Zone" (which is over 50 times bigger than the extent of the land mass of Sri Lanka) (vii) Develop Sri Lanka as a trade, finance, industrial and knowledge hub

NPPP has considered ecological, hydrological and natural disasters related aspects comprehensively in developing the future spatial structure of Sri Lanka. Thus, areas, where the major settlements were located in ancient Sri Lanka, have been considered to be the most appropriate locations for future metro areas. It has also placed serious considerations on the impacts of global warming/climate change on Sri Lanka. The two established impacts, (i) the wet areas becoming wetter and dry areas becoming drier, and (ii) the sea level rise and coastal low lying areas going under water have been considered in designing the future land use and settlement pattern. Capturing the rainfall in the receiving areas and storing within it through sustainable land use practices, and conveying it to needy areas in the dry zone is one of the guiding principles of the NPPP. The Vision of the plan is "Sustainable future for Sri Lanka" which is expected to achieve through the following strategies; i. Protection of the natural environment through limiting development in fragile areas, protected area network and areas of local and regional environmental significance; ii. Ensuring the people of Sri Lanka live in areas that are safe from natural disasters and effects of global warming including rising sea level; iii. Creation of a strong network of cities towns and villages that provide a high quality of life, an appropriate range of services, diverse employment opportunities and community integration; iv. Provision of infrastructure facilities that will support cities, towns and villages and economic activities;

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v. Protection of water catchments and water resources to improve water quality and ensure sufficient supply of water for domestic, agricultural, industrial activities and power generation;

vi. Provision of an integrated spatial pattern of development that finds the balance between production and protection of natural resources and encourages economic development. vii. It is clearly evident that there exist greater similarities between the objectives of the Kelani River SEA as listed in section 7.3 and the NPP strategies listed above. viii. One of the principal guidelines proposed under the integrated spatial distribution of investment is to develop five "Metro regions". The entire Central Hills where two of the provinces of the Kelani River basin fall (Central and Sabaragamuwa) is designated as "environmentally sensitive" and proposed for conservation (Figure 103). It covers the entire upper reaches of the Kelani River Basin.

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Figure 101: National Physical Plan (Source: NPPD)

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7.5.2. Western Region Megapolis Master Plan - 2016 The recently completed Western Region Megapolis Master Plan, under the newly established Ministry of Megapolis and Western Region Development, can be considered as an extension to the previous regional plans, which places a major focus on the Western Region in achieving the country's national economic development goals.

The key features of the plan are;

(i) High-end investments in the core area (the city of Colombo and around), mainly through urban regeneration projects, (ii) Large-scale investments in modern infrastructure, (iii) The concentration of urban developments based on spatially demarcated five themes, namely Aero City, Industrial townships, Plantation City, Science and Technology City and Forest City.

The development framework proposed in the plan Figure 102: Western Region Megapolis Plan, is centred on branding of specific city themes in development themes (Source: WRMMP) selected urban areas in the region, as listed below;

• Colombo City Urban Regeneration • Colombo Port City • Logistic City (Logistic Corridor) • Aero City • Science and Technology City • Eco Habitat and Plantation City • Industrial Cities (Horana, Mirigama) • Tourist Cities • Smart Infrastructure

Key Economic Nodes

The development of Horana and Mirigama as industrial cities will be significant. These industrial cities are expected to draw populations from the other areas, which will result in easing the pressure on the developments in environmentally sensitive areas. 7.5.3. Proposed Major Development Projects There exist several major development projects/proposals/programs by both Western Region Megapolis Master Plan and other National Institutions. Some of those projects will have a direct relationship with the Kelani River Basin are listed below;

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Figure 103: Generalized Landuse Zoning Maps of Kelani River Basin and Western Region Megapolis Projects

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7.5.3.I. Horana Industrial Node Horana Industrial Node is strategically located having easy access to all the parts of the country primarily due to the existing and proposed expressway network as listed below;

■ Located on the border of Colombo and Kalutara districts ■ 7.5 km to Southern Express Way having access from two interchanges ■ 45 km to Colombo Port on the Southern Expressway, Outer Circular Expressway and CKE Expressway and then connecting to Port Access Road. ■ 60 km to the Colombo International Air Port on the Highway. (On Southern Express Way, Outer Circular Expressway and Katunayake Expressway) ■ Located on Panadura - Ratnapura A Class Road, having access to both Southern Express Way and the Proposed Colombo - Ratnapura Express Way (Ruwanpura Expressway)

WRMPP has planned the Horana Industrial City development based on five industrial clusters (Figure 107) as listed in Table 34. It estimates the employment generation of the industrial township as 300,000 direct and 600,000 indirect employment opportunities.

Table 34: Industrial Clusters, Planned by WRMPP

Location Cluster Theme Extent (Acres)

Millaniya Rubber Based Cluster 526

Balapitiya SME Development Cluster 160

Poruwadanda Value Added Textile and Apparel Cluster 1236

Millewa Bio-Technology, Pharmaceuticals and Modernized Ayurvedic 1013 Cluster

Thalagala Electrical and Electronic Industries Development Cluster 410

Proposed Investments to Facilitate Industrial Clusters in Horana

To facilitate the proposed Horana Industrial City Development, WRMPP proposes major investment interventions in the following areas;

Development of the Spatial Structure

WRMPP considers the strengthening of the urban structure being the key strategy to attract the expected investment opportunities. The spatial structure proposed by the WRMPP for Horana Urban Development is presented in Figure 104. Accordingly,

(i) First Order Town - Horana will be the first order town centre. It is located in the centre around which the proposed five industrial clusters are located having easy access from each cluster. It will also be a major transport interchange due to (i) its' location on Panadura - Rathnapura Highway, (ii) access to Southern Expressway, (iii) access to the proposed Ruwanpura Expressway, (iv) proposed Horana-Meepe four-lane road, and (v) proposed Colombo-Horana Railway. Thus, it will experience a rapid urban growth.

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(ii) Second Order Towns - Five small townships have been listed as second-order towns, namely Bandaragama, Milleniya, Ingiriya, Moragahahena and Kahatuduwa. These towns are located close to industrial clusters and will cater to the day to day needs of the resident population. Investments in the development of the main town centre (Horana) and the five satellite town centres require; ■ Preparation of a detailed urban development plan consisting of assessment of the development potentials, land use zoning, planning and building regulations, infrastructure needs (physical, environmental and social) ■ The preparation of detailed urban design proposals including identification of urban regeneration projects. ■ Preparation and prioritisation of a list of projects for investments and ■ Institutional development, aiming at strengthening city competitiveness.

Infrastructure Development

(i) Improvement of the connectivity between the towns and industrial clusters - This includes the development of all the PRDA and Local roads as illustrated in Figure 104. The size of the investments required will depend on the technical details of the road network. (i.e. width and length of the roads, services, construction details, etc.)

(ii) Accessibility to Expressways - Improvement of accessibility of the townships to Kahatuduwa and Gelanigama interchanges of the Southern Expressway and the proposed Ruwanpura Expressway. The objective is for each township to have the shortest possible accessibility to the Expressways, which will not only provide the industrialists easy access to the Port and AirPort to improve their business efficiency but also make the workers comfortably travel to their hometowns. A detailed study is required to determine the potential road traces/upgrading of present roads.

(iii) Solid Waste Management WRMPP has estimated the solid waste generation of Horana Industrial City as 830 m3 per day. The project promotes RRR concept of solid waste management and establishing a central processing facility based on the current good practices in Horana and the "Pilisaru" solid waste management programme implemented by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA).

(iv) Water Supply WRMPP estimates the water requirement of the industrial township as 104,490m3 per day. WRMPP plans to obtain the entire water demand from Kalu Ganga. A request has already been made from the NWSDB to undertake a feasibility study.

(v) Wastewater Management WRMPP has estimated the total wastewater generation of the industrial township as 87,850m3/day.

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Transport Development Proposals

Two transport development proposals will enhance the development advantages of Horana as a major industrial node.

■ Colombo - Ratnapura Expressway (Ruwanpura Expressway) Road Development Authority has already identified the road trace, and the Survey Department has commenced the surveying. The project will shorten the travel time to about one hour from Colombo to Ratnapura, which is the major gem producing area in the country.

■ Colombo (Starting from Kottawa) - Horana Railway. The trace has been identified. A feasibility study will be carried out shortly. It is also proposed to electrify the railway system. This proposed railway will shorten the travel time from Horana to Colombo significantly.

■ Four Lane Road from Horana to Meepe. The road trace has been identified.

7.5.3.2. Mirigama Industrial City Introduction

Western Region Megapolis Planning Project (WRMPP) WRMPP proposes Mirigama to be one of the major Industrial Cities in the Western Province. The extent of the planning area is 184 sq.km that includes Mirigama and other small urban and rural settlements around it (falling within the Mirigama Pradeshiya Sabha) under the phase I and Kotadeniyawa and its surrounding area (falling within the Divulapitiya Pradeshiya Sabha) under the phase II.

Locational Advantage

Mirigama being located in between two national highways (i.e. Colombo - Kandy, and Colombo- Puttalam), has easy access from both roads. Further, the proposed Expressway connecting Colombo, with the Eastern Province, Northern Province, and Central Province runs through Mirigama, having an intersection in it. Colombo - Kandy Railway also runs through Mirigama. (Figure 105)

Figure 105: Western Region Megapolis Master Plan, 2016 - Major Zones highlighting Mirigama Industrial Zone

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Proposed Industrial Sectors

The plan proposes to attract investments in the following industries aiming at generating 100,000 employment opportunities;

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Figure 107: Kotadeniyawa having good road connection with Mirigama, Giriulla, Negombo and Divulapitiya

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Mirigama Industrial Township Concept, and Land Availability

The concept of the Western Region Megapolis Planning Project (WRMPP) is to develop a major industrial township in Mirigama. The industrial township consists of;

(i) Two industrial clusters each 1000 acres in extent approximately - Phase I - Loluwagoda Cluster located towards the North of Mirigama Town Centre, and Phase II - Kotadeniyawa Cluster, located towards the West of Mirigama Town Centre. (ii) Concentration of settlements through township developments, for which the draft plan has identified;

• Development of Mirigama as the first level town. The Phase one of the development, Loluwagoda Industrial cluster falls within the Mirigama Pradeshiya Sabha and located in between Mirigama and Giriulla. (3.5 km from Mirigama town to the Southern Boundary of the industrial cluster.) Due to the strategic location of Mirigama having a good connection with both Kandy road and Negombo road, proposed Northern Expressway and railway the WRMPP has decided to make Mirigama as the first level town. Phase II of the development, Kotadeniyawa falls under the Divulapitiya Pradeshiya Sabha main town which is Divulapitiya. Divulapitiya town is closer to the Kotadeniyawa industrial cluster (4 km to the Southern Boundary) than Mirigama Town (6 km to the Eastern Boundary). However, Divulapitiya is not selected as a town for development in the "Mirigama Industrial Township Master Plan. The plan proposes to develop Mirigama as a Multi-modal centre, considering its location on the interchanges of the proposed Northern Expressway and electrified railway. It also proposes to redevelop Mirigama town centre to accommodate the expected future demand for urban services. • The Master Plan has identified four existing townships for development as second level towns, namely; (a) Giriulla to the North (located on the Northern border of the Loluwagoda industrial cluster), (b) Kotadeniyawa to the West (located on the Northern Boundary of the Kotadeniyawa industrial cluster), (c) Pasyala to the South (located on the Colombo - Kandy Highway), and (d) Warakapola to the East (located on the Colombo - Kandy Highway) of Mirigama. • The Master Plan has also identified 11 third level small townships for development located around Mirigama and 2nd level towns. (i.e. Nalla, Diyagampola, Nawana, Walpita, Banduragoda, Rendapola, Pallewela, Kaleliya, Weweldeniya, Danovita and Bothale) • Maha Oya waterfront development - The project aims at conservation of the river reservation and promoting waterfront developments mainly recreational oriented activities.

Infrastructure Development

Water Supply

Water is a key issue in Mirigama since the primary water source - Maha Oya is tapped by three districts, it has restrictions in supplying the water demand of the proposed industrial township, and thus, water resources development is considered to be a major intervention requiring investment. WRMPP has requested the National Water Supply and Drainage Board to update the previous Feasibility Study of Maha Oya water supply considering the water demand of the proposed industrial township. The original Feasibility Study was developed based on the principle of multipurpose development for both water supply and power generation.

