A COMMUNITY ENERGY MANAGEMENT MODEL AND FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SUCCESS IN ENERGY SECURITY OF THE PROJECT ON COMMUNITY ENERGY PLANNING BY 80 INDIVIDUAL COMMUNITIES IN RESPONSE TO THE ROYAL INITIATIVE OF SUFFICIENCY ECONOMY
WERAWUT BOONYANUSART
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Development Administration) School of Public Administration National Institute of Development Administration 2013
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation A Community Energy Management Model and Factors Contributing to Success in Energy Security of the Project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy Author Mr. Werawut Boonyanusart Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Public Administration) Year 2013
This research aimed to study the community energy management for energy security, especially the biomass energy production and utilization, including the output and outcome of the community energy planning project implemented by the Ministry of Energy. The research employed the qualitative research methodology, which included the interview, non-participatory observation and the examination of relate documents. The research findings show that 6 factors contributing to success in community energy management are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, organizations and technology. The essential activities for the community energy management are energy planning, community capacity building, local wisdom transfer, community capitals and resources utilization and cooperative network development. The output includes households’ production and utilization of biomass energy. The outcome includes better community economy, better social life, better community environment and more self-reliance in the area of energy. To manage community energy for energy security successfully, the research recommends that community grow trees to replace felled trees, improve energy technology and develop community products from biomass energy utilization. Support and participation from inside and outside community are necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express sincere thanks to my major advisor, Assistant Professor Dr. Pairote Pathranarakul, and co-advisor , Professor Dr. Anchana NaRanong, for valuable advice, encouragement and guidance in making this dissertation a successful one. I also wish to extend thanks and appreciation to my committee chairperson, Assistant Professor Dr. Tanit Ruangrungchaikul, for his thoughtful comments and suggestions. My appreciation is extended to the scholars and researchers whose concepts, theories, and research are cited in my study. Thanks are also dedicated to all households in 12 communities whom I interviewed for data collection. Special thanks are due to my family, my wife, Jutatip, for taking care of our daughter, and my friends in DPA4 , during my study. I also would like to special thank Professor Dr. Natchaya Chalaysap for her reviewing and formal editing at the final stage of this dissertation.
Werawut Boonyanusart October 2013
TABLES OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv TABLE OF COTENTS v LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Problem 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study 7 1.3 Research Questions 7 1.4 Scope of the Study 8 1.5 Operational Definition of the Terms 8 1.6 Usefulness of the Study 14 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL 16 FRAMEWORK 2.1 Principles and Theories of Community Development 16 2.2 Community Energy Management and Case Studies 29 in Foreign Countries 2.3 Community Energy Management in Thailand 73 2.4 Literature Review of Key Factors for Community Energy 85 Management 2.5 Components of Economic Security 115 2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study 126 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 143 3.1 Research Design 143 3.2 Population and Selection of Cases 144 3.3 Data Collection 153 vi
3.4 Instrumentation 165 3.5 Data Inspection 170 3.6 Data Analysis 170 3.7 Time Line of the Study 172 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF THE STUDY 173 4.1 Community Capitals/Resources (Key Factors to Success) 174 Used in Community Energy Management for Energy Security 4.2 Community Energy Management 221 4.3 Outputs and Successful Outcome of Community 286 Energy Management 4.4 Models of Community Energy Management for 346 Energy Security CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 407
5.1 Conclusions and Discussion 407 5.2 Approaches to Handling Major Problems and Obstacles in 427 Community Energy Management 5.3 Policy Recommendations 429
BIBLIOGRAPHY 431 APPENDICES 445 Appendix A Details of Concepts of Components of Energy Security 446 Appendix B Key Informant Questionnaire 467 Appendix C Interview Guide # 1 for Community Leaders, 469 Administrators and Officers of the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization Appendix D Interview Guide # 2 - Households 477 Appendix E Observation form # 1 – Topics 484 Appendix F Key Informants 487 BIOGRAPHY 495 LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
1.1 Growing Areas and Major Crops in 2008 and 2009 3 1.2 Biomass Volume and Power Potential in 2009 3 2.1 Methods and Models for Community Energy Project Management 52 2.2 Strengths and Weakness of Each Model for Community Energy 53 Project Management 3.1 Summary of Studied Communities 145 3.2 The Number of Villages and Households Visited by the Researcher 153 3.3 Key Informants at the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict 155 Administration Organization (SAO) and Community Leaders 3.4 Key Informants Where Addition Important Data Was Collected 160 4.1 Energy Promoting Project of Wangkhaem Subdistrict 188 4.2 Budgets for the Training Projects on Alternative Energy 191 Technology and Energy Conservation 4.3 Factors (Community Capitals and Resources) and Basic 211 Sub-Dimensions that Contributed to Success in Energy Security 4.4 Factors (Community Capitals and Resources) and 215 Key Dimensions of Awarded Communities Under the Community Energy Planning Project 4.5 An Energy Project in the Three-year Plan (2013-2015) of the 224 Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization 4.6 Summary Report of the Plan/Projects/Activities of Maelai 229 Subdistrict Municipality in 2013
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4.7 Brief Details of the Three-year Development Plan (2013-2015) 236 of the Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management 4.8 Brief Details of the Three-year Development Plan (2013-2015) 242 of the Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management 4.9 Brief Details of the Three-year Development Plan (2013-2015) 247 Related to Community Energy Management of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization 4.10 Brief Details of The three-year development Plan (2013-2015) 252 of the Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management 4.11 Brief Details of the Three-year Development Plan of Nongfag 269 Municipality (2013-2015) Related to Community Energy Management 4.12 Brief Details of the Three year Development Plan (2013-2015) 274 of the Napho Subdistrict Municipality Related to Community Energy Management 4.13 Brief Details of the Three Year Development Plan (2013-2015) 283 of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management 4.14 Households (Some in the Community) that Use Biomass Energy 288 and LPG and Various Kinds of Technology Concerning Biomass Energy: Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province 4.15 Quantity of Energy Consumption in Nachumhet Subdistrict 289 Classified by Type of Energy
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4.16 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 293 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province 4.17 Quantity of fuel Used in Maelai Subdistrict classified by Type of 294 Energy 4.18 Households (Some in the Community Which Use Biomass Energy 299 and LPG and Various Types of Technology concerning Biomass Energy : Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province 4.19 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 303 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province 4.20 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 307 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Kloongkhlung District, Kamphaengphet Province 4.21 Quantities of Energy Consumption of Wangkhaem Subdistrict 309 categorized by their Types 4.22 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 313 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province
4.23 Volume of Energy Consumption per year and Co2 Emission; 314 Suansom Subdistrict 2009 4.24 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 317 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology:Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province
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4.25 Number of Households consuming Following Types of Energies 318 Of Sri Phum Subdistrict 4.26 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 321 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province 4.27 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 327 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province 4.28 The Number of Households Using LPG, Charcoal and 329 the Firewood 4.29 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 332 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province 4.30 Amount of Various Kinds of Energy Used in Nongfag 334 Sub-District 4.31 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses 338 Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province 4.32 Quantity of Various Kinds of Energy Used in Napho Subdistrict 340 4.33 Households (Some in the Community), Which Uses Biomass 343 Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province 4.34 Type of Energy and amount of Use: Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, 344 Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Import values of different types of Energy in 2011 1 1.2 Community Energy Planning Project of Ministry of Energy 6 2.1 Structure of Social Action 17 2.2 Innovation Adoption by Different Groups of People 20 2.3 POET Model 26 2.4 POET Model 28 2.5 Flows of Community Energy 32 2.6 Level of Concentration of Energy Consumption in Ottawa 33 2.7 Sectoral Building Blocks of an Integrated Community 36 Energy Solution 2.8 Implementation of three Phases of Integrated Solution 41 2.9 An Example of Website: Energy.gov that Suggests State Home 43 Weatherization (SHOW) Program 2.10 An Example of Website: Oregon.gov that Suggests State Home Oil 43 Weatherization (SHOW) Program 2.11 An Example of an Energy Audit Checklist of State Home Oil 44 Watherization (SHOW) Program 2.12 Procedures for Community Energy Management in Copenhagen, 47 Denmark 2.13 Example of Danish Energy Performance Label (2006 version) 48 2.14 Mannheim-Energy Zoning 50 2.15 Community Energy Project in Scotland 51 2.16 Responsibility for Local Energy Management at Provincial, 55 Ministerial and National Level in China
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2.17 In appropriate conditions of stoves (a) and (b); a Biomass stove 56 For Cooking in Gansu, Guizhou and Shaanxi Provinces (c); stove outlet still not improved (d); a bed stove (bed sitting behind the stove) (e); a charcoal stove made of iron in Guizhou Province (f); an air circulating stove in Guizhou Province (g) and (h); a stove outlet in Guizhou province (i) and (j); a stove on the floor in Shaanxi Province (k) and (l); a fuel inlet pat of a bed stove in Ganzu (m); a frying pan (n) a bed kitchen and stove with its bed sitting on the right hand side. 2.18 The Organizational System for Distributing Improved Biomass 57 Stoves within the Province 2.19 Criteria for Making and Characteristics of Improved 58 Biomass Stoves 2.20 Benefits from Energy Development in the Rural Areas 59 2.21 Steps for the Plan for Integrated Local Energy production 60 2.22 Northeast of Brazil During the Draught (Top Left and on the Right) 61 and During the Rainy Season (bottom left) 2.23 Pictures of the Area After the Construction of the Water Supply 61 System with the Energy System installed and Other Applications 2.24 Development of the Geographic Information System for 62 Community Energy Management 2.25 Main menu of GISA SOL 1.0 63 2.26 GISA SOL General Functionalities: Management at the State and 64 Municipal (Local) Levels 2.27 (a) and (c) illustrate a Water pumping System that Uses Solar Cells 65 installed in Paraiba State and Pernambuco State, respectively. Figures (b) and (d) illustrate a Water pumping System of which the flow rate can be set at a desired level installed in Paraiba State, and a Water pumping System using solar Energy in Pernambuco State. 2.28 Picture on the Left Shows the Solar Energy System in 66 Pernambuco State and the Picture on the Right Shows the Nearest Maintenance Center
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2.29 Quantity of Sugar Cane in Two different Seasons, that is, 66 the Drought and the Rainy Seasons 2.30 Wind Velocity and Direction During the Drought and 67 Rainy Seasons 2.31 Level of Solar Radiation During the Lowest Month (July) 67 and the Peak Month (November) in Pernambuco State 2.32 Conventional Roles of Stakeholders 69 2.33 New Roles of Stakeholders 70 2.34 Logo of the Uttam Urja Project 71 2.35 Supply Chain of Uttam Urja 71 2.36 Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy to National 81 Energy Affairs 2.37 Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy to Energy 82 Management and conservation 2.38 Community Capacity 89 2.39 Van diagram that Captures the way Programmatic, 92 Organizational and Adaptive Capacities Interact to Create Organizational Effectiveness 2.40 Community Capacity cycle and project development (tourism) 93 2.41 Benefits from increase in Community Capacity in relation to 94 tourism Development 2.42 Building of Community Capacity – Local multiplier Effect 95 2.43 Types of Thai Local Wisdom 98 2.44 Local Wisdom Branches 100 2.45 Conservation of Local Wisdom Capital in Thailand 102 2.46 Community Capital 104 2.47 Integration of Community Capacity 109 2.48 Important Factors of Community Capacity 110 2.49 Network, knowledge and Concept 112 2.50 Action and Reaction to Generating Social Capital 114 2.51 Conceptual framework of the Study 142
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4.1 (1) Khun Vin Anuraks, Assistant Village Headman Subdistrict 226 at Moo 8, near the Community Energy Learning Center of Nachumhet Currently Undergoing Construction and the Sign that Reads “model Community for Sustainable Energy Management”. (2) The Area Inside a Pavillion of the Learning Center where Public Relations Posters and Other Informative Media are Located for Raising Awareness of Energy Matters 4.2 Khun Suthep Sumonthakul, Deputy Mayor of the the Maelai 231 Subdistrict Municipality at the Model Energy Learning Center in Maelai Subdistrict 4.3 The Area around the Learning Center “One Rai, One Hundred 232 Thousand Baht”, with a Learning pavilion and a 200-L drum kiln 4.4 Community Learning Center in Kho Sai Subdistrict, 239 Khai Bangrajun District, Sing Buri Province 4.5 Learning Center that Provides Knowledge about Charcoal Kilns 249 and Wood Vinegar Production Supported by the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization in Collaboration with the Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Energy Office 4.6 Learning Center that Provides knowledge of Sufficiency 258 Economy 4.7 The Community University Following the Royal Initiative of 262 Sufficiency Economy (The Energy Learning Center in Chumpol Subdistrict displays Energy Technology such as a Solar-Cell Rubber Sheet Drying Plant , Tanks for Fermentation of Waste Water from Rubber Sheet Production to Produce Biogas; Solar-Cell Ovens; Anglow Stoves, etc. 4.8 Energy Technology at the Learning Center for Energy 279 Management in Napho Subdistrict (1) a 200-L drum kiln -Vertical Model (2) a 200-L drum kiln – Horizontal Model (3) a Solar Energy Stove (4) A Water Pumping Bicycle (5) A Garbage Disposal Furnace and (6) Solar Cell Panels
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4.9 Cooperative Work Between the Sugar Producing Groups and 280 the Housewife Group in Napho Subdistrict 4.10 Summary of the Study: Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao 350 District, Trang Province 4.11 Summary of Study: Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, 355 Phrae Province 4.12 Summary of the Study: Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang, 359 Rachen District Sing Buri Province 4.13 Summary of the Study: Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, 363 Muang District, Trat Province 4.14 Summary of the Study: Wangkhaem Subdistrict, 367 Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province 4.15 Summary of the Study: Suansom Subdistrict, 371 Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province 4.16 Summary of Study: Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, 375 Buriram Province 4.17 Summary of Study: Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, 379 Nong Khai Province 4.18 Summary of Study: Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, 383 Yasothon Province 4.19 Summary of Study: Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, 388 Chiang Mai Province 4.20 Summary of Study: Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, 392 Chumphon Province 4.21 Summary of the Study of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, 396 Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province 4.22 Model of Community Energy Management for Energy 400 Security in the Case of Communities That Did Not Receive Any Award Under the Project 4.23 Model in Community Energy Management for Energy 404 Security in the Case of Communities That Received an Award Under the Project
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
The economic growth and development of any country for the welfare of its people requires energy as a crucial element of such development. Thailand’s economic growth, in particular, is based upon energy from both domestic and foreign sources. In 2011, the crude oil import volume was 85 percent of the total consumption, reflecting the country’s dependence on external sources of energy (Ministry of Energy, 2012).
