T.R. SULEYMAN DEMIREL UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES WESTERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE DEPARTMENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

STOKER’S DRACULA FROM A RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE

Bilgay ATIŞ 1430224011

MASTER’S THESIS

SUPERVISOR Prof. Dr. Ömer ŞEKERCİ

ISPARTA- 2018

T.C. SÜLEYMAN DEMİREL ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ BATI DİLLERİ VE EDEBİYATI ANABİLİM DALI İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI BİLİM DALI

STOKER’IN DRACULA ADLI ESERİNİN DİNİ PERSPEKTİFTEN İNCELENMESİ

Bilgay ATIŞ 1430224011

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ

DANIŞMAN Prof. Dr. Ömer ŞEKERCİ

ISPARTA-2018

(ATIŞ, Bilgay, Stoker’s Dracula from a Religious Perspective, Master’s Thesis, Isparta, 2018)

ABSTRACT

Over the years, numerous stories have been told about vampires, including the legend of Dracula. In 1897, reflecting the fears of Victorian society, Bram Stoker published his novel Dracula on the basis of religious myth. This study investigates the religious perspectives by touching on the anti-Christian values, biblical imagery and the Evangelicalism movement that emerged in the Victorian era, highlighting the ambiguousness of the religious perspectives illustrated in Dracula. Namely, the character Van Helsing and his associates call on Catholic forces, demonstrating the homiletic viewpoint against vampirism prevalent in the Christian religion. At the same time, Dracula reveals a superstitious mentality, as a moral thought reveals impurity through application of religious materials such as the communion wafer or crucifix. In this sense, Dracula represents the purification of a society that is at odds with religion in terms of its anti-Christian leanings. As such, the contradictions in Dracula are irresolvable in light of its religious perspective in gothic literature, with Stoker evincing contradictory opinions about both vampirism and the Christian religion through the lens of Evangelicalism. Some indications of religious allusion represent vampire hunters as Catholic forces fighting the evil forces in Dracula. The aim of the study is to explore the sadism of vampirism in contrast to Christianity, shedding light on the Jewish and anti-Christian conflicts in the book by analyzing its symbols of good versus evil, as well as its religious elements represented by vampire hunters as Catholic forces fighting against the forces of evil. Moreover, the study portrays anti-Christian values through the murder of innocent people by Dracula and discusses how the Ten Commandments place the vampire in a demonic category. Apart from Dracula’s savagery, the study also explains the “bliss of life” mentioned in the Bible.

Key Words: Anti-Christian values, Evangelicalism, biblical images, religious allusion, religious ambiguity.

iv (ATIŞ, Bilgay, Stoker’ın Dracula Adlı Eserinin Dini Açıdan Ele Alınması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Isparta, 2018)

ÖZET

Şimdiye kadar Dracula gibi vampirler hakkında birçok hikâyeler anlatılmıştır. Bram Stoker, 1987'de dini efsanenin ortaya çıkmasının ardından Dracula adlı eserini yayımlamıştır. Dracula, Victoria toplumunun korkularını büyük ölçüde yansıtmaktadır. Bu çalışma, Hıristiyanlık karşıtı değerler, İncil'e ait imgeler ve Viktorya döneminde ortaya çıkan Evanjelizm akımına değinerek dini bakış açısıyla ele alınması hedeflenmiştir. Bu çalışma, Dracula’da resmedilen dini perspektif’in belirsizliğini vurgulamaktadır. Van Helsing ve yardakçıları, Hıristiyanlık dini düşüncesinde vampirizme karşı vaizlere ait bir düşünce sergilerler. Buna rağmen, Dracula batıl zihniyete maruz kalmaktadır. Romandaki ahlaki düşünce, “Kutsal Ekmek” ve “Haç” gibi dini materyallerden dolayı kirliliği tasvir etmektedir. Roman, Hristiyanlık karşıtı gibi din ile çelişen toplumu arıtılmış olarak göstermektedir. Dracula, din açısından çözümsüz bir çelişkidir. Buna ek olarak, Stoker, evanjelizm öncülüğünde hem vampirizm hem de Hıristiyanlık dini hakkında çelişkili görüşler ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı, Hıristiyan dindarlığı sayesinde vampirizmin sadist yönünü araştırmaktır. Romanda da hâkim olan bazı Wesleyan ilahi motifleri görülmektedir. Bu çalışma, “iyi ve kötü” sembollerini inceleyerek kitaptaki Yahudi ve Hıristiyanlık karşıtı çatışmasına ışık tutmaktadır. Dini aldatmanın bazı göstergeleri, vampir avcılarını Dracula’da sözü edilen kötülüklerle savaşan Katolik güçler olarak temsil etmektedir.

Bu çalışma, Dracula tarafından kasten öldürülen masum insanlara atıfta bulunarak Hristiyanlık karşıtı değerleri tasvir etmektedir ve On Emir’in Dracula’yı kitapta nasıl şeytan kategorisine koyduğunu tartışmaktadır. Bu çalışma, Dracula'nın barbarlığının haricinde, İncil’de bahsedilen yaşamın mutluluğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Hristiyanlık karşıtı değerler, Evanjelizm, İncil’deki imgeler, Dini inanç, Dini muğlaklık.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZ SAVUNMA SINAV TUTANAĞI ...... i YEMİN METNİ ...... ii DECLARATION ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv ÖZET...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1. ANTI-CHRISTIAN VALUES AND THE POWER OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLISM ...... 1 1.2. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY ...... 10 1.3. THE AIM OF THE STUDY ...... 11 1.4. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 12 1.5. LITERATURE SURVEY ...... 13

CHAPTER II RELIGIOUS ALLUSIONS AND CHRISTIAN CONFLICTS

2.1. THE ANALYSIS OF VAMPIRES AND COUNT DRACULA ...... 14 2.2. THE CONCEPT OF RELIGION IN ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY ..... 25 2.3. ASPECTS OF RELIGION IN 19TH CENTURY LITERATURE ...... 34 2.4. TREATMENT OF RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN FICTION IN DRACULA . 41 CONCLUSION ...... 56 REFERENCES ...... 58 CV ...... 62 ÖZGEÇMİŞ ...... 63

vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank my dear supervisor, Prof. Ömer ŞEKERCİ, for his assistance, help and guidance throughout my studies.. His extensive support played a substantial role to write this this study. My appreciation also goes to Asst. Prof. Mustafa CANER and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Betüre MEMMEDOVA, who encouraged me with love and patience, for their support during the writing of this thesis. Finally, my deep and sincere thanks go to my father, Mehmet ATIŞ, my mother, Neşe ATIŞ, and my brother, Baturay ATIŞ for their endless, most valuable support and encouragement, throughout my life as well as through preparing this thesis.

vii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I am all in a sea of wonders. I doubt; I fear; I think strange things, which I dare not confess to my own soul. Bram Stoker

1.1. ANTI-CHRISTIAN VALUES AND THE POWER OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLISM

This study explores Dracula’s encounter with Victorian values through religion, paying particular attention to the contrast anti-Christian values and the biblical imagery in the characters reflected in Bram Stoker’s novel – a contrast that has been dramatically compared by some Irish critics have with the tensions found in the blood-sucking aristocratic and economic leanings of Anglo-Irish society.5

In this sense, the novel Dracula grapples with the events happening in the Victorian era in the nineteenth century, as the vampire Dracula is challenged by faith, the power of science, and religious beliefs, including devotion to evil. In this struggle, the protagonist, Jonathan Harker, uses Catholic sacramentals to confront Count Dracula, who experienced immortality after his death by taking the lives of others. On the other hand, Dracula was killed, but no one knew that his fear was the dark side of the religion.

5Stewart, Bruce. “‘Bram Stoker's Dracula: Possessed by the Spirit of the Nation?” Irish University Review, vol. 29, no. 2, 1999, pp. 238–255.

1 The study embodies sacred imagery with regard to Catholic-Protestant representation.6 In this regard, Catholic sacramentals were used against Dracula, including rosaries, holy water and crucifixes. The Eucharist*, as well, has great power over the devil and serves as a perfect weapon against unorthodox things, represented by vampires, who are possessed by evil.

From the beginning of the novel, the vampire Dracula can be seen as an anti- Christ. In the struggle by the Church to rule out pagan beliefs, vampires – who believe that drinking the blood of others will provide them with eternal life – are seen as anti- Christian. For them, blood is an essential element for survival, giving them an insatiable lust for victims -- a quality that is reminiscent of the historical reflection of Vlad Tepes. This false resurrection of the vampire through biting human flesh and drinking human blood is referred to as anti-sacrament.

Given their nature, vampire stories reflect various connections with death.7 Because of this, some literary critics have called the Dracula novel “death poetry”. Among these stories, there have been numerous myths concerning vampire burials. For example, according to common belief in Poland, people were sometimes buried with sickles so as to prevent corpses from reanimating. Aside from the myths, there are many religious allusions in stories such as Dracula; these allusions were the basis for Van Helsing’s fear of Dracula’s power, which he saw as potentially ravaging for human beings. Moreover, the novel portrays Dracula as in collaboration with the devil, as Van Helsing informs the other characters concerning the superstitions and puts forward his thoughts about biblical images in a mocking manner.

6 Bowles, Noelle. “Crucifix, Communion, and Convent: The Real Presence of Anglican Ritualism in Bram Stoker’s Dracula.” Christianity & Literature, vol. 62, no. 2, 2013, pp. 243–258. 7 Radford, Benjamin. “Vampires Real History.” Vampires: Fact, Fiction and Folklore. Live Science. n.p. Web. 15 Sep 2017. * The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or the Lord’s Supper in Christianity, is the ritual commemoration of Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples, at which (according to tradition) he gave them bread with the words, “This is my body,” and wine with the words, “This is my blood.” See: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eucharist

2 In terms of biblical images, Stoker invokes both light and water. In the Christian religion, light guides humans to salvation so as to avoid the darkness. On the other hand, water is a symbol of baptism used by Catholics in church. Van Helsing believes that evil in the form of Dracula must be repelled according to Christian rules. Thus, Van Helsing dedicates himself to God sincerely and struggles to save the world from the monster on behalf of the Catholic Church. In this sense, he can be defined as an exorcist* of vampires. Van Helsing’s powerful belief in the Catholic Church can also be seen in his biblical references and his warnings to Mina Murray. In doing so, he plays a crucial role in representing Christianity.

On the other hand, as Leatherdale asserts: “Another age or another culture less imbued with Christian dogma might fail to perceive Dracula's religious challenge.”8 Religion is construed in Dracula through the marked interpretations of literary critics. For example, Dr. Seward defines religion from a different perspective: “I moved forward holding the crucifix and the wafer in my hand. I felt a mighty power fly along my arm.”9 Here, a crucifix is shown as an important religious image in the novel; as such, the role of both Christianity and anti-Christianity emerge through sacred symbols.

Another example of vampires and religion can be found in the Vampire Chronicles, where vampires are shown as fearless creatures who have turned away from God. In fact, in nearly in all vampire books, religion is defined as meaningless for vampires, who have no faith. Likewise, in Dracula, readers can see vampires, who deny religion and the power of God, as blasphemous creatures. For instance, Count Dracula has various qualities that reflect Jesus Christ indirectly, as when he cynically mimics Christ by dipping bread into blood.

8 E. Blood, Barry. Christian Dogma: The 21st Century Perspective. Xulon Press. 2004. Print. 9 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Print. p.439. * In some religions, an exorcist is a person who is believed to be able to cast out the devil or other demons. A priest, a nun, a monk, a healer, a shaman or other specially prepared or instructed person can be an exorcist.

3 Looking at the historical aspect of Dracula, the name means “Son of the Dragon”, as with the historical figure Vlad III. There are many differences and similarities between Vlad III and the mythical character Count Dracula. For example, in both film and novels, Dracula travels to London as an American entrepreneur and playboy so as to defeat the Order of Dragon (an evil secret society that had transformed him into a vampire centuries before and murdered his wife).10 Similarly, Vlad III was known as a member of a mysterious religious group called Order of the Dragon, as well. According to legend, St. George rescued a girl by killing a dragon in those times, implying a relationship between dragons and a demon called Dracula in Romania.

Throughout the novel, religious symbols and conflicts appear frequently. The effects of dissidence between Catholicism and Protestantism can be observed, as well. For example, after Jonathan Harker is given a crucifix by an unknown woman to protect him against Dracula, he shows his views as a churchman: “I did not know what to do, as an English Church man, I have been taught to regard such things as in some measure idolatrous.”11 It can be understood with this remark that Jonathan Harker is a Protestant who believes in God and performs his religious duties. However, Protestants do not use crucifixes, unlike Catholics, out of concern that people will turn to such relics for worship, instead of to God. Therefore, carrying this symbol causes Harker to feel anxious. The combat between Catholic and Protestant beliefs can also be seen in the fact that Harker is an English churchman. Nevertheless, he cannot deny the close link between the Church of England and Catholicism when he encounters certain bizarre situations.

Harker’s religious questioning can be best demonstrated in the following line:

This is a terrible thought, for if so, what does it mean that he could control the wolves, as he did, by only holding up his hand for silence? How it was that all the people at Bistritz and on the coach had some terrible fear for me? What meant the giving of the crucifix, of the garlic, of the wild rose, of the mountain ash?12

10 Mane, Dragoş. “A Wolf’s Eye View of London: Dracula, Penny Dreadful, and the Logic of Repetition”. Critical Survey Vol.28, No. 1, 2016. P.41. 11 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.21. Print. 12 Ibid., p.21.