Transport

Transport Master Plan for Western Region Megapolis Planning Project published in October 2016 by the Western Region Megapolis Planning Project of the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development is

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 223 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin based on four areas of concerns namely, (i) Public Transport Improvements, (ii) Road Infrastructure Development, (iii) Transport Demand Management, and (iv) Environmentally Sustainable Transport. Some of the specific proposals related to development of Mirigama Industrial Clusters are;

(i) Development of Multimodel Transport Hubs and Centres - Eleven such centres have been proposed for the region, Mirigama is one of them.

(ii) Electrification of five railways lines (three existing and two proposed). One of the proposed five railway line electrification projects namely Panadura - Veyangoda - Polgahawela line runs through Mirigama. The project also includes modernisation of the railway infrastructure such as upgrading the Stations, Ticketing system, Signal system, Telecommunication System, and Track Improvements.

(iii) Capacity development by improvement of road links - Six such road links have been identified, one of them is the road from Horana to Mirigama via Padukka and Kirindiwela for medium-term investment. This road will strengthen the link between the proposed Mirigama and Horana industrial clusters.

(iv) Also, the plan has placed a high priority on the transport network development in and around Mirigama. The proposals include; (a) upgrading the Negombo-Mirigama Road, Kotadeniyawa- Mirigama Road, Pasyala-Giriulla road and Giriulla-Kandalama Road, (b) Construction of a new road link connecting Wilwatta and Ambepussa, (c) Development of a Circular Road around Mirigama connecting all the major roads, second level towns and neighbourhood centres.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 224 Draft Report - Kelani River Basin River Kelani - Report Draft o o ha Figure 108: Mirigama Industrial City Concept Plan and (2) Proposed Activities in the Industrial Cluster.(Source: WRMPP) Cluster.(Source: Industrial the in Activities Proposed (2) and Plan Concept City Industrial Mirigama 108: Figure Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Basin River of Development of Assessment Environmental Strategic Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin River Plans-Kelani Investment Mitigation Drought and Flood 225 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 109: Mirigama Industrial Township Master Plan (Source: WRMPP)

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7.5.3.3. The Aero Maritime Trading Hub The Aero Maritime Trading Hub as discussed in the plan is aimed at integrating airport, sea port, and related logistic activities on a corridor from Colombo to Katunayake. The plan aims at creating 70,000 employment opportunities. The programme consists of three specialized cities namely, (i) Maritime City, (ii) Port city and (iii) Aero City. The maritime city will be designed to cater to the off shore business activities integrating a free port, oil and gas exchange, shipping related manufacturing activities, related R&D activities, and maritime tourism. Port city will play the role of "Singapore" in South Asia, and "Dubai" in the Middle East" as a place for global investors. The aero city will be designed to include a Aero city business park, and a residential cluster.

7.5.3.4. Science and Technology City The aim of the Science and Technology City is to play the key role in the structural transformation of the National Economy to knowledge based and innovation driven environment. The City would be the nuclear of developing high tech manufacturing and export driven economy. Malambe will be the manor location identified for the proposed Science and Technology city. It will consists of High tech industrial park, Nano city, National space technology hub including ground station infrastructure for receiving and distributing earth observation satellite data, information technology zone, civil neuclar technology zone, Green energy technology zone, Science city medi-city etc.

7.5.35. Plantation City Plantation city to be located in Awissawella, aims to be a key market place for rubber, tea, spices and similar products of the region to create 30,000 employment opportunities.

7.5.3.6. Colombo Trincomalee Economic Corridor (CTEC) The Colombo-Trincomalee Economic Corridor, (CTEC) project is considered to be a high priority investment under the present Government. By considering the successful economic corridors in many countries in transforming their national economies, the Government has considered to develop a similar economic corridor in Sri Lanka.

The vision of the CTEC is to establish an export-led development strategy, for Sri Lanka. The strategy will consist of diversifying the manufacturing sector. (Currently, Sri Lanka's manufacturing sector primarily consists of food products and apparels). The study has selected eleven (11) industries as the most potential for Sri Lanka. (i.e. Communication equipment, Computer and peripheral equipment, Electronic components, General purpose machinery, Special purpose machinery, Electrical motors, generators, transformers, Electric lighting equipment, Wiring and wiring devices, Motor parts and accessories, Motor vehicles, and API and formulations. Figure 110: Colombo Trincomalee Economic Corridor

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The proposed CTEC is planned based on the Colombo Trincomalee Expressway, having a 50 km wide strip of influence area. Six Development nodes - (Colombo - Horana, Gampaha - Mirigama, Kurunegala, Matale, Anuradhapura, and Trincomalee.) have been selected for industrial development. Trincomalee Node has the catchment area covering Baticaloa and Ampara districts. Approximately 2000 acres of land have been identified in Trincomalee for the industrial node development. The corridor development is planned to connect the production, ports, logistics and distribution, and urban centres. The impact area covers nine districts, having a population of 14.2 million people which is 79% of the countries' total population. The CTEC is expected to contribute 91% of the total industrial output of the country. The corridor will generate over 2.0 million direct and indirect employment opportunities.

The significance of CTEC for the Kelani River Basin is that it does not promote any major development in the lower reaches of Kelani River, which is located in the Western Region Megapolis area. Its major development concentration in the Western Province is Horana Industrial Cluster, aiming at developing 1000 hectares of land for industrial development, which is similar to what has been proposed by the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Region Development.

7.5.4. Situational Analysis of the Study Area 7.5.4.1. Topography The Kelani River Basin covers a watershed area of 2,300 km2 and accommodates approximately 25% of the county's population. The river starts about 2,200 m above the MSL and flows through three provinces namely Central, Sabaragamuwa, and Western consisting of seven districts (i.e. Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Kegalle, Rathnapura, Gampaha, Kaluthara, and Colombo). It receives an average annual rainfall of 3,450mm, generating 7,860 MCM of storm water of which an estimated 43% is discharged to the ocean. Due to the location of the basin in the wet zone covering all the three peneplains, it contains a rich biological diversity and aesthetically pleasing natural environment, consisting of low land, sub montane, and montane forests located in middle and upper reaches, and wetlands in the low reaches. Due to the steep slopes, deforestation, mining, and unsustainable land use practices, in the upper reaches it has been estimated that the River carries over 2,300 m3 of sediments annually.

The lower peneplain of the basin which is mostly flat largely falls within the Western Province having the highest population concentration and economic activities comprising the location of over 10,000.

Figure 111: Topography of the Kelani River Basin (Survey Department Contour Data)

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Industrial, and business activities. The middle peneplain falling within the 100m - 300m has a mixed development. The highest peneplain consists of complex mountain chains, massifs, and basins and are the main areas of erosion. According to the research information of the NBRO, nearly 60% of the area in the basin is subjected to landslides/earth slips. Thus, over 50% of the land area of the basin is considered to be environmentally sensitive.

Figure 112: Sub Basins (Source: Survey Department)

The Survey Department has divided the Kelani River Basin into 20 sub-basins. The sub-basins are of different sizes varying from about 4,000 ha to 120,000 ha. The main river is fed by the tributaries and streams originating from sub-basins.

Table 35: Sub Basins of Kelani River NO Sub Watershed/Basin Area Area(ha) % 1 Kolonnawa Ela 8,597 3.68 3.68 2 Pallewela Oya/Maha Ela 6,146 2.63 2.63 3 Pusweli Oya 11,367 4.87 4.87 4 Wak Oya/Kalatuwawa 9,372 4.02 4.02 5 Getahetta Oya 4,327 1.85 1.85 6 Ambalanpiti Oya/Gonmala 6965 2.98 7 Maha Oya/ Seethawaka ganga 14,500 6.21 8 Panapura Oya 4,289 1.84 9 Magal Ganga 11,123 4.77 10 Maskeliya Oya 19,537 8.37 11 Kehelgamu Ganga 21,226 9.10 12 Upper Kelani Ganga 13,359 5.73 13 Walihel Oya 8,922 3.82 14 Ritigaha Oya 9,395 4.03 15 Gurugoda Oya 23,887 10.24 16 Upper Middle Kelani Ganga 23,977 10.28 17 Pugoda Oya 5,214 2.23 18 Lower Middle Kelani Ganga 12,780 5.48 19 Biyagama 61,74.0 2.65 20 Lower Kelani Ganga 12,178 5.25 Total 187,352 100.00 Source: Natural Resource Profile of the Kelani River Basin January 2016 - UNICEF & IUCN

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7.5.4.2. Land Use

Figure 113: Land Use Kelani River Basin

Table 36: Land Use of the Kelani River Basin

Land Use Type Area (km2) Percentage (%)

Chena 16 0.69 Coconut 70 3.02 Forest 237 10.22 Grassland 2 0.09 Home Garden 647 27.90 Marsh 24 1.03 Non agricultural 4 0.17 Other cultivation 39 1.68 Paddy 150 6.47 Rock 19 0.82 Rubber 695 29.97 Scrub 68 2.93 Tea 300 12.94 Water bodies 48 2.07 Total 2319 100.00 Source: Prepared by IUCN Sri Lanka, based on the Survey Department Information

The information related to the land use pattern of the basin (Figure 111 and Table 36), illustrates that Rubber and home garden are the largest land consumers occupying 695 km2 (30%), and 647 km2 (28%) of total land area respectively. Tea becomes the next significant land use character having 300 km2 (13%).

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Forest cover occupies only 237 km2 (10%). Thus, approximately 2/3rd of the land area of the basin occupies three land uses, related to agriculture. 7.5.4.3. Land Use Issues The Natural Resources Management Division of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy has prepared a National Action Plan (NAP) for combating land degradation in Sri Lanka. Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Global Environment Facility (GEF), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provided the technical and financial support for the preparation of the action plan. The plan records that "Land degradation has emerged as a serious problem in Sri Lanka over the last century. Large-scale land degradation in Sri Lanka began with the clearing of the central highlands for plantation crops beginning in the early 18th century. Removal of forest cover and associated soil erosion were the main causes. Subsequently, as development progressed with increase of population, intensive & inappropriate land use, urbanisation and industrialisation resulted in other land degradation processes such as fertility decline, water logging, soil and water pollution and soil salinity" (Page xiii Forward)

The plan concludes that soil erosion in the upcountry is primarily caused by tea plantation, resulting the reduction of water infiltration rates, reduction of soil microbes, washing off of organic matter and plant nutrients in the soil, decrease in soil depth and reduction of biodiversity.

Two of the sustainable areas that the plan focuses on are protection and conservation of the central hills, and sub watershed and minor watershed management. The report concludes;

"(b) Soil Fertility Decline - Nearly 1.6 million ha of agricultural land in Sri Lanka is affected by soil fertility decline. Soil fertility decline is caused by soil erosion and excessive uptake of nutrients by crops. Declining crop yields have been reported during the last two decades due to soil fertility degradation. Studies have shown that in the case of tea, the loss of 1 cm of topsoil cover is associated with a decline in yield of 44 kg/ha/yr, while in the case of rubber the decline in yield could be nearly 174 kg/ha/yr."

"Though the soil fertility decline due to excessive uptake of nutrients by crops can be corrected to some extent by application of extra fertiliser, soil fertility decline due to loss of surface soil cannot be renewed easily. It is usually costly and will require considerable time and effort."

(3) "Cultivation of steep slopes without proper soil conservation measures - Land over 60 percent slope is considered unsuitable for agricultural purposes. However, a large extent of land exceeding this limit has been utilised by people for the cultivation of crops such as tea, tobacco, vegetable, and potato in the hill country. Soil erosion on these steep slopes is very high, particularly in areas with fragile soils and high rainfall erosivity. Only level bench terraces could be recommended for such land, but these are very expensive to construct. Such land should be ideally left for forestry and recreation."

(4) "Landslides - According to the National Building Research Organization (NBRO), about 125,000 ha of land in the hill country are vulnerable to landslides. Although landslides occur due to various reasons, soil erosion is one of the main reasons for the occurrence of landslides in the hill country. Landslides frequently occur during the rainy season in areas with steep slopes and high rainfall. Human activities such as deforestation and poor land uses have contributed to the increased incidence of landslides. There has been a marked increase in the occurrence of landslides in recent years. It was reported that there were only 34 cases of landslides prior to 1980; between 1980 and 1991 the number increased to 171."