Figure 1.1 Import Values of Different Types of Energy in 2011 Source: Ministry of Energy, 2012.
Thailand’s dependence on external sources of energy also indicates the necessity for all the sectors-governmental, private and civil society-to give importance to the national energy security, as lack of energy security, which may result from 2 either domestic factors (e.g. decreasing reserve, poor distribution of facilities to get access to energy) or external ones (e.g. conflicts among oil producers or exporters, relationship with neighbouring countries with respect to energy), can significantly affect Thailand’s energy security (National Energy Policy Office, 2011). In order to promote and facilitate the building of energy security for communities in Thailand, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand of B.E. 2550 prescribes some guidelines for resource management by the community or the local administrative organization (Pollution Control Department, 2011). Since 2006 the Ministry of Energy has implemented several projects to support the planning for energy management at the community level with the aim to increase the efficiency of the national energy consumption and to have a balance between energy development and environment conservation and participation of the civil society with the local administrative organization as the key coordinator (Senate Committee on Energy, Ministry of Energy and National Research Council of Thailand, 2011). In its Alternative Energy Development Plan: AEDP (2012-2021), the Ministry of Energy has set six strategies for developing a guideline to promote 25% consumption of alternative energy within 10 years. These strategies are as follows: 1) Encourage the community to take part in production and utilization of alternative energy 2) Revise the incentive measures for private investment to suit the energy situation. 3) Amend the laws and regulations that may hinder the development of alternative energy. 4) Improve infrastructure systems: e.g. the grid line, the distribution line, as well as the Smart Grid. 5) Build public relations and public awareness 6) Support the application of research results to developing a complete cycle of alternative energy industry. Thailand has been widely known as one of the most important agricultural countries; with more than 50% of its population engaged in agriculture. It is a country enriched with resources to produce biomass energy, one of alternative energy forms. The volume of biomass from agricultural waste produced in Thailand varies, 3 depending on its agricultural product volume. Table 1.1 shows the details of growing areas and major crops in Thailand in 2008 and 2009, with the highest volume belonging to sugar cane, followed by rice, cassava, oil palms, maize, and rubber trees, respectively.
Table 1.1 Growing Areas and Major Crops in 2008 and 2009 2008 2009 Growing areas Yields Growing areas Yields Type of crops (thousand rai) (kiloton) (thousand rai) (kiloton) Sugarcane 6,588 73,502 6,023 66,816 Rice 66,772 31,651 68,519 31,508 Maize 7,397 25,156 8,584 30,088 Oil palm 2,885 9,271 3,189 8,162 Cassava 6,518 4,249 6,905 4,616 Rubber tree 11,372 3,166 11,600 3,090
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics, 2012.
The potential of biomass production in Thailand is determined based on the multiplication of the volume of agricultural produces that yield biomass and the proportion of change of agricultural produces into biomass as seen in Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2 Biomass Volume and Power Potential in 2009 Yields Biomass volume Heat value Power potential Type of crops Biomass volume (ton) available (ton) (MJ/kg) (TJ) (ktoe) Sugar cane Bagasse 4,190,794.31 14.40 60,347.44 66,816,446 Tip and leaf 13,439,727.21 17.39 233,716.86 Rice Husk 3,510,598.90 14.27 50,096.25 31,508,364 Hay 25,646,547.96 10.24 262,620.65 Soybean Trunk/bark/ 190,480 170,383.17 19.44 3,312.35 leaf Maize Cob 584,539.15 18.04 10,545.09 4,616,119 Trunk 2,758,777.36 18.04 49,768.34 Oil palm Blank palm 1,024,868.34 17.86 18,304.15 8,162,379 cluster Fiber 162,970.06 17.62 2,871.53 4
Table 1.2 (Continued) Power Yields Biomass volume Heat value Type of crops Biomass potential (TJ) volume (ton) available (ton) (MJ/kg) (ktoe) Shell 38,959.04 18.46 719.18
Branch 2,203,740 9.83 21,824.24 Cassava trunk 2,439,236.19 18.42 44,930.73 30,088,025 Rootstock 1,834,466.88 18.42 33,790.88 Coconut tree Branch 628990.82 15.40 9,686.46 1,380,980 Coir 464250.95 16.23 7,534.79 shell 128936.58 17.93 2,311.83 Rubber tree 3,090,280 Branch/stem 312,118.28 14.98 4,675.53 Total 145,853,073 59,539,905.20 504,339.40
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics, 2012.
In addition, biomass energy can be obtained from other plants either growing in their natural habitats or being grown by people in communities across Thailand. In order to promote participation by communities in producing and using alternative energy, the Ministry of Energy has implemented the project on community energy planning based on the philosophy of sufficiency economy to build a positive attitude toward sustainable use of energy and has promoted the use of simple energy technology suitable for each community, where all parties are welcome to participate from the beginning to the end in setting and implementing the community energy plan (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Office of Agricultural Economics, 2007). In foreign countries various studies on community energy management plans and projects have been conducted. Examples of previous research are Community Energy Planning: A Resource Guide for Remote Communities in Canada (Tim Cross, 2007); Integrated Community Energy Solutions in Canada (Council of Energy Ministers, 2009); City of Guelph Community Energy Plan in Canada (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007); Community Energy Planning Tool in the USA (Oregon Department of Energy, 2008); and Community Energy Management in Emerging Economic Groups.
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In Thailand, the Ministry of Energy launched the community energy planning project in 2006. This project had various objectives to be achieved during the period of 4 years (as shown in Figure 1.2). In 2007, the Ministry of Energy launched the energy planning project in 80 communities in response to the Royal Initiative of “sufficiency economy” and also gave to some communities joining this project different categories of awards: 1) Energy management 2) Participation in the community energy procedures 3) Innovation and appropriate energy technology 4) Strengthened local administrative organization. However, although the community energy planning project was already completed, the researcher has realized the significance of investigating whether and to what extent the communities joining the project have continued adopting the community energy plan, especially the production and utilization of biomass energy in the households in order to find some way to improve community energy management to attain energy security.
Role of participants: Provincial officers: provide knowledge and facilitate project implementation The committee selects Organization network: coordinate between community energy planner and officers, build up project Year Seeding communities suitable participation by the community and ready for the project Community energy planners: join training, coordinate in the community, work with officers and the network of organization in holding activities and being a local information resource
Projec Recruitment Data Processing/ Hearing Pilot Project Conclusion t PR of Orientation Building Team Data Collection Feedback Study Visit Drafting via communities media interested in Officers and 5 Community Data Taking Draft a Hearing Implement Drawing the project networks representatives collection of processing study tours community from ation of conclusions orientate the nominated by data with and synthesis to get some energy plan members of the pilot from the project and each community cooperation in a simplified ideas about focusing on the project project review its join training for from youth in pattern for energy suitability and community and results and objectives and creating a team the area e.g. learning and technology potential of about the defining experiences contributions of community household understanding managemen intermediate community the roles are expected energy planners, income and t for each energy plan of each from the to work with expense, sustainable community and how it communities officers and the energy community will be Feedback to classified in 3 Application network of consumption, developmen implemente community to steps; pilot of interested organizations to general t d verify and to project, term communitie provide training information and long term 6
encourage s joining the and to hold of the community to and also project other activities. community be aware of introduce to its energy the consumption development plan to the local administrative Year Year Year Growing Expanding Foundation Producing Results
- transfer of all management to the - store processed data - capacity building for resource persons in community energy - build career base planning community energy working group
- integrate to education - capacity building for resource persons in energy technology - conclude lesson management - transferring of knowledge to other communities correctly and - producing at least 3 resource persons in community energy - review of the plan based on collected data appropriately - community’s creating employments based on energy planning planning Activity - producing at least 5 resource persons in alternative energy - designing local training courses in which energy is integrated technology - knowledge sharing in community and operation review in the lessons
Figure 1.2 Community Energy Planning Project of Ministry of Energy
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1.2 Objectives of the Study
1.2.1 To investigate community capital and resources used for community energy Management 1.2.2 To examine community energy management and promotion as well as related problems and obstacles 1.2.3 To find out the output and outcome of success in community energy management for energy security 1.2.4 To build a model of community energy management for energy security and to make policy implications for promoting community energy management for energy security.
1.3 Research Questions
Objectives Research Questions 1. To investigate community capital and 1.1 What do community capital and resources used resources used for community energy for community energy management consist of? management 2. To examine community energy 2.1 How do the households manage community energy? management and promotion as well 2.2 How has the promotion for community energy as related problems and obstacles. management been carried out? 2.3 What are the problems and obstacles arising from community energy management? 2.4 How can such problems and obstacles be dealt with? 3. To find out the output and outcome 3.1 What are the output of community energy of success in community energy management? management for energy security 3.2 What are the outcome of success in community energy management for energy security? 4. To build a model of community 4.1 What are the differences between the models of energy management for energy community energy management for energy security security and to make policy by the communities awarded and those un implications for promoting awarded by the Project? community energy management for 4.2 What are the policy implications for community energy security. energy management for energy security?
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1.4 Scope of the Study
The study focused on community energy, especially biomass energy and community energy management, i.e., the production and utilization of biomass energy as well as its promotion in the studied communities. It was a case study of communities under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities”, with emphasis on how the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy” has been materialized without inquiring into the details of the project implementation and evaluation.