4 Harker questions God’s presence as he becomes doubtful and feels confused about the demonic thoughts of Dracula. During the journey, his religious thoughts regarding the crucifix can be viewed as follows:

Bless that good, good woman who hung the crucifix round my neck! For it is a comfort and a strength to me whenever I touch it. It is odd that a thing which I have been taught to regard with disfavor and as idolatrous should in a time of loneliness and trouble be of help. Is it that there is something in the essence of the thing itself, or that it is a medium, a tangible help, in conveying memories of sympathy and comfort? Some time, if it may be, I must examine this matter and try to make up my mind about it.13

Here, Harker tries to find a sensible explanation for what is happening to him by questioning the nature of the crucifix. Moreover, the other characters present different religious perspectives, and they reflect their characters through religion in the novel. Notably, Van Helsing mentions the Host in a mocking way, despite being an open- minded scholar:

The Host. I brought it from Amsterdam. I have an Indulgence. It was an answer that appalled the most skeptical of us, and we felt individually that in the presence of such earnest purpose as the Professor's, a purpose which could thus use the to him most sacred of things, it was impossible to distrust. In respectful silence we took the places assigned to us […]14

After Harker is confronted by Dracula, he is convinced of the power of the Catholic elements used against him, as evidenced by his assertion that: “We each held ready to use our various armaments, the spiritual in the left hand, the mortal in the right”15

13 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.41. 14 Ibid., p.300. 15 Ibid., p. 437.

5 On the other hand, Mina shows her anxiety and fear in light of her own religious beliefs:

Oh my God, my God! What have I done? What have I done to deserve such a fate, I who have tried to walk in meekness and righteousness all my days? God pity me! Look down on a poor soul in worse than mortal peril; and in mercy pity those to whom she is dear! Then she began to rub her lips as though to cleanse them from pollution.16

In Mina’s view, her soul had been ravished by Dracula, and she was ashamed to have become one of his horrible creatures. Yet, she feels an ambiguity between goodness and wickedness due to his contradictory behaviors. In the quote above, she shows her despair by pleading to God and appealing for help. This, it can be understood that Mina believes in God’s power, and as with Harker, she has never come across anything like these complicated events. Again, this demonstrates that religion is an indispensable part of Dracula.

Throughout the novel, we can also see the contradictions of the characters in terms of religion. For example, Jonathan Harker says: “We are in the hands of God!” and accepts his fate, saying farewell to Mina in the belief that they will never meet again, whereas Mina thinks that Harker will get into trouble because of the vampire. Some literary critics agree on the Catholic allegory by referring to Darwin’s theory: “The novel offers an exercise in syllogistic logic: a supposedly immortal being is destroyed by the defenders of Christ, armed above all with a faith in God – the conclusion therefore follows that God exists”17 Thus, the faith of all characters undergoes a shift because of Count Dracula.

16 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.268. 17Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in “Dracula” and its adaptations. 2004. Journal of Dracula Studies. n.p. Web. 15 Oct 2017.

6 As David Glover notes, it is necessary to analyze the religious aspects of Dracula through the lens of the deepening dilemmas in the Victorian era.18 In his study, he points out that Stoker realizes the dramatic fall of Anglo-Irish upper classes with respect to religion, wherein people begin to use their logic, questioning God and beginning to doubt. In this sense, it is difficult to say that Stoker references only Catholicism, rather than Protestantism. In fact, Stoker evokes both religions in Dracula through critical interpretations and imagery.

Another instance of the characters showing their religious beliefs can be found in chapter 13, where Abraham Van Helsing removes the crucifixes, thus showing that he is not Catholic. Instead, he wants to make a scientific and sensible connection between the ancient beliefs in garlic, crucifix, stakes and superstitions. However, while some characters’ religious beliefs are clear, some are indeterminate, as with Renfield, who eats flies and displays other strange behaviors. In chapter 11, for instance, he attacks Seward and cuts his wrists, licking his blood and repeating this phrase: “The blood is the life!”19 In this sense, he behaves like a monstrous animal. Renfield is so mesmerized by Dracula that although he wants to punish the assailant of Mina, he instead kills himself, demonstrating self-sacrifice in terms of Catholic analogy.20

Another bizarre character in Dracula is Quincey Morris, who ignores Dracula’s forces. Both Morris and Renfield demonstrate their ignorance about the existence of God and faith. However, Morris’s death, like that of Christ, can be viewed as a spiritual rebirth,21 as he is reanimated in a different form a year later. In fact, almost all characters are under the auspices of Dracula in various ways. Unlike Mina, however, Lucy was ravished by Dracula.

18Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in “Dracula” and its adaptations. 2004. Journal of Dracula Studies. n.p. Web. 15 Oct 2017. n.p. 19Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.202. 20Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in Dracula and its adaptations. Journal of Dracula Studies. 2004. Web. 15 Oct 2017. 21Ibid., p.4.

7 In chapter 18, the Catholic Van Helsing says to Mina: “You must be our star and our hope, and we shall act all the more free that you are not in the danger, such as we are”22 These words of Van Helsing, from “Star of The Sea”, fill her with gratitude. Towards the end of the book, some characters become more Catholic, rather than Protestant. For example, Wixson remarks that: “Harker returns to Transylvania under conditions which are the complete opposite of those of his first trip – instead of being alone, unsure, and Protestant, he is now in a group, experienced, and quasi-Catholic”;23 and Dr. Seward becomes Catholic, as well.

On the contrary, although he became a strict Catholic by the end of the book, Harker has never before used crucifixes or holy wafers. However, he eventually accepts the power of the crucifix by rejecting the notion that it is idolatrous, as he believed before:

I felt a mighty power fly along my arm, and it was without surprise that I saw the monster cower back before a similar movement made spontaneously by each one of us. It would be impossible to describe the expression of hate and baffled malignity, of anger and hellish rage, which came over the Count's face.24

This example is just one of Dracula’s numerous religious references. Therefore, many literary critics have emphasized Dracula’s Christian foundations, as with Clive, who explains: "It is superfluous to claim that Dracula is a Christian parody."25 Leatherdale likewise stresses the role of Count Dracula as an anti-Christian character, in accordance with the Catholic view, that vampires such as Dracula are utterly evil and in need of salvation from demonic thoughts, as Abraham Van Helsing insists in the novel. In other words, while Dracula worships Satan, he can still be saved by God.

22Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin p.346. 23Wixson, Kellie. Dracula: An Anglo-Irish Novel. In Dracula: The Shade and the Shadow, ed. Elizabeth Miller. Westcliff-on-Sea: Desert Island Books, 1998. 24 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.440. 25 Wynne, Catherine. Bram Stoker and the Gothic. Formations to Transformations. London. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. p.63. Web. 08 Oct 2018.

8 In a further comparison between Christianity and the vampire myth, Clive Leatherdale refers to transubstantiation.* This likewise illustrates the themes of good and evil that are revealed in Dracula. Harker’s attitude emphasizes is the conflict he feels in his statement: “It is odd that a thing which I had been taught to regard with disfavor and as idolatrous should in a time of loneliness and trouble be of help.”26

In this sense, Harker’s distaste toward sacred objects is altered after the bizarre situations he encounters, and he begins to question God by comparing Christianity and anti-Christianity. In the novel, Christianity is used not only as a religious weapon against vampires, but also nods toward fate – an essential device in many horror books or novels; as with the appeal: "Strike in God's name, so that all may be well with the dead that we love, and that the Un-Dead pass away."27 Moreover, Count Dracula uses religious weapons himself against innocent characters in the novel.

In terms of Protestantism versus Catholicism, literary critics have analyzed the ways that this tension is addresses throughout the novel, which is seen as a pivotal environment in terms of Anglo-Irish history. Namely, the disparate ideologies between Protestantism in England and Catholicism in Ireland led to political conflict, exemplified by the expedition of William III across the seas to save England from both the perils of Catholicism and its Irish exponents.28 The Irish author James Joyce criticizes Dracula in terms of its Anglo-Protestant origins.29 However, Stoker emphasizes the power of the holy elements of Catholicism. On the other hand, rather than a divisive force, Alison Milbank highlight’s Dracula’: “Stoker used a demonic character to unite a disparate opposition. Therefore, Dracula calls forth a union of Protestant word and Catholic sacrament, figured as modern and ancient modes of communication”30

26 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.41. 27Ibid., p. 308. 28Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in Dracula and its adaptations. Journal of Dracula Studies. 2004. Web. n.p. 15 Oct 2017. 29 Valente, Joseph. Dracula’s Crypt. Bram Stoker, Irishness, and the Question of Blood. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 2002. N.p. Web. 07 Oct 2018. 30Ibid., n.p. * Transubstantiation can be defined as the miraculous change by which according to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox dogma the Eucharistic elements at their consecration become the body and blood of Christ while keeping only the appearances of bread and wine. See: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/transubstantiation.

9 While the harsh struggle between Protestantism and Catholicism is not as strict today as it was in Stoker’s time, this multifaceted issue is a recurring topic in the novel. As it is understood, Dracula is an anti-Christ. He is vulnerable to Catholic elements, and therefore, he can be killed by Catholic artifacts, while Protestants do not hold the same power.

In Chapter 1, the “Concepts and Aspects of Religion” are discussed in more detail, as well as “anti-Christian Values and the Power of Religious Symbolism”. Both chapters examine how religion influenced Victorian society and its characters in different forms.

The following chapters analyze how Christian and anti-Christian fiction embody characters, also looking at the “Treatment of Religion” and “Christian fiction in Dracula”. In the first chapter, some religious quotes by the characters are discussed in detail.

Finally, the conclusion details the vampiric traits and demonstrates how the supernatural beliefs of some characters are reversed. Thanks to these characters, the power of God is revealed through their rejection of superstitious beliefs. In addition, the conclusion highlights the impact of religious ambiguity on the characters and on biblical values.

1.2. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study encompasses the religious perspectives in the novel Dracula, written by Bram Stoker. This novel is distinctive as the most recognized and successful novel written in both epistolary and episodic form, through the letters, journal entries, and newspaper clippings utilized by some of the characters. Moreover, Bram Stoker uses a striking literary technique by including multiple narrators in the novel, so that it can be interpreted from numerous points of view. Through using an episodic format, Stoker further enhances understanding of story, as well as astonishing readers and elevating the classical vampire novel by making it understandable and more believable.

10 In this study, the similarities and differences between the historical character Vlad Tepes and the mythical character Count Dracula are analyzed. Count Dracula has a real prototype in the ruler of Wallachia, in Romania, in 1436. There have been many book and film adaptations of Bram Stoker’s Dracula, and the novel has maintained its popularity until the present day. As religion is known as a dark and complicated topic utilized in literature, we chose to investigate this issue by revealing the hidden anti- Christianity in the novel. Our aim is to demonstrate the importance of the biblical images used by all of the characters. Furthermore, in order to analyze the novel better in terms of religion, we must also examine the religious beliefs of the characters; thus, the characters’ beliefs in Protestantism and Catholicism are examined.

Anti- Christian values and their effects on the characters are reveals in the novel; in this regard, we are primarily concerned with the influences of gothic melodrama portrayed via Stoker’s religious consciosness. In doing so, this study incorporates the images of Jesus Christ, the historical reflection of Vlad Dracula, and how theology is generated in Dracula’s world.

1.3. THE AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to analyze the anti-Christian values in Dracula, as well as the hidden Catholic sacramentals and the powers they have over the characters in the novel. Literary critics have approached religion in Dracula through diversified perspectives. While the novel does not handle Christianity in a direct way, it offers a critique of religion both in a serious manner as well as mockingly in some places.

Vampiric lore has emerged in many types of texts, but from a literary viewpoint, the main focus on vampires has been through gothic horror. Numerous archetypes of vampires are in existence, but while there are older studies about gothic horror, Bram Stoker’s Dracula is the most widely treated, and the Dracula novel has been discussed from a variety of stances over the years. In this sense, while the original text of Dracula remains unaltered, the perceptions of readers have changed substantially. In this study, the aim is to discover how religious items are portrayed in the novel, as Stoker evokes the power of religion in England during his time and reveals some of its major religious figures.

11 Additionally, he sheds light on the hypocrisy of religious thought through biblical references, as well as illustrating similarities between the characters of Count Dracula and Van Helsing in terms of anti-Christian values. As such, one of the purposes of this thesis is to discuss some of the negative and positive religious interpretations in the characters and in Dracula, as well as presenting the views of critics.

While some literary critics ignore the religious aspects of Dracula in their interpretations, Dracula’s religiosity is neither an arbitrary feature nor a simple allegory intended to give social messages to readers. For that reason, our aim is to examine the religion and the religious images in detailed and comprehensive manner, referring to the interpretations of literary critics in terms of anti-Christianity. The role of the religion in the novel will be discussed, as well as how it influences the characters.

1.4. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Previous studies have approached Dracula from different points of view, ranging from sexuality, psychoanalysis, gender roles, cultism and so on. There are also many studies about the religious aspects. However, there has been no master’s thesis written on the subject in Turkey. Therefore, we encountered difficulties in the process of finding articles, books or dissertations written about the impact of religion in Dracula. Moreover, while Bram Stoker examines gothic melodrama, adventure and romance in his writing, he had not written any books or novels directly related to religion or theology. However, in his Dracula, My Love, which portrays journal of Mina Harker, readers may come across religious and biblical images to a limited extent. The main shortcoming of this thesis is that the religious perspectives are limited by means of anti-Christianity.

12 1.5. LITERATURE SURVEY

Concerning Bram Stoker’s Dracula we have come cross lots of literature: books, essays, theses and many other studies, as well as film adaptations, but there are few studies dealing with Dracula from a religious perspective. Available literature on Dracula approaches it from blood, terror, gender, and vampire but for religion.

1.6. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

In this study we have used textual analysis method to analyse Dracula from a religious perspective. Literature on Dracula have been collected, assessed and interpreted on textual basis. Historical text-based and text-based techniques have been used in this study to compare the original Vlad Tepes and the mythological Dracula. All the text relating to Dracula have been used by adopting a qualitative method. It is worth noting that the study has been organized in light of collected literature consisting of books, journals, theses and other sources.