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Figure 114: Abandoned Chena Cultivation Land in the Hill Country (Source: NAP)

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The report has listed the following as the reasons for land degradation related issues;

Lack of awareness of land degradation High demand for agricultural land Insecurity of tenure Drought and uncertainty of rainfall Policy Failures Insufficient government commitment to mitigate land degradation Lack of a government mechanism to provide incentives Inadequate capacity of government organisations to implement a systematic programme on conservation.

Accordingly, the issues related to the hill country land use system can be summarised as follows;

■ The wrong land use practices have resulted in the loss of topsoil, groundwater recharge capacity of the soil, and severe erosion. ■ The wrong land use system is largely responsible for the flooding in the downstream, and the increased volume of silt. ■ The strong commitment of the public sector institutions are required to avert the situation, although it takes a long period.

7.5.4.4. Demographic Characteristics According to the Census of Housing and Population in 2011, the total population of 35 GN areas in the River Basin was 3,020,545 (Table 2). The significant conclusion of the information related to the population distribution is, that the Lower Reaches of the basin that is covered by Colombo and Gampaha District GN Divisions contributes to 75.0% of the total population in the basin while having only 29.3% of the total land area. On the other hand, the GN Divisions of all the other five districts that fall under the middle and upper reaches of the basin had a population of only 25% while having a land extent of 70.7%. Thus, the demographic analysis concludes that impacts on any intervention in the lower reaches will be greater than that of upper and middle reaches.

Table 37: Population Distribution of the Basin by GN Divisions DISTRICT NAME OF DS DIVISION No. of TOTAL AREA POP. GNDs Population Sq. km Density 1. Seethawaka 69 114,648 145.86 786 2. Homagama 36 107,472 56.89 1,889 3. Thimbirigasyaya 11 139,694 13.15 8,173 4. Sri Jaya' Kotte 18 94,578 14.95 6,326 Colombo 5. Padukka 42 61,116 97.53 626 6. Maharagama 30 146,404 29.40 4,980 7. Kolonnawa 46 190,875 26.05 7,327 8. Kaduwela 57 252,100 87.70 2,875 9. Colombo 31 303,332 15.26 1,988 10. Wattala 36 152,538 38.76 3,935 11. Mahara 59 158,728 51.70 3,070 12. Kelaniya 37 136,092 21.94 6,203 Gampaha 13. Ja-Ela 08 37,857 08.30 3,959 14. Gampaha 09 18,381 07.65 2,403 15. Dompe 131 150,942 180.56 804 16. Biyagama 49 186,862 60.30 3,099 17. Attanagalla 12 12,822 17.37 738

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Kaluthara 18. Horana 07 13,667 17.91 763 19. Pasbage Korale 02 3,459 17.80 194 Kandy 20. Ganga Ihalakorale 03 5,191 21.97 236 21. Yatiyanthota 31 55,776 173.7 321 22. Warakapola 28 33,261 71.22 467 23. Ruwanwella 34 57,727 121.48 475 24. Kegalle 32 36,102 61.2 590 Kegalle 25. Galigamuwa 30 42,935 77.34 555 26. Deraniyagala 26 45,983 222.07 207 27. Dehiovita 39 80,975 193.26 419 28. Bulathkohupitiya 28 51,751 131.59 393 29. Aranayaka 12 12,091 48.88 247 30. Nuwara Eliya 07 21,615 137.89 157 Nuwara Eliya 31. Ambagamuwa 70 195,146 473.35 412 32. Rathnapura 07 12,408 123.21 101 Rathnapura 33. Kuruwita 10 23,977 67.79 354 34. Imbulpe 08 10,269 52.17 197 35. Eheliyagoda 33 53,771 98.65 545 TOTAL 1,088 3,020,545 2,985 1012

7.5.4.5. Economic Aspect The economy of the basin is diverse, with the upper and middle reaches primarily based on tea and rubber plantations, and the lower reaches depending on urban economic activities. Out of over 10,000 industrial and business activities in the basin, the majority are located in the lower reach, including several industrial estates (i.e. Seethawaka Industrial estate, Biyagama Industrial Estate). Further, vegetable cultivation in the middle and upper reaches plays a significant role in the economy. Of the total extent of land, 30% is under rubber plantation, 13% under tea, and 30% under home gardens. Thus nearly 75% of the land is devoted for agricultural purposes.

National Action Plan (NAP) for combating land degradation in Sri Lanka records that "nearly 1.6 million hectares of agricultural land in Sri Lanka is affected by soil fertility decline. Soil fertility decline is caused by soil erosion and excessive uptake of nutrients by crops. Declining crop yields have been reported during the last two decades due to soil fertility degradation. Studies have shown that in the case of tea, the loss of 1 cm of topsoil cover is associated with a decline in yield of 44 kg/ha/yr, while in the case of rubber the decline in yield could be nearly 174 kg/ha/yr." Thus, a serious and integrated policy decisions are required to manage the land to get its optimum benefits considering, economic value, environmental value, and flood management value.

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7.5.4.6. Environmental Sensitive Areas

Figure 116: Environmentally Sensitive Areas

Approximately, over 60% of the land area of the basin is declared as environmentally sensitive, largely falling within the upper and middle reaches. Of the environmentally sensitive areas the largest portion of the land (about 50%) consists of "Soil Conservation Areas", which is primarily occupied by tea and rubber plantations, which is the same area classified by the NBRO as landslides prone areas.

Table 38: Wildlife Conservation Areas in the Kelani River Basin

Type Name Area (km2) Sanctuary Welhella-Katagilla 0.59 Sanctuary Sri Jayawardhenapura 7.99 Sanctuary Samanalaadawiya 58.05 National Park Horton Plains 1.15 National Park Peak wilderness 41.67 Total 109.45 Source: R&D Unit of CEA, based on the data collected from the Wild Life Conservation Department

Except for Sri Jayawardhanepura Sanctuary, all the other major wild life conservation areas, such as Samanala Adawiya Sanctuary, Horton Plains National Park, and Peak Wilderness National Park - all are located in the upper reaches of the River Basin.

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Figure 117: Wild Life Conservations Areas in the Basin

Protected areas managed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation No Name Area(Ha) 1 Welhella-Kategilla 50.09 2 Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte Sanctuary 797.55 3 Peak wilderness 6691.89 Total 7518.53 Protected areas managed by the Forest Department No Proposed forest Reserves Area(ha) 1 Agra Bopats 968.63 2 Alapalawala 198.36 3 Amanawala Ampana 471.50 4 Badullawala 52.70 5 Bogawantalawa 723.24 6 Debatagama Bossella 215.10 7 Eppilegala 52.30 8 Eraboduwala P.R 6.04 6.04 9 Getamawara P.R 87.38 87.38 10 Humpitikanda P.R 28.79 28.79 11 Indikada Mukalana P.R 769.87 769.87 12 Kelani Valley P.R 3586.40 3586.40 13 Kitulgala P.R 567.12 567.12 14 Peak Wilderness P.R 2,603.64 2,603.64 15 Yalapitiya P.R 58.70 58.70 16 Not record 33.32 33.32 Total 11423.09

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Forest Reserves No Name Area (Ha) 1 Aturupana F.R 48.03 2 Eluwana F.R 150.95 3 Imbulpitiya F.R 19.07 4 Kananpella F.R 298.56 5 Kelani Valley F.R 633.01 6 Lenagal F.R F.R 38.06 7 Lewala F.R 27.02 8 Maniyangama Timbiripola F.R 212.14 9 Mitirigala F.R 500.10 10 Pallepattu F.R 416.04 11 Paradeniya F.R 38.92 12 Taranagala F.R 38.68 13 Welhellaketagilla F.R 164.62 Total 2,585.22 Other state forests Area(Ha) Labugama-Kalatuwawa 2034.27

7.5.4.7. Heritage Pre-historic evidence: One of the most significant archaeological sites in the Kelani River Basin is the Pre-historic Belilena cave, found in Kitulgala. Here, P.E.P. Deraniyagala found ten skeletons of the Balangoda Man, described as Homo sapiens balangodensis, who is believed to have inhabited the cave approximately 30,000 years ago. Some of the oldest geometric microlith stone tools dating back to more than 27,000 BP were discovered here. These findings, along with others, indicated that these Mesolithic people entered this technological phase faster than those in Europe. Evidence of numerous animals that may have been consumed for food, such as reptiles, rats and other mammals, snails and fish were also unearthed here. Belilena also holds evidence of salt transport and exchange from the coast in excess of 27,000 BP (Deraniyagala, 1996).

Recent history: The basin lies mainly within the two ancient kingdoms, Kotte (Sri Jayewardenepura) and Sithawaka (15AD). The upper basin belongs to the Kandyan Kingdom (18AD). There are a number of archaeological sites belonging to early Anuradapura period (1BC). Most of these sites are Buddhist monasteries eg. Sri Jaywardenapura Kotte, Kelaniya, Koratota, Nawagamuwa, Sithawaka Barandikovila, Sithawaka palace, Kaikavala, Ambagamuwa, and Hatton (Peak wilderness part). Other than that number of Forts which was built during the colonial periods have also been identified within the basin (eg; Colombo fort, Gurubavila fort- Hanwella). These heritage sites can be conserved and better utilized for ecotourism led alternative livelihoods combined with other natural resources such as river itself plus protected area and their surroundings.

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Figure 118: Archaeological Sites

Source: R&D Unit, CEA, based on the information obtained from the Department of Archaeology

7.5.4.8. Natural Disasters Land Slides According to the research information of the NBRO, nearly 60% of the area in the basin is subjected to landslides/earth slips (Figure 119 )which is the same area largely occupied by Tea and Rubber plantations, and vegetable cultivations.

Figure 119: Areas with land slide potential (Source: NBRO)

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Floods

Figure 120: Cumulative Number of People Affected by Floods - 2002 - 2012)

Source: Sri Lanka Comprehensive Disaster Management Program Flood-risk analysis: Ministry of Disaster Management

Colombo and Gampaha districts are listed as the third and fourth worse affected districts by flood, in relation to the number of people affected. The primary cause of flood is over the flow of Kelani River. 7.5.4.9. Climate Change Professor Shanthi De Silva in collaboration with Cranfield University, UK researched the impact of climate change on water resources in Sri Lanka. The research was carried out by using the HadCM3, which is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) developed at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in the UK. The findings of the research are summarised as follows;

"...... the average annual rainfall is predicted to increase by 14% (A2) and by 5 % (B2) across the country. Among the wet zone areas, the average annual rainfall in Colombo, Galle, Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and Ratnapura is predicted to increase. The highest increase in Colombo by 32% (A2) and 24% (B2). However, the rainfall is predicted to decrease in other dry zone areas such as Anuradhapura, Batticaloa and Trincomalee. The highest decrease is predicted in Batticaloa 14% (A2) and 12% (B2).

"During the Southwest monsoon (May to September), rainfall across the country is predicted to increase considerably, by over 30%, compared to the baseline. Therefore, Southwestern regions (wet zone areas) of the country such Colombo, Ratnapura, Galle and Nuwara Eliya will be experiencing a significant increase in rainfall. Also, predicted higher rainfall in Nuwara Eliya and Ratnapura areas would cause floods and landslides. This increase in rainfall will have serious impacts on the country's infrastructure to cope with floods in the Southwestern region. Therefore, it will be advisable to store the excess runoff water safely within these regions."

"According to the results, the northeast monsoon (December to February) is predicted to decrease on average by 34% (A2) and 26% (B2). The northeast monsoon rainfall in dry zone areas such as Jaffna, Mannar, Vavuniya, Anuradhapura, Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Hambantota are predicted to decrease (Table 34). The highest decrease is predicted in Trincomalee and Batticaloa 27% (A2) 29% (B2) followed by Anuradhapura, Vavuniya, Mannar and Puttalam. It will create severe drought-related problems in these areas." (Source: http://climatenet.blogspot.com/2012/09/impact-of-climate-change-on-agriculture.html) Table 38 indicates the percentage decrease in Northeast Monsoon rainfall according to HadCM3 prediction for A2 scenario in the 2050s compared to the baseline (1961-1990) in the dry zone areas in Sri Lanka.

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Table 39: Percentage Decrease in Northeast Monsoon Rainfall

Weather station Latitude Longitude Percentage decrease in 2050s compared to the Baseline (1961-1990) (°«)

Jaffna 9.65°N 80.02°E 23% Puttlam 8.03°N 79.83°E 19% Vavuniya 8.75°N 80.5°E 27% Trincomalee 8.58°N 81.25°E 32% Anuradhapura 8.35°N 80.38°E 27% Batticaloa 7.71°N 81.7°E 37% Hambantota 6.12°N 81.13°E 11% Mannar 8.98°N 79.91°E 22%

(Source: http://climatenet.blogspot.com/2012/09/impact-of-climate-change-on-agriculture.html)

Figure 121: Predicted Deviation in Rainfall due to Climate Change (Source: Sri Lanka Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme, 2014-2018: Ministry of Disaster Management)

Figure 102- Predicted Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme, published by Ministry of Disaster Management illustrates the similar situations.