1.5 Operational Definition of the Terms
1.5.1 A Model includes broad concepts or key principles for implementing community energy management. 1.5.2 A Community refers to a group of people living together in the same area as a small society and sharing common benefits (The Royal Institute, 2003). 1.5.3 Energy refers to power produced by certain materials, i.e., renewable energy and non-renewable energy, including thermal energy, electricity, and so on. (Energy Conservation Promotion Act, 1992). 1.5.4 Renewable Energy refers to energy that can be replenished continually. This kind of energy, sometimes called “alternative energy”, is clean and environmentally friendly. Renewable energy includes energy derived from natural resources, e.g., biomass energy, hydro-power, solar energy, wind power, etc. 1.5.5 Biomass refers to natural energy coming from organic substances which can be used for producing energy. Biomass can be classified on the basis of its sources as follows: (Laohalidanond, K., 2006). 1) Agricultural crops, such as sugarcane, cassava, maize, etc., which are an important source of carbohydrate, starch and sugar. They are also grown for energy and vegetable oil. Other crops, such as oil palms and Jatropha curcas, are grown specifically to produce fuels. 2) Agricultural residues, e.g. rice straw, cassava root, corncob and soybean meal etc. 9
3) Wood and wood residues, e.g. fast-growing trees and perennial trees in general, residues from sawmills as well as from pulp and paper industry etc. 4) Waste streams, e.g. husk from rice mills, molasses and bagasse from the sugar industry or residues from extracting palm oil. 5) Solid waste and animal droppings 6) Some living organisms, such as weeds and algae, can be processed in many ways, including anaerobic digestion, to derive bio-diesel and to produce hydrogen fuel. 1.5.6 Biomass Energy refers to energy from biomass derived through transforming biomass into various forms of energy. 1.5.7 Non-Renewable Energy, sometimes called “fossil fuel”, refers to energy which can be used up, such as oil, coal, natural gas. 1.5.8 Fossil Fuel energy refers to energy from fuels derived from organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals. It is formed under pressure of earth plates and underground heat. Fossil fuels are found in solid, fluid or gaseous forms. 1.5.9 Community Energy refers to energy produced and used by the community with an aim for self-reliance. This study focused only on biomass energy (including biogas and biodiesel) produced by the households in the studied communities and used as an alternative for non-renewable energy, e.g., LPG and fuel oils. 1.5.10 Community Energy Management refers to successfully arranging and carrying out activities relating to biomass energy by the households and managing resources in the community, including promotion of the use of biomass energy in the community. 1.5.11 Community Capital and Rresources refer to capital and resources used for production and utilization of biomass energy and/or for promotion of its production and use. Six types of community capital and resources are as follows: 1) Nature capital refers to biomass used for production of biomass energy e.g. wood, animal droppings, used vegetable oil etc. 2) Financial/economical capital refers to budgets allocated by the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization to implement the biomass energy project by the community. They are, for instance, budgets to support technology and use of biogas, funds for the households to participate in community 10 development, private budgets of individual households, and financial supports from the business sector. 3) Human capital refers to the capability of each person to produce, to use biomass energy and/or to promote the production and use of biomass energy in the community. Human capital encompasses labor, knowledge or skills required for the production of biomass energy: production of charcoal from wood and, production of biogas from animal droppings by the anaerobic digestion process. It also includes local wisdom relating to biomass energy, such as construction of earth kilns, local energy technology development, etc. 4) Social capital in this context includes: (1) Commitment: referring to willingness or intention to promote the production and utilization of biomass energy. For instance, the subdistrict administration organization has had charcoal kilns built for public use to promote the utilization of biomass energy in the community (2) Reciprocity: referring to inter-reliance on biomass energy among the households in the community, such as helping the neighbors to construct earth kilns, cutting trees and sharing wood, sharing energy technology, sharing charcoal with the neighbors or donating charcoal to use in public events such as temple fairs. (3) Collective action: referring to the fact that community member working together on energy matters, e.g. construction of the energy learning centre, joining energy-related activities held by the community or attendance of meetings to share views on energy issues, cooperation in maintaining common energy technology, participation in community projects directly or indirectly concerning energy issues, etc. (4) Participation: referring to people taking part in energy-related activities in the community, such as carrying out the energy project, welcoming visitors taking study tours to the community, attending meetings to share ideas about energy issues. (5) Community organizations hereinafter refer to organizations in the community such as the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization.
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(6) Technologies: referring to energy technologies. In the case of biomass energy, the technologies include 200-liter drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, Super Anglow stoves and Anglow stoves, biogas stoves, and the like. Other kinds of energy technology are, for example, greenhouse solar cell drying sheds, and solar cell ovens. 1.5.12 Energy Planning: referring to preparation of energy plans and in particular, a plan on biomass energy plan developed by the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization. 1.5.13 Building of Community Capacity: referring to carrying out activities with an aim to gain more knowledge and capacity of the community as a whole by means of, for instance, building the capacity of individual community members or households, promoting a good relationship between community members and with those outside the community, and between community members and officials in community organizations, e.g., the subdistrict administration organization. With these activities, the overall capacity of the community can be enhanced. Some examples of activities for strengthening community capacity include community leaders, villagers or youth groups taking study tours to other communities; holding seminars or training courses aimed at creating a good understanding of energy among community members; seeking for volunteers with a good knowledge of energy to transfer such knowledge to the households in the community; arranging events to promote understanding about energy, and energy technology; providing educational supports for officials and households; encouraging self- implemented activities by the households in order to strengthen their ability and knowledge. 1.5.14 Local Wisdom Transfer: referring to passing local wisdom to others, e.g., villagers, family members, or youth groups, and providing training on biomass energy production at the learning centre. 1.5.15 Utilization of Community Capital and Resources: referring to utilization of community capital and resources, which are, for example, nature capital, financial capital, human capital, social capital, and technology. Utilization of nature capital refers to the use of biomass energy derived from tree leaves or animal droppings, for example. Utilization of financial capital is the use of the household budget or fund to promote, to produce and to use biomass energy. Utilization of human capital refers to 12 the use of knowledge and ability, labor and wisdom of each individual to promote to produce and to use biomass energy. Biomass energy knowledge can be transferred by an energy expert to the villagers, and labor force to produce and/or use it. Utilization of social capital refers to gaining benefits from commitments, mutual reliance, cooperation and participation for the purpose of production and/or utilization of biomass energy. Community organizations can play an important role in setting the plan or project for promotion of the use of biomass energy while the households, to whom energy technology is made available, can benefit from production and/or utilization of biomass energy. 1.5.16 Development of Cooperative Network: referring to strengthening cooperation both inside and outside the community by, for instance, forming occupational groups, joining community members in welcoming visitors taking study tours to the community, transferring local wisdom to visitors, arranging study tours outside the community, holding meetings within the community in which participants are the villagers, community leaders, representatives from organizations outside the community, such as the subdistrict municipality, or the subdistrict administration organization, or the district or provincial office, holding activities in collaboration with organizations outside the community, e.g., the Provincial Energy Office, purchasing energy technology from other organizations, building internal and external cooperation networks which can be formal (with official documents), or informal (with direct coordination). In addition, support can be gained from internal and external organizations in purchasing energy technology and in establishing the energy learning centre in the community. 1.5.17 Output The output of community energy management is measured by 1) the amount of biomass fuel e.g., firewood, charcoal, biogas and biodiesel, produced by the households in the community. 2) the access to biomass energy by the households in the community, or the number of households that use of biomass energy as their domestic fuel. 1.5.18 Success in Community Energy Management: referring to the outcome of production and utilization of energy in the community. Success in this case is considered in terms of energy security. That is, the households and the community as a whole can develop better economic, social and environmental conditions, as well as self-reliance in respect of energy. These four dimensions are measured as follows: 13
1) Better community economy: The community’s economic condition is measured by the responses of the community households to the interview concerning any or all of the following three aspects: (1) Decrease in energy costs of the community: The households realize that through the use of biomass energy, they can save their domestic energy cost. (2) More employment opportunities: The households agree that they have more options of employment relating to biomass energy, e.g. charcoal production and sale. (3) Increase in income: The households find that they can earn more from businesses relating to biomass energy, e.g., charcoal sale. (4) Increase in community output: The community can produce more output relating to biomass energy e.g. charcoal, firewood, fruit charcoal, wood vinegar, charcoal shampoo. 2) Better social life in the community: This aspect is considered from the responses to the interview by the community households concerning any or all of the following three aspects: (1) More participation by the community people in energy activities: The households have increasingly taken part in energy-related activities, such as helping to establish the learning center for community energy studies. (2) Sharing views on energy issues: The households share their opinions on energy issues. For example, the community is encountering the hazeproblem. When community households have increasingly been aware of this common problem, each household agrees not to burn wood in the open area and accepts the proposal by other households to build a kiln. (3) Increased sharing of knowledge/community resources/energy: The households share knowledge, resources or energy among them, such as kilns, firewood and animal droppings, including knowledge on how to build a kiln or how to produce biogas from animal droppings. 3) Better community environment: The community environment is measured by the responses of the households in the community to the interview concerning either or both of the following aspects: 14
(1) Decrease in pollution: The households view that the use of biomass energy can reduce pollutants and thus pollution. For instance, the households use wood vinegar, a by-product from charcoal burning, instead of chemical substances for pest control, resulting in decrease in pollution. Another example is that the households can decrease bad odor from animal droppings by changing them into biogas. (2) Decrease in chemical substance use: The households decreas the use of chemical substances by resorting to wood vinegar. 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy: This is measured by the responses of the households in the community to the interview concerning any or all of the following three aspects: (1) Increased ability to access energy sources: The households agree that the use of biomass energy can enhance their access to energy sources; that is, more energy sources other than LPG are available to them. (2) Alleviation of energy shortage: The households view that biomass energy can alleviate energy shortage. When they run out of LPG, they can switch to biomass energy, and they can save biomass energy for use in the future or in case of emergency. (3) Reduction of dependence on external energy sources: The households view that the use of biomass energy can reduce their dependence on energy procured from external sources. For example, the use of firewood or charcoal can save money from buying LPG from a LPG shop.
1.6 Usefulness of the Study
1.6.1 The findings about community capital and resources for community energy management can be used to determine the factors that contribute to successful sustainable community energy management. 1.6.2 The findings about community energy management and promotion and about related problems and obstacles can be used to set a guideline to solve them. 15
1.6.3 The findings about the output and outcome of community energy management for energy security can be used to find some way to increase the output and the outcome or success. 1.6.4 The findings of the study will be used for developing a model for community energy management for energy security and for making policy implications to promote community energy management for energy security by the households.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This study explored the models of community energy management for energy security and factors contributing to its success. Literature review was thus concerned with the following related concepts, theories and research papers: 2.1 Principles and Theories for Community Development 2.2 Community Energy Management and Case Studies in Foreign Countries 2.3 Community Energy Management in Thailand 2.4 Key Factors for Community Energy Management 2.5 Concepts and Elements of Energy Security 2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study
2.1 Principles and Theories of Community Development
Community energy management here refers to management of energy by the community as part of community development. In other words, community energy management emerges from the community’s desire to handle the energy problem. Concepts and theories in social sciences concerning community development selected to explain community energy management in this research can be classified into four groups as follows: 1) Theories of social organization: The selected theory was Structural- Functional Theory by Talcott Parsons. 2) Theories of social and cultural change: The selected theory was Diffusion of Innovations Theory by Everett M. Roger. 3) Theories of integrated development: The selected theory was Development Potential Diffusion by Sanya Sanyawiwat. 17
4) Concepts of modern development: The selected theory was Equilibrium and Ecological Theory by Eugene P. Odum. The details of each concept/theory applied in this study were briefly stated as follows:
2.1.1 Structural-Functional Theory by Talcott Parsons Parsons (1975) was a renowned American sociologist who constructed the Structural-Functional Theory, which became one of the key theories in sociology. The essence of this theory as summarized by Sonthaya Phonsi (2002) is as follows: 1) Concept of Social Organization: The society is systemic in nature, consisting of several sub-systems. When people live in a society, organization will be developed as the result of willingness of its members to perform activities in that society voluntaristically. Action is crucial to the social system. It includes an actor, goals, means and situational conditions which require the actor to choose a certain means to achieve the goals. The determinant factors that the actor must take into account when choosing to do any social action are norms, values and other ideas which are illustrated in the diagram in Figure 2.1 below:
Figure 2.1 Structure of Social Action Source: Parsons, 1975.
An example based on Figure 2.1 can be seen in the relationship between the subdistrict administration organization and the households. When the subdistrict administration organization has set a goal to manage community energy with participation from the households, it must first understand its own 18 norms, values, attitude and other ideas about community energy, as well as how to deal with the households under different situational conditions. The subdistrict administration organization may apply a certain means for effective community energy management, e.g. creating a common understanding in the community, forming a team to work on community energy issues, etc. At the same time, the households must react to the subdistrict administration organization in the same manner, e.g. being good members of the community, listening attentively to its explanation so that they will have a correct understanding and act accordingly. The interaction between actors, or the relationship that members have, can affect their analysis of individuals in the society. The development of a social system therefore depends on two conditions as follows: (1) The actor must have motivation to act in accordance with his or her status and role. (2) The social system must avoid conflicts or deviated behaviors.
2.1.2 Theory of Diffusion of Innovations Roger and Shoemaker (1971) explained that the Diffusion of Innovations Theory grew out of the Cultural Diffusion Theory. Its important substances are as follows: 2.1.2.1 Factors Contributing to Social and Cultural Change This theory believes that social and cultural change emerges from diffusion of new things from one society to another. Innovations may range from new knowledge, ideas, techniques, methods and technologies. With respect to community management of biomass energy, the Ministry of Energy has promoted the use of 200-liter drum kilns, which produce tar-free charcoal. Charcoal derived in this way is not as dangerous as charcoal obtained from burning firewood in earth mound pits. In addition, the 200-liter drum incinerator also gives wood vinegar, which is derived from smoke emitted from the kiln. Wood vinegar can be used to replace chemical substances as a pest control substance. The Diffusion of Innovations Theory can thus account for social development.