13 CHAPTER II

RELIGIOUS ALLUSIONS AND CHRISTIAN CONFLICTS

Is this my reward for defending God’s church? I renounce God! I shall rise from my own death to avenge hers with all the powers of darkness. Bram Stoker

2.1. AN ANALYSIS OF VAMPIRES AND COUNT DRACULA

In the 19th century, vampires were understood as corpses who could be revived by the power of human blood. In The Encyclopedia of the Undead, a vampire is described as a revenant who sustains life by drinking blood of the living,31 and vampires believe that they will be immortal as long as they keep obtaining blood. On the other hand, in The Everything Vampire Book, vampires are portrayed as bizarre monsters that hypnotize others with their eternal power.32 In fact, in most sources, vampires are supposed to have similar features, such as feeding on blood to survive; and if they do not drink the blood of others, they will eventually weaken. Moreover, all kinds of vampires are seen as having malignant occult powers, and they are unable to endure the daylight; thus, they rejuvenate themselves in their coffins during the daylight hours. As mentioned previously in this study, all vampires are viewed as abhorrent monsters due to these bizarre features. However, in 19th century literature, a discrepancy can be seen in this perception of the vampire as a monster, as vampires are described as smart gentlemen and noblemen.

31 Melton, J G. The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead. Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1999. Print.p.707. 32 Barb , Karg, Arjean Spaite and Rick Sutherland. The Everything Vampire Book. U.S.A: Adams Media, 2009. p. 264. Print.

14 Throughout history, in various cultures, there have been differing myths about how vampires come into existence. For instance, in Croatia, one can become a vampire known as pijavica when an incestuous crime is committed.33 On the other hand, in Macedonia, a vampire may arise when an unbaptized child dies and certain taboos are broken. Another superstitious belief from Poland holds that a child born with teeth will become a vampire. In Bavarian, Croatian, Greek and Cretian superstition, a vampire must be destroyed by cutting off its head.34 Legends about vampires have been existed for centuries in other countries, as well, including India, China, and Malaya; the Slavs and their neighbors, in particular, have legends of vampirism.35 As such, vampires have played an active role in both literature and film, and these maintain their popularity through the present day.

These bloodsuckers reflect the fears of society through their nature as immoral and inhuman monsters.36 In Dracula, immorality and inhuman characteristics are illustrated in a unique way; for instance, regardless of being a murderer, a sorcerer or an alcoholic, one can become a vampire after death.37 In addition, association with religion and science is demonstrated through the characters’ faith.

In this sense, the Victorian era was characterized by a focus on both science and religion in the perspective of the public consciousness, as described below:

As science education was expanded and formalized, a fundamental transformation occurred in beliefs about nature and the place of humans in universe. A revival of religious activity, largely unmatched since the days of the Puritans, swept England. This religious revival shaped that code of moral behavior which became known as Victorianism.38

33 Johansson, Elisabeth. A Domesticated Vampire: How the Vampire Myth has changed since Bram Stoker’s Dracula to Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight. 2010. Lulea U. Bachelor dissertation. 34 Wayne Bartlett & Flavia Idriceanu. Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth, (Sutton: Sutton Publishing, 2002), p.3. 35 Oinas, Felix. “East European Vampires and Dracula.” Journal of Popular Culture. Vol. 16. No. 1. 1982, p. 108-116. 36Orlomoski, Caitlyn. From Monsters to Victims: Vampires and Their Cultural Evolution from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Century. 2011. Connecticut U. Honors Scholar thesis. 37 Melton, J. Gordon. The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead. Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994. Print. 38 “Dracula's Book Report Essays.” Essay Topics | Bartleby, 2011, Web.

15 As this quote demonstrates, increased religious zeal arose in the face of growing scientific awareness. This tension is reflected in characters such as Jonathan Harker, who tries to make a logical connection between religion and science to justify his faith. Similarly, some scholars and critics of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, argued that Darwin’s work did not disprove Genesis (the Christian origin story of the world) and that biblical images were used incorrectly.

On the other hand, science and religion have both stimulated anxiety and fear up to the present day. In Dracula, the fears of Victorian society are revealed through means of religion, and fear is used on characters as a weapon. From the beginning of the novel, some indicators of Christianity can be observed, such as a strange woman giving Jonathan Harker a crucifix to protect him from evil on his journey to Bran Castle. Thanks to the crucifix, Harker feels secure when he is restrained by Dracula. Moreover, the Catholic Church magnifies the threatening aspects of the vampire myth, portraying vampires, as well as creatures such as witches and werewolves, as metaphysical monsters in order to protect Christian people from demonic thoughts.39 At the same time, it offers remedies against vampirism.

In this study, the similarities between myth and Christianity were explored, such as the power of blood. According to Assyrian and Babylonian mythology, the creature’s soul as vampire died but had no peace.40 In Babylonian lore, in particular, evidence of vampires was found in as the form of a female called labartu. This dreadful creature and fed on both humans and animals, but she preferred young children. A similar creature to labartu, who also feeds on young children, can also be found in Judaic culture,41 while vampires in other cultures were believed to choose victims regardless of their identity.

39 Ivey, Dorothy. The Vampire Myth and Christianity. Master thesis. Rollins College. 2010. 40 Vampire Mythology. Simple Search. N.p., 2010. Web. 30 June 2018. 41 Johansson, Elisabeth. A Domesticated Vampire: How the Vampire Myth has changed since Bram Stoker’s Dracula to Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight. 2010. Lulea U. Bachelor dissertation.

16 In terms of the supernatural powers of vampires, Philostratus references them in terms of the life of Apollonius.42 In Roman culture, vampires were like witches that transformed into crows to drink blood of humans, as with Horace, who focused on their supernatural features of feeding on blood. Moreover, in Medieval times, the Squire of Alnwick references the life of an evil man43 who was convinced by the devil to dwell underground, as did Dracula. This vampire, according to W. Newburgh, would emerge at night to hunt the villagers. As with all vampire novels, the main objective of the creatures is to gain power and eradicate goodness and faith. For example, in one story, a monk averted a cleric in the abbey with an axe; and when the tomb was opened, a new axe was found. In vampire lore, it is clear that vampires are not permitted to enter a church, due to their sinful nature.

From another perspective, Christian theologians have named Leo Allatius’s book as the origin of vampires,44 with the Church referencing vampires in the struggle to eliminate Paganism. Likewise, the Protestant theologian Louis Lavater studied the classical and historical aspects of vampires,45 noting that people describe natural or real things as supernatural, as with the myth of Count Dracula. Other scholars believe that vampires were created when a demon conducted unholy rituals, while a further opinion holds that someone who is sinful life cannot lie in peace after death; in this sense, vampirism is seen as a divine punishment.46 Folk stories about vampires exist in different forms, ascribing numerous different powers to these bloodsucking monsters. As David Keyworth mentioned in his book, all vampires feed on blood to live eternally, while in other examples vampires have the ability to shape shift into animals.

42 Wayne Bartlett & Flavia Idriceanu. Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth. Sutton: Sutton Publishing. 2002. p.3. 43 Vampire Mythology. Simple Search. N.p., 2010. Web. 30 Jun 2018. 44 Johansson, Elisabeth. "A Domesticated Vampire." Bachelor Thesis. N.p., 2010. Web. 19 June 2018. 45 Vampire Mythology. Simple Search. N.p., 2010. Web. 30 Jun 2018. 46 Johansson, Elisabeth. "A Domesticated Vampire." Bachelor Thesis. N.p., 2010. Web. 19 June 2018.

17 In antiquity, in some parts of the world people opened the graves of suspected vampires and decapitated or cremated them as Christian practices. In Northern Europe, in particular, suspected vampires were dismembered to prevent them from returning from their graves.47

In the Dracula novel, the vampire represents “death culture”. With Count Dracula, Stoker not only illustrates a symbol of death, but of extraordinary menace. In some pre-modern folklore, vampires were described as well-fed and immortal. While these corpses were known as specters, they also behaved like poltergeists or incubi, but at that point in the folklore, they did not drink blood.48 Blood-sucking vampires first appeared in Eastern Europe in the 18th century; these creatures attacked their prey to feed on their blood. It was also believed that their bites were contagious; their victims could also become vampires after death. In this sense, Dracula is referred to as a contagious disease.

As previously mentioned, in order to eliminate this threat, citizens would invade the graves of suspected vampires. Seeing the bloated corpses in the graves, which gave them the appearance that their hair and nails were growing, people took this as evidence that the corpses were still alive. As Keyworth explains, in certain cultures, people such as gypsies would ritually decapitate and cremate the bodies to prevent them from coming back.49 Keyworth gives importance to this explanation of the way that Gypsies dealt with vampires.

Unlike Russian and Polish vampires, Ukrainian vampires would die if exposed to sunlight. On the other hand, Romanian vampires appeared only at night. In more modern times, fangs are a common feature of vampires; however, these are not seen in older folklore. It is interesting that these vampires cannot directly attack their preys by biting their necks.

47 Keyworth, David. Troublesome Corpses: Vampires & Revenants From Antiquity to the present. Norfolk: Desert Island Books Ltd., 2007. Print. p .24-29. 48 Pálmadóttir, Svanhildur Rósa. "The Significance of Vampirism and Doppelgänger in Emma Tennant’s The Bad Sister." "My Teeth Go into Her Smooth Neck". N.p., n.cd. Web. 14 Jun. 2016. 49 Keyworth, David. Troublesome Corpses: Vampires & Revenants from Antiquity to the present. Norfolk: Desert Island Books Ltd., 2007. Print. p .24-29.

18 According to folklore, vampires are cursed by the devil. In older lore, some vampires transformed into animals or other shapes, as mentioned before; however, more modern vampires attend to be depicted in human form, thus gaining empathy even with their supernatural powers. For example, in Stoker’s novel, Count Dracula shows himself to the public as an American entrepreneur who creates an infinite energy bulb. Here, we can see an allegory.

Additionally, vampires are sexual monsters, with mental and supernatural powers that no one is able to resist. They are often associated with itches, gypsies and the devil.50 From a modern perspective, Tennant describes vampires as symbolizing the faults of the society; she explores vampire myth and religious symbolism in her novel by explaining gender roles in terms of folkloric aspects.

Despite the vampire’s negative features, Dracula has gained renown by stimulating the attention of the readers through his mysterious and demonic nature. Originally, Dracula was the name given to Vlad Tepes, of Wallachia, who was known for his savagery to his enemies. When readers think about the Dracula through a religious perspective, they can reflect on their own beliefs. The historical character Vlad Tepes had an insatiable taste for blood and for killing, as with the mythical Dracula portrayed in the novel. Glennis Byron points out the relationship between them by asserting that:

As numerous critics have noted, the novel follows the progressive dissolution of boundaries, of hierarchies, the dissolution of distinctions between male and female, life and death, primitive and civilized, human and animal, natural and unnatural, self and other, the blurring of all those categories upon which the security and comfort of the middle-class Victorian world depended.51

Within the novel itself, Jonathan Harker also makes the connection between the historical Vlad Tepes and Count Dracula, explaining that: “In his speaking of things and people, and especially of battles, he spoke as if he had been present at them all.”52

50 Haffenden, John. Novelists in Interview. New York: Methuen &Co. 1985. Print. 51 Byron, Glennis, Ed. Introduction, Dracula by Bram Stoker. New York: Broadview, 2000. P. 16. 52 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Print. p.2.

19 In other instances of vampire stories -- The Bad Sister, for example, all characters have different characteristics with respect to religion. In this case, Dracula is a female character, drawing attention to the feminism movement. Jane’s journal has not been written to be read by anyone else. On the contrary, both of them were written for the aim of therapy. In Dracula, no other female vampire appears except for Lucy, after she was bitten by Vlad.

Unlike Stoker, Tennant draws attention to female roles in society through the religious ideas in the text. As she says: “The important split which makes this wild person is only there because of the necessity to conform; if that necessity wasn’t there, the wildness would have transformed into a proper sense of self-expression, without so many barriers”53 On the other hand, in the Dracula novel, Lucy was at first an innocent woman, but then turned into a vampire by killing savagely. With this in mind, Carol Senf argues that: “If it were not for Mina Harker, the reader might conclude that Stoker is a repressed Victorian man with intense hatred of women or at least a pathological aversion to them.”54

Other critics, in analyzing Lucy, point out her kindness, aside from her subconscious mind being adversely affected by demonic thought. This explains why Lucy becomes the next victim of Count Dracula; Stoker goes further by killing his victims like small children. As with The Bad Sister, Tennant explores radical feminism in society through the use of religious imagery; here, Dracula becomes a woman, preying on other females.

In Stoker’s Dracula, Count Dracula has various superstitious beliefs. While investigations of vampires were previously under the authority of the Church, at the time when Stoker’s characters encountered the Dracula, the responsibility for investigating vampires was under the control of civil authorities. Therefore, it was believed that in order to desecrate a grave, there must be a legal proof.55

53 Haffenden, John. Novelists in Interview. New York: Methuen &Co. 1985. print.p.293. 54 Senf, Carol A. Dracula: Stoker’s Response to the New Woman. Victorian Studies, Vol.26, No. 1. 1982. p. 34. 55 Wayne Bartlett & Flavia Idriceanu. Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth, (Sutton: Sutton Publishing, 2002), p.26.

20 As it is already known, Dracula had supernatural features, such as being invisible in the mirror and having no shadow. Van Helsing notes that Dracula has other inhuman abilities, as well, such as controlling wolves and other types of animals in a godlike way. In the novel, we see instances of this ability when Jonathan Harker was frightened and tried to escape from the castle. Dracula had additional supernatural powers, as well, such as conjuring the mist he used for travelling and controlling the minds of other characters.

One example of Dracula’s mind-control ability appears in chapter 19, where Mina Harker notices a blurred white face coming through the mist, then loses her consciousness and is hypnotized by Dracula. Such features are seen in other cases, as well; such as when Lucy Westenra controls the mind of Whitby after she becomes a vampire.

As mentioned before in the study, Dracula feeds on his victims’ blood by leaving a mark on their necks, or, as in Mina Harker’s case, a burn scar on her forehead as an indicator of evil penetrating her blood. While it takes many days to for a victim to become a vampire, during that time, the victim has a mental connection to the vampire. For example, after Lucy Westenra was bitten by Dracula, she spoke of his feelings about her. In old vampire lore, sacred items such as crucifixes and holy water are used to repel the creatures. In Lucy’s case, garlic was also one of the significant religious symbols that protected her against the devil.