Thus, the research information so far provides clear indications of wet areas becoming wetter, and dry areas becoming drier, resulting in earth slips/landslides, and floods in the wet zone and severe droughts in the dry zone. The obvious outcome would be a serious impact on the whole economy. Thus, any sustainable and long-term solutions for the Kelani Flood should necessarily be based on trans-basin diversion of flood waters. 7.5.4.10. Trans-basin diversions Droughts in the Dry Zone

The Dry Zone of Sri Lanka covers over two-thirds the total area of the country and the main source of the provision of staple food - rice. The cultivation is mainly fed by the North-East Monsoon from December to

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March which has been experiencing low or no rain during the recent past. Recurrent droughts in the dry zone have now become a routine.

"Sri Lanka Initial Rapid Assessment on Drought 2016/17", prepared by the World Food Programme in association with the Disaster Management Centre of the Ministry of Disaster Management states;

"Paddy cultivation in the Maha 2016 has been seriously affected by the dry spell -and is threatening a significantly lower level harvest in March/April 2017. By the end of November, only 281,910 ha of paddy lands out of 804,830 ha has been cultivated—35 %. This is the lowest cultivation level experienced in Sri Lanka as reported during the last thirty years. The Yala (minor season from May-August 2017) cultivation is also at high risk as the carryover capacity of water at the end of Maha 2016/17 is significantly low which should be at 50% of the total irrigation capacity and a limited supply of quality seeds. Loss of two consecutive seasons (2016/17 Maha and 2017 Yala) will undermine household food security and resilience. Most of the agricultural holdings will accumulate debts and will experience significantly reduced yields. Therefore, household food security and nutrition status are expected to deteriorate in the coming months. It is recommended to import rice with immediate effect to buffer the market price fluctuations December 2016 to the April 2017."

An estimated 16 million people (2/3rd of the population of the country), were affected during the 2016 drought.

Accelerated Mahaweli Development Project

The accelerated Mahaweli Development Project, has now become the main source of water for irrigation and other uses in the dry zone. Moragahakanda multipurpose development project - the last phase of the Mahaweli Development Programme is now under implementation. The estimated total irrigable land extent in the project area is approximately 86,000 ha. The objectives of the Project are:

(i) to provide irrigation water to Systems H, I/H, M/H, G, D1, D2, and KHFC to raise the cropping intensities and standard of living of farmers in the areas; (ii) to supply additional domestic and industrial water to the districts of Matale, Anuradhapura, Trincomalee, and Polonnaruwa; and (iii) to improve the electricity supply by generating hydroelectric power.

The transfer of water from the Moragahakanda project would also make it possible to feed about 1000 minor tanks in the ancient settlement areas a major part of which lies in the North Central Province, North of Anuradhapura and the balance part in the Northern province in an around Vavuniya town.

Need for Trans-basin Diversion

Except for Mahaweli River all the other rivers that flow through the dry zone go dry during the dry spell, leaving the Mahaweli to take the full pressure and making it vulnerable to over-exploitation. When considering;

(i) the heavy dependence on Mahaweli for the dry zone irrigation, (ii) the potential continuation of droughts in the dry zone due to the impact of global warming, (iii) Inability of Maha Oya to supply water to the proposed industrial township in Mirigama

It is necessary to look into the possibility of trans-basin diversion from the Wet Zone to the Dry Zone. Kelani River having an annual discharge of 5580 mcm of water, and during heavy precipitations in the upper reaches overflowing of flood waters, it is rational to consider trans-basin diversion, particularly considering the long-term economic development perspective of the country.

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7.5.5. Status of Proposed Interventions 7.5.5.1. Project Objectives The project objectives of Kelani River Floor Protection have been defined as;

(i) Protect lower Kelani to 1:100 year return period (ii) Minimise total displacement of people

Thus, the objectives have been set narrowly by only considering the lower reaches of the Kelani River basin which consists of only 25% of the total land extent, segregating the most significant part of the basin that represents the predominant causes of flooding. The objectives are set to address the cause, not the route. Thus, the proposed investment appears to have been considered in isolation. 7.5.5.2. Early Considerations Proposals have been formulated for Kelani River Flood mitigation from 1961, firstly by a Team of Russian Consultants followed by several other consultants. After the formulation of Russian proposals, all the subsequent consultants have followed the Russian proposals largely with some amendments. All of the past proposals can be summarised as follows;

■ Diversion channel from upstream of Hanwella to the Sea ■ New reservoirs in mid-upper basin (4 investigated - Holombuwa (Gurugoda Oya), Wee Oya, Nawatha (Kelani Main), Ruecasal(Seethawaka)) ■ Possible raising of CEB reservoirs Castlereigh and Maussakele ■ Operation change for CEB reservoirs and Maussakele ■ Embankments through Greater Colombo (Hanwella to Sea) ■ Non-structural options (upper catchment land management, short-term flood retention), flood forecasting and warning) ■ Kelani to Mahaweli Inter-Basin Diversion

Under the CRIP project, two proposals have been considered to be carried forward namely, (i) Part One - Development of embankments through Lower Kelani to protect 1:25 year return period, and (ii) Part Two - One or more reservoirs to raise the level of protection to 1:100 year return period 7.5.5.3. Cause and Effect Investments in flood mitigation are substantial, and developing countries like Sri Lanka largely depend on international funding for such investments. Thus, such large scale investments need to be assessed within national perspectives to optimise the return on investment to the national economy. Further, the fundamental principles of addressing the problem of flooding is addressing the causes of flooding rather the effect. The reasons for flooding stated in all the reports studied are;

(i) Steep slopes in upstream and mild slopes in low stream (the high elevation of the upper catchment creating a steep river channel for most of its length the abrupt change in slope around Hanwella, which is 35 km upstream of the sea creating a situation of a high-velocity flow entering a very low energy environment, creating ideal conditions for out of bank flow, or flood) (ii) Unpredictable climate (high rainfall with intense storm events mainly due to the Southwest Monsoon) (iii) Illegal sand mining and gem mining (iv) Poor coordination among the institutions (v) Absence of a good system for predicting climate events (vi) Poor operational systems in the upstream reservoirs

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However, none of the previous reports had indicated the location of the City of Colombo in the Kelani River floodplain being the prime reasons for its floods. For long lasting and sustainable flood management it is necessary to base the policies and strategies on "Cause and Effect" principles. The solution is required, not for the Effect but for the Cause. The causes of Kelani River flooding and the potential sustainable approaches to prevent flooding are listed below;

Table 40: The causes of Kelani River flooding and the potential sustainable approaches to prevent flooding Cause Sustainable Approaches 1. Steep slopes in upstream and mild slopes 1 Catchment management through deploying in low stream creating a situation of a sustainable land use practices high-velocity flow 2. Unpredictable climate 2. Integrated national level projects. (i.e. diversion of water from areas of more water to areas of less water) 3. Illegal sand mining and gem mining 3. Enforcement, Monitoring 4. The poor coordination among institutions, 4. Enforcement, Monitoring 5. City of Colombo located in Kelani River 5. Redirect the settlements in vulnerable areas to Flood Plain proposed economic centres in safer areas. (i.e. Horana)

7.5.6. International Best Practices The guidelines on the "best practice of flood prevention, flood protection and mitigation", published by the European Union, list;

■ "Flood events are a part of nature. They have existed and will continue to exist. As far as feasible, human interference into the processes of nature should be reversed, compensated and, in the future, prevented." ■ Flood strategy should cover the entire river basin area and promote the coordinated development and management of actions regarding water, land and related resources ■ Considering the evolution and trends, the approach to natural hazards requires a change of paradigm. One must shift from defensive action against hazards to management of the risk and live with floods, bearing in mind that flood prevention should not be limited to flood events which occur often. It should also include rare event ■ Transnational efforts should be intensified to restore rivers' natural flood zones to reactivate the ability of natural wetlands and floodplains to retain water and alleviate flood impacts. ■ Mitigation and non-structural measures tend to be potentially more efficient and in long-term more sustainable solutions to water-related problems and should be enhanced, in particular, to reduce the vulnerability of human beings and goods exposed to flood risk ■ Solidarity is essential; one should not pass on water management problems in one region to another. The appropriate strategy consists of three steps: retaining, storing and draining (first make every effort to retain rainfall at the spot, store excess water locally, only then let the water be discharged to the watercourse). Flood prevention has also to be based on the precautionary principle."

Portland USA has an interesting urban stormwater management system in the world. Portland's Stormwater Management Manual stays that "Vegetation may be one of the most cost-effective and ecologically efficient means available to improve water quality." The entire Portland's stormwater management is designed based on such ecological guidelines.

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7.5.7. Global Market for the Regional Products and Services 7.5.7.1. Introduction The foregoing analysis on land use, natural disasters, and impact of climate change direct the policymakers to consider the country as a whole in developing solutions, which will protect the whole country. The regional policies can be designed based on the national spatial policies. The key economic outputs of Kelani River Basin are rubber, vegetables, spices, and tourism. Due to the high cost of accessing the outcomes of international market research for the global market for those products, the analysis of the global market situation for these products is somewhat limited. 7.5.7.2. Global Organic Tea Market Regarding the regional economy of the Kelani River Basin, Tea plays a key role while on the other hand it is one of the root causes of floods. Thus, regeneration of the tea industry based on ecological consideration that will conserve soil, and increase groundwater recharge is necessary if Tea plantation is to be continued. One possibility would be to reduce the extent of the land devoted for tea, increase the value of tea, and introduce large trees that are capable of intercepting large quantities of precipitation, store in the leaves, trunk, and the roots, and increase groundwater recharge, and be capable of regenerating the soil conditions.

One of the clear possibilities would be to change the tea production to cater to the "Organic Tea" market that caters to the high-end market, where quantity is replaced with quality. There is extensive research conducted on the global market for tea. However, such research is too expensive. Therefore, the following quotation copied from Ceylon Organics, a well-known herbal tea exporter is presented.

"Tea - is the most consumed liquid after water. Tea is also the most inexpensive herbal drink despite being rich in health benefits. The demand for organic tea is growing around the globe as consumers are increasingly embracing natural and organic products - largely due to health and wellness concerns. The sale of organic beverages grew 97% in North America in the past few years, and this phenomenal sales growth is expected to continue." (http://www.ceylonorganics.com/about-us/) 7.5.7.3. Seasoning and spices market P&S Market research has estimated the value of the global seasoning and spices market to grow from US $ 21,507.3 million in 2017 to $30,412.8 million by 2023, growing at an average annual growth rate of 6.0% during 2018-2023. It indicates "Globally, Asia-Pacific is estimated to account for the largest share, regarding both volume (70.9%) and value (48.5%), in the seasonings and spices market in 2017. Asia-Pacific is the largest producer and consumer of seasonings and spices in the world. From the demand side, the need for increasing the production of seasonings and spices to meet the food requirements of the growing population in Asia-Pacific is a factor driving the growth of this market in the region Organic seasonings and spices are the future of the food industry, and changing demographic composition is expected to provide ample opportunities to the players operating in the seasonings and spices industry. With increasing health consciousness and surge in demand for organic products, several conventional spice manufacturers are entering the organic food segment."

Markets and Markets - a Research Institute, concludes that on the basis of Type, the market is segmented as, Pepper, Capsicum, Ginger, Cinnamon, Cumin, Turmeric, Nutmeg & Mace, Cardamom, Coriander, Cloves, And On the basis of Region, the market is segmented as North, America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Rest of the World (RoW).

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2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

■ Industrial ■Foodservice Retail

Figure 122: Global Seasonings and Spices market by End-use US$ Million (2013-2023)

Source: https://www.psmarketresearch.com/market-analysis/spices-and-seasonings-market

Kelani River Basin is a key producer of pepper, cardamom, and cloves. In the ancient upcountry home gardens system were produced in an ecologically sustainable manner maintaining a high level of biological diversity, soil conservation, and diversified economic activities. The reinvention of such a system in the upper and middle reaches of the Kelani River Basin could be a better option for increasing the water retention capacity of trees and soil.