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2.1.2.2 Innovation Diffusion Process The innovation diffusion process consists of four steps: i) Invention of a new thing or innovation to be diffused to the society ii) Communication via any channel to get public Awareness iii) Adequate length of time to allow the public to acknowledge such an innovation iv) Availability of the innovation to society members 2.1.2.3 Factors Relating to Innovation Adoption Five factors are involved in adopting any innovation: people, the social system, the communication system, the innovation itself and the length of time: 1) People Individual persons may adopt an innovation differently, although they live in the same society. Studies on the length of time before Americans adopted an innovation suggests that there are five groups of innovation adopters as follows: (1) First adopter group (innovators) is the first group of people adopting an innovation before other groups. They are considered as a “risk taking group” because they like to take risks or to have adventure. This group accounts for around 2.5% of people adopting an innovation. (2) Early adopter group: This group adopts an innovation after the first group. Most of them are well-respected persons or social leaders. They may be regarded as a “wait and see” group, as they will adopt an innovation after the first group has done so. This group accounts for about 13.50% of innovation adopters. (3) Early innovation-adopting majority group: This group is composed of a great number of innovation adopters, approximately as many as 34% of the total adopters. They exercise prudence and care and will wait for the outcome of innovation adoption by the first and the second groups. If it turns out to be favorable, they will then adopt such an innovation. (4) Late innovation-adopting majority group: This is a large group of people, about 34% of the total number of innovation adopters. They take much more time before adopting an innovation. They are naturally sceptical and 20 difficult to believe in anything, so they will wait and see whether the majority of innovation adopters have obtained benefits from adopting the innovation. They will hesitate adopt the innovation until the majority of the public succeed from the innovation adoption. (5) Laggard group: This group is the last to adopt an innovation. People in this group strictly adhere to traditions and norms and are hesitant to adopt any change, although most people in the same society have already adopted it, or even that innovation has been proved to produce a good outcome. Their adoption may come from the fact that they have no other choice. Sometimes this may be too late because another innovation has already come to replace the old one. This group accounts for about 16% of the total innovation adopters (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1983). Innovation adoption by the five groups of people mentioned above is shown in Figure 2.2 below:
Figure 2.2 Innovation Adoption by Different Groups of People Source: Robinson, 2009.
On the other hand, Benno Galjart (1967) points out three factors that cause people not to adopt an innovation. These factors are 1) Ignorance: causing one to overlook the value of or the benefit from an innovation. 2) Inability: being unable to use the innovation, perhaps because of having an inadequate fund to buy or maintain it, etc. 3) Unwillingness: having a greater benefit from not using the innovation etc. (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1997) 2) Social System Various social systems can have influence on adopting an innovation. In the modern society, the social system usually facilitates the adoption of 21 an innovation in terms of speed or quantity to be adopted. Because of the existing norms and the value system that are supportive to social and cultural change, a new thing can be easily adopted by the modern society. On the contrary, in the conservative or traditional society, an innovation will be adopted at a relatively much slower rate and at a lesser extent or even be rejected. 3) Communication System Communication refers to contact between the sender and the receiver via a certain type of media. Innovation diffusion is a form of communication in which an innovation diffused from its origin to the user or adopter, an interaction of human beings. Communication is therefore crucial to innovation adoption. Senders and receivers who have progressive thinking, high education, leadership and are of young age tend to adopt an innovation more easily and quickly than those of the opposite attributes, who adopt an innovation at a lesser extent and more slowly, or do not adopt it at all (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1997). 4) Innovation In order for an innovation to be widely diffused and adopted by the public, that innovation must have two elements: an idea and an object. Whether an innovation will be adopted or not depends on the adopter, the social system, the communication system and the characteristics of the innovation itself. An innovation likely to be adopted more easily must have the following characteristics: 1) Relative advantage 2) Compatibility 3) Less complexity 4) Triability 5) Observability An innovation of opposite characteristics to those mentioned above is generally difficult to be adopted (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1983). 5) Length of Time It takes some time before a person or society will desire to adopt an innovation. Length of time before innovation adoption can reflect the level or type of person adopting the innovation as mentioned earlier (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1997). 2.1.2.4 Decision Making Process of an Individual Decision making is the last step in adopting or not adopting an innovation. If a person decides to adopt any innovation, such an innovation will be introduced into the society. Five steps an individual takes in deciding to adopt or not adopt an innovation are as follows: 1) Awareness refers to knowing that some innovation 22 exists that can be adopted for use. 2) Interest refers to the step in which a person interested in an innovation starts to seek more information about that innovation. 3) Evaluation refers to the step in which comparison between the existing thing and the innovation is made to find out relative advantages-a key factor to adoption. 4) Trial refers to the step in which a person, upon having evaluated an innovation and still being reluctant to use it, tries using the innovation before making a decision on whether to adopt that innovation. 5) Adoption or rejection is the last step in which a person satisfied or dissatisfied with the outcome of the trial decides to adopt or reject the innovation (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1983). 2.1.2.5 Application of Theories of Community Development Diffusion of Innovations Theory can be used as a guideline for community development as follows: 1) Diffusion of Innovations Theory believes that innovation is the most significant factor for social and cultural change. A community development approach initiated and introduced to a community is one form of innovation. It is believed that community development will be achieved if it is carried out correctly and appropriately. 2) Diffusion of Innovations Theory proposes that innovation diffusion be carried on through different steps since its invention. The communication system makes it possible to diffuse the innovation to the target group and it takes some time before the group adopts it. Similarly, many steps need to be taken before community development becomes successful. The steps required for innovation adoption that can be applied to community development are, for instance, communicating in the group or organization, fixing an appropriate timeframe for each step in the community development process, etc. 3) Diffusion of Innovations Theory explains that innovation adoption differs from person to person in terms of extent and speed, so innovation adopters can be classified into 5 groups as discussed earlier. This characteristic can be used to determine the target group of community development. Nonetheless, care should be taken in choosing activities to fit each group, since some groups tend to adopt a new thing rapidly while others gradually adopt it. Also, some activities must be done simultaneously to support community development. 23
4) Diffusion of Innovations Theory indicates that people in the modern social system tend to adopt an innovation more rapidly and to a greater extent than a primitive or conservative society as they cling to different norms and values. Accordingly, implementation of community development requires an appropriate plan suitable for the condition of an individual society. 5) Diffusion of Innovations Theory believes that the communication system is a key factor for innovation adoption, as it enables people in the society to have a better knowledge and understanding of the innovation, to realize its importance and to be ready to use it. In implementing community development, the local administration organization should therefore take appropriate steps to deal with communication with its people and other local organizations effectively. Communication will enable people and the target groups to gain knowledge and understanding of activities carried out in the community development program, and at the same time it will provide channels for attracting people to join the community development projects as stated in the principles of community development. 6) Diffusion of Innovations Theory states that an innovation to be diffused and adopted must be suitable for an adopter; that is, it must render more advantage than the existing thing and must be compatible with social culture, less complex and observable. To be successful in community development, the community should likewise seek for appropriate methods. 7) Diffusion of Innovations Theory also mentions that the process for innovation adoption takes a certain length of time to allow people to adjust themselves to adopt such an innovation. The community that aims to strengthen a person’s ability, morality and happiness also needs time, without rush or taking a shortcut merely to end the process more quickly. It requires meticulousness and prudence before the community can attain the ultimate goal.
2.1.3 Development Potential Diffusion Theory Development Potential Diffusion Theory proposes six factors crucial for social development (Sanya Sanyawiwat, 1997) as follows: 1) Natural Resources: referring to things existing in nature and not invented by human beings e.g. soil, water, minerals, forests, gold, diamond, etc. 24
Natural resources are a key factor for development as they will bring about wealth which can be converted into capital for uplifting the quality of life of people in the society. Any society in which natural resources are abundant will be able to enhance its development. 2) Human Resource: referring specially to people in the working age group (15-59 years old) as their labor can be considerably utilized for development. A society in which the working age group comprises the majority of population will get more contributions to its development, whereas a society in which there are too many younger or older members (less than 14 years old or above 60 years old) will experience a burden rather than an advantage for development. 3) Social organizations: referring to different groups of people with different functions but with social relations. Each group has a certain behavioral pattern under cultural rules and orders, e.g. social group, family, community, association, class, human society, etc. Social organizations beneficial for development are associations established with an aim to jointly carry out a certain activity or activities. These associations have power or potential for social development, since they can efficiently carry out development activities in which many people are needed to participate in finding the best solution together through thorough consideration and review. 4) Leadership: A qualified leader is a person who can hold other people together in the form of group or organization, resulting in more capacity for development. The leader’s virtues can make people, groups of people and organizations to use their best effort to carry out development activities. In fact, the more the number of such leaders in a society, the higher the level of development. 5) Contact with the outside world: People in a community contact with people in others. The contacts will provide an opportunity for development or advancement, as they bring about knowledge transfer, adoption of skills, products and technologies from more advanced communities. 6) Training: referring to providing people with education, especially education that benefits their lives e.g. development of biomass kilns/stoves in the households, occupational training, etc. Training is one form of providing education 25 for the community. It is also a significant tool for development of natural resources, human resource, social organizations, leadership and contacts. In short, Development Potential Diffusion Theory consists of two parts: development potential which includes natural resources, human resource, social organizations and leadership and diffusion which includes contacts with the outside world and training as a linkage or intervening variable. Social development involves six factors: natural resources, human resource, social organizations, leadership, contacts and training. The more the availability of these factors, the more successful the development. Development Potential Diffusion Theory is applicable to community development in the following ways: 1) Development Potential Diffusion Theory is pertinent to social development since it considers a community as a small society or as part of a larger society. The theory is applicable to community development as well. 2. Development Potential Diffusion Theory believes that significant factors in building capacity for development are natural resources, human resource, social organizations and leadership; likewise, community development must focus on building community capacity. This theory can thus serve as a guideline for community development. 3) Development Potential Diffusion Theory believes that another important factor for social development is diffusion of knowledge, technology and others from a more advanced community into a less developed one. It is therefore necessary for the latter to contact the outside world; that is, it cannot remain a closed society if its development will be successful. It must leave open channels for diffusion of knowledge, technology and so on. 4) Development Potential Diffusion Theory believes that training can build up capacity for development and diffusion to society at large. For this reason, training can be well applied to implement human-based community development.
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2.1.4 Equilibrium and Ecological Theory This theory proposes an approach to development equilibrium which stresses the necessity to maintain an appropriate ecosystem in which there is a balanced relationship between human beings and the environment. Social development must be limited to the extent that the environment can endure; therefore, care about the environment and ecology should be an indispensable value. According to Hawley (1950) the author of “Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure” (1950), human ecology refers to an approach which people follow in order to survive in the environment. It focuses on the analysis of why and how changes in the community occur and which changes cannot be reversed, taking into consideration the structural characteristics of population and the environmental condition, as well as the interaction between them. An important question for conducting research is how technology advancement in the industrial sector can affect the environmental condition of an urban society, especially pollution. Duncan (1964) has proposed the POET Model as shown in Figure 2.3 to explain the relationship between people and the environment. Under this model, P refers to population, O refers to the organization, E refers to the environment and T refers to technology. The assumption is that whatever technology people in the community use will ultimately affect the environment of that community.
Figure 2.3 POET Model Source: Duncan, 1964.
Later the POET was criticised for overlooking values, traditions, culture and beliefs upheld by the community, so culture is added to this model as POET+C. In his paper, “Small is Beautiful”, Schumacher (1974) has proposed that developing or underdeveloped countries adopt suitable technologies from developed 27 countries and ingeniously utilize resources in the local or rural area. This approach not only is an alternative choice of development without ruining the environment and the nature but also offers sustainable development in which resources can be conserved for the next generation. The concept of ecology discussed above is also called an eco-development. It is a kind of social development that takes into account the environment through the application of technology friendly to the environment, or eco-technology, with emphasis on conservation, renewability and recycling as new values for community people instead of the traditional pattern of development based on the modern theory and the economic growth theory, both of which tend to undermine natural resources (exploitability), and with focus on seeking for substituting resources (substitutability). In fact, eco-development emphasizes comprehensive thinking of specific needs and the nature of the community, or the so-called “Think Globally, Act Locally”. Summary of Related Theories 1) Theory of Social Organization: Structural-Functional Theory by Talcott Parsons Concept of social organization: The society is systemic in nature, consisting of several sub-systems. When people live in a society, social organization will be developed as a result of willingness of its members to perform activities in that society voluntaristically. Action is crucial to the social system and it includes an actor, goals, means and situational conditions in which the actor is required to choose certain means to achieve the goals. The determinant factors for choosing a means are norms, values and other ideas. For example, the subdistrict administration organization under the local administrative structure is responsible for community management, while the households under the community structure are responsible for complying with rules and regulations, culture and guidelines determined by the community administration organizations. 2) Theory of Social and Cultural Change: Diffusion of Innovations Theory by Everett M. Roger The innovation diffusion process consists of four steps: 1) invention of a innovation or new thing to be diffused in the society, 2) Communication via any channel to get public awareness, 3) Adequate length of time to allow the public to 28 adopt such an innovation, and 4) Availability of the innovation to society members. Factors related to adoption of an innovation: 1) people (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards), 2) the social system – norms and values of innovation adoption, 3) the communication system necessary for innovation diffusion 4) an innovation, which in general consists of two parts: an idea and an object, and 5) length of time before an innovation is adopted. An example of innovation diffusion is the promotion of biomass kilns and biogas technology to derive biogas from animal droppings in the community. 3) Theory of Integrated Development: Development Potential Diffusion Theory by Sanya Sanyawiwat This theory is composed of two elements: 1) development potential (natural resources, human resource, social organization, leadership) and 2) diffusion (contact with the outside world and training) Community energy management in Thailand is carried out by means of training and study tours to other communities. 4) Theory of Development in the Modern Age: Equilibrium and Ecological Theory by Eugene P. Odum and Duncan This theory emphasizes the necessity to maintain the ecosystem, to balance the relationship between human beings and the environment, and to limit of social development to conserve the environment. In this way, it is expected that community energy management can improve the community environment.