After victims become vampires, their physical and personal characteristics are changed. In Stoker’s Dracula, vampire Lucy had different characteristics than human Lucy aside from her physical appearance; the mark on her neck disappeared, while her teeth became more visible, and as Seward exclaims in chapter 16: “Lucy Westenra, but yet how changed. The sweetness was turned to adamantine, heartless cruelty, and purity to voluptuous wantonness.”56 On the contrary, Mina faced a different outcome; thanks to her religious faith and conscience, she was not targeted by Dracula.

56 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Print. p.301.

21 In The Bad Sister, Margaret plays an important role as the head of the female group who transforms Jane into a vampire. The similarities between Dracula and Margaret in these two novels represent common leaders with religious power. Margaret, as a female version of Dracula, also creates her own vampires by leaving marks on them.

Moreover, both Dracula and Margaret have telepathic powers, but Margaret removes the Christian protection from her bites; in this sense, they have the same association with the devil. Both Margaret and Dracula share the features of being evil and anti-Christian. As Jane writes in her journal, Margaret would sacrifice any other person than herself: “My salvation would be paid for in blood, but never hers. She was anti-Christ, she would take where he gave, the wooden cross on which he hung, a passive victim, she would plunge into the hearth of her prey.”57 In the end, it can be said that Jane sacrificed herself, as did Renfield. Both Dracula and The Bad Sister include Christian symbols of evil and Catholic images of Tophet. In most sources, vampire characters question whether God exists, raising doubts about religious faith. However, Louis believes that God exists. We would like to explain that vampires do not like Christian structures. On the contrary, according to old folklore, Dracula cannot take shelter around holy items. As mentioned previously, supernatural qualities play a crucial role in the Dracula novel. For example, Count Dracula, who is the antagonist, at first appears as a normal person at first. When Harker is invited by Dracula to the castle, he is shocked by his youthful appearance, a circumstance that he found bizarre and contradictory.

While Harker stays in Dracula’s castle, the takes some notes in his diary that show his ambiguity: “I am all in a sea of wonders. I doubt. I fear. I think strange things, which I dare not confess to my own soul. God keep me, if only for the sake of those dear to me!”58 However, when Dracula learns that Harker is going to leave the castle, he tries to frighten him; as Jonathan records in his diary in chapter 4:

57 Tennant, Emma. The Bad Sister: an Emma Tennant Omnibus. Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000. Print. p.90. 58 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Print. p.28.

22 As the door began to open, the howling of the wolves without grew louder and angrier. Their red jaws, with champing teeth, and their blunt-clawed feet as they leaped, came in through the opening door. I knew than that to struggle at the moment against the Count was useless. With such allies as these at his command, I could do nothing.59

While Jonathan did not know Dracula’s intentions, his gentle and hospitable behaviors caused him to feel suspicious. On the other hand, he was determined to stay in the castle, although he was afraid of Dracula, especially when he encounters features such as the vampire’s turning into dust, lack of a shadow, and lack of a reflection in the mirror. In fact, Dracula uses his fear factor on the other characters to gain respect. Dracula’s nature as an immortal being is intimated by Van Helsing, who describes vampires in the following manner:

When they become such, there comes with the change the curse of immortality; they cannot die, but must go on age after age adding new victims and multiplying the evils of the world; for all that die from the preying of the Un-Dead become themselves Un- Dead, and prey on their kind. And so the circle goes on ever widening, like as the ripples from a stone thrown in the water […]60

According to some sources, the fear and anxiety of the characters in the novel are related to contagious disease. For example, David Rogers defines Dracula in terms of infections illnesses: “[…] As with AIDS and hepatitis C viruses in our own time and syphilis during Stoker’s, the vampiric cult has emerged during periods of strangely spreading infection and disease.”61 The association between vampires and blood is also illustrated by Stoker when, in Dracula’s castle, Harker cuts himself while shaving, and the monster cannot control his reaction to the drop of blood.

59 Ibid., p. 72-73. 60 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Print. p.306. 61 Rogers, David. Introduction: Dracula. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth, 2000. p. 9.

23 Francis Ford Coppola also refers to vampires’ relationship to blood with this line:

Blood is… the symbol of human passion, the source of all passion…. Blood is the primary metaphor. In Nosferatu, Murnau saw the connection between the vampire’s diseased blood and plague; people today may see, as we did, the connection with AIDS. Even if people today do not feel a sacramental relationship with God, I think they can understand how many people renounce their blood ties to creation – to the creative spirit, or whatever it is - and become living dead. The vampire has lost his soul, and that can happen to anyone.62

Christopher Lee is likewise rhapsodical in describing Dracula’s bloodthirsty side. As Donald Glut explains: “Lee’s Dracula was a dynamic figure, fangs bared and dripping blood, red eyes flaring with satanic fire.”63 It can be also said that Dracula was cursed by drinking human blood. Yet the crucifix is displayed in Christian imagery in terms of bloodletting, as well: “In many medieval and Renaissance paintings blood pours from the spear-wound in Christ’s body, sometimes into a cup or grail, where it changes into the sacred wine of the Eucharist: This is my blood of the New Testament.”64

Some literary critics define vampires as creatures rebelling against order. As Gary Oldman puts it:

Vampires are fascinating. They are selfish, destructive creatures who half despise what they are doing yet cannot avoid doing it. I do not play him as out-and-out evil. It is a delicious cocktail because you know he is like the devil. But I have tried to show the good and bad paralleling one another—there is a dynamic there. The film image I cannot get away from is Bela Lugosi. He was really on to something: the way he moved, the way he sounded. I based my voice on his a little.65

62 Coppola, Francis Ford, V. James Hart. Bram Stoker’s Dracula: The Film and the Legend: New York, Newmarket Press, 1992. P.70. 63 Glut, Donald. The Dracula Book: Metuchen, Scarecrow Press, 1975. P. 158. 64 Matthews, Jack. Dracula: A High-Stakes Love Story, New York Newsday, 1992. P. 26-28. 65 Stuart, Roxana. Stage blood: Vampires of the 19th century Stage, Bowling Green Press. p. 162.

24 2.2. THE CONCEPT OF RELIGION IN ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY

If any religion had a chance of ruling over England, nay Europe within the next hundred years, it could be Islam. George Bernard Shaw

Until the end of the Victorian era, the Church of England was a religious icon for Protestants, instead of Anglicans. Throughout the 19th century, England was a Christian country. However, by 1914, the number of Jews in Britain had increased substantially, as a result of migrants escaping from oppression. However, even amid the Christian majority, there were diverse beliefs, confirmations and disagreements. In Dracula, though Catholicism played a prominent role, with sacramentals being used to prevent both Dracula and Lucy from killing many people; and with Van Helsing using a Eucharist wafer to prevent Lucy from escaping from her tomb. Moreover, Dracula reflects the Victorian tension between science and religion, as discussed in relation to Mina Murray and Jonathan Harker.

Various religious indicators also reveal Dracula’s evil side as an anti-Christ. Stoker invokes his metaphysical status by using a capital letter both for God: “So when He Came tonight, I was ready for Him, He raised me up and flung me down […]”66 and for Dracula, as with Renfield’s speech in chapter 8:

I am here to do your bidding, Master. I am your slave, and you will reward me, for I shall be faithful. I have worshipped you long and afar off. Now that you are near, I await your commands, and you will not pass me by, will you, dear Master, in your distribution of good things?67

66 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.402. Print. 67 Ibid., p. 148.

25 This passage shows that Renfield sees himself as a slave of Dracula, as he calls him his Master. Dracula as an anti-Christ appears as an oriental demon, with satanic powers surrounding religious symbols. His existence is important from the perspective of the binary opposition between good and evil portrayed in the novel. Namely, goodness is represented by Jonathan Harker, Quincy Morris, Mina Murray, and Arthur Holmwood, as well as Abraham Van Helsing, who describes himself as a minister of God’s will. Van Helsing and Dracula can travel in the sunlight and have access to the scientific use of Christian symbols that repel Dracula.

Therefore, they were brushed off by the vampires. In contrast to Dracula, in Rice’s Interview with the Vampyre, when a journalist asks Louis about religious symbols, he refers to them as nonsense and says that anti-vampire devices such as crucifixes are superstitious beliefs. From a religious point of view, vampires’ need for blood to survive can be thought of as either taboo or as sacred.

In this sense, Rice’s vampires appear as pagan in contrast to Stoker’s Dracula. For example, while Dracula’s harem of “female vampires” are repelled by religious symbols that are sacred in Christianity,68 in Rice’s novel religious symbols are not relevant from a Christian perspective.

In the Victorian era, the Church of England was declining in importance. In Victoria’s reign, the building of churches was galvanized by High Church.69 Yet the British Parliament was experiencing difficulty in creating new parishes, and the Church was represented poorly in manufacturing cities. Therefore, the government used the high-pay tactic for new churches. After certain changes took place, there was a profound increase in the number of clergymen, whose beliefs and practices were by no means uniform.

68 Greek, Anna. Vampires in the Twilight Saga: The Reinvention and Humanization of the Vampire Myth. 2010. Linnaeus U. Bachelor thesis. 69 Tennant, Emma. The Bad Sister: an Emma Tennant Omnibus. Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000. Web.

26 Among these, the Evangelicals* typically focused on the Gospel teachings, rather than on, emphasizing preaching and Bible studies, while on the other hand, High Churchmen revived rituals, images, incense and vestments not seen in England since the Reformation.70 However, on the whole, legislation was done away with in the Church of England in the 19th century. With the development of Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and other believers, the Church of England was exposed to pressure; and furthermore, following the emergence of historical and scientific texts such as Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, many literate people began to doubt the teaching of the Bible, and some intellectuals rejected Christianity. Some public figures even began to declare openly that they had no religious beliefs.

But others, such as Alfred Tennyson, continued to adhere to their beliefs, and the 19th century was far from completely rejecting religion. Even after older beliefs disappeared, new faiths emerged, such as Buddhism and Hinduism. In this sense, when reading gothic melodrama like Dracula, the effects of this religious tension are realized from different perspectives.

When reading gothic fiction, one can assume that religion will play an important role in the evolution of the literary genre. In this regard, the vampire motif is a significant indicator of religion. Stoker, for instance, uses the full force of God and his religious symbols against the undead, and he never questions his characters’ faith.71 Similarly, Jerrold Hogle emphasizes that: “Gothic fictions play with and oscillate between the earthly laws of conventional reality and the possibilities of the supernatural”72 As such, there have been examples of both good and bad supernatural events originating from religion.

70 Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in “Dracula” and its adaptations. 2004. Journal of Dracula Studies. n.p. Web. 15 Oct 2017. *Evengelicalism is any of the classical Protestant churches or their offshoots, but especially in the late 20th century, churches that stress the preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ, personal conversion experiences, Scripture as the sole basis for faith, and active evangelism (the winning of personal commitments to Christ). 71 Starrs, D. Bruno. Keeping the faith: Catholicism in “Dracula” and its adaptations. 2004. Journal of Dracula Studies. n.p. Web. 15 Oct 2017. 72 Hogle, Jerrold E. “Foreword by Jerrold E. Hogle.” American Zombie Gothic: The Rise and Fall (and Rise) of the Walking Dead in Popular Culture. Jefferson: McFarland Pub., 2010.

27 Vampires stand against anything that is holy, but in terms of combatting them, various viewpoints can be seen. For example, in his novel Salem’s Lot, Stephen King takes a unique approach with Father Callahan,73 who contends that religious symbols mean nothing without faith. As King argues, faith in God is the ultimate triumph against the demon. On the other hand, Van Helsing uses religious devices against Dracula, so that he cannot enter as un-dead. In his case, the symbols of religion and the faith as symbols are enough to repel vampires and keep Dracula out of the home.

Taking a different approach, Anne Rice, in her novel, Interview with the Vampire, reaches deeper into the role of religion within Gothic literature. Her vampire Louis goes as far as to question the ultimate meaning of life: “Is there a God? If so, then is he damned?” 74 Unlike Stoker and King, Anne Rice finds out questions for religion and faith.

Like Van Helsing, Father Callahan uses a cross to defend himself against the vampire Barlow. Despite this, the King moves to a recent kingdom with his religion. In his view, to use religious elements against vampires, one should have faith inside. Once Father Callahan’s faith weakened, “The last of its [the cross] light vanished.”75 Therefore, his faith and power came under the control of the vampire.

Callahan expands on his feelings about the religion by saying: “You have forgotten the doctrine of your own church, is it not so? The cross . . . the bread and the wine . . . the confessional . . . only symbols. Without faith, the cross is only wood, the bread baked wheat, the wine sour grapes […].”76 With this, King expresses that religious symbols are only effective when used with faith in God; without faith, all religious symbols will be useless. On the other hand, Anne Rice begins her novel by evoking some conventions about vampires, as when she speaks with his father about religious symbols, such as using rosary as a weapon by allowing him to touch it.

73 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017. 74 Ibid.,n.p. 75 King, Stephen. Salem’s Lot. Goodreads. N.p.., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2016. 76 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017.

28 In this sense, religion’s power over vampires in some degree is not completely eliminated, but questioned, as with this comment: “If a vampire is alive and has blood as mortals are, should he fear the cross?”77

In other words, Rice wants to say that since vampires have power and blood, they do not need to fear of God, portraying a trait that is unusual for a vampire: “I rather like looking on crucifixes in particular” said the vampire in spite of the conventions of previous vampire fiction […].”78 As this sentence indicates, Louis is not afraid of religious symbols, since he lacks knowledge of the existence of God.