7.5.7.4. Eco-Tourism The Upper and Middle reaches of Kelani River falls into the Hill Country of Sri Lanka which is considered to be one of the best global destinations for eco-tourism, due to its climate, topography, water bodies, and spectacular aesthetic value. However, its value is not harnessed to its maximum due to the absence of an overall competitive tourism development plan. Natural beauty, organic tea, spices, water bodies, adventures need to be essential elements of such a plan.

The International Ecotourism Society - (www.ecotourism.org) estimates a continuous growth in the tourism industry. Quoting Advisor's "Eco-friendly Travel Survey", it records that 71% of the interviewed persons had planned to make eco-friendly travel choices. According to the survey more than two-thirds of U.S. and Australian travellers, and 90% of British tourists, considered active protection of the environment and support of local communities to be part of a hotel's responsibility.

Transparency Market Research records that, ecotourism, "the global market for ecotourism, has exhibited double-digit growth since the early 1990s and in the next couple of years, the market is forecasted to expand further to account for almost a quarter of the global travel market, thus the global ecotourism market holds out a lot of promise while it is slated to grow exponentially in the future, the mature mass tourism segment is expected to clock sluggish growth." Having considered the significance of ecotourism in the economic development of recipient countries, the United Nations World Tourism Organization declared 2017 as the "International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development."

International tourist arrivals in 2017 were approximately 1000 million. Africa recorded the highest growth of +9% while Asia and the Pacific recorded +6% growth. The growth of tourism in Africa is primarily based on nature-based tourism and wildlife.

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7.6.Vision The analysis in the foregoing chapters make the decision makers think; In a long-term perspective, Optimise investments considering national benefits, Exploiting the global market opportunities for development of the regional economy, Not to isolate the effects but to consider the causes of effects in finding solutions, Optimise the regional strengths particularly considering the areas that the region is competitive globally. Thus, the vision of the Kelani River Basin is proposed as;

"Tropical Dreams - Unveiling Nature's Secrets"

The vision is proposed to consider the natural heritage of the Kelani River Basin, not only to find solutions for flooding but also to enhance the regional economy within the most valuable resources in the region - the natural environment. 7.7. SWOT Analysis 7.7.1. Strengths (i) Location within the wet zone of the country (ii) One of the key contributors to the national economy (Tea, Rubber, Vegetables, Spices, power generation) (iii) Global recognition as one of the best destinations for eco-tourism (iv) Globally appreciated natural beauty

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7.7.2. Weaknesses (i) Alarming rate of soil erosion (ii) Deforestation, Tea and Rubber Plantations destroying biological diversity and increasing soil erosion (iii) A major source of floods in Sri Lanka

7.7.3. Opportunities (i) Increasing global demand for spices (ii) Increasing global demand for eco-tourism (iii) Increasing global demand for organic food - (tea, vegetables in particular for the region) (iv) Proposed Ruwanpura Expressway, and Central Expressway that would connect the Kelani River Basin with national economic centres (v) Access to international funding sources for implementing flood mitigation strategies

7.7.4. Threats Global warming - rainfall increase

7.8. 7.7 Objectives (i) Developing a detailed land use strategy based on the environmental resources, and uses to strengthen the regional economy (ii) Capturing the global market opportunities for regional development (iii) Implementing the strategies of the National Action Plan for combating land degradation in Sri Lanka (iv) Redirection of the settlements in the vulnerable locations towards proposed regional and national economic centres (v) Increase the connectivity to the existing and proposed national expressways (vi) Increase the forest cover, and re-introduction of traditional "Kandian Home Garden" economy for spice, and vegetable agriculture. (vii) Establishment of marketing and operation plan for high-end eco-tourism development

7.9. Regional Planning Framework 7.9.1. Strategic Directions The strategic directions of the regional planning framework is based on the following principles;

(i) Discourage developments in environmentally sensitive areas, and follow the directions provided in the National Physical Plan and Western Region Megapolis Master Plan. Concentrations of developments in Horana and Mirigama industrial clusters will make the vulnerable areas in the Kelani River basin less attractive for urban development.

Accordingly, the intervention proposed by the CRIP for the construction of flood bunds from Hanwella to Kelani River outfall cannot be accepted. This intervention will further encourage urban development in vulnerable areas, making them further vulnerable for disasters in the situations of bund failures, which has been a common issue throughout the world - New Orleans in the USA is the best example.

(ii) According to the Report of the Land Utilization Committee, 1968 the extent of the area over 5000 ft in the country is 288 square miles, falling within Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura and Kegalle districts, largely within the Kelani Ganga Catchment. Even in 1960 preserving the lands over 5000 feet

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elevation was considered to be a national priority as virtually all the perennial rivers in the country have their origin in this area. Such strict reforestation and conservation will not only enhance the dry weather flow of all the rivers in the Island but also improve groundwater resources, reducing the amount of stormwater flow during the heavy rainy periods. Thus, reforestation of lands in the higher elevations in the Kelani River Basin is considered a prerequisite.

(iii) After diverting Kelani waters to the NWP, if a part of it could be again diverted to Moragahakanda the downstream supply of Ambanganga could be augmented to provide more water to the NE and the East as well.

(iv) Ensuring optimum returns on international funds expected for flood mitigation, considering the national economic benefits.

(v) Consider the three types of impacts of Global Warming on Sri Lanka, (i.e. sea level rise, wet areas becoming wetter, and dry areas becoming drier) in regional planning to utilise the impacts positively for the national economic development. Accordingly, trans-basin diversion of surplus water from the Kelani River Basin to Mahaweli River Basin will be a rational intervention.

(vi) Restructuring the economy to capture the global market for environmental-related goods and services.

(vii) Development of urban centres in strategically selected locations to make the urban sector a significant contributor to the regional economy. These urban centres are proposed to be competitive and outward-looking to provide export-led goods and services.

(viii) Providing sustainable long-term solutions for common natural disasters in the basin - floods.

(ix) Dry Zone in Sri Lanka is the most productive in terms of agricultural output. Due to its flat topography the provision of infrastructure in the Dry Zone is cost effective compared to that of the hilly areas. The future settlement pattern proposed in the National Physical Plan is primarily focused on the dry zone. The impact of global warming on Sri Lanka, making wet areas wetter, and dry areas drier should be seriously considered in any kind of national investments, particularly that of water resources management. Therefore, the focus of the Kelani River flood protection intervention should be based on three sustainable interventions namely; (i) Reforestation of the upper most catchment area, and catchment management in other areas, and (ii) Transbasin diversion of flood water to the dry zone. The Geologist of the SEA team after studying the relevant geological information has proposed a preliminary route for such a diversion which needs detailed geological, and hydrological studies for making a final decision. (iii) Directing the development from disaster prone areas (areas that are subjected to Kelni River Floods) to major economic centers proposed in the Western Region Megapolis Structure Plan, and Colombo - Trincomalee Economic Corridor Plan.

7.10. Generalized Land Use Zoning Plan Generalized land use zoning plan is presented in Figure 119. The plan consists of;

(i) Establishing the upper and middle reaches of the region for re-forestation, Kandyan home garden agriculture/settlement system, organic tea plantations, and eco-tourism destinations. (ii) Establish the lower reaches of the basin (from Hanwella to Colombo) that are vulnerable to floods, as a conservation area promoting nature-based urban activities.

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(iii) Establishing Trans-basin water resources management system considering the potential for development of large reservoirs, and smaller water retention reservoirs in other areas.

Figure 123 below illustrates the conceptual design of the proposed generalised zoning plan and settlement pattern. ]Figure 124 below illustrates the conceptual design of the proposed generalised zoning plan with respect to Western Region Megapolis Plan and Proposed development directions.

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170000 190000 210000 230000 Figure 123: Generalized Landuse Zoning Map of Kelani River Basin River Kelani of Map Zoning Landuse Generalized 123: Figure Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin River Plans-Kelani Investment Mitigation Drought and Flood Level Basin River of Development of Assessment Environmental Strategic 250 Uk Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Figure 124: Generalized land use zoning map of Kelani Basin (Western Region Megapolis Plan and Proposed development directions)

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Chapter 8

8. Final Conclusions and Recommendations (Kelani SEA)

The SEA has revealed potential negative impacts particularly in relation to Hydrological impacts of the proposed flood bunds, such as a substantial flood lift in the upstream areas of Hanwella, delay in flood recession, drainage congestion in local catchments, high velocity in bridge sections leading to scour etc. The following measures are therefore proposed

1. The causes of flooding should be investigated in detail and eliminated, to the extent possible, prior to adopting any intrusive measures for flood control. Some details pertaining to this, are provided in chapter 7 of the report. 2. The feasibility of implementing other less intrusive options for flood mitigation in the Kelani River, should be fully investigated with a view to reducing the length and height of the flood bunds or eliminating it through the adoption alternate flood control measures. The interventions given below,should be fully investigated prior to deciding on the best option or combination of possible options for flood control. a. Trans-basin diversions (e.g. diversion of Kelani at Norton Bridge) optimizing the use of stored flood water in drought-stricken areas, resulting in gainfully utilizing the flood waters rather than simply disposing into the ocean, thereby reaping the maximum returns on investment to the national economy. This option appears to be a win-win option as it will reduce floods in the Kelani River while helping to mitigate drought conditions in the dry zone of the country. b. Redirecting the settlements in the flood plain towards new economic centres planned by the Ministry of Megapolis and Western Development. c. Construction of smaller reservoirs upstream at suitable locations (useful also for mitigating drought and flood to some extent) d. Creating flood bypass channels (E.g. green channels to bypass meanders) and carryout landscaping and other attractive features such as parks.

The best option should be selected only after a comprehensive Economic Analysis, including an Extended Cost-Benefit Analyses, of each intervention prior to implementation. The optimum solution should be that with the least environmental, social and ecological impacts, incurring the lowest monetary cost and highest benefits.

Individual projects should undergo a full scale EIA process prior to implementation, during which more information on the negative and positive impacts may come to light. 8.1. Recommendations Relating to Hydrology It is recommended to play with the following very important constraints to arrive at a well-balanced sustainable optimal solution to the flood issue.

✓ Return period (Tied to economics) ✓ Flood bund height (Tied to Return Period and Free Board)

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✓ Bund length from upstream (Tied to backwater effect) ✓ Maximum allowable backwater height at upstream (flood lift) according to international standards. This is usually less than 300mm(1ft) ✓ Extra water spread area upstream from the flood dyke beginning point (Virtual reservoir effect) ✓ Delay in flood recession time (Created by backwater) ✓ Possibilities and frequencies of flood dyke overtopping and its attendant impacts. ✓ Extent of bridge scour from flow velocity increase. ✓ Amount of power required for pumping and plans to obtain power and reliability of power availability during flood disaster time (Usually there could be power outages during flood time) ✓ Possibilities of long term pump maintenance. (After sale services and recurrent funding) ✓ Extents of off bund storage areas usable (Tied to backwater effect) ✓ Feasibility of upstream reservoirs (including many small reservoirs option) and their impact on the downstream water level (Reservoirs could lower the water levels, at their immediate downstream areas and it they will not have a significant impact on lowering the water levels close to Colombo, where there are floodplains) ✓ Possibility of green channels, meander bypassing, river widening, shaving off river bed to iron out bed irregulates, possibility of controlled sand mining. ✓ Possibility of reclaiming some areas for building social infrastructure and freeing rest of the floodplain for free flood spread. ✓ Possibility of trans-basin diversions. ✓ Possibility of resettling affected parties from flood threat areas without flood dyke construction. ✓ Compatibility with national planning guidelines and planning aspects of Western Region Megapolis. ✓ Economics (Cost -Benefit Analysis -CBA and Extended Cost Benefit Analysis -ECBA)

Reservoirs, diversions and storage areas are better than flood dykes. Flood resilience is better than flood defense (This is the current World Practice)

The new flood management approach aims to reduce flood risk or flood damage without the construction of new dams by accomplishing the following three integrated goals. • Reducing runoff • Riparian & in-river flood management • Separating the people & the threat

1. The proposed interventions i.e. the flood bunds and the four reservoirs should be considered logically in tandem with respect to the protection level (safer return period) of Colombo city. The expected optimum protection level is the 100-year return period, but it will drop down on social impact minimization and cost minimization. According to Pre-Feasibility/Feasibility studies the 100- year protection level could be achieved with "flood bunds and all four reservoirs "option.