Figure 2.4 POET Model Source: Duncan, 1964. 29
2.2 Community Energy Management and Case Studies in Foreign Countries
Community energy management and case studies in foreign countries to be presented here are as follows: 2.2.1 Community Energy Planning: a Resource Guide for Remote Community in Canada 2.2.2 Integrated Community Energy Solutions in Canada 2.2.3 Community Energy Planning Tool by the Oregon Department of Energy, USA 2.2.4 Community Energy Management in Copenhagen, Denmark 2.2.5 Community Energy Management in Mannheim, Germany 2.2.6 Community Energy Management in Rural Areas in Scotland 2.2.7 Community Energy Management in Rural Areas in China 2.2.8 Community Energy Management in the Northeast of Brazil 2.2.9 Community Energy Management in India
2.2.1 Community Energy Planning: a Resource Guide for Remote Community in Canada Cross (2005) The costs of energy and energy facilities are very high in remote communities in the northern part of Canada as opposed to those in the southern part for many reasons: higher transport costs, a more dispersed population pattern, higher maintenance costs, higher operational costs, for example. These factors make it necessary to set a long-term community energy management plan to economically and environmentally optimize the benefits in remote communities. Some advantages of such a plan are decrease in energy costs and expenses, long-term benefits and efficiency, a better chance for community energy planning to meet future demands for facilities and utilities, reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG), reduction of emissions from other pollutants, reduction of risks to the environment due to oil storage and transport, increase in the use of sustainable energy, i.e., renewable energy, and increase in employment, and increase in training opportunities for community people.
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Cross (2005) Community Energy Planning Methodology for Remote Communities: A community energy plan can be developed following the procedures for setting other plans as follows: Step 1: Forming a Team. To develop and implement a community energy plan successfully requires participation from the municipality and the community in the form of a committee to ensure support from various levels. The CEP committee of the community for which a long-term plan is developed is divided into two levels: a working group and a steering group. The former group is responsible for collecting and analyzing data, communicating with contractual parties, drafting proposals and doing any other work relating to the planning process. The latter group is responsible for overseeing and following up the development of community energy plan to ensure that all the steps taken are in line with the vision and the established process, and that the planning process has a follow-up activity that meets the objectives of the long- term plan. Step 2: Development of Community Vision. Vision is the basis for success of the long-term planning process, as it reflects the community’s ideas and goals. This vision will help the decision-makers in planning and operation. The question to derive vision is how we picture our community in the next two or three decades or even beyond that under the vision of a sustainable community. Sustainability means the condition in which the act done at the moment will have least or no negative effect on our quality of life in the future and on the ecosystem we live in. The vision development in the Hornby community project, for example, followed four steps: 1) conducting a series of sustainable community studies based on a current model or pattern of community development planning, and organizing activities that could promote participation from the community people. By following a global model and discussing some feasible actions for the Hornby community, the community members could gain more understanding about how to create a sustainable community 2) making a quality of life survey to set criteria for measuring the quality of life of the community, which could vary from community to community. After all indices were defined, a research survey was conducted to measure the community quality of life 3) Community visioning by organizing a workshop and a meeting for various parties in the community to participate in determining vision. The community 31 people were allowed to think outside the box and to imagine the picture of their own community in the next 20 years, and 4) There was strategic planning based on values, goals and speculations involved in the community visioning process. Working groups responsible for individual tasks were set up to develop a clear and manageable plan for the future. These working groups were also responsible for developing a road map of how to achieve strategic goals within the timeframe. Step 3: Investigation of Basic Eenergy: The investigation of basic energy helps not only to clarify energy issues in the community but also to structure the plan for community energy planning; meanwhile the collected information will help to understand the overall picture of the community. Step 4: Quantitative Visioning and Development of Specific Goals and Indices: In this step, the community will develop clear vision of its future and visualize its future picture and others necessary for implementing the vision. Some communities may set appropriate condition and goals of their own while others may choose to follow the approach set in the framework of the Smart Growth or the Federation of Canadian Municipalities’ Partners for Climate Protection Program. For instance, to reduce the use of resources and to conserve energy, the communities in Tucson, Arizona, set a quantitative operational goal of reducing 75% of energy consumption and 65% of water consumption, 90% of solid waste, 40% of air pollution and meanwhile creating a job for each of every 2 residents in the area. Step 5: Data Collection and Analysis: To develop a long term plan, it is necessary for the community committee to understand the current energy situation or condition of the community. To achieve the goal of energy efficiency, it must collect the data concerning energy demand, resources, expenditures and systems and others which may have an impact on the community in the future to enable it to forecast the future. One important thing to do is to draw a diagram showing flows of energy. This requires data from different sources (e.g. the government sector, institutions, the business sector, the residents etc.). The Sankey diagram is one of the tools to help draw such a diagram as shown in Figure 2.5 32
Figure 2.5 Flows of Community Energy Source: Cross, 2005.
The data to be collected are not only those based on the set of indices, but also local wisdom of the elderly in the community, which for some communities are important for understanding the traditional energy system and the local climate change. 1) Origins of data The data can be classified into 3 types as follows: 1) Active data referring to data used for implementing the energy saving project, which the community has the ability to control to a certain level, e.g. design of buildings, use of electricity, etc., 2) Passive data referring to data relating to energy users in the community but the community has little or no ability to control them, e.g. oil and gas price fixing etc., and 3) Supportive data referring to data which are less directly concerned with community energy planning but are considered basic data that the community needs to understand, e.g. weather condition, geography and employment, etc. 2) Data analysis The team should hold a meeting to discuss the outcome of data collection so that unclear data or misleading comments can be clarified. It is an advantage to have a name list of resource persons or advisors who can give advice on data collection and analysis for community energy planning. Figure 2.6 shows the 33 level of energy consumption where the red zone means a high level of energy consumption while the blue zone indicates the area where the level of energy consumption is moderate and the yellow and green zones indicate a low level of energy consumption, respectively (Cross, 2005).
Figure 2.6 Level of Concentration of Energy Consumption in Ottawa Source Cross, 2005.
Step 6: Financial Management of the Community Energy Plan, Facilities and Projects Financial Consideration must be taken concerning the budget for each individual procedure under the community energy plan or project, energy efficiency, facilities, sources of fund for community support, as well as sponsors - both the public and the private sectors - e.g. Federation of Canadian Municipalities and Canada Housing and Mortgage Corporation etc. Economic evaluation and feasibility studies must be made first, because the results will help assess cost-effectiveness, returns on investment, payback periods and others of the project. Step 7: Schedule for actions: It is necessary to fix a schedule for implementing a short- term action plan or a more flexible long-term action plan. Step 8: Implementation and monitoring: The projects for implementing the community energy plan should be carried out in an incremental manner in line with financial management. The implementation should start with a small project, making the community realize that the community energy plan has achieved its goals and continued to progress in accordance with the vision. In addition, project monitoring should follow the 34 procedures set in the plan and the feedback mechanism to ensure that the goal of the long-term energy plan in terms of finance is achieved and is in line with the vision determined by the community. Periodic reviews of the long term plan should be made and more goals may be added or otherwise some goals may be revised to cope with the change in community geography, economy, etc.
2.2.2 Integrated Community Energy Solutions in Canada Council of Energy Ministers, (2009) 2.2.2.1 Key Players and Their Roles Advancing integrated community energy solutions requires cooperation from various parties as follows: 1) Local Government is a key player in making decisions on investment and policy which substantially affects the development of an integrated community energy solution. 2) Regional or Provincial Government also plays an important role in determining the framework of the operation and is responsible for the provisions relating to energy resources which greatly influence the support for integrated community energy solution. 3) The Canadian Government is a provider of information; it conducts research and development and plays an active role in promoting cooperation, and providing conveniences. 4) Developers and Other Private Organizations are significant practitioners of integrated community energy solutions. As the government prescribes order for and direction of the environment management to attain integrated community energy solutions, developers and industries will seek for a form of business and cooperation with the local government in order to materialize integrated community energy solutions. 5) Energy Companies are providers of supplies and services necessary for integrated community energy solutions. This approach creates a new opportunity and a new business form for energy providers to enter competition. Energy companies are significant to integrated community energy solutions in the future as they have capacity to invest and construct facilities. 35
6) Other Relevant Parties that will provide support for integrated community energy solutions are, for example, educational institutions, non-profit organizations and especially members of the community who will play a key role in the progress of integrated community energy solutions. 2.2.2.2 Sectoral Building Blocks Each sector involved in integrated community energy solutions has procedures to achieve them. Linking each sector together will result in synergies which can support each other in the operation and enable the community to increase cooperation in seeking for solutions to the community problems. Such linkage can be as follows: (Council of Energy Ministers, 2009) 1) Energy Distribution and Supply The system for energy distribution and supply will link users of different forms of energy including renewable energy and the distribution. The important things are the efficient energy distribution system from the center, energy management and storage. 2) Transport: Transport service and facilities will ensure that resources are used efficiently for the community and relevant parties and the entire community. 3) Households and Buildings For access to energy sources, the households and buildings must be able to accommodate equipment as well as to link appropriate energy sources in order to achieve integrated community energy solution. 4) Industry: Industries can take part in integrated community energy solution as consumers, manufacturers and providers of renewable energy. 5) Local Community Service: Community service can help produce and consume the energy efficiently through effective facilities such as road lights, water pumps, waste management and control, recycling and energy production from waste. 6) Land Use and Community Pattern: Land use and community pattern provide basis for integrated community energy solution. While the road pattern, population density, community design and building pattern can be adapted to get the circumstances that support integrated community energy solution. Sectorial building blocks of integrated community energy solutions are shown in Figure 2.7 36
Figure 2.7 Sectoral Building Blocks of an Integrated Community Energy Solution Source: Council of Energy Ministers, 2009.