In Stoker’s novel, vampires are mentioned as damned and not belonging to this earth. Indeed, they are unclean creatures who are baptized in vampire’s blood. By putting a piece of Holy Wafer on Mina’s face, Stoker shows his confidence with respect to religion. On the other hand, Mina was fearful, because “she with all her goodness and purity was outcast from God”79. In her case, she was on the verge of being damned through no fault of her own as the wafer burned her forehead and she said, “Unclean! Unclean! Even the Almighty shuns my polluted flesh! I must bear this mark of shame upon my forehead until Judgment Day”80. However, even if undead creatures are damned due to their demonic nature, God is merciful, and religion is still a powerful force.

In Salem’s lot, Father Callahan talks about the lost power of the crucifix, as the vampire mocks him: “Come, false priest. Learn of true religion. Take my communion”81. By mocking God, the vampire avoided religious objects, as there was no faith left in Callahan. In this sense: “The Master had marked him [Callahan]” making him “Unclean” before the eyes of God.82

77 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017. 78.Ibid., n.p. 79 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p. 308. 80 Ibid., p.296. 81 King, Stephen. Salem’s Lot: Goodreads. N.p , n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2016. p. 527. 82 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017.

29 In King’s case, he takes a different approach to religion in relation to vampires, as with the assertion in Salem’s Lot that: “I am not the serpent, but the father of serpents,”83 yet Callahan was a powerful enemy of vampires; as King suggests, religious belief is the only powerful weapon to be used against undead creatures.84

In fact, both non-Christian eternity and evil characters are focused on the undead in some vampire novels. For example, Tieck gives importance to eternal life and death. Christian doctrine cannot pacify Dracula because of his evil side and the same event occurs in other vampire novels. For instance, Johann Ludwig says that the vampire must live with the sense of guilt for being selfish by killing innocent people. Therefore, vampires are categorized as killers of innocents in Wake Not the Dead. On the other hand, Louis questioned eternal life, saying: “that I [Louis] was damned in my own mind and soul,”85 realizing the curse of immortality after becoming a vampire. As with Jonathan Harker, Louis constantly questions the meaning of life and tries to find an answer.

The writer’s response to this situation is: “Evil is a point of view;”86 in other words, a character is only evil if he or she sees himself that way. Lestat, for instance, did not see himself as being damned, but as godlike: “He take the richest and the poorest, and so shall we; for no creatures under God are as we are, none so like Him as ourselves, dark angels not confined to the stinking limits of hell but wandering His earth and all its kingdoms.87 In addition, Lord Ruthven, a Byronic vampire of Polidori, is associated with a seductive character and satanic side, as is Dracula. Likewise, some critics have searched for a deific side in Dracula. For instance, the first vampire novel, Varney the Vampyre, focuses on the emotions of the characters. In this novel, although the vampire is evil, he displays the emotional side of humanity.

83 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017. 84 Ibid., n.p. 85 Rice, Anne, and Roza Hakmen. Interview with The Vampires. 2nd ed. İstanbul: n. p., 2006. Print. Vampire Chronicles. 86 Ibid., p.88. 87 Ibid., p. 88 – 89.

30 Moreover, the character Sir Francis Varney challenges the idea of himself as evil and raises awareness about religious conscience and sin, as evidenced by his statement:

You are terrified,” said Varney, “and yet I know not why. I do not come to do you harm, although harm have you done me. Girl, I come to rescue you from a thralldom of the soul under which you now labour.88

In this context, the soul of the victim dies because of the vampire, freeing them from the slavery of sin. This idea is also expressed by a Swiss philosopher, who explains the slavery of souls oppressed by religion:

Always and everywhere salvation is torture, deliverance means death, and peace lies in sacrifice. If we would win our pardon, we must kiss the fiery crucifix. Life is a series of agonies, a Calvary, which we can only climb on bruised and aching knees. We seek distractions; we wander away; we deafen and stupefy ourselves that we may escape the test […] and yet there is no help for it – we must come back to it in the end.89

This line of thought emphasizes that humans, as well as vampires, are caught between the constraints of religion and the freedom of non-belief, thus illuminating the humanity of the vampire. For instance, Varney, who is the first vampire, is a lonely creature, like Dracula, and both are part of non-Christian eternity. In Victorian Suicide, Barbara Gates describes the vampire’s human side as follows: “But… [with] his mixture of good and bad, and in his final despair over religion, he was akin to many.”90 Indeed, Varney seeks out the existence of belief by referring to good and bad; as mentioned in Varney the Vampyre, the main goal is to determine some taboos blended with religious ambiguity. Moreover, Anne Rice argues that God that kills all creatures, regardless of distinguishing their features; furthermore, as Louis asks: “How could we be the children of Satan…Do you believe Satan made this world around you”?91

88 Prest, Thomas P. Varney the Vampyre or The Feast of The Blood. London: Blackmask Web. 2004. Jun 2018. 89 Amiel, Henri – Frederic. Amiel’s Journal: The Journal Intime of Henri-Frederic Amiel. Mary A. Wand, Translator. NY: A. L. Burt, 1882. p. 44-89. 90 Gates, Barbara T. Monsters of Self-Destruction. Victorian Suicide: Mad Crimes and Sad Histories. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1988. P.2. 91 Tadlock, Justin. Religion in the Vampire Motif. Justin Tadlock. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2017.

31 In other words, if God created everything, then how could vampires be creations of Satan? While Anne Rice points out the reasons for damnation as rejecting Satan, rather than the Creator, and that vampires are not in the category of God’s creation due to their damnation, Louis says:

“Then God does not exist . . . you have no knowledge of his existence.” In this sense, Anne Rice questions the presence of God, as do other critics, while Stoker approaches religion as a powerful weapon against vampires and persists in using religious symbols in Dracula. While Rice takes a different approach to religion, King follows Stoker’s vision, even taking it a step further to show that faith alone is the ultimate power against evil. In this sense, the utilization of religious symbols is seen in diverse ways by critics; while King says that all religious symbols are frivolous without faith.

Until present day, Christian burial has been seen as a tool to kill vampires:

Originally as burial was a spiritual function, it was laid down that no fee could be extracted for this without simony. But the custom of making gifts to the Church was partly as an acknowledgement for the trouble taken by the clergy, and partly for the benefit of the soul of the departed.92

This quote points to the power of clergymen and the Church. According to common belief in middle Ages, without proper burial rituals, the dead could become vampires. Thus, the Church specified rituals, such as laying a crucifix on a body, The body was sprinkling it with holy water, incensing it at specific times, and then buried it on consecrated ground.93 Many texts point to this religious norm in various ways; on the other hand, religion can be seen as the ultimate truth, and nothing – including lack of proper rituals – can condemn a soul other than God.

92 “The Catholic Encyclopedia.” Catholic Encyclopedia: Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 July. 2017. 93 Bertram Puckle, Funeral Customs: Their Origins and Development (1926; London: T. Werner Laurie, 1990), p. 32.

32 According to Coppola’s thought about religion, Dracula is paralleled in the story of Beauty and Beast. He gives an example, with Dracula echoing the last words of Christ: “Where is my God? He forsakes me…. It is finished…. Give me peace.”94

Andrew Greeley who is a horror novelist, comments on religion: “Religious imagination [is] the key to life’s delight; the vampire cult and similar oddities are drab substitutes, junk food of spirituality.”95

94 Stuart, Roxana. Stage blood: Vampires of the 19th century Stage, Bowling Green Press. p. 163. 95 Ramsland, Katherine. Hunger for the Marvelous: The Vampire Craze in the Computer Age, Psychology Today, 1989. P. 33.

33 2.3. ASPECTS OF RELIGION IN THE 19TH CENTURY LITERATURE

All religion, my friend, is simply evolved out of fraud, fear, greed, imagination, and poetry. Edgar Allen Poe

Before the Victorian Era, faith was a necessity to the people of Europe. However, Darwin’s theory posed a challenge for Christianity,96 leading to a clash of ideas between two groups and creating divisiveness.97 In Early Romantic literature, some writers focused on death, as well as supernatural topics such as Dracula. Therefore, according to some scholars, all vampire novels can be referred to as “graveyard” poetry, which has remained consistently popular over the years.

In his novel, Stoker portrays Dracula as an Anti-Christ character through his representation of anti-Christian values and superstitious beliefs, highlighting both the good and the bad aspects of religions. In chapter 8, for example, Dracula was transporting his boxes to Carfax when his ship wrecked because of a fierce whirlwind, as “the waves rose in growing fury,” and the wind roared like thunder and blew with such force that it was with difficulty that even strong men kept their feet”98 Whosoever, no one can resist the power of God, even vampires. However, this event shows power of the vampire, as he kills everyone in the ship; the killing of innocent people places the vampire into a demonic and anti-Christian category.

According to the common belief of Christians, killing another person means that one will go to hell. Moreover, Christians also believe that if someone wants to go to heaven, they must receive Holy Communion, which signifies the body and blood of Christ in order to let God into their heart.

96 Brown, Andrew. Charles Darwin Was Not an Enemy of the Christian Faith. The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 14 Nov. 2008. Web. 12 Oct. 2017. 97 Ibid., n.p. 98 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.232

34 Dracula, who distorts this ritual by drinking human blood and eating human flesh, also gains supernatural power. In the Bible, Christ is known as the light of the world, which signifies bliss and life; Dracula represents the opposite of Christ through his dark acts.

On the contrary, Dracula is not all-powerful, as he cannot enter a house unless the owner invites him. He also cannot enter a Church, as God is believed to be present there. Thus, when he moves into an abandoned church, this indicates that God was not there. Dracula also characterizes an anti-Christ through negative comparisons with Jews. Additionally, he – again mirroring Christ – travels with his followers as he journeys to Carfax.

His follower Renfield, who is one of the more bizarre characters in the novel, expresses disinterest in Dracula’s anti-Christian nature. As he says: “I am not even concerned in his especially spiritual doings. If I may state my intellectual position I am, so far as concerns things purely terrestrial, somewhat in the position which Enoch occupied spiritually”.99 Here, Renfield refers to the book of Hanok, which he reads to support his conscience. Enoch, or “Idris” in the Koran, tis the 12th prophet, and as with Renfield, is an inborn sinner. There are numerous other many similarities between Renfield and Enoch. Each of them repents of their sins and becomes more religious. On the other hand, where Enoch always shows his respect and faith in God after leaving his sins behind, Renfield demonstrates the same respect and reverence to Dracula, referring to him as “Master.” Renfield wants to be a follower of God, who for him exists in the form of Dracula.

As mentioned in the previous chapters, Dracula demonstrates some god-like powers by controlling animals such as dogs, wolves, bats and rats; according to the Christian religion, such animals are the rulers of the night Therefore, Dracula, as a dark power, has the ability to control them, where even God cannot do this.

99 Dracula, Bram Stoker – A Religious Analysis. UK Essays. n.p., n.d. Web. 10 Sept 2017.

35 In chapter 11, Dracula breaks into Lucy’s house: “There was a crash at the window, and a lot of broken glass was hurled on the floor. The windows blind blew back with the wind that rushed in, and in the aperture of the broken panes there was the head of a great, gaunt gray wolf.”100 In this sense, rather than English rationalism, Dracula represents the supernatural, the gothic and the sacred. In doing so, Stoker challenges the completeness of logical epistemologies. On the other hand, Herbert depicts Dracula as a struggling character in Vampire’s Religion, drawing an analogy between vampirism and the Christian religion by terming vampirism Christian apologism.

Another aspect of Christianity that is mirrored by Dracula, as an anti-Christ, relates to the idea of followers. For example, Christ leads his disciples, who value the word of God and work to spread it among people. Dracula, on the other hand, leads his followers as servants. Christ treats his disciples as equals and wants to lead their souls to salvation, so they can live an immortal life in the heaven. Dracula similarly leads some of his followers to an immortal life; on the contrary, he does not value or treat them equally, and he may even kill them mercilessly if they oppose him.

The contrast between Dracula and Van Helsing can be clearly seen, reflecting the contrast between Christian believers and non-believers. Dracula, on the one hand, is an evil vampire that has not experienced God’s grace; his soul cannot go to heaven because he does not follow the words of God. Van Helsing, on the other hand, is a strict Christian who struggles to accomplish his duties in the eyes of Church by eliminating all vampires, who if they are not stopped will enslave the world by gorging on human blood. By killing Dracula, Van Helsing sets the vampire’s soul free as a means of salvation.

100 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.232.

36 In 19th century literature, various aspects of religious allegory are represented through creatures such as vampires, bringing to light the sacred while calling into question various aspects of modern society. In Polidori’s book The Vampyre, the main character exposes the superficiality of the English aristocracy, while Shelley’s Frankenstein questions the existence of science in 19th century. Oscar Wilde’s books also examine religion in terms of taboos regarding death symbols, mortality, and immortality.

Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde exposes the fragmentation of humanity regarding religion by evoking its evil and good sides. In this sense, the Victorian period can be seen as a “monstrous age” through its representation of imaginary and supernatural monsters in literature. The monsters known as vampires were popular throughout this period, which was characterized by challenges to the system due to the conflicts between religion, science, and politics.

For example, Darwin’s Origin of the Species denies religion, pointing to evolution as the source of life; and in the avant-garde Decadence movement, many writers revolted against Victorian values. In this sense, the Decadents chose pessimism over optimism; as with the Dracula novel, they focused on living rather than life after death and preferred the natural to the artificial embrace of religion. The principle of the Decadents*101 is “Art for art’s sake above any natural representation or moral purpose,” in opposition to the norms of the Late Victorian period in the 19th century, where English society was forced to accept the system of the religious beliefs.

Bram Stoker’s Dracula came to existence after this period, becoming one of the classic novels and becoming the most prominent vampire story. Stoker’s writing revealed England’s sophistication during those times. He employed religious allegories, associating religious symbols such as crucifixes, holy water, reflection, and shadows with vampires. For example, the wooden stakes used in the past by peasants to hold a corpse in its grave Evolve into the religious symbol of Christ’s cross as a crucifix.

101 * The Decadent Movement was a late 19th-century artistic and literary movement, centered in Western Europe that followed an aesthetic ideology of excess and artificiality. The movement was characterized by self-disgust, sickness at the world, general skepticism, delight in perversion and employment of crude humor and a belief in the superiority of human creativity over logic and the natural world.

