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Notes and References Notes and References 1 Introduction 1 Ali Çarkoklu and Binnaz Toprak, Dekiben Türkiye’de Din, Toplum ve Siyaset (Istanbul: TESEV, 2006), p. 29. 2 Milliyet (Istanbul daily), 22 March 2007. 3 Soner Çakaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Turkey: Who is a Turk? (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 112–113. 4 Henry J. Barkey and Graham Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question (New York: Rowman and Little, 1998). p. 11. 5 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1985), p. 356. 6 John Coakley, ‘The Resolution of Ethnic Conflict: Towards a Typology’, International Political Science Review 13, no. 4 (1992), p. 344. 7 Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 1992), p. 159. 8 Arthur Campbell Turner, ‘Kurdish Nationalism’ in Ideology and Power in the Middle East: Studies in Honor of George Lenczowski, Peter J. Chelkowski and Robert J. Pranger, eds. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), p. 379. 9 Michael M. Gunther, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 43. 10 Martin van Bruinessen, ‘Kurdish Society, Ethnicity, Nationalism and Refugee Problems’, in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, Philip Kragenbrook and Stefan Speri, eds. (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 65. 11 Robert Olson, The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism, 1880–1925 (Austin: University of Austin Press, 1989), p. 161. 12 Anthony Hyman, ‘Elusive Kurdistan: The Struggle for Recognition’, Conflict Studies, no. 214 (1988), p. 8. 13 M. Hakan Yavuz, ‘A Preamble to the Kurdish Question: The Politics of Kurdish Identity’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18, no. 1 (April 1998), p. 3. 14 Hugh Poulton, Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic: Top Hat, Grey Wolf, and Crescent (London: Hurst, 1997), pp. 317ff. 15 Kemal Kiribçi and Gareth Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1998), p. 97. 16 This point is elaborated in Chapters Four and Five. 17 This argument is developed at length in Chapter Six. 18 This point is elaborated in Chapter Six. 19 James Brown, ‘The Turkish Imbroglio: The Kurds’, The Annals, 541 (September 1995), p. 1. 20 Philip Robins, ‘The Overlord State: Turkish Policy and Kurdish Issue’, International Affairs 69, no. 4 (October 1993), p. 658. 21 Henry J. Barkey and Graham Fuller, ‘Turkey’s Kurdish Question: Critical Turning Points and Missed Opportunities’, Middle East Journal 51, no 1 (Winter 1997), p. 63. 22 Brown, ‘The Turkish Imbroglio’, p. 17. 23 This is point is taken up at length in Chapter Two. 187 188 Notes and References 24 H. Ayla Kılıç, ‘Democratization, Human Rights, and Ethnic Policies in Turkey’, Journal of Muslim-Minority Affairs 18, no. 1 (April 1998), p. 6. Field Marshal Fevzi Çakmak, a member of the close entourage of Atatürk during the Turkish War of Independence, served as Chief of the General Staff from 1922 to 1944. 25 Gunther, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey, p. 5. 26 Mustafa Sönmez, Doku Anadolu’nun Hikayesi. Kürtler: Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarih, sec- ond edition (Ankara: Arkadab Yayınevi, 1992). Also see, Mehmet Turgut, Türkiye Modeli ve Bask Modeli (Istanbul: Bokaziçi Yayınları, 1994), pp. 52ff. 27 For this definition, and the definitions of terms related to the ethnic management strategies, the author either derives upon or else has been inspired by John Coakley, ‘The Resolution of Ethnic Conflict: Towards a Typology’, International Political Science Review 13, no. 4 (1992): 343–53. 28 Those reasons are taken up in Chapter Six. 29 For the distinction between non-recognition of ethnicity and forced assimilation, see P. L. van den Berghe, ‘Protection of Ethnic Minorities: A Critical Appraisal’, in R. G. Virsing, ed., Protection of Ethnic Minorities: Comparative Perspective (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1981), pp. 343–55. 30 Heinz Kramer, A Changing Turkey: The Challenge to Europe and the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2000), p. 40. 31 Ibid., p. 37. 32 Ahmet Evin, personal correspondence, August 2006. 33 The policy of breaking up collectivities and resettling their members in different parts of the country was an often-resorted to strategy of both the Republican and Ottoman rulers. See, Berif Mardin, ‘Power, Civil Society, and Culture in the Ottoman Empire’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 12 (1969), p. 265. For an elaboration of the rationale behind the banishments during the times of ‘troubles’, see Chapter Seven. 34 Gunther, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey, p. 404. 35 Ibid., pp. 37–38. 36 Marvine Howe, Turkey Today: A Nation Divided over Islam’s Revival (London: John Murray, 1997), pp. 83 and 79, respectively. 37 Stephen Kinzer, Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds (New York: Farrar, 2001), p. 133. 38 Howe, Turkey Today, p. 76. 39 Kinzer, Crescent and Star, pp. 134–35. 