2.2.2.3 Factors Influencing Energy Consumption in Communities Council of Energy Ministers (2009) 1) Availability of Land and Energy: The pattern of community development for several decades is the result of availability of land and energy resources. Land and energy prices are driving forces of more effective energy consumption. However, signaling via prices only is not sufficient to ensure success of integrated community energy solution as there are other driving factors involved in a complex manner. 2) Advanced Transport System and Energy Technology: Advanced transport and energy technology will support consumption of different kinds of energy. Technology (including information technology) will help modernize the community in the future. 3) Population It is expected that by 2020 the Canadian population will grow more than 85% and most jobs will be mainly found in big cities. In the past, urban development led to dependence on private cars while the community in the future will be able to use energy more effectively. 4) Communities in the North In spite of intensive urbanization, about one fifth of Canadian population still live in the communities in the North and 37 some rural areas which are full of resources. Even small towns will have an opportunity to reach integrated community energy solutions in the future. New opportunities associating with renewable energy can bring about economic strength to the communities through job creation and decrease in capital outflow for energy purchase. 5) Energy Security Energy is considered a strategic resource in a community because of cost and associating risks. Establishing reliable energy security will be a driving force to integrated community energy solution. 6) Modification of Facilities Canadian communities want to see modification of facilities and thus investment is required to replace the existing facilities and to create an opportunity that will lead to integrated community energy solution. 7) Consumer Choice The consumer choice can benefit the community economy, the environment and the quality of life. Integrated community energy solutions will provide new options to respond to consumer demand. 8) Climate change Increasing concern about the climate change partly urges us to seek for a possible solution to maintain stability of the global climate. Many communities are now considering an integrated community energy solution that can help improve the climate change. 2.2.2.4 Barriers to Implementation of Integrated Community Energy Solutions: ICES Council of Energy Ministers (2009) 1) Decision Making and Complexity of Power: complexity of the existing structure of decision making poses a challenge for planning, development and implementation of the plan of integrated community energy solutions. Decision making involves several parties and may need supporting tools. 2) Poor Understanding of the Potential of Integrated Community Energy Solutions: The awareness of stakeholders of the potential of integrated community energy solution is somewhat inadequate to achieve the national goal of effective energy use and reduction of greenhouse gas. This is partly because malpractice has not been publicized in documents and derived benefits have not been clearly measured. 38
3) Lack of Experience and Expertise in Integrated Community Energy Solution: Canada has limited experience about integrated community energy solution in all respects and does not have continual projects to develop such technical expertise that will lead to another new project or skill. 4) Inadequate Support to Requirements and Policy: The existing framework of requirements and policy is not suitable to support integrated community energy solution while the proposal for integrated community energy solution still has to compete with other approaches when a question of priority is raised. 5) Limited Support to Transfer, Research and Development: At the moment, the fund for R&D, demonstration and implementation of the plan in order to enhance capacity under integrated community energy solution has not been supported in a timely manner. 6) Limited Integration of Energy Issues in Community Planning: Energy policy adopted by the regional and provincial administration does not need to undergo the planning process by the community and there is lack of the goal toward mandatory reduction of greenhouse gas in the community. 7) Lack of Tools for Analysis and Accessible Information: The data collection needs identification, assessment and selection. Relevant data at the community level is not available. The collected data has not been reported in the guideline for community energy planning. Moreover, tools used for analysis of integrated community energy solutions are not available in the community. 8) Limitation on Population: Several small communities in Canada are confronting the decrease in population and thus implementation of integrated community energy solution under this situation can be challenging, as these communities may not have important resources for initiating change. 9) Limitation on Culture: Accomplishment of implementation of integrated community energy solution must be in accordance with the culture of Canadian people to ensure that the benefits of such solution will provide consumers with choices in a better and appropriate manner.
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2.2.2.5 Promotion and Feasibility 1) Policy and Requirements: Effective policy and requirements will facilitate local organizations and decision makers in respect of integration of the energy issue with land use, transport and facilities. 2) Technology, Acceptable Practice and Decision Making Tools: A solution by highly effective and reliable technology is required for maximising efficiency of the integrated community energy solution and facilitating further improvement. Development of new technology as well as facilitating tools to be used for analysing options and guiding decision making is also important. The outcome of the demonstration and pilot project will reflect the operational results and will help spread the knowledge about tools, acceptable practice and practical technology. 3) Information: Information and standard evaluation of community energy is a key to understanding of energy consumption which will help to determine goals, to make decisions, to communicate with relevant parties, to report the progress and to evaluate the success of integrated community energy solutions. 4) Capacity Building: It is necessary for decision makers, practitioners and technicians to have capacity to understand, identify, evaluate and apply the integrated community energy solution as well as the capacity to analyze and evaluate the cost effectiveness and also to get access to processes and techniques required for project design and implementation. 5) Opportunity Given by the Leader: To progress to integrated community energy solutions requires participation from leaders of all levels in both private and public sectors and other stakeholders. These leaders can facilitate vision development to make integrated community energy solutions possible in the community and also development of a cooperative network to speed up the work. 6) Market Stimulation: Market stimulation can accelerate an integrated solution and practice in a wider scope. Marketing tools can put together supports from the government sector in the form of stimulating measures or mechanisms such as long term funds to support activities relating to R&D, commercial utilization of proved technology, financial instruments for risk management and market awareness. 40
2.2.2.6 Three Phases of implementation The community in which the process of integrated community energy solutions has just started might benefit from the lessons given by other communities in Canada which could successfully deal with challenges, especially in respect of putting integrated community energy solutions into practice. The experiences at the international level, particularly in Europe, about integrated community energy solution showed the feasibility of integrated community energy solutions. To ensure that integrated community energy solutions can be normally applied to the environmental issues, it is necessary to follow three phases as shown in Figure 2.8: 1) 1st Phase: Launching the Project to Get the Results Rapidly (2010-2015) In a short term, a pilot project may be implemented with procedures set for application of integrated community energy solutions. This 1st phase may be used to increase the number of communities that carry out the community energy planning project focusing on integrated community energy solutions, and setting the community target. Establishing a network of experts can support development of information processing and best practice as well as sharing of expertise in integrated community energy solution, which may benefit all the operations in the three phases. 2) 2nd Phase: Acceleration (2010-2020) Activities to be done in this phase are aimed at developing the project, policy and requirements; enhancing the large-scale project implementation under integrated community energy solutions; creating the environment that facilitates investment of the private sector, supports R&D activities and improves existing technologies; and developing tools to support decision making on integrated community energy solution. 3) 3rd Phase: Large-Scale Project Implementation (2020-2050) This phase is aimed at long-term implementation which can start right now in order to develop technology for integrated solution in the next era, to present views about opportunities and to build infrastructure for large-scale project implementation under integrated solution. The activities for this 3rd phase can be 41 setting a policy and requirements for a long term financial support of integrated solution in the future.
Figure 2.8 Implementation of three phases of integrated solution Source: Council of Energy Ministers, 2009.
2.2.3 Community Energy Planning Tool by the Oregon Department of Energy, USA Oregon Department of Energy ( 2008) states that the community energy plan is a means for review and assessment of options for designing a community that consumes energy efficiently and sustainably. As the use of energy is an element of all community projects, planning on energy and resource consumption will be able to help the community to succeed in energy sustainability, progress in energy conservation and effective energy consumption while development of renewable resources will help mitigate the impact on the environment as a result of energy use. Community energy planning of the Oregon Department of Energy included the following steps. 2.2.3.1 Visioning This step was carried out by the Subdistrict Administration Organization and community members. In developing a plan, community people participate in determining the vision of the group. The key elements of visioning are 1) exchanging opinions on the energy situation of Oregon 2) helping community members to understand about local resources in the community 3) discussing the scope of the project and finding out a common goal and 4) seeking for agreement or approval from community leaders. In addition, local leaders, business operators, government agencies in each 42 community must be willing to act as models by installing technologies and equipment that reduce pollution emission at their buildings and houses. Under this plan, the public school in the community is designated as the distribution center of community support and public services. This mechanism includes the budget to enable the school to provide services through the use of external resources. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) known as a local government for sustainability proposes the “Cities for Climate Protection Campaign” to help cities to improve their policy and measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas in the community, improve air quality and bring about sustainability to the community. The members of ICLEI are given resources to carry out this project. 2.2.3.2 Data Collection The first step of planning is to develop an understanding of the current energy situation. This basic condition takes much time for planning but it is a significant step to ensure that the data collected was correct and complete. The following step is to conduct research and gather documents and literature review of energy matters. In particular, the municipality must pay close attention to transport, buildings, lighting, solid waste disposal and travel. The data come from different departments of the municipality or the local administration organization. As for the community, consideration is taken into energy consumption in the houses, commercial or industrial businesses, transport and waste disposal. The data collected also include pollution and emissions of greenhouse gas in order to understand causes and consequences of the problems more clearly. 2.2.3.3 Analysis An analysis is made on the overall picture of energy taking into consideration consumption and emissions of greenhouse gas, major users, any change that can undergo intervention. The analysis also includes houses, by considering tools for household planning in order to reduce energy consumption. Households in Oregon use oil, kerosene, butane or wood to produce heat. According to the State Home Oil Weatherization Program (SHOW), the house owner (or business owner) can analyze energy consumption quickly based on the online energy audit checklist at Oregon 43
Department of Energy’s website. The U.S. Department of Energy also provides do-it-yourself home energy audits as well.
Figure 2.9 An Example of Website: Energy.gov that suggests State Home Oil Weatherization (SHOW) Program Source: Oregon Department of Energy, 2008.
Figure 2.10 An Example of Website: Oregon.gov that suggests State Home Oil Weatherization (SHOW) program Source: Oregon Department of Energy, 2008. 44
Figure 2.11 An Example of an Energy Audit Checklist of State Home Oil Weatherization (SHOW) Program Source: Oregon Department of Energy, 2008.
Under the State Home Oil Weatherization Program, households can analyse their own energy consumption and participate in the program for improving energy consumption efficiency in different ways as proposed by the project which are suitable for each household. After having improved energy consumption efficiency, the households will be entitled to the rebate specified by the project for each improvement at the option of each household. There are some programs that helped analyze effectiveness of energy consumption. For example, the Home Energy Solutions Program provides an online analysing tool called Home Energy Analyser Tool to help households to analyse energy use (Energy Trust of Oregon Assistance) and the program for assessing via the website of Oregon Department of Energy the electricity system of both old and new buildings (School and Local Government Assistance), etc. 45
2.2.3.4 Identification of Goals & Opportunities There had to be commitment to the planning process before the project was implemented. In this regard, all stakeholders needed to be part of the planning process. They might take part in open-forum public meetings of community leaders and other key players e.g. representatives from city departments, public utilities providers, business and industrial leaders, the transport sector, the construction sector, food industry etc. The process included identification of the aspects to be improved by making a list of what to be improved as well as consideration of desirable commitments and of energy saving and efficiency improvement. Moreover, it also included determining the goals and some ways to attain them, such as drafting positive goals with adequate details in such a manner that it was possible to follow the progress, to consider relevant resources and to set up the guideline for accomplishment of the whole process. 2.2.3.5 Development of an Action Plan An action plan was developed by setting priority of the goals and evidence of success in each goal level. The short term goal was one that could be accomplished quickly based on available resources while a long term target needed planning, resources management and time to be achieved. After setting priority of goals, it was important to choose the right strategies, which might sometimes be flexible and help to implement the plan effectively. Nonetheless, a clear timeline had to be fixed for data collection, budget allotment and implementation to achieve the goal as well as budgeting. This was done by prioritising the objectives which could be achieved with the available budget, probably starting from a small goal and then extended to others bigger goals. Budgets could be managed in different forms, e.g. loan, tax credit, etc. 2.2.3.6 Implementation It might be possible to adapt new and more suitable technologies that could better save energy consumption and cost e.g. energy-saving light bulbs etc. In addition, consideration should be taken into what renewable energy was sustainable for each community. Solar energy might be more suitable for part of Oregon than for communities along the shore which had less sunlight. Participation in renewable energy could be arranged e.g. an option for buying renewable energy called “green tags” from which a buyer would benefit from tax reduction, or encouragement on 46 reduction of computer use by not turning on the computer for the whole day because this can result in emission of more than 1,500 pounds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In addition, car- or van-pool is another alternative that needs promotion. A group of 7-15 people travelling on the same van, there must be a guarantee that all passengers can go back home in case of emergency. Air pollution can be reduced by using small vehicles or vehicles that use other fuels than gasoline, by setting a transport schedule that is cost-effective, by training on efficient driving techniques as well as by fostering the habit of energy saving, by self-learning about renewable energy technologies, and by encouraging organizations to join the Oregon Natural Step Network based on the principle that businesses and organizations can reduce environmental impacts while their overall business efficiency and effectiveness can be maintained at the same time. 2.2.3.7 Evaluation The evaluation process starts with setting the baseline for evaluation and then the starting point for measurement, determining the referencing years for comparison, and specifying the measurement and others. Indices for comparison are established and the levels of comparison set, e.g. machines, processes, organizations. Comparison of current energy consumption, utilities bills, amounts of saving, reduction of emissions, and comparison with peers and other competitors should be made to realize one’s status. To review the results of the performance, it is necessary to identify leaders for community development, employers, or family members who will make an evaluation and announce the results to the community via website or in meetings of the community makers. Such a review also includes clear planning if there are a lot of items required for review. 47
2.2.4 Community Energy Management in Copenhagen, Denmark
Figure 2.12 Procedures for Community Energy Management in Copenhagen, Denmark Source: Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007.
During the year 1973, when the oil price dramatically increased leading to a lot of concerns about oil demand. Copenhagen at that time encountered the risk of lack of electricity supply for the city which was mainly generated from oil. Copenhagen had to adopt a harmonised policy for more than 10 years and encourage buildings to save energy. The energy use of buildings was reviewed on a regular basis and technologies had to be improved every five years. During the beginning of the plan, Copenhagen had a community energy system for heating which was systematically improved and extended in terms of service area, and a network for energy distribution that connected with energy sources, resulting in effectiveness and convenience. Copenhagen used a variety of fuels to generate heat and electricity such as charcoal, natural gas, oil, waste, wood, solar energy and wind. An energy network is also able to facilitate the use of equipment for appropriate energy consumption (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007). 48
While Copenhagen is growing and developing more, it also promotes reduction of private car use and switching to walking, public buses and bicycles. Copenhagen is also among the pioneers of car and bicycle pools. Through the creation of high efficient community energy system, Copenhagen and its vicinity are widely recognized in terms of efficient architecture, technology creation and consultation (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007). In 1996 Denmark was the first country that had a certification scheme to guarantee the efficiency of energy consumption of new buildings and to verify the performance when a building was sold or bought. Some examples of certification schemes were as follows: (Garforth International ILC,1996).