2. As some of the proposals may not be able to be implemented in the way recommended in the model study reports, all the present model set ups should be preserved for future use (i.e. to run different future combination of interventions)

3. It would be advisable to compare and check the old cross section surveys with current ones to assess the river morphological changes. Flood bund construction could alter existing cross sections and such cross-section changes should be incorporated into the model scenarios which mimic future conditions with flood bunds.

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4. The possibility of establishment of small reservoirs to practically possible levels to compensate for the storage loss caused by the non-implementation of one or more reservoirs, should be considered.

5. Flood lift impact due to the floods bunds, which could take place upstream of Hanwella should be thoroughly investigated to avoid flood damage

6. Water level increases in the sea due to tides, storm surges, wave setups and wind setups should be considered during final model studies.

7. Bridge scour studies are recommended to assess the possible scour caused by flow velocity increases.

8. Behavior of the Kelani River outfall and the beach close to the outfall should be monitored during the operations of the flood dykes.

9. The positive impacts from the selected reservoirs should be clearly ascertained not only in terms of the reduction of upstream peak discharges but also from the reduction of the peak water levels in the lower reaches of Kelani River with the proposed flood dykes as the water level impact from the reservoir could normally peter out by the time the impact is transmitted to Colombo areas. (Refer to similar citations in the DHI Report Page 4-29)

10. The optimum flood control possibilities of the reservoirs against its capacity should be studied against the hydropower benefits as for flood control, sufficient capacity of the reservoir should be available in reserve before an impending flood, thereby rendering low hydropower generation possibility. (Refer to similar citations in the DHI Report Page 4-28)

11. The most optimum combination of the flood dykes (stopping point at the upstream to have elevations and storage for high backwater abstraction, the number of reservoirs with the best configuration and the projected climate change considerations will have to be used in order to decide on the final configuration.

12. Model runs should be carried out for different combinations of flood bunds and reservoirs to select the best construction sequence as timing is a very important consideration.

13. A virtual temporary reservoir will be created in the backwater abstraction area and possible vulnerable entities such as settlements will have to be relocated. 8.2. Recommendations Relating to Ecology 1. The loss and fragmentation of riverine forests is a major concern with regard to both the construction of the bund in the lower reaches of the Kelani River, as well as the construction of reservoirs in its upper reaches. In all instances, clearance of the riverine vegetation strip should be avoided. In cases where this is unavoidable, measures must be taken to replant a thick strip bordering the river and reservoirs so as to ensure continuity of the riverine vegetation. Such measures should be in place even in areas that are currently with no vegetation. This would have a positive impact on the river and associated biota. Replanting should be done in consultation with experts (Academia) and the Forest Department to ensure that a healthy mix of native trees are planted which would be more effective.

2. The loss of protected forests would occur in the case of the proposed Nawatha reservoir. Here one of the concerns is fragmentation of the rainforest into small and isolated pockets. At present one of the critical issues in conserving the biotic richness of the wet zone is the loss and fragmentation of rainforests. The impacts would be aggravated since the upstream areas are in close proximity to

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the Broadlands project. Clearance and inundation of forests are best avoided. In essential however, systematic and planned out replantation must be done to establish corridors which would facilitate the link between the fragmented components of this entire forest block.

3. At the lower reaches the creation of the bund may hinder flow of water to and from the elaborate channel network which originates or drains into the Kelani River. The Colombo wetlands which are now considered important in terms of its ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, are linked to the river and its tributaries. Special attention should therefore be paid to the maintenance of the existing hydrological regimes, through creation of adequate water flow channels where needed. Maintenance of these channels must be ensured.

4. Reduced down stream flow, particularly during the dry season, would inevitably occur with the construction of the upstream reservoirs, with consequential impacts on fish migration, drying of river banks and downstream salinity intrusion. The latter is currently hampering the ability of the river to supply drinking water to the Colombo area. Therefore measures must be in place to address each of these issues as detailed out in the above section.

5. Since the construction of the Nawatha reservoir would result in the loss and fragmentation of protected rainforests, the other three reservoirs should be considered prior to this. For inundation of these valuable forests to be justifiable, this reservoir must be shown to adequately improve the flood situation. 8.3. Recommendations Relating to Sociological Aspects 1. Feasibility of Reservoir options need to be considered only after the option of rehabilitation of small and medium weir systems and reservoirs, since there is a common demand from farmer communities for this option,

2. A comprehensive Social Impact Assessment (SIA) need to be conducted on all proposed flood mitigation interventions, as a prerequisite to the construction process since there are number of social implications and public protest from the communities, losing their assets,

3. A rigorous social mobilization programme need to be carried out particularly in the lower Kelani Basin with the involvement of both existing and potential inhabitants living in the embankment and low-lying areas, for making them willing partners in the process.

4. The compensatory packages of housing and livelihoods opportunities, need to be higher or attractive enough to the Affected Persons, enabling a healthy and speedy resettlement process

5. The continuous practice of encroaching existing wetlands, marshy-lands, Mangroves and other low- lying areas adjacent to the river bank needs to be halted, with strong law enforcement by all concerned parties.

6. All existing wetlands of different forms in Lower Kelani Basin need to be preserved and developed as nature reserves and recreation parks with facilities for the use of general public, as a counter measure for illegal filling and human habitation, which is strongly emphasized by district and divisional level stakeholders.

7. Special attention should be paid to cultural aspects like the direct impact on archeiological sites like Kotavehera Temple, where public protest has been made against the proposed project.

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8.4. Recommendations Relating to the Agricultural Aspect 1. Timely pumping and evacuation of flood water near flood controlling gates should be ensured, during heavy rainy periods in order to avoid inundation of agricultural lands and settlements.

2. Action should be taken to declare and develop flood retention areas outside flood controlling gates and along risk prone tributaries.

3. Paddy lands which have been abandoned for long periods of time should be used as water retention areas. These water bodies can be used for recreational activities and inland fisheries.

4. Rehabilitation of drainage network of the catchment area should be carried out, especially near the waterways.

5. Demarcation of environmentally sensitive areas and the agricultural areas should be carried out based on GPS system, maps of these areas should be given to all Local Authorities.

6. Future human settlements should be limited to selected localities of the KRB and all agricultural lands should be protected in order to utilize the Wet Zone potential for agricultural development since Dry Zone Agricultural production will be prone to more risks in future due to climatic change factors. Seethawaka, Dompe, Padukka, Kaduwala and some parts of Biyagama and Mahara DS divisions are areas to be considered in this regard. 8.5. Recommendations Relating to the Geological Aspects 1. All necessary geological/ geotechnical investigations such as borehole logging, Ground Penetration Radar (GPR), Seismic refraction studies should be carried out to determine geologically weak and fractured areas prior to construction of flood bunds and reservoirs. 8.6. Recommendations Relating to Planning Aspects 1. In providing sustainable solutions for impacts of Climate change in Sri Lanka including Floods and Droughts, the national perspective should be considered, rather than limiting the solutions to the Lower Kelani floods. Comprehensive environmental, social and economic analysis of all potential solutions should be carried out prior to the adoption of the most appropriate solution. 2. For long lasting and sustainable flood management it is necessary to base the strategy on the "cause and effect" principle, whereby solutions require to be found for the causes rather than the effect. The causes of Kelani River flooding and the potential sustainable approaches to prevent flooding are listed below;

Table 41: Causes of Kelani River Flooding and Potential Sustainable Approaches to prevent Flooding Cause Sustainable Approaches

1. Steep slopes in upstream and mild slopes in 1 Catchment management through deploying low stream creating a situation of a high- sustainable land use practices velocity flow 3. Unpredictable climate 2. Integrated national level projects. (i.e. diversion of water from areas of more water to areas of less water) 3. Illegal sand mining and gem mining 3. Enforcement, Monitoring 4. The poor coordination among institutions, 4. Enforcement, Monitoring 5. City of Colombo located in Kelani River Flood 5. Redirect the settlements in vulnerable areas Plain to proposed economic centres in safer areas. (i.e. Horana)

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3. International Best practices should be followed as far as is practically possible for flood prevention, protection and Mitigation as follows;

• As far as feasible, human interference into the processes of nature should be reversed, compensated and, in the future, prevented."

• Flood strategy should cover the entire river basin area and promote the coordinated development and management of actions regarding water, land and related resources

• Considering the evolution and trends, the approach to natural hazards requires a change of paradigm. One must shift from defensive action against hazards to management of the risk and live with floods, bearing in mind that flood prevention should not be limited to flood events which occur often. It should also include rare events

• Transnational efforts should be intensified to restore rivers' natural flood zones to reactivate the ability of natural wetlands and floodplains to retain water and alleviate flood impacts.

• Mitigation and non-structural measures tend to be potentially more efficient and long-term more sustainable solutions to water-related problems and should be enhanced, in particular, to reduce the vulnerability of human beings and goods exposed to flood risk

• Water management problems in one region should not be passed on to another. The appropriate strategy consists of three steps: retaining, storing and draining (first make every effort to retain rainfall at the spot, store excess water locally, only then let the water be discharged to the watercourse). Flood prevention has also to be based on the precautionary principle." 8.7. Recommendations Relating to Communication Aspects 1. A national level awareness programme and specifically focused campaign for vulnerable areas should be conducted in order to get the support from flood affected people.

2. In order to reduce resistance to the project, a focused messaging approach to Project Affected Persons (PAPs) should be carried out in order to justify the national benefits of the project against their personal sacrifices such as, loss of houses, lands and livelihoods.

3. A participatory communication approach should be adopted in order to get feedback from PAPs on their grievances

4. An immediate two way communication intervention should be commenced in the proposed reservoir construction areas to eliminate panic caused by communication gap.

5. Exact areas of inundation due to the proposed reservoirs, details of compensation packages, resettlement areas, alternative lands given for the PAPs should be revealed as early as possible.

6. The bio diversity in the project affected areas, as well as safeguard measures taken to protect endemic, and threatened fauna and flora present within the Basin as well as the legal obligations and procedures adopted such as SEA and EIA should be explained.

7. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that according to social safeguard policies adopted for the project, the living standards of the project affected persons will not go down from its present level after resettlement.

8. Direct communication with concerned environmental organizations should be initiated as early as possible.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 257 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

8.8. Recommendations Relating to Project Monitoring 1. It is proposed that a Project Co ordination and Monitoring Committee consisting of the following organizations is set up under the Department of Irrigation for the purpose of planning as well as monitoring the implementation of the proposed flood and drought mitigation measures for the Kelani River.

• Irrigation Department (to chair the meeting) • CRIP Project • Central Environmental Authority • Department of Agriculture/ Ministry of Agriculture • Ceylon Electricity Board • District/Divisional Secretaries of the relevant districts • Relevant Local Authorities • Forest Department • Department of Wildlife Conservation • Department of Archaeology • Urban Development Authority • Provincial Irrigation Engineers

2. It is also proposed that a fully fledged Environmental Unit is established at the Irrigation Department manned by suitably qualified environmental professionals. This could be done by strengthening the existing Environmental Unit in the Department by staffing it with qualified environmental professionals. Setting up of such a unit at the irrigation Department would be a useful exercise as the Irrigation Department is involved in the planning many of the largest projects in Sri Lanka, which often have many environmental impacts. Setting up of the environmental unit will result in environmental inputs being provided to projects at the planning and design stage itself, thereby avoiding potential issues arising at the EIA stage. The proposed unit could take up the task of regular monitoring of the proposed projects under the CRIP along with independent monitoring by the Central Environmental Authority, in order to ensure compliance with EIA approval conditions.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 258 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

8.9. Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Measures to increase upstream Flood Detention through reservoir construction Holombuwa Hydrology EIA required Positive Impacts(General) under the NEA EIA required 1. Flood/drought Mitigation High Not required Irrigation under the NEA 2. Domestic water supply Department, RAP required 3. Industrial water supply NWSDB, CEB RAP required 4. Power Generation 5. Transfer of water to dry area Negative impacts Identify effected Irrigation 1. Flood wave triggered by downstream area Department in sudden spill releases through hydrological collaboration with Very high studies. Flood warning. DMC 2. Flood wave triggered by dam Dam break analysis and Irrigation break identify downstream Department in vulnerable zone. collaboration with Routine dam DMC maintenance. Warning Hydrogeology and Geology EIA required EIA required Positive Impacts under the NEA under the NEA Need to investigate Irrigation 1. Development of Groundwater N.A negative impact by Department, WRB Geotechnical recharge of capacity around excess groundwater investigation the reservoir. recharge required Negative impacts Need to conduct detail Service required 1. Possible karst topographical High geological mapping to by NBRO and condition. identify geology around GSMB the reservoir and dam 2. Structurally weaker basement site. condition.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 259 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Need comprehensive 3. Upstream landslide. geotechnical investigation around the reservoir and dam site.