37 As Borey says, Stoker uses the aptly-termed notion of “undead” to characterize the vampire. Dracula, which addresses good versus evil and God versus Satan, demonstrates how religious aspects can make a versatile novel intriguing. Stoker portrays Dracula as an ingenuous evil, illustrating the war between good and evil by equating Victorian society with morality and Christian values.

On the other hand, in chapter 21, some erotic scenes contrast the power of religion with the reflection of the Decadents in literature:

With a mocking smile, he placed one hand upon my shoulder and, holding me tight, bared my throat with the other […] “You may as well be quiet; it is of the first time, or the second, that your veins have appeased my thirst!” I was bewildered, and, strangely enough, I did not want to hinder him. I suppose it is a part of the horrible curse that such is, when his touch is on his victim. And oh, my God, my God, pity me!102

According to Joyce Carol Oates, there is religious ambiguity a in the terms “good,” referred to as Christian; “evil,” or Unchristian; and “woman,” or virginal Christian. In this sense, Dracula is a unique and supernatural monster. Sensuality is seen as a weak side of humanity, and Dracula embodies this notion as a seductive monster and invincible opponent. For instance:

It is subtle, suggestive, disturbing appeal of the vampire that makes of Dracula legend a very different fantasy from, for instance, that of the werewolf or the golem (Frankenstein’s monster being a species of golem), whose grotesque physical appearance is…. repugnant and could never be construed as ‘seductive.’ The most insidious evil is that which makes us, not victims, or not victims merely, but accomplices; enthusiastic converts to our own doom.103

In fact, readers accept Dracula as a strong reflection of Christ, and in the Victorian period, the novel Dracula attracted readers through his dark reflection of religion, which mirrored their inner thoughts. In the 19th century, the French Decadent

102Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.412. 103 Oates, Joyce Carol. "Dracula (Tod Browning, 1931)." Southwest Review 76.4 (1991): 498. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 17 July 2014. P. 6.

38 Charles Baudelaire explored this dark reflection of humanity; as Jean Paul Sartre explained, Baudelaire saw the dark side of humanity as with Dracula.

In his poem To the Reader, an example of this can be seen:

Sin, stinting, senseless acts and sophistries

Pester the flesh and prey upon the mind; We keep our stainless consciences maintained

Like indigents who fatten up their fleas.

Headstrong in sin, half-hearted in remorse,

We want to make damn sure confession pays, That easy tears will rinse away disgrace-

The better to resume our intercourse. Great Satan lullabies our spellbound hearts

And rocks us in his cunning cradle, till The pliant precious metal of our will

Is vapourized by his hermetic arts.104

The lines ‘metal of our will’ and ‘rocks us in his cunning cradle’ constitute religious allusions delineating devotion to God. Yet, despite the characters’ religious zeal, they still have the soul of a victim. The vampire, as a child of the devil, is related to this, reflecting the dark side of humanity appears. Through the exploration of personal thoughts of the characters, sin, religion, immortality versus mortality and death, England’s apprehensive nature is reflected in Dracula. As Miller mentions, Count Dracula challenges Victorian society by using political, moral, and religious values, as well as distorting women by transforming them into vampires. The religious allegorical messages of the novel are seen from the beginning with Harker’s journey to Castle Dracula.

104 Sartre, Jean Paul. Baudelaire. Martin Turnell, Translator. NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1950. P.3.

39 Moreover, in addition to Christian allegory, Stoker evokes Greek mythology to reveal Harker’s fear:

The ship’s name, Demeter, is an allusion to the Greek earth goddess whose sorrow for her missing daughter causes winter. The name fits the vessel, which transports the earth that Dracula needs for his sleep. The story of the goddess has certain parallels to what is to come: Demeter’s daughter Persephone, a beautiful and virtuous young woman, was taken and forced to wed Hades, lord of the Underworld. [Persephone]… must spend a certain part of the year in the realm of the dead… Like Persephone, Lucy and Mina are two virtuous and beautiful young women. Like Persephone, they will be forced to enter a kind of marriage with a lord of the Underworld. And like Persephone, they will dwell partly in the world of the living and partly in the world of the dead.105

It can also be understood that the living are equated with good, while dead creatures represent evil. Another major important battle between science, religion and superstitions in England in the 19th century is exemplified by Dr. Van Helsing:

From Amsterdam, Van Helsing is a foreigner to England like Dracula, yet the geography of the West- east spectrum speaks volumes of the meaning of the novel. The farthest west is England, with its fiercely scientific beliefs; in the Far East side of Europe lies Transylvania, where superstition reigns. The Netherlands, then, represent a middle ground; Van Helsing practices medicine, but he also believes in the existence of supernatural beings like the Nosferatu. Thus, it is only he who can mastermind the British defense against Dracula, for only he understands both extremes.106

105 Borey, Eddie. “ClassicNotes: About Dracula” Gradesaver.com. 27 Jun 2000. Gradesaver. 20 Nov. 2018. 106 Zorn, Jeremy. “Dracula as Social Fusion.” ClassicNote on Dracula Web Site. May 9, 2000. 7 Feb 2005.

40 2.4. TREATMENT OF RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN FICTION IN DRACULA

God is in always creation George Bernard Shaw

In Dracula, the vampire relies on humans to restore his life after death; in doing so, he focuses on God as a source of life. As mentioned previously, according to Christianity, in order to live in peace, one must let God into one’s heart and refrain from any sin or demonic thought. In the Bible, God is referred to as Light, which symbolizes happiness in life. On the other hand, as a dark creature, Dracula's powers are limited when he is exposed to light, while his powers become stronger at night, in which the darkness symbolizes evil. This is seen in chapter 22, where Dracula appears while Renfield is speaking. Throughout the novel, Bram Stoker uses many other biblical allusions to demonstrate the god-like manner of Dracula, such as the motto “the blood is the life” spoken by Renfield; Renfield then quotes Enoch as well, referring to his desire to walk by Dracula’s side as Enoch walked by God’s side.

In another biblical reference, when the Count was defeated in the end, he turned into dust. This is truly important, because as Martin Luther King says, turning into dust represents Christian freedom in death and makes him free from evil things. Throughout the novel, Bram Stoker’s Dracula gives importance to the role of Christianity against anti-Christian existence, and Dracula is a demonic figure not only in physical appearance and behavior, but also considered as anti-Christ. Thus, in many aspects, Dracula is represented as the epitome of evil, who at the end of the novel is defeated by holiness.

A vampire who lives in a castle in Transylvania, and several hundred years old, Count Dracula is nevertheless a member of a noble and powerful family and presents a civilized and cultivated manner that belies his evil soul.

41 In chapter 15, it is revealed that Dracula is immortal unless he is destroyed in a traditional manner, such as driving a stake into his heart and cutting his head off. He subsists on blood from his female victims, who also become vampires and follow Dracula’s behaviors. Moreover, he is nocturnal and powerless in the daytime. These anti-Christian themes are dominant throughout the novel.

At the same time that Dracula represents many anti-Christian values, the novel draws attention to Christian beliefs. Superstitions are used as protection from evil, thus comparing and contrasting the power of God with Dracula. From the beginning, Bram Stoker shows us anti-Christian values and abuses Christianity.

Early in the novel, Catholic rosaries protect the Protestant Harker from Dracula when he cuts himself shaving; and Stoker shows us other instances of how someone can defend him- or herself by using Christian tools against vampires. For instance, Van Helsing uses the Host to make a “Holy Circle” to protect Mina Murray from vampires. The examples demonstrate how Christian beliefs are used to keep evil creatures at bay.

Christian allegory can be seen in the symbols that are used against him, associating a religious theme with Dracula and presenting a conflict between good and evil. While Dracula represents evil through the power of shapeshifting, interminable strength, immortality and the ability to transform other people into vampires, other characters, such as Mina, Dr. Seward, and Dr. Van Helsing represent good through their strong faith. These characters are able to use sacred objects from Catholicism against Dracula even if they have different religious beliefs. However, they use these objects inimically and anomalously.

In general, Stoker shows significant examples of the use of religious items. For instance, the crucifix used in the novel represents Christ’s sacrifice for mankind; through this power, it can keep vampires away. In chapter 16, before Lucy dies and turns into a vampire, Dr. Seward and Van Helsing give her a crucifix as protection against vampire attacks in the night. Different types of crucifixes, both silver and gold, are seen in Dracula. Lucy wears one around her neck to repel the demon, as Dracula drinks the blood of his victims from their throats. As is commonly known, Dracula’s reluctance to touch a crucifix shows his darkness.

42 Blood is also significant in Christianity, because Christians believe that the blood of Christ redeems them all. Stoker uses different expressions for blood, such as “gushed”, “spurting”, “trickled” and “dripped”.

Most of the characters in the novel believe in Christianity. For instance, Harker and Mina are God-fearing, and their insatiable love is light in the eyes of God. Moreover, Arthur is anxious about Lucy and wants to help her die in a suitable way. The most faithful character, Dr. Seward, is likewise strictly religious and believes that his success comes from God.

However, superstition and occult are intermingled with Christian beliefs. For example, garlic, wooden stakes and decapitation were used against vampires in the Middle Ages. Tension against the rational, scientific and religious thoughts found in Victorian society in England. In some characters, both religious attitudes and rational thinking are revealed. Van Helsing, for example, is an assiduous believer in Christianity but also holds superstitious beliefs; and both V he and Dr. Seward specialize in biological science and medicine.

Therefore, as a man of science, religion, and believer in superstition,107 Van Helsing exemplifies the belief among Victorians that rational, scientific knowledge might not be adequate to cope with the dangers of superstition, and that not all religious occurrence can be explained by science. Dracula, for one, is not only a devil on Earth, but also a mythical monster found in Romanian legends, and he cannot be explained through a testable scientific hypothesis. In this sense, Dracula is an abstraction of the human beastliness that frightens Victorians, and thus, they want to destroy him; and only religion and science can confront and kill the monster.

In Dracula, Bram Stoker also comments on the relationship between life and death, including the “undeadness” mentioned by Van Helsing. As the undead, Dracula sleeps during the day, when his power is limited, and is only active at night, when he controls and sees everything around him in a God-like manner.

107 Doe, Jane. "Religion, Superstition, and Science in Dracula." Religion, Superstition, and Science in Dracula. n.p., 2012. Web. 7 Nov. 2016.

43 In chapter 18, Van Helsing suggests that Dracula’s undead soul is trapped in a kind of prison and can be released by cutting of his head, freed by death.

Apart from Dracula, other characters in the novel hover between living and dying. For example, after leaving the castle, Harker needs time to regain his sanity, while in chapter 25, Van Helsing elicits information about Dracula by placing his student, Mina, into a hypnotic state. Lucy, moreover, is a sleepwalker who allows Dracula to find and bite her, eventually becoming a vampire herself. Dracula torments the characters in the book, and both Harker and Van Helsing show signs of premature aging as their hair goes gray. Renfield, on the other hand, is obsessed with the life- giving energies of animals like spiders, birds, cats and flies; he tries to gain this energy by eating them. It is noteworthy that these animals must die to give life to another; Renfield is curious character in the novel who learns from Dracula’s example. Unfortunately, in the end, he was killed by his Master.

Interestingly, the concept of undeadness seems opposite to the Christian notion of resurrection after death. In Christianity, when the body dies, the soul gains immortal life to be close to God in Heaven. However, from the perspective of undeadness, when the body is about to die, it proceeds to a purgatorial state in which it must feast on blood to go on living. In this sense, the body becomes a parasite by taking the vital energy of others to sustain its own life. In this sense, the novel contemplates the biotic processes of living and dying.

In terms of good, Mina exemplifies childlike innocence; like the cross, she is a sign of light against darkness. Likewise, the Catholic Church was viewed as a symbol of goodness. Thus, although as Bowles emphasizes that Protestant doctrine criticizes the use of the crucifix in Catholicism as superstitious,108 and although Stoker himself was a Protestant, he used symbols of Catholicism such as the crucifix in Dracula as objects to counteract evil. Another example of this is seen in Coppola’s film adaptation of the novel, where Harker takes the cross from a woman to protect himself against Dracula.

108 Bowles, Noelle., (2013) “Crucifix, Communion, and Convent: The Real Presence of Anglican Ritualism in Bram Stoker’s Dracula”, Christianity and Literature, Vol. 62. No. 2. p. 247.

44 One of the brides of Dracula hisses and disappears when she sees it;109 yet Dracula himself mocks this action, exclaiming: “You cannot destroy me with your idols”110 and throwing the cross into the flames. Thus, Catholic symbols that were thought of as protective are seen in this case to have no power.

In contrast to Stoker’s Dracula, in Francis Ford Coppola’s film, the vampire prince is clearly intended to represent a Christ-like figure.111 While Hart does not want to show a religious side, Dracula speaks words that were said by Christ in Coppola’s film.112 This film juxtaposes the story of Christ with that of Dracula, leading audiences to question their beliefs; moreover, even without Coppola’s adaptation of the novel, Stoker’s Dracula contains a large number of comparisons between the monster and the savior. The most obvious of these is the drinking of blood to obtain eternal life, which can be related to Holy Communion, where those desiring to follow Christ are asked to drink of his “blood”113 in the form of sacramental wine. Another similarity between Christ and Dracula is that the resurrection, or the ability to rise from the dead. After Christ was crucified, Christians believed that he returned from the dead and that his soul is still with them, as with Dracula. In other words, both Dracula and Christ died, but they still influence their followers.114 Furthermore, just as with Christ, Dracula sleeps in a tomb; and both rise from the dead not as ghosts, but in their original bodies.

Other ways in which Dracula is a metaphor for Christ include the Communion Wafer, which is deemed as Christ’s body, and the crucifix is a reference to Christ’s death on the wooden cross. In Coppola’s film, Dracula prophesizes about his future and rising from death by renouncing God, thus giving up his faith. When he stabs a large stone cross in a chapel with his sword, this is clearly Coppola’s depiction of the spear piercing the side of Christ on the cross.