Figure 2.13 Example of Danish Energy Performance Label (2006 version) Source: Garforth International ILC, 1996.
2.2.5 Community Energy Management in Mannheim, Germany Mannheim was one of the cities severely ruined by the World War II. After that a thermal and tram service system was reintroduced. But during the late 60s and early 70s, domestic coal quality dropped significantly leading to more dependency on oil from the Middle East and oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union in response to 49 its economic growth. Energy facilities at that period were similar to those of Copenhagen where buildings and houses were built efficiently with regular maintenance (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007) Likewise, in Copenhagen, strategic decisions were made during 1980s on improvement and expansion of the thermal system to cover more area in the city (area shown in red color in Figure 2.14) to accommodate energy consumption for commercial or residential purpose. One of the characteristics of Mannheim was construction of the industrial estate zone on the islands of the Rhine River where steam, thermal energy, gas and electricity were provided to attract investors. A good example of flexible systems used by Mannheim and Copenhagen is that they could apply modern technology - a power generator or a thermal energy source - suitable for private houses. The community staff own and manage the community energy system. One important thing is that Mannheim promotes walking, bicycling and using public transport together with improvement of the public transport system. It discourages private car use in the city area by building a parking area in the site that is convenient for commuters to take public buses/trains. (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007) Most services involving energy consumption in Mannheim are provided by the single organization called “MVV Energie AG”, which provides services to households, businesses and industries in the city. This organization is a public-private partnership (PPP), 51% of its shares of which are held by the city to ensure the availability of quality services and to generate revenue for the city and a handsome profit for private shareholders (Garforth International ILC, 2006). Integrated community energy management significantly reduces overlapping of facilities used for energy distribution by focusing on cooperation between public and private sectors, allowing effective management of energy consumption in each zone of the city. 50
Figure 2.14 Mannheim-Energy Zoning Source: Garforth International ILC, 2006.
Figure 2.14 illustrates energy zoning. The grey zone refers to the area where thermal energy is used while natural gas is used in the yellow zone and steam energy in the brown zone. Such energy zoning can help facilitate long-term planning of the energy networks. The network distance is currently longer than 490 km, connecting more than 75,000 households, 50 industries and more than 100 business enterprises, or the total of 60% of the whole area.
2.2.6 Community Energy Management in Scotland Community energy projects in Scotland can be divided into 2 main types: facilities project aimed at providing energy facilities for the community and revenue projects focusing on selling energy to earn a revenue for the community. The following diagram exhibits distribution of energy projects in the country. The Community Energy Scotland (CES) is an organization that plays an important role in implementing these projects. (Gubbins, 2010) 51
Figure 2.15 Community Energy Project in Scotland Source: Gubbins, 2010.
The Community Energy Scotland is a social organization established with an aim to give assistance and to build confidence in the ability to experience resilience and prosperity at the community level in Scotland in order to achieve sustainable development, reduction of inefficient energy consumption, and generation of energy from renewable sources. 2.2.6.1 Community Energy Projects and Community Resilience Community resilience refers to the condition in which the community has confidence in its capacity or potential, resources, knowledge and skills in handling factors that bring about adverse effects which may influence development e.g. drastic climate change, remarkable increase of energy costs, energy shortage and financial crisis of the country and others e.g. decrease in population in the rural area, fuel shortage, unemployment, etc. The community energy project can help develop community resilience in three ways as follows: 1) To improve conveniences and facilities in the community, e.g. biomass energy project in Alness that could help reduce the energy cost considerably resulting in better energy services for the community. 2) To generate income for the community in the long run. In general, these projects are run by the Development Trust in that community with support from the Community Energy Scotland (CES). Most development projects focus on single wind turbines with the capacity of 900 KW. When linked with the core power system, this type of turbines can generate income of as much as 100,000 pounds a year. 3) Facilitate capacity building and 52 strengthening of the community, awareness of climate change issues and other issues relating to energy matters. 2.2.6.2 Present Methods and Models for Community Energy Project Most energy projects in Scotland are administered by community groups securing fund from different sources and the profit earned will be used to invest the projects. These projects therefore help the community in their decision making process, building awareness and knowledge about energy and climate change as well as developing other necessary skills e.g. project management, fund management, all of which are significant to community resilience. Although most energy projects in Scotland are run by community groups, the methods and models for community energy project management vary as shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Methods and Models for Community Energy Project Management
Profit and non- Benefit to Model Profit-taking Non-profit profit taking Community Explanation Local Joint investment Local Management for the development by between a non- development by benefits of the allowing profit organizations or community by non- investment by organization and persons not aimed governmental local private the private sector at seeking profits developers investors and seeking an in the community small investors optimum benefit in the country Developer e.g. local e.g. landowners, e.g. community e.g. farmer businessmen, individuals and cooperatives, local communities, agricultural local development farmers using wind cooperatives development trusts turbines trusts Ownership Individuals, Joint investment Community group Developers companies and of two separating cooperatives organizations 53
Table 2.1 (Continued)
Profit and non- Benefit to Model Profit-taking Non-profit profit taking Community Legal basis Company shares Company shares Limited Implementation of both partners partnership through the community fund Key Private Both groups Community group community beneficiary enterprises members as developers
Source: Gubbins, 2010.
Strengthes and weaknesses of each model for community energy project management are shown in Table 2.2
Table 2.2 Strengths and Weakness of Each Model for Community Energy Project Management
Model Weakness Strength Commercial 1) No physical assets owned by 1) Not dependent on public the community fund 2) No benefit for the 2) Support from local private community operators regarding 3) Benefit to investors renewable energy and green energy Profit and non-profit taking 1) Need of mutual agreement 1) Community as the co-owner 1) Joint investment by 2) Complicated legal 2) Sense of belonging by the development partners documents related to community agreements 3) Strengthening capacity of the community 2) By shares 1) Community tends to be a 1) Decrease in legal issues minor shareholder with limited control power 2) Difficult to access the fund 3) Risk from project cancellation 54
Model Weakness Strength Non-profit 1) Dependent on funds from 1) Promoting the capacity and the state knowledge of the community 2) Benefiting the community as a whole 3) Strengthening community organizations Community benefit 1) Less participation from the 1) No Need for details of community community participation 2) Assets not owned by the 2) Fund available for that community community
Source: Gubbins, 2010
Distance between energy sources and energy consumption points is one of the driving forces for searching for renewable energy which leads to the emergence of small energy generating sources that come from the cooperation of the community, organizations or institutions and social capital e.g. association of farmer communities using wind turbines. (Devine-Wright, Fleming and Chadwick, 2001)
2.2.7 Community Energy Management in The Rural Area of China China needs more and more energy in response to socioeconomic growth. It is also one of the countries that successfully use biomass energy. China’s energy policy focuses on self-building, self-managing and self-using. Its socioeconomic growth has contributed to a more complicated policy of community energy, the environment, economy and society. Energy is a basic element of the economic development process, and economic development in the rural area has brought about an increasing demand for energy, causing a shortage of energy supply. (Catania, 1999) Community energy management in China especially in the rural area has been implemented for years. For instance, according to the 7th 5-year plan (1986-1990), China improved energy technologies, such as biomass kilns etc., in order to facilitate the use of local resources for energy production which would relieve energy shortage. In the 8th five-year plan (1991-1995), China implemented the integrated local energy production project for overall social, environmental, economic and energy development. 55
The initial management was conducted at the national, regional and provincial levels. The following figure shows responsibility for local energy management at national and provincial levels. At national level, various commissions have been set up to work with different offices of the ministries concerned as seen in Figure 2.16
Figure 2.16 Responsibility for Local Energy Management at Provincial, Ministerial and National Level in China Source: Catania, 1999.
China has experienced success in biomass energy. The government proposed the policy on self-building, self-managing and self-using. Various training courses were organised to encourage communities to help themselves and each other with some support from the state, especially on utilization of improved biomass stoves. According to the study by Jin et al., (2006), energy consumption in households in 56 some rural areas in China posed risks of air pollution from inappropriate use of stoves as shown in Figure 2.17 (Jin et al., 2006).
Figure 2.17 Inappropriate conditions of stoves (a) and (b); a biomass stove for cooking in Gansu, Guizhou and Shaanxi Provinces (c); a stove outlet still not improved (d); a bed stove (bed sitting behind the stove) (e); a charcoal stove made of iron in Guizhou Province (f); an air circulating stove in Guizhou Province (g) and (h); a stove outlet in Guizhou province (i) and (j); a stove on the floor in Shaanxi Province (k) and (l); a fuel inlet pat of a bed stove in Ganzu (m); a frying pan (n) kitchen and a bed stove with its bed sitting on the right hand side. Source: Jin et al., 2006. 57
Figure 2.18 The Organizational System for Distributing Improved Biomass Stoves within the Province Source: Catania, 1999.
Figure 2.18 suggests that different agencies are in charge at each level. At the provincial, district and community levels, the leader of each level takes part in supervising and managing local energy production and service. Biomass stoves have been re-designed based on the criteria shown in Figure 2.19. 58
Figure 2.19 Criteria for Making and Characteristics of Improved Biomass Stoves Source: Catania, 1999.
One important thing for the project operation is training at different levels which aimed to explain theories or principles as well as provide knowledge of making improved biomass stoves, performance testing and funding for provision of such stoves. Since the original biomass stoves have been used for more than 10 years, it is necessary to set some strategies to change the traditional habit of the people. Community energy development in the rural areas in China has caused the increase in demand for resource rehabilitation, resulting in the improved environment, 59 industry and agriculture as well as the quality of life in the community as shown in Figure 2.20
Figure 2.20 Benefits from Energy Development in the Rural Areas Source: Catania, 1999.
Energy management in the rural communities of China under the plan for integrated energy development was implemented through the following steps: 1) Set up a management team 2) Design the local resource management plan based on the survey data 3) Design the plan for integrated community energy development based on the local resource management plan, the data on energy consumption and the target of energy demand 4) Design the annual development plan 5) Implement the plan 6) Distribute the tasks 7) Follow up and assess the results of implementation 8) Determine strategies and measurement, and 9) End the plan. All the steps are shown in Figure 2.21 60
Figure 2.21 Steps for the Plan for Integrated Local Energy Production Source: Catania, 1999.
2.2.8 Community Energy Management in The Northeast of Brazil The Northeast of Brazil consists of 8 states, accounting for 18% of the total area of the country, with population of 42 million or 28% of the total population of the country. Half of the area of this region is relatively draughty, hot and dry for more than 7 months in a year. This area is therefore short of water resource because of little rain, causing a long period of draught. According to a limited number of surveys for water sources, most pond water were found to be salty for human consumption. In addition, there was also electricity shortage as shown in Figure 2.22 (Tiba et al., 2010) 61
Figure 2.22 Northeast of Brazil During the Draught (Top Left and on the Right) and
During the Rainy Season (Bottom Left) Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
In 1994, the Brazilian Government launched the project called the Program of Energy Development for States and Municipalities PRODEEM aiming to: 1) Install a small energy system for production and consumption of energy in the remote community in need of energy, or with no access to any power network, in order to serve the basic social need. 2) Support utilization of energy sources by encouraging the power supply by small energy producers to serve people in the remote area. 3) Encourage the use of renewable energy in different areas 4) Support utilization of human resources and technology and industrial development in the country, including forestation and its continuance.
Figure 2.23 Pictures of the Area After the Construction of the Water Supply System with the Energy System Installed and Other Applications Source: Tiba et al., 2010. 62
In 1996, PRODEEM was implemented by installing solar energy system and the water pumping system in more than 1,000 sites. Three purposes of utilizing the solar energy system were electricity generation, water pumping and public lighting. This was one of the largest projects of generating electricity from solar energy in rural communities. 2.2.8.1 Development of the Geographic Information System for Community Energy Management The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a tool for processing geographic data and other relevant data. It is designed to process data from different sources in order to set strategies for managing energy, e.g. solar energy, biomass energy etc. and to evaluate the capacity of reducing CO2 emissions, and the feasibility. Biomass energy can be utilized, for example, to transport biomass from the original source to biomass energy production site.