Need to conduct crack survey.

Ecology EIA required • Species Positive Impacts N/A Not required under the NEA inventories No significant ecological benefit Irrigation Tree counts Department & species of felled trees • Fish Negative impacts movement • Loss of riverine and Replantation of a green Fragmentation of riverine Moderate belt along reservoir and Forest forests stream to provide for Department / • Population reduction in river connectivity in riverine Irrigation associated biota vegetation. Department / • Increase in saltwater intrusion with independent downstream Flow maintained monitoring by • Hinder movement of fish Provide structures to CEA/Universities along river allow for fish • Degradation of water quality movement (fish ladders down stream suitably designed). Social RAP required Detailed SIA Positive Impacts: Not Required Water Resource required 1. Relieve flood victims in the High Management downstream Board / Irrigation 2. Maintain high water table in the Department surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 260 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Negative Impacts: High Offering attractive Relevant 1. Loss of vast agricultural area compensation package Divisional (over 1000 ha.) presently under (land / housing / cash) Secretaries Paddy, Rubber, ME Crops & Homesteads) 2. Relocation of 7250 persons (1450 families) taking away their present livelihoods 3. Loss of 276 commercial & 1450 residential buildings Wee Oya Hydrology EIA required Positive Impacts(General) Very high Not Required Irrigation under the NEA 1. Flood/drought Mitigation Department 2. Domestic water supply RAP required 3. Industrial water supply 4. PowerGeneration 5. Transfer of water to dry areas

Negative Impacts 1. Flood wave triggered by Very High Identify affected Irrigation sudden spill releases downstream area Department in through hydrological collaboration with 2. Flood wave triggered by dam studies. Flood warning. DMC. break Dam break analysis and identify downstream Irrigation vulnerable zone. Department in Routine dam collaboration with maintenance. DMC.

Hydrogeology and Geology 1. Positive Impacts

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 261 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated EIA required EIA required Need to investigate Investigation by under the NEA under the NEA 1. excess recharge of groundwater High negative impact by WRB due to the reservoir through the excess groundwater Geotechnical quartzite layers recharge investigation required Negative Impacts Need to conduct detail Service required geological mapping to by NBRO and 1. No significant negative identify geology around GSMB geological impacts. However N.A the reservoir and dam excess groundwater recharge site. will impact on groundwater stability. Need comprehensive geotechnical investigation around the reservoir and dam site. Ecology EIA required • Species Positive Impacts under the NEA inventories 1. No significant ecological Moderate Not Required Forest • Tree counts benefit Department / & species of Irrigation felled trees Department / • Fish with independent movement monitoring by CEA/Universities

Negative Impacts Moderate 1. Loss of riverine and rainforests Replantation of a green 2. Fragmentation of riverine belt along reservoir and Forest forests stream to provide for Department / 3. Population reduction in river connectivity in riverine Irrigation associated biota vegetation. Department / 4. Increase in saltwater intrusion with independent downstream Flow maintained monitoring by 5. Hinder movement of fish along Provide structures to CEA/Universities river allow for fish

River Basin 262 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated 6. Degradation of water quality movement (fish ladders down stream suitably designed). Social RAP required Detailed SIA Positive Impacts: Not Required Irrigation required 1. Relieve flood victims in the High Department / downstream Water Resource 2. Maintain high water table in the Management surrounding area making it Board suitable for agro-based livelihoods

Negative Impacts: 1. Loss of limited agricultural area Moderate Offering attractive Relevant (over 162 ha.) presently under compensation Divisional Paddy, Rubber, ME Crops & package(land/ housing Secretaries Homesteads) /cash) 2. Relocation of 550 persons (110 families) taking away their present livelihoods 3. Loss of 4 commercial & 110 residential buildings Rue Castle Hydrology EIA required Positive Impacts(General) Very high Not Required Irrigation under the NEA 1. Flood/drought Mitigation Department 2. Domestic water supply RAP required 3. Industrial water supply 4. Power Generation 5. Transfer of water to dry areas

Negative Impacts Identify effected Irrigation 1. Flood wave triggered by Very high downstream area Department in sudden spill releases through hydrological collaboration with studies. Flood warning. DMC

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 263 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated 2. Flood wave triggered by dam Dam break analysis and break identify downstream Irrigation vulnerable zone. Department in Routine dam collaboration with maintenance. DMC Hydrogeology and Geology EIA required EIA required Positive Impacts under the NEA under the NEA Irrigation 1. Development of Groundwater High Need to investigate Department WRB Geotechnical recharge of capacity around negative impact by investigation the reservoir. excess groundwater required recharge Negative 1. Impact on the stability of Need to conduct detail Service required slopes in the upstream area. High geological mapping to by NBRO and identify geology around GSMB 2. Upstream landslides towards the reservoir and dam to the reservoir and impact site. on reservoir capacity. Need comprehensive geotechnical investigation around the reservoir and dam site.

Need to conduct crack survey.

Ecology EIA required • Species Positive Impacts under the NEA inventories 1. No significant ecological Low Not Required Irrigation • Tree counts benefit Department & species of felled trees • Fish movement Negative

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 264 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated

1. Loss of riverine and rainforest Moderate Replantation of a green Forest 2. Fragmentation of riverine belt along reservoir and Department / forests stream to provide for Irrigation 3. Population reduction in river connectivity in riverine Department / associated biota vegetation. with independent 4. Increase in saltwater intrusion monitoring by downstream Flow maintained CEA/Universities 5. Hinder movement of fish along Provide structures to river allow for fish 6. Degradation of water quality movement (fish ladders down stream suitably designed) Social RAP required Detailed SIA Positive Impacts: High Not Required Irrigation required 1. Relieve flood victims in the Department downstream 2. Maintain high water table in the surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods Negative Impacts: 1. Loss of vast agricultural area High Offering attractive Relevant (over 2681 ha.) presently under compensation package Divisional Paddy, Rubber, Tea, ME Crops Secretaries & Homesteads) 2. Relocation of 9,550 persons (1,950 families) taking away their present livelihoods 3. Loss of 692 commercial & 1910 residential buildings Nawata Hydrology EIA required Positive Impacts Very high Not Required Irrigation under the NEA 1. Flood Mitigation Department

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 265 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated 2. Domestic water supply

3. Industrial water supply 4. PowerGeneration

5. Transfer of water to dry areas

Negative Impacts Very High Identify effected Irrigation 1. Flood wave triggered by downstream area Department in sudden spill releases through hydrological collaboration with studies. Flood warning. DMC 2. Flood wave triggered by dam Dam break analysis and Irrigation break identify downstream Department in vulnerable zone. collaboration with Routine dam DMC maintenance. Hydrogeology and Geology EIA required EIA required Positive Impacts under the NEA under the NEA 1. Quartzite bands available Need to conduct detail across the reservoir can geological mapping to Geotechnical positively impact on High identify the extent of Investigation by investigation groundwater recharge around the Quartzite WRB required the reservoir. Negative 1. Impact on the stability of Need to conduct detail Service required slopes in the upstream area. High geological mapping to by NBRO and 2. Upstream landslides towards identify geology around GSMB to the reservoir and impact on the reservoir and dam reservoir capacity. site.

Need comprehensive geotechnical investigation around the reservoir and dam site.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 266 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Need to conduct crack survey.

Ecology EIA required • Species Positive Impacts High Not Required Forest under the NEA inventories 1. No significant ecological Department • Tree counts benefit & species of felled trees • Fish Negative movement 1. Loss of Protected Area Concurrence of the 2. Loss of riverine and rainforests Forest Department. Forest and Fragmentation of riverine Department / forests Replanting Irrigation 3. Population reduction in river Facilitate connectivity Department / associated biota between forests / with independent 4. Increase in saltwater intrusion riverine. monitoring by downstream CEA/Universities 5. Hinder movement of fish along Flow maintained river Provide structures to 6. Degradation of water quality allow for fish movement down stream (fish ladders suitably designed).

Social SIA/RAP required Detailed SIA Positive Impacts: High Not Required Water Resource required 1. Relieve flood victims in the Management downstream Board / Irrigation 2. Maintain high water table in the Department surrounding area making it suitable for agro-based livelihoods

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 267 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Negative Impacts: High Offering attractive Divisional 1. Loss of vast agricultural area compensation package Secretaries of (over 162 ha.) presently under most affected Paddy, Rubber, Tea, ME Crops DSDs & Homesteads) 2. Relocation of 9,750 persons (1,950 families) taking away their present livelihoods 3. Loss of 604 commercial & 1950 residential buildings Flood Bunds Hydrology EIA required Positive High Not required Irrigation under the NEA 1. Flood mitigation Department

SIA/RAP required Negative Irrigation 1. Flood lift, flood spread to extra 1. High 1. Take flood bunds to Department for ( 1 areas upstream of the flood further upstream to to 4) and Irrigation bund, longer flood recession confine backwater to a Department with time hilly terrain DMC for 5

2. Strength erosion 2. increase bridge scour due to 2. Moderate protection to bridges velocity increase of flood flow within flood bunds

3. Extend flood dyke 3. Flood ingress to off river through pumping pumping stations 3.High channel and cover pumping site

4. Provide pumps and 4. Drainage congestion in lateral gates streams 4.High

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 268 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated 5. Flood dyke overtopping 5. Flood forecasting, 5.Rare but if occurred impact flood warning is high Hydrogeology and Geology EIA required EIA required Positive under the NEA under the NEA 1. No significant positive N.A N.A N.A Geotechnical geological impacts. investigation required. Negative Need to conduct detail Rate of 1. Foundation instability on Very high geological mapping to Service required sedimentation in meander type formation and identify geology around by NBRO, GSMB the river is erosion sides of the river banks. the dyke. and WRB required 2. Increase sedimentation in the river bed. Need comprehensive Monitoring of 3. Possible landslides in river geotechnical groundwater banks. investigation along the around the dykes dyke construction. is required 4. Impact on groundwater recharge by the river. Proper foundation investigation.

River bank creak survey prior to the dyke design.

River capacity study with respect to rate of sedimentation

Study and monitoring of groundwater occurrences along the river bank.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 269 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Ecology EIA required • Species Positive High Not Required Forest under the NEA inventories 1. May mitigate encroachments Department • Tree counts & species of felled trees • Fish movement Negative • Hydrology 1. Loss of riverine High Replantation of a green Forest between belt along bank provide Department / wetlands, 2. Fragmentation of riverine for connectivity in Irrigation tributaries forests riverine vegetation to Department / and the river increase habitat for with independent 3. Drying or flooding of Colombo riverine biota and monitoring by wetlands reduce illegal CEA/Universities constructions on the 4. Hinder storm water drainage bank.

5. Hamper fish migration through Critical to provide for the river/stream network adequate water inflow and outflow from river to connected tributaries.

Facilitate the movement of fish and other fauna both ways from between river & tributaries.

Social SIA/RAP required Detailed SIA Positive Impacts: High Not Required Irrigation required 1. Minimizing loss of lives & Department properties living in the immediate river bank (0-100m)

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 270 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated 2. Minimizing crop damages in the flood area (0-500m) of lower Kelani Basin (coconut, homestead & vegetable plots Negative Impacts: Making provisions to Irrigation 1 Involuntary relocation / High have a better living Department / resettlement of high number environment free from Railway of families, who are presently periodical flood Department of living in most vulnerable areas damages to lives and Land with relevant (No. not estimated) properties with an agencies acceptable 2 Change of livelihoods of some compensation package; segments of people depending on the compensatory housing, Moderate Making conscious Relevant lands & cash payments (need opportunities for equal Divisional to estimate by a detailed SIA) or better employments Secretaries / in new locations. Agricultural Department Diversion of Hydrology water from Kelani Positive High Not required Irrigation Basin to 1. Water Resource Improvement Department / Sri Mahaweli Basin in Mahaweli Baisn Lanka Mahaweli Authority 2. Moderate flood mitigation in Kelai River Basin

Negative Moderate Controlled water Irrigation 1. Possible water scarcity in diversion Department / Sri upstream sub basins Lanka Mahaweli Authority Geology & Hydrogeology Dr. Daham Positive: High Past sedimentations in CEB and irrigation the Kalani river upper department watershed should study

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 271 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Less sedimentation in Kalani River prior to the project basin implementation.