40 Barkey and Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question, p. 12. 41 Entassar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism, p. 98. 42 Macdonald, ‘The Kurds’, p. 131. 2 Tolerance as Acceptance 1 Carter Vaughn Findley, The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 43. 2 Ibid. 3 M. Fuad Köprülü, Islam in Anatolia after the Turkish Invasion (Prolegomena), trans- lated from Turkish and edited by Gary Leiser who also wrote the Introduction (Salt Lake City: Utah University Press, 1993), p. 5. 4 Ziya Gökalp, Principles of Turkism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1968), pp. 26–27, 117. 5 Professor Bükrü Hanioklu, personal correspondence, September 2005. 6 Köprülü, Islam in Anatolia after the Turkish Invasion, pp. 4–5. Notes and References 189 7 Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman Empire (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), p. 2. 8 Speros Vryonis, Jr., ‘The Byzantine Legacy and Ottoman Forms’, paper read at a symposium entitled, ‘After the Fall of Constantinople’, held at Dumbarton Oaks in May 1968, pp. 268, 270. 9 Halil Inalcık, ‘The “Ottoman Civilization” and Palace Patronage’, in Ottoman Civilization, Halil Inalcık and Günsel Renda, eds. (Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2004), p. 17. 10 Heath W. Lowry, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State (Albany: State University of New York, 2003), pp. 131–132. 11 Inalcık, ‘The “Ottoman Civilization” and Palace Patronage’, p. 16. 12 Kinross, Lord [John Patrick Douglas Balfour, Baron], The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Morrow Quill, 1977), pp. 112–113. 13 Professor Stanford J. Shaw, personal communication, August 2005. 14 Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2002), p. 129. 15 Halil Inalcık, ‘Tarihsel Baklamda Sivil Toplum ve Tarikatlar’, unpublished manu- script, pp. 1, 4. 16 Halil Inalcık, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600, trans. by Norman Itzkowitz (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), p. 7. The Muslim community had a certain edge over the Christians and Jews, and the Jews over the Christians. The Ottoman state was in the last analysis a Muslim state. The Jews had no home- land and, therefore, posed less of a threat to the Ottoman state than the Christians. 17 Kemal H. Karpat, ‘The Ethnicity Problem in a Multi-Ethnic Anational Islamic State: Continuity and Recasting of Ethnic Identity in the Ottoman Empire’, in Ethnic Groups and the State, Paul Brass, ed. (Totowa, N. J.: Barnes and Noble, 1985), p. 95. 18 Ibid., p. 104. 19 Rebat Kasaba, ‘Göç ve Devlet: Bir Imparatorluk-Cumhuriyet Karbılabtırması’, in Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e: Problemler, Arabtırmalar, Tartıbmalar, compiled by Hamdi Can Tuncer (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1998), pp. 338, 340. 20 Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000), p. 7. 21 Carter, The Turks in World History, pp. 65–66. 22 Aron Rodrique, ‘Difference and Tolerance in the Ottoman Empire’, Interview by Nancy Reynolds, Stanford Humanities Review 5, no. 1 (1995), p. 89. 23 Masami Arai, Nationalism in the Young Turk Era (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992), p. 67. 24 Ibid., p. 66. 25 Vryonis, ‘The Byzantine Legacy and Ottoman Forms’, p. 270. 26 Kemal H. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman Empire (London: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 280. 27 Kemal. H. Karpat, An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire: From Social States to Classes, From Millets to Nations, Research Monograph No. 39, Center for International Affairs, Princeton University, 1973, p. 39. For other examples of such ethnic intermingling, see Halil Inalcık, ‘Ottoman Methods of Conquest’, Studia Islamica II (1954), pp. 115–116. 28 Lowry, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, p. 135. 29 Köprülü M. Fuad, Osmanlı’nın Etnik Kökeni (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 1999), p. 92. 30 The Ottomans granted self-rule to villages and the tribes; the latter came to have a de facto autonomy. Halil Inalcık, ‘The Yürüks: Their Origins, Expansion, and 190 Notes and References Economic Role’, in Oriental Carpets and Textile Studies, II: Carpets of the Mediterranean Countries, 1400–1600, Robert Pinner and Walter B. Denny, eds. (London: Hali OCTS Ltd., 1996), pp. 39–43. 31 Karpat, Politicization of Islam, p. 311. 32 In fact, when the Office of Shaikh-ul Islam was created in the fifteenth century, the purpose was that of bringing about a separation between the state and Islam; that office began to issue fatwas in the following century. Kemal H. Karpat, personal correspondence, July 2006. 33 It is true that the Muslim millet was not as homogenous as other millets. There was a serious rift between the Sunnis and Shiites. The Sunnis, which were in the major- ity, were less tolerant towards the Shiites, who challenged the mainstream Islam of the Sunnis, than they were towards non-Muslim millets.
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