109 Lawrence, Farley. "Dracula and the Decline of Christian Power." Orthodox Christian Network. n.p., 27 Jan. 2014. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. 110 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.21. Print. 111 Keen, Cheryl. “Dracula as Christ: The Film That Finishes What Stoker Began.” The Films of Francis Ford Coppola. 12 Sep 2010. Print. 112 Ibid., n.p. 113 Ibid., n.p. 114 Ibid.,n.p.

45 In Christianity, during the Last Supper, Christ drinks wine from a chalice that becomes known as the Holy Grail. After the crucifixion, when Christ is pierced by the sword, his student and follower Joseph of Arimathea collects the blood in the Holy Grail. In the film, blood pours from the stone cross, and Dracula gathers it in a chalice and drinks it, solidifying his connection with Christianity.

Moreover, Dracula’s castle in the film is also filled with symbols of Jesus Christ. For example, when Jonathan Harker finds his way to Transylvania, he is greeted by a crucifix. Dracula’s red robe lies on the floor near the cross, reminiscent of the crimson blood that comes from the stone cross. Later, when Jonathan sits at Dracula’s table, he sees a wine decanter sculpted in the shape of pelican, a well-known symbol of Christianity in the Middle Ages. This symbol appears in Dracula’s house as part of a mise-en-scene* signifying the vessel holding Christ’s blood. As Dracula’s pelican decanter will quench Jonathan’s thirst and revive him, so his blood will give him everlasting life and revive him eternally.115

In Coppola’s adaptation of Dracula, Renfield has already travelled and met with Dracula in Transylvania, becoming his devoted follower. Viewers can see the comparison between Renfield as a follower of Dracula and the followers of Christ. When Dr. Seward talks about Renfield’s obsession, he attacks him and cries that his master will provide him an eternal life. Dracula himself also states that “Blood is the life!” as with Christians, who believe that Jesus can give them eternal life through his blood.

A further instance of the Christian theme is when Mina meets Dracula, and he introduces himself to her as a prince, whereas in the novel, the vampire is only a Count. In the film, Jonathan refers to the vampire as “Count Dracula,” who corrects him by saying “I am Dracula.” Other titles of Dracula could be “The Prince of The Peace”, “Immanuel” and “Savior”. Using the title of King of the Jews can be so jackanapes that a King will not roam in London streets, or Mina will probably remember the name if he were a king.

115 "Medieval Bestiary : Beast Index." Medieval Bestiary : Beast Index. n.p., n.d. Web. 05 Mar. 2017. * Mise-en-scene is the arrangement of actors and scenery on a stage for a theatrical production.

46 In another instance, when Dracula dies, he says, “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” and “It is finished” – the last words that were uttered by Christ on the cross. Why can Dracula say these things? It may seem strange for readers that Dracula is the most powerful one. However, the parallels between Dracula and Christ in both the film and the novel are clear, as they portray an undead Prince who will live forever and give mortals eternal life if they drink his blood. While these may sound like an absurd fantasy, or a horror story or fairy tale, Coppola wants the audience to question their beliefs, as they witness Dracula reflecting Christ in the film.

In contrast to Dracula’s representation as an evil father, Van Helsing signifies the good father, thanks to his wisdom and faith. In the novel, Christianity is portrayed in a positive light and is not mocked; in fact, Count Dracula illustrates the dark side of Christianity through his demonic character. Thus, literary critics often note the Christian allegory inherent in Dracula.116 Moreover, we can also see the tension between Christian ethics and Darwinian evolution. There are reverential references to God as given in the examples. “Great God! Merciful God, let me be calm, for out that way lies madness indeed.”117 As seen in this statement, Dracula pleads to God and shows his madness:

The real God taketh heed lest a sparrow fall. But the God created from human vanity sees no difference between an eagle and a sparrow. Oh, if men only knew!”118 There is no difference between all creatures in the eyes of God by creating all of them, only all characters can know their own awareness and strength. “…the devil may work against us for all he’s worth, but God sends us men when we want them.119

116 Duran, Mike. “Stoker’s Dracula as Christian Fiction”, 2009. N.p. Web. 27 Oct 2018. 117 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.21. Print. 118 Ibid., p. 146. 119 Ibid., p. 213.

47 Here, the devil is against all goodness, even though he was sent by God:

“Poor Mina told me just now, with the tears running down her dear cheeks that it is in trouble and trial that our faith is tested. That we must keep on trusting, and that God will aid us up to the end. The end! Oh my God! What end?” …God can, if He wishes it, guard me as well alone as with any one present.”120

It can be seen from this that Mina needs help from Dracula; she believes that Dracula can be a god and that God will guide her by protecting her faith:

Take heart afresh, dear husband of Madam Mina. This battle is but begun and in the end we shall win. So sure that God sits on high to watch over His children. Therefore be of much comfort till we return.121

The Protestant Mina and the Catholic Van Helsing provide an example of the mix between the natural and the supernatural seen in the novel, as both of them struggle to repel evil.

In this regard, Dracula is aware of everything happening around him, as with God:

God grant that we may be guided aright, and that He will deign to watch over my husband and those dear to us both, and who are in such deadly peril. As for me, I am not worthy in His sight. Alas! I am unclean to His eyes and shall be until He may deign to let me stand forth in His sight as one of those who have not incurred His wrath.122

Later, in chapter 27, Dracula says: “I shall be glad as long as I live that even in that moment of final dissolution, there was in the face a look of peace, such as I never could have imagined might have rested there.” In this line, Dracula shows that he does find peace even after his savage acts against the characters in the novel. On the other hand, Mina was saved from the curse, and the vampires were stopped despite the bad happenings. This line shows Van Helsing’s courage and faith in God.

120 Ibid., p.415. 121 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.453. 122 Ibid., p.519.

48 Furthermore, he summarizes that Mina was pursued by Dracula. For some readers, Professor’s words may be seen as hyperbole:

Thus are we ministers of God’s own wish. That the world, and men for whom His son die, will not be given over to monsters, whose existence would defame Him. He have followed us to redeem one soul already, and we go out as the old knights of the Cross to redeem more. Like them we shall travel towards the sunrise. And like them, if we fall, we fall in good cause.123

In addition to Van Helsing’s courage, his existentialism and adherence to God’s word can also be seen in this line. There are clues about Van Helsing’s relief in his journey; and he expresses the view that that science and religion must work together. However, his use of the word “at last” word implies that the preceding journey as unrestful.124

Furthermore, the contrast between light and dark is symbolized by Van Helsing striking a match to light a candle to illumine the gloomy tomb. Dr. Seward also describes the darkness of the tomb as a grim and gruesome place. In the Victorian era, visiting tombs was a form of spiritualism in which it was possible to communicate with the dead.125

Seward describes time in different ways, and objects have powerful abilities to resist evil. Van Helsing, moreover, is a diligent worker, and it can be seen from his statements that Jonathan Harker writes Mina and tells her their faith in God is being tested. In this sense, Mina shows her resolve, saying that she will kill herself if she feels the power of the vampire’s bite taking hold: “If I find in myself, and I shall watch keenly for it, a sign of harm to any that I love, I shall die!”126 It is ironic that Mina resolves to commit suicide in defiance with the rules of Christianity. Yet the underlying theme is the religious faith of the characters, and that they can overcome all their adversity with their faith.

123 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p. 459. 124 Miss_M90. “Theme of Religion in Dracula” Scribd. N. d. Web. 12 Nov. 2016. 125 Ibid., n.p. 126 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.417. Print.

49 Meanwhile, Mina Murray realizes that the fight between two men for her is also occurring for Lucy. The mark on her forehead shows her connection with Dracula; this can be termed as the devil’s mark and reminds us of the notion of the anti-Christ. On the other hand, Dracula also has mark on his forehead because of Jonathan, placing him in a similar situation as Mina.

In fact, there are numerous instances where Stoker shows that there is not much difference between hero and villain. Mina shows her mercy to Dracula, while at the same time, Van Helsing proves his faith in God by serving as a guide to the characters in the novel. He becomes like a pilgrim by praying and showing his loyalty to God constantly. In today’s society, the idea of a religious crusade is a sign of great significance and the novel shows us this psychological mindset, as Stoker emphasizes that some characters believe in God and fight for him.

These lines were taken from the end of Chapter II. This part reveals the dark and inauspicious mood of Harker, whose behavior changes completely during his stay in the castle because of Dracula. Harker always refers to himself as a prisoner, as Stoker demonstrates the salvation in Christianity:

The castle is on the very edge of a terrible precipice. A stone falling from the window would fall a thousand feet without touching anything! As far as the eye can reach is a sea of green tree tops, with occasionally a deep rift where there is a chasm. Here and there are silver threads where the rivers wind in deep gorges through the forests. But I am not in heart to describe beauty, for when I had seen the view I explored further; doors, doors, doors everywhere, and all locked and bolted. In no place save from the windows in the castle walls is there an available exit. The castle is a veritable prison, and I am a prisoner!127

Later, in chapter 14, Van Helsing criticizes Seward by mocking and saying, “You are a clever man”. From time to time, Dr. Seward behaves as if he is a narrow- minded person in diagnosing Lucy, as he becomes confused and dismiss his belief rather than questioning the phenomenon before him.

127 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.39.

50 Therefore, Van Helsing encourages Seward to search Western methodologies. Stoker denies the nature of predators rather than clarifying:

You are a clever man, friend John. You reason well, and your wit is bold, but you are too prejudiced. You do not let your eyes see nor your ears hear, and that which is outside your daily life is not of account to you. Do you not think that there are things which you cannot understand, and yet which are, that some people see things old and new which must not be contemplated by men’s eyes, because they know, or think they know, some things which other men have told them. Ah, it is the fault of our science that it wants to explain all, and if it explain not, then it says there is nothing to explain. But yet we see around us every day the growth of new beliefs, which think themselves new, and which are yet but the old, which pretend to be young […]128

This passage is taken from chapter III, where events take a dramatically negative turn. In one instance, three women visit Harker and want to drink his blood, but the Count blocks them, showing his power over his three brides by implying Harker belongs him. Here, it can be seen that vampirism and fear of God is associated with sex:

I was afraid to raise my eyelids, but looked out and saw perfectly under the lashes. The girl went on her knees, and bent over me, simply gloating. There was a deliberate voluptuousness which was both thrilling and repulsive, and as she arched her neck, she actually licked her lips like an animal. . .. Lower and lower went her head as the lips went below the range of my mouth and chin and seemed about to fasten on my throat. I closed my eyes in a languorous ecstasy and waited—waited with beating heart.129

With the anxieties of the Victorian age, scientific advancement was seen as anathema to religious tradition; moreover, in patriarchal society, women were also seen as a threat. In this sense, Dracula makes distinctions between good or bad women. Furthermore, while we can understand that Van Helsing is not a bombastic windbag, he is a significant indicator of the unique Victorian fear and righteousness.

128 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.272. 129 Ibid., p.55.

51 Jonathan’s religious beliefs are revealed when he hesitates to take crucifix from a woman, showing that he is faithful to his own religion even though the woman is actually trying to protect him. As days pass in Dracula’s castle, Jonathan begins to pray to God; and his devotion is shown as his strength. Other characters also demonstrate the strength of their religious beliefs, as in chapter 5, when the captain of the Demeter uses a crucifix to protect himself.

On the other hand, aversion to religion is portrayed as a disease, as Seward recognizes Renfield’s sickness by his perversion. In the 19th century, Syphilis was a prominent disease that affected many wealthy and penniless people. Although Renfield is ill, he escapes from his asylum and is dominated by Dracula, showing his willingness to treat Dracula as a god and do whatever he commands. By doing so, he believes that Dracula will give him immortality.

Later, Dracula comes to London to be a new man for his own sake. This change gives him an apocalyptic aura. The nun threatens Jonathan in Budapest and refuses to tell Mina what Jonathan wants to say. In chapter 9, Jonathan describes the nun in light of the ravings of the sick and the secrets of God.130 Besides, the nun motivates herself with the sense of privacy, even though she fears evil.

In chapter 12, Van Helsing wants to keep Arthur from kissing the dying Lucy, showing his concern for Arthur’s soul. Lucy shows her respect to Van Helsing to protect Arthur Holmwood; this demonstrates the reverence given to Van Helsing as a religious character who instructs others to do their duty conscientiously, even if it is futile. In this sense, he observes all things in detail not only as a personal belief but also as a Christian obligation and cannot be persuaded by anyone else in the way of religion. Rather, he uses his own religious belief to fight against the devil, such as using the Host, the sacred Wafer eaten during Communion, on the Lucy’s tomb. Indeed, the other characters never find that Van Helsing is sacrilegious, but see that Van Helsing’s sacred objects must be used in case of need.

130 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.150.

52 In chapter 17, Van Helsing asks everyone to sacrifice themselves to eradicate Dracula. He explains that there cannot be anything beyond our faith in Christianity and that the world is in our hands. Moreover, he attempts to frighten nonbeliever characters, pointing out that they do not die in God’s name if they do not glorify him. Furthermore, in chapter 21, Mina is aware of dangers that she encounters from Dracula’s bite. By committing suicide, she thinks that she will escape and go to heaven. Van Helsing, on the other hand, warns Mina that suicide is sinful according to her religion, and unfortunately, she is trapped under its power in this manner. The transformation of Mina is represented as voluptuous, and therefore, she becomes evil in the eyes of God.

Later, in chapter 24, Van Helsing uses the Holy Wafer to protect Mina against an evil woman. It is also largely known that vampires are repelled by garlic, and in some parts of the novel, Stoker uses this limitation of vampires. In Chapter 10, for instance, Professor Van Helsing explains the importance of garlic for Lucy’s illness: “This [garlic] is medicinal, but you do not know how. I put him in your window, I make pretty wreath, and hang him round your neck, so that you sleep well. Oh yes! They, like the lotus flower, make your trouble forgotten.”131

It is mentioned that vampires are able to transform their victims into vampires. Related to this, Lucy is the only character to subsequently be transformed. Thus, Lucy’s tears in the presence of the garlic flowers in Chapter 12 can be explained:

I could see that the Professor had carried out in this room, as in the other, his purpose of using the garlic; the whole of the window-sashes reeked with it, and round Lucy’s neck, over the silk handkerchief which Van Helsing made her keep on, was a rough chaplet of the same odorous flowers […] When I came back to my seat I found that Lucy had moved slightly, and had torn away the garlic flowers from her throat. I replaced them as well as I could, and sat watching her.132

131 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.187. 132 Ibid., p.227.