Continues sedimentation monitoring needed in both basing before and after the proposed development.

Negative: Need detail NBRO, GSMB, 1. Severe impacts on slope Very high investigations to WRB, CEB and stability. incorporate mitigation irrigation measures department 2. Severe impacts on near surface and deep groundwater 3. Stability.

4. Impacts on excess sedimentation in the Mahaweli basing.

5. Impacts from weak subsurface geology on proposed developments.

6. Impact on surface water resources due to groundwater instability. Ecology Feasibility Positive: Studies and EIA 1. Will be less harmful to required ecosystems and biota as it is an underground tunnel.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 272 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Interventions Further Further studies Potential environmental and Degree of impact Suggested mitigation Monitoring regulatory required social impacts high/moderate/could be measures agency requirement avoided or mitigated Interventions on the surface will be more detrimental. Negative: • Low • Could be avoided if Irrigation 1. There is a risk of damaging feasibility studies Department / Sri aquifers that would lead to are feasibility Lanka Mahaweli ground water depletion in the studies are done as Authority/CEA areas within and far beyond to the depth of the the region of the intervention. tunnel

2. This may also have long term effects on biota and • Moderate • Regulated water ecosystems. diversion 3. Water diversion in the dry season may result in reduced down stream flow in the Kelani river basin affecting all bio and ecosystems associated with it Social Dr. Dayarathne Detailed Social Positive: to fill Impact 1. Reduction of flood risk to people Assessment living in the Kelani River Basin 2. Enhance access to water by farmer community and general public in the upper and middle MWRB 3. Enhance water levels at Mahaweli Reservoirs Negative: Potential risk of damage to present land uses and drying off of water wells by lowering the ground water table in the proposed tunnel area.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 273 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

8.10. Final Recommendations Based on Hydrological, Ecological and Social Considerations Ecology lydrology Geology Sociology Planning Overall Intervention Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages recommendation Holombuwa No significant • Loss of riverine forests • Water • Dam break • Excess • Impact from • Relieve flood • Loss of vast • Trans-basin • Resettlement ecological • Population reduction in storage, risk recharge of weak victims in the agricultural diversion of a large benefit. river associated biota flood • Flood wave groundwater basement downstream area Addressing number of • Increase in saltwater alleviation, can positively geology and • Maintain high • Relocation of long term people. releases to intrusion downstream drought impact on structures for water table in medium no. national need downstream • Hinder movement of fish mitigation water groundwater the surrounding of persons of use of along river availability. and reservoir area • Potential surplus water • Degradation of water water stability. • Miniizing crop impact on the for irrigation, in quality down stream damages in the archeological the drought flood area site of affected dry Dedigama zone. Kotawehera • Sustainable solution for effects of global warming. • Optimum • Recommended utilization of subject to a scarce foreign comprehensive funds. study of all Wee Oya No significant • Loss of riverine forests • Water • Dam break • Excess • Excess recharge • Relieve flood • Loss of limited • Trans-basin • Resettlement potential options ecological • Population reduction in storage, risk, recharge of of groundwater victims in the agricultural diversion of a large to select the benefit river associated biota flood • flood wave groundwater can negatively downstream area Addressing number of optimum solution • Increase in saltwater alleviation, releases to can positively impact due to • Maintain high • Relocation of long term people. and the adoption intrusion downstream drought downstream impact on possible water table in small no. of national need of mitigatory • Hinder movement of fish mitigation water contaminations. the persons of use of actions / EIA along river availability. surrounding surplus water • Degradation of water area for irrigation in • Feasibility quality down stream the drought study/EIA should affected dry also consider the zone. overall national • Sustainable perspective, solution for without limiting to effects of the lower Kelani global Floods. warming. • Optimum utilization of scarce foreign funds. Nawatha No significant • Loss of protected • Water • Dam break • No significant • Excess recharge • Relieve flood • Loss of vast • Trans-basin • Resettlement ecological forests and riverine storage, risk, flood geological of groundwater victims in the agricultural diversion of a large benefit forests flood wave benefit. can negatively downstream area Addressing number of • Fragmentation of alleviation, releases to impact due to • Maintain high • Relocation of long term people. rainforests and riverine drought downstream • Excess recharge possible water table in large no. of national need forests mitigation of groundwater contaminations. the persons of use of • Population reduction in can positively surrounding surplus water river associated biota impact on •Slope instability area for irrigation in

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 274 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Ecology Hydrology Geology Sociology Planning Overall Intervention Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages recommendation Increase in saltwater water in upstream the drought intrusion downstream availability. region of the affected dry Hinder movement of reservoir. zone. fish along river Degradation of water Sustainable quality down stream solution for effects of global warming. Optimum utilization of scarce foreign funds. Rue Castle No significant Loss of riverine forests Water Dam break Relieve flood Loss of vast Trans-basin ecological Population reduction in storage, risk. victims in the agricultural diversion Resettlement benefit river associated biota flood flood wave downstream area Addressing of a large Increase in saltwater alleviation, releases to Maintain high Relocation of long term number of intrusion downstream drought downstream water table in large no. of national need people. Hinder movement of mitigation the persons of use of fish along river surrounding surplus water Degradation of water area for irrigation in quality down stream the drought affected dry zone. Sustainable solution for effects of global warming. Optimum utilization of scarce foreign funds.

Zero bund No significant Alteration in hydrology Flood Upstream Protection of Accretion of Minimizing loss Involuntary No significant Not a solution Not line option ecological with consequential alleviation backwater. river banks sedimentation of lives & relocation / benefit. for the cause recommended benefit impacts on Upstream from erosion in river bed. properties due resettlement but an isolated - Drying or flooding of extra and river bank to floods of a large measure for the Colombo wetlands inundation. sliding during Possible Minimizing number of effect. - Hinder storm water Delay in flood the rainy Accretion of crop damages families Further drainage recession, season. river bed in the flood Change of encouragement - Hamper fish migration Bridge scour erosion. area livelihoods of of urban through the due to some development in river/stream network velocity Impact on segments of vulnerable - Loss of riverine increase., natural flood people areas. vegetation and biota Flood ingress plain Not in par with to offsite developments international pumps. and meander best practices.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 275 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Ecology Hydrology Geology Sociology Planning Overall Intervention Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages recommendation - Loss of breeding sites • Drainage formation. • Not compatible of fish and those of congestion in with the other biota lateral • Impacts on National - Reduce aesthetic stream shallow Physical Plan beauty groundwater and Western recharging Region process. Megapolis Master Plan 50 ft bund No significant • Drying or flooding of • Flood • Upstream • Protection of • Accretion of • Minimizing loss • Involuntary • No significant • Not a solution line option ecological Colombo wetlands alleviation backwater, river banks sedimentation of lives & relocation / benefit. for the cause benefit • Hinder storm water • Upstream from erosion in river bed. properties due resettlement but an isolated drainage extra and river bank to flood control of a number measure for the • Hamper fish migration inundation , sliding during • Possible • Minimizing of families effect. through the river/stream • Delay in flood the rainy Accretion of crop damages • Change of • Further network recession , season. river bed in the flood livelihoods of encouragement • Bridge scour erosion. area some of urban due to segments of development in velocity • Impact on people. vulnerable increase , natural flood areas. • Flood ingress plain • Not in par with to offsite developments international pumps, and meander best practices. • Drainage formation. • Not compatible congestion in with the lateral • Impacts on National streams. shallow Physical Plan groundwater and Western recharging Region process. Megapolis Master Plan Flexible bund No significant • Drying or flooding of • Flood • Upstream • Protection of • Accretion of • Minimizing loss • Involuntary • No significant • Not a solution • Recommended line option ecological Colombo wetlands alleviation backwater, river banks sedimentation in of lives & relocation / benefit. for the cause but Subject to benefit • Hinder storm water • Upstream from erosion river bed. properties due resettlement of an isolated recommendations some families drainage extra and river bank to flood control measure for the of this SEA to • Change of effect. • Hamper fish migration inundation , sliding during • Possible • Minimizing consider other livelihoods of • Further through the river/stream the rainy Accretion of crop damages options in order • Delay in flood some segments encouragement network recession , season. river bed in the flood of people. of urban to decide on the • Bridge scour erosion area development in best option and due to vulnerable areas. to a subsequent velocity • Impact on • Not in par with EIA increase , natural flood international • Flood ingress plain best practices. to offsite developments • Not compatible with the National pumps, and meander Physical Plan and • Drainage formation. Western Region congestion in Megapolis lateral • Impacts on Master Plan streams. shallow groundwater recharging

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 276 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level ha Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

Ecology lydrology Geology Sociology Planning Overall Intervention Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages recommendation process. Diversion of • Will avoid • In order to avoid water • Water • Water • Gainful • Severe impacts • Minimize flood • Potential risk Flood prevention Few families may A comprehensive water from flooding in shortages in downstream Resource scarcity in utilization of on stability of risk in the of damage to in Lower Kelani be affected due to feasibility study and Kelani Basin lower reaches Kelani, water should be improvemnt upstream sub excess water the near surface Middle and present land Basin & support construction of a study of the flood to Mahaweli of the Kelani diverted only during the in Mahaweli basins from Kelani in and deep Lower Kelani uses and drought canal reduction potential Basin river basin rainy season when excess River Basin the dry zone. groundwater. River Basin drying off of mitigation in Dry in kelani through and improve water is available. water wells Zone, this intervention to hydrology of • Moderate • Reduction of • Severe • Enhance access by lowering be studied and EIA the Mahaweli flood sedimentation constructional to water by the ground Provide more carried out prior to river basin mitigation in Kelani River impacts due to farmer water table in water to NE & EP implementation of •Potential to damage in Kelani Basin rock blasting, community and the proposed for all purposes the proposal • A tunnel will aquifers Basin vibration and general public tunnel area. be less cement in the upper Prospects for destructive grouting. and middle long-term for terrestrial MWRB economic ecosystems • Severe impact development to than surface due to slope the country, canals instability and accretion of Long-term more steep slope sustainable landslides. solutions to water-related • Accretion of soil problems erosion in natural lands. Optimum return • Increase the on international sedimentation funds in Mahaweli to reap national Basin. economic & social benefits.

Draft Report - Kelani River Basin 277 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Development of River Basin Level Flood and Drought Mitigation Investment Plans-Kelani River Basin

References

• Goonatilake, S. de A., N. Perera, G.D. Silva, D. Weerakoon and A. Mallawatantri. 2016. Natural Resource Profile of the Kelani River Basin. International Union for Conservation of Nature Sri Lanka Country Office and Central Environment Authority, Colombo. 38 pp • Hemachandra, C. K. and Pathiratne, A. (2017). Bioassessment of the Effluents Discharged from Two Export Oriented Industrial Zones Located in Kelani River Basin, Sri Lanka Using Erythrocytic Responses of the Fish, Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 99:481-487. • Irrigation Departments (2008) Pre Feasibility Study on Kelani Ganga Upstream Reservoirs. Vol. 1 • Jayasuriya, A. H. M., Kichener, D. J. and Biradar, C. M. (2006). Viability status of biosphere reserves in Sri Lanka . J.Natn.Sci.Foundation Sri Lanka 2011 39(4):303-319. • Rajakaruna, S. (2015). A brief overview of river regulation on riverine vegetation. Sciscitator, Young Researchers' Forum - PGIS • Silva, E. I. L., Jayawardhana, R. A. S. N., Liyanage, N. P. P. and Silva, E. N. S. (2015). Effects of Construction and Operation of Mini Hydropower Plants on Fish Fauna Endemic to Sri Lanka - A Case Study on Kelani River Basin. Conference paper • Ministry of Irrigation and Water Management-Climate Resilience Improvement Project (CRIP). Consultancy Services for Development of Basin Investment Plans (DBIP) for Selected Basins. Kelani Flood Mitigation Strategy - Prefeasibility /Feasibility Study. Main Report and Annexes - October 2017. • Danish Hydraulic Institute, Lanka Hydraulic Institute Ltd. Kelani Ganga Flood Protection Study. Main Report -Final. March 1992. • Ministry of Disaster of Management and Human Rights, Department of Irrigation and Water Management. Comprehensive study on Disaster Management in Sri Lanka -Final Reeport. Main Report March 2009. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Oriental Consultants Co. Ltd (Japan) , Asian Disaster Reduction Center.

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