53 During her process of turning into a vampire, Dr. Seward observes that Lucy recoils from the garlic flowers when she is in lethargic mode. Witnessing this odd event, Dr. Seward notes in his diary:

It struck me as curious that the moment she became conscious she pressed the garlic flowers close to her. It was certainly odd that whenever she got into that lethargic state, with the stertorous breathing, she put the flowers from her; but when she waked she clutched them close. There was no possibility of making any mistake about this, for in the long hours that followed, she had many spells of sleeping and waking, and repeated both actions many times.133

Van Helsing supposes that Lucy is slowly turning into a vampire. When he sees her beautiful and lovely corpse, and no signs of decay although time passes, he puts garlic on her bed.

Related to this topic, Mina represents the reincarnation of Elizabeth. Therefore, she falls in love with Count Dracula. Nevertheless, she despises him as the monster who is terrorizing her. Other religious conflict can also be found in the novel. Classes include immoral things such as killing or greediness. Effects of evil commissions such as indecency, pride and folly can be visible in the novel. According to Christians, all of these actions are those of an “evil” person; Dracula himself has three brides who violate taboos and commit sinful actions, going against Christian beliefs.134

Dracula also includes connotations related to the Jewish-Christian conflict.135 For example, Dracula can be interpreted as Jewish due to his physical appearance, with a long, hooked nose; a tall thin figure; and a long black gown. Moreover, nearly half of the Christians vandalize churches and use crucifixes. In that sense, these Christians themselves can be related to the Jewish-Christian conflict of the past. Yet Dr. Abraham Van Helsing refers to himself as the left hand of God.

133 Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. London; Penguin Books, 1994. p.228. 134 Tran. Follow, Kevin, and Whisley Reyes. "Christian Dracula." LinkedIn SlideShare. 2009. Web. 11 Oct. 2017. 135 Ibid., 11 Oct. 2017.

54 Additionally, Bram Stoker’s novel includes elements of superstition, such as the idea that evil can be repelled by Christian elements. Numerous other features in the novel have religious significance; for instance, the white color of the snow, the full moon, the lightning and the garlic flowers symbolize light and holiness; while liquids are associated with holy water and purification. Likewise, throughout the novel, the exclamation of phrases such as “thank God”, God bless/ forgive me” or “my God” indicate both the fear, respect and the reverence that the characters have for religion and holiness.136 On the other hand, Count Dracula’s association with wild animals demonstrates his deceitful nature in terms of biblical imagery.

Within the novel, any form of resurrection through means of the Count such as draining of blood is considered vile and blasphemous; as rebirth of any human creature befouled by Dracula is represented as being accursed.137 However, if a character passes away or a victim is slain in the novel, they can be described as having eternal rest, referring to Christian belief.

A further hint of the anti-Christian behavior of Dracula is revealed in terms of marriage. Namely, if a marriage takes place in the Christian church, the marriage will be eternal; but Dracula does not obey this rule. While he already has three brides, he still tries to make Mina and Lucy his wives, as well.

Unlike Dracula, Van Helsing adheres to the rules of church strictly regarding matrimony. His wife is a mentally disabled woman, and as such, she cannot fulfill her duties as a wife. However, he sees her as an ordinary person and does not consider divorce.

136 Tran. Follow, Kevin, and Whisley Reyes. "Christian Dracula." LinkedIn SlideShare. 2009. Web. 11 Oct. 2017. 137 Ibid., 11 Oct. 2017.

55 CONCLUSION

It is no wonder that Stoker’s Dracula, which took him seven years to write, is the most influential vampire novel of all time. During these years, he researched Transylvania and vampires, and he was informed by one of his friends, Arminius Vambery, about the story of the Wallachian Prince and Vlad the Impaler. In this study, in the analysis of vampires and Count Dracula, including both the historical and the mythological Dracula, were discussed in relation to their religious beliefs. In this respect, Stoker was clearly influenced by the bloodthirsty and cruel historical prince, as he incorporates the real Dracula’s story into his novel; a number of critics agree that Stoker was inspired by Vlad the Impaler while creating Count Dracula. For example, John Henry Newman refers to Dracula as a battle between God’s city and the power of darkness.

Stoker skillfully describes vampiric traits and anti-Christian values, portraying vampiric characteristics that are now regarded as the standards for the judgement of modern vampires. Many vampire novels were written after the publication of Dracula that share his characteristics. In terms of physical descriptions, they typically have red eyes, red lips and sharp teeth. They are all very fast and strong, and they can change their shapes into wolves or bats. They are also able to turn their victims into vampires. In fact, these supernatural powers show the power of God, as discussed in this study.

However, the limitations of other vampires are similar to Count Dracula’s, as well; for instance, they may be repelled by garlic, crucifixes, rosaries and the Holy Wafer. Moreover, in most stories, vampires can be destroyed by driving a stake into their hearts. While Stoker first introduces these characteristics of vampires, they are still popular among modern vampire writers, such as Elizabeth Kostova’s The Historian (2005), Dacre Stoker and Ian Holt’s Dracula the Un-Dead (2009) and Freda Warrington’s Dracula the Undead (1997).

56 In addition to novels, there have been numerous films and plays related to Dracula. Stoker wrote the first theatrical adaptation of the novel as Nosferatu in 1922; and Dracula, from 1931, Dracula in Istanbul, from 1953 and Bram Stoker’s Dracula, of 1992, can be cited as the best movie adaptations.

While numerous studies have been written about the Bible and religion, in this study, we shed light on religious symbolism and anti-Christianity.

Among scholars, there have been numerous debates on the relationship between Vlad Tepes and Count Dracula. However, the only true connection between them is the name of Dracula; Stoker uses historical references to make his monster clear in the mind of his readers. Furthermore, as Gabriel Ronay mentions, Stoker’s vampire Dracula is a gospel representation of anti-Christianity. With no doubt, when readers encounter both the Transylvanian and the historical vampire, they will see the evil and villainous sides of both Vlad Tepes and of Count Dracula. While there has been much criticism of Dracula among critics, Stoker meticulously addresses religion in diversified ways. By giving importance to the tremendous impact of writers and critics, we have tried to prove in this study that Dracula portrays anti-Christian values. We hope that this thesis will be a beneficial guide to students by focusing on Evangelicalism and anti-Christian values, including the spectacular and unique power of God, by means of Count Dracula. The study may also be helpful for those who are interested in religious perspectives and biblical values.

57 REFERENCES

BOOKS

Barb, Karg., Arjean, Spaite., Rick, Sutherland., (2009) The Everything Vampire Book. U.S.A: Adams Media.

Barlett, Wayne., Idriceanu, Flavia., (2006) Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth, Westport, Conn: London: Praeger.

Barry, E. Blood., (2004) Christian Dogma: The 21st Century Perspective, Xulon Press.

Beresford, Matthew., (2008) From Demons to Dracula: The Creation of the Modern Vampire Myth, Reaktion Books.

Bertram Puckle, (1990) Funeral Customs: Their Origins and Development, London: T. Werner Laurie.

Byron, Glennis, Ed. (2000) Introduction, Dracula. New York: Broadview.

Coppola, Francis Ford, V. James Hart. (1992) Bram Stoker’s Dracula: The Film and the Legend: New York, Newmarket Press.

Glut, Donald. (1975) The Dracula Book: Metuchen, Scarecrow Press.

Hogle, Jerrold E. (2010) Foreword by Jerrold E. Hogle. American Zombie Gothic: The Rise and Fall (and Rise) of the Walking Dead in Popular Culture. Jefferson: McFarland.

Keyworth, David. (2007) Troublesome Corpses: Vampires & Revenants from Antiquity to the present. Norfolk: Desert Island Books.

King, Stephen. (1991) Salem’s Lot. Goodreads. New English Library.

Melton, J G., (1999) The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead. Detroit: Visible Ink Press.

58 Melton, J. (1994). The Vampire Book. The Encyclopedia of the Undead. 1st ed. U.S.A: Visible Ink Pr.

Newman, John Henry. (2005) A View of Catholic Faith for the New Millennium, Rowman & Littlefield.

Stoker, B., (2003). Dracula. London: Penguin. Print.

Stuart, Roxana. (1994) Stage blood: Vampires of the 19th century Stage, Bowling Green Press.

Tennant, Emma. (2000) The Bad Sister: an Emma Tennant Omnibus. Edinburgh: Canongate.

Valente, Joseph. (2002) Dracula’s Crypt. Bram Stoker, Irishness, and the Question of Blood. Urbana: U of Illinois P.

Valente, Joseph. (2002) Dracula’s Crypt. Bram Stoker, Irishness, and the Question of Blood. Urbana: U of Illinois.

Wynne, Catherine. (2016) Bram Stoker and the Gothic. Formations to Transformations. London. Palgrave Macmillan,

ARTICLES

Bowles, Noelle., (2013) “Crucifix, Communion, and Convent: The Real Presence of Anglican Ritualism in Bram Stoker’s Dracula”, Christianity and Literature, Vol. 62. No. 2.

Butler, Erik., (2002) “Writing and Vampiric Contagion in Dracula”, Iowa Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol. 2, No 1.

Ivey, Dorothy, (2010). "The Vampire Myth and Christianity" Master of Liberal Studies Theses. Rollins Scholarship Online, Open Access.

59 Mane, Dragoş. (2016) “A Wolf’s Eye View of London: Dracula, Penny Dreadful, and the Logic of Repetition”. Critical Survey Vol.28, No. 1.

Mason, Emma., and Juliet, John., (2014) “Religion, the Bible, and Literature in the Victorian Age.” Oxford Handbooks Online, n. p. Web.

Oinas, Felix. (1982) “East European Vampires and Dracula.” Journal of Popular Culture. Vol. 16. No. 1.

Senf, Carol A. (1982) “Dracula: Stoker’s Response to the New Woman.” Victorian Studies, Vol.26, No. 1.

Starrs, D. Bruno (2004) “Keeping the faith: Catholicism in Dracula and its adaptations”. Journal of Dracula Studies, Qut e-Prints.

Stewart, Bruce. (1999) “Bram Stoker's Dracula: Possessed by the Spirit of the Nation?” Irish University Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, JSTOR.

THESIS

C. J. Carter, Stephenson., (1988) “Dracula and Modern Popular Culture”. (Unpublished Phd Dissertation).

Dorothy I, W., (2010) “The Vampire Myth and Christianity” Florida: Rollins College Hamilton Holt School, Master of Liberal Studies (Unpublished MA Thesis).

Greek, Anna. (2010) “Vampires in the Twilight Saga: The Reinvention and Humanization of the Vampire Myth” Linnaeus University (Bachelor Thesis).

Johansson, Elisabeth. (2010) “A Domesticated Vampire: How the Vampire Myth has changed since Bram Stoker’s Dracula to Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight”. Lulea U. (Bachelor dissertation).

Orlomoski, Caitlyn. (2011) “From Monsters to Victims: Vampires and Their Cultural Evolution from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Century”. Connecticut U. (Honors Scholar thesis).

60 Pálmadóttir, Svanhildur Rósa. "The Significance of Vampirism and Doppelgänger in Emma Tennant’s The Bad Sister." "My Teeth Go into Her Smooth Neck". Sigillum University. (Bachelor Thesis).

INTERNET SOURCES

https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Draculas-Book-Report-FKPSPEKTC - “Dracula's Book Report Essays.” http://www.religionfacts.com/vampire

“The Catholic Encyclopedia.” Catholic Encyclopedia

"Medieval Bestiary: Beast Index." https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/andrewbrown/2008/nov/14/religion- darwinbicentenary https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/victorian/religion/ http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0606821h.html

61 CV

Personal Information: Name and Surname : Bilgay ATIŞ Place and Date of Birth : Antalya – 1992 Marital State : Single

Educational Information: Bachelor : Suleyman Demirel University - English Language and Literature

Bachelor : Anadolu University – International Relations

Foreign Languages: English (Advanced) German (Upper-intermediate) Polish (Intermediate) Russian (Beginner)

Work Experiences: 2013 PWSZ in Pila – English Philology - Erasmus

2014 Nazmi Toker Secondary School – English teacher

2014 – 2015 AmericanLife Language Schools – English teacher

2015 American Culture Language Schools – English Teacher

2015 - 2016 BritishTown Language Schools – English Teacher

2016 – 2017 Cappadocia University – Instructor

2017 – 2018 Antalya Bahçeşehir College - High School English Teacher

62 ÖZGEÇMİŞ

Kişisel Bilgiler: Ad Soyad: Bilgay ATIŞ Doğum Tarihi ve Yeri: Antalya – 1992 Medeni Durum: Single

Eğitim Bilgileri: Lisans: Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi – İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı

Lisans: Anadolu Üniversitesi – Uluslarası İlişkiler

Yabancı Diller: İngilizce (İleri) Almanca (İleri) Lehçe (Orta) Rusça (Başlangıç)

İş Deneyimleri: 2013 PWSZ - Pila – İngiliz Dil Bilimi - Erasmus

2014 Nazmi Toker Orta Okulu – İngilizce Öğretmeni

2014 – 2015 AmericanLife Dil Okulu – İngilizce Öğretmeni

2015 American Culture Dil Okulu – İngilizce Öğretmeni

2015 - 2016 BritishTown Dil Okulu – İngilizce Öğretmeni

2016 – 2017 Cappadocia Üniversitesi – Öğretim Görevlisi

2017 – 2018 Antalya Bahçeşehir Koleji - Anadolu Lisesi Bölümü İngilizce Öğretmeni

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