Figure 2.24 Development of the Geographic Information System for Community Energy Management Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
With respect to biomass energy, the GIS has been developed for use at Tennessee Valley, the USA to handle the following information: biomass energy sources, places that have demands for energy, transport costs, properties of plants/ trees, residues from plants/ trees, road networks and transport routes, for instance. An example of the 63
GIS developed for renewable energy management is the NREL which is an online evaluation of biomass potential from different sources of data. The Renewable Energy Atlas is another GIS that can be accessed online. It synthesizes the data and creates maps relating to renewable energy in 11 western states of the USA: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Another system is the PV-GIS which applies GIS in real time to calculate the potential of solar energy in Europe. Users can search for the map to see solar radiation, calculate amount of electricity from solar energy in the given area. 2.2.8.2 GISA SOL 1.0 Geographic Information System of Brazil GISA SOL 1.0 which is an applied GIS for use with solar energy consists of three main functionalities: management, planning and updating of the data bank. The management and planning are carried out at two levels: macro and local.
Figure 2.25 Main Menu of GISA SOL 1.0 Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
2.2.8.3 Functionalities GISA SOL 1.0 has been designed for searching information by asking what we want to know. If it is a basic question, we can use default functionality, but non default functionalities can be used for more complicated questions. 64
Figure 2.26 GISA SOL General Functionalities: Management at the State and Municipal (local) Levels Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
2.2.8.4 Management Module In respect of management, there are 5 relevant points to be considered as follows: 1) Installation of photovoltaic systems and type of applications 2) Description and operational situations 3) Maintenance and training center 4) Phases of installation according to PRODEEM and 5) Infrastructure of transmission line roads 65
Figure 2.27 (a) and (c) illustrate a water pumping system that uses solar cells installed in Paraiba State and Pernambuco State, respectively. Figures (b) and (d) illustrate a water pumping system of which the flow rate can be set at a desired level installed in Paraiba State, and a water pumping system using solar energy in Pernambuco State. Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
2.2.8.5 Local Management Functionalities Local energy management involves 5 points as follows: 1) Install the solar energy system in the municipality 2) Determine the desired model and data on manufacturers of individual components of energy management 3) Determine the desired model and data on solar cell producers 4) Identify the operational situation of the solar energy system 5) Indicate the nearest maintenance and training center
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Figure 2.28 Picture on the Left Shows the Solar Energy System in Pernambuco State and the Picture on the Right Shows the Nearest Maintenance Center Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
2.2.8.6 Planning Module Figure 2.29 shows the quantity of sugar cane in two different seasons: the drought and the rainy seasons
Figure 2.29 Quantity of Sugar Cane in Two Different Seasons, That is, the Drought and the Rainy Seasons Source: Tiba et al., 2010. 67
Figure 2.30 shows wind velocity and direction during the drought and the rainy seasons.
Figure 2.30 Wind Velocity and Direction During the Drought and Rainy Seasons Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
Figure 2.31 illustrates the level of solar radiation during the lowest month (July) and the peak month (November) in Pernambuco State.
Figure 2.31 Level of Solar Radiation During the Lowest Month (July) and the Peak Month (November) in Pernambuco State Source: Tiba et al., 2010.
2.2.9 Community Energy Management in India More than 70% of the Indian population live in more than 580,000 villages in the rural area. Most population live their lives on agriculture and are considerably dependent on biomass (wood, animal droppings and plant/tree residues) for energy 68 production. The household sector consumes almost 75% of the total use. Of this percentage, biomass fuel can respond to 85%-90% of energy demand, amounting to 75% of total demand in the rural area. Firewood is the basic source of energy for household cooking in the rural area (78%). Because of the importance of biomass energy to India, the management and sustainable supply of biomass resources have become increasingly important. During the 1980s the Indian government launched campaigns on energy saving and change to renewable energy as a source of energy. During that period two attempts were made; that is, in 1981/1982 the government launched a national campaign to develop biogas (The National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD)) and in 1983, the other project called the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) was implemented. NPBD was the largest rural energy project in terms of investment while NPIC was the largest project in terms of tool distribution. In 1992, India established the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), making it the only country that had the ministry for promoting sources of renewable energy (Neudoerffer, Malhotra and Ramana, 2001). However, such a project enjoyed relatively limited success for two main reasons: limited popularity and poor operation. Four reasons why technology was slowly spread included: 1) high cost of technology, especially biogas technology 2) subsidy for commercial fuel reducing the interest of renewable energy 3) inadequate appropriation of budget for the renewable energy sector and 4) inadequate research and development. The reasons for poor operation were structural faults, poor quality control, lack of maintenance and repair, and limited capacity of the local government. Obstacles to the increase in popularity and quality improvement included: 1) Research & Development: As support was limited for the development of products under the technology-based project e.g. biogas and solar energy, and there was no monitoring process to improve product quality and the project, no feedback between laboratory and field practice. 2) Planning: The rural energy planning project was carried out at the ministerial level, in the central administration without assessment of demand for technology at the local level. 69
3) Finance: Financial support was not adequately distributed while community participation was also limited and participants tended to seek personal benefits. There was lack of sexual inequality due to social structure of the rural community, e.g. gender inequality in terms of the women’s roles and positions expression of opinions and decision making on different matters, and their limited access to education, health service, credit, technology and information. 2.2.9.1 Policy Implications The questions were: What policy could help bring about planning with comprehensive participation? What public or non-public tools and techniques could help run the project in rural communities? 2.2.9.2 Program Planning In order to succeed comprehensively, community energy planning had to be a flexible process capable of adaptation to the demand of people in the community. Such flexibility needed changes in two things; that is, planning had to be decentralized from the national level to the regional and local levels. Planning had to come from participation in order to understand the context of community energy and to respond to the community’s demand. The conventional roles of stakeholders were shown in the figure 2.32 below:
Figure 2.32 Conventional Roles of Stakeholders Source: Neudoerffer, Malhotra and Ramana, 2001. 70
The Figure above indicated that the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) provided R&D funds to several research centers (that realized the need of energy users in the community) and contacted technology producers before distributing technology to users via the government and NGO channels. Community energy planning had to be in line with other goals in order to create linkage and support between each other. 2.2.9.3 Program Implementation A participatory implementation approach required participation from all the parties concerned. At national level, the government changed its role from a master of planning, a designer and implementator to be an advisor or a funding agency while NGOs adapted its role to be a facilitator providing technical and logistical supports. Community members cooperated with technology producers that coordinated with research institutions and share their views on market channels to access technology as shown in Figure 2.33
Figure 2.33 New Roles of Stakeholders Source: Neudoerffer, Malhotra and Ramana, 2001
India also implemented the project called “Uttam Urja” which meant “Better energy” with an aim to build up market for renewable energy technology in rural communities of India by creating a supply chain to meet the market demand of 71 renewable energy technology. A group of entrepreneurs was identified and trained by the Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) to be able to create technology that met the demand of customers in the community.
Figure 2.34 Logo of the Uttam Urja Project Source: Neudoerffer et al., 2001.
The Uttam Urja project was introduced to overcome limitations of a business model that supported energy management by developing a supply chain of local entrepreneurs. Many issues involved were creation of awareness, brand building, social network development, value chain development, learning, product development and customization, in order to bring about satisfaction and to meet the community’s demand.
Figure 2.35 Supply Chain of Uttam Urja Project Source: Neudoerffer, Malhotra and Ramana, 2001 Under the Uttam Urja Project, the supplier and dealer network supplied products and components for assembling. After suppliers had required technical specifications from the technical team, they manufactured or assembled the product as specified. As it is an outsourcing business model, the government could significantly 72 reduce the investment cost. There was more than one supplier of each component of technology in order to build a bargaining power, to reduce dependence on a certain dealer and bring about rapid speed in response to demand or purchase orders. Sellers could prepare more effective after-sale service. Under this project, there were 24 dealer in Bikaner and 22 in Rishikesh. These dealer looked after the products or technologies, so they had to have technical information, after training and have technology for service improvement. 2.2.9.4 Learning Through After-Sale Services and Learning from The Market There were two types of learning 1) Learning through after-sale services. After-sale service and products are high quality because there were many dealers. The Solar Energy Center of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, an Indian government agency, issued a quality assurance certificate for products under this project. There was joint capacity building between key wholesalers and retailers to improve after sale-service techniques and to hold workshops to enhance the ability to provide after-sale service. 2) Learning from the market. New products were developed to meet specific requirements. Learning occurred from product customization and new technology developed to meet the customer’s requirements. In order to meet their respective demand, customers were divided into 3 market segments based on their income. In summary, the cited examples of community energy management and other case studies reveal that community energy management in each area country, or region may vary, which influences the pattern for community energy promotion. The action plan may be similar or different and there must be a certain agency or person in charge of monitoring the progress of the operation to ensure that the objective of each step is achieved. In addition, the action plan of individual countries, regions or areas may take different lengths of time. It may take even more than 10 years for some countries. In this regard, sustainable and secured community energy requires continual and proper management in line with regulations and monitoring to solve any possible problems arising from implementation.
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2.3 Community Energy Management in Thailand
Energy management encompasses setting the policy, goals and an organization or a person in charge. Implementation needs prudence, understanding, follow-up and evaluation to ensure effective management. In doing so, attention must be paid to all dimensions - economic, social, environmental or even cultural. Proper management is driven by allowing multiple parties to take part in every step (Ministry of Energy, Policy and Strategy Office, 2008). Energy management to achieve maximum effectiveness usually happens in a small-scale activity at the local or community level. The Ministry of Energy must optimize efficiency of energy consumption in the country, strengthen energy security and develop renewable energy. Importance must be placed on building mechanism of the constructive participation at the provincial and community levels. The community must be encouraged to take part in policy making and energy plan development at all levels which are aimed at self-management for energy matter at the community level. Energy consumption in households and communities accounts for approximately 14% of energy consumption in the whole country. Energy planning at the community level is necessary for energy saving and conservation and for response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy”. The Ministry of Energy therefore launched the project on energy planning by 80 individual communities to materialize the Royal Initiative on Sufficiency Economy. This project followed the pilot project in 24 communities in the jurisdiction of the Regional Energy Office in 2006. A new pattern of national energy planning initiated by the government was introduced with focus on participation by the public (the bottom up approach instead of traditional top down approach). The objective was to enhance the efficiency of energy consumption in Thailand and to balance energy development with environmental conservation (Visakha Phuchinda, 2011). 74
2.3.1 Community Energy Plan The project on community energy planning emerged in 2006 with emphasis on promoting participation of civil society in the area of energy, in environmental management, and in efficient budgeting for the community. Among other things, this project tried to promote a good attitude to sustainable energy consumption, selection of renewable energy technology and energy conservation through energy planning at the community level. Pilot projects were carried out in the area under 24 local administrative organizations and were expanded to cover 80 more communities by 2007. The Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy was based upon for implementing the project entitled Community Energy Planning by 80 individual Communities to honor the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy in order to celebrate His Majesty the King’s 80th birthday anniversary on December 5, 2007. Proved by its benefits for communities and the society as a whole, the Council of Ministers resolved that this project was one of the outstanding Quick Win Initiatives. At the moment countries around the world are facing energy price crises as prices of the main sources of energy, e.g. oil, charcoal and natural gas, have been dramatically increased. Energy planning for sustainability in response to such a situation is therefore very crucial and requires participation from all sectors. So far, Thailand has launched many campaigns to raise public awareness about the energy situation and effective energy consumption while seeking for other renewable energy. However, people in several areas still did not change their energy consumption behavior. It might be because most people thought that the “energy” issue was something faraway and beyond their responsibility. Someone might realize the importance of energy but lack knowledge and did not form a team for energy management resulting in the inability to implement the project effectively. Although the government had tried to solve the problem, people in many areas still did not understand and did not realize that the energy problem was a significant local problem. For these reasons, the Ministry of Energy cooperated with the civil society to promote a positive attitude toward sustainable energy consumption, to seek for simple energy technology suitable for each locality with people as the center, and to bring about participation. These objectives would be attained through community energy 75 planning. The pilot project was implemented in 24 local administrative organizations (12 municipalities and 12 subdistrict administration organizations) in 2006. Later in 2007, eighty more local administrative organizations were included in the project. The Ministry of Energy and the Interior Ministry worked hand in hand to integrate the sufficiency economy philosophy with management of energy consumption of the community. At the same time, renewable energy was developed from plant/tree residues and local resources under the slogan “Sufficient Life Sufficient Energy” in line with the resolution “Love Father, Save Energy”.
2.3.2 Background of Community Energy Planning Community energy planning originated from the effort of a small group of NGOs under the name “Proper Technology Association”. The Ministry of Energy developed an energy project in the rural area with organizations and experts from Denmark to upgrade the community’s ability in energy management and to shift people’s paradigm to sufficient energy consumption via actual practice and building of a sustainable energy network with other organizations and the civil society. This project, which had been expanded by the Ministry of Energy, became a national agenda. Important Tools and Mechanisms for Energy Planning To achieve the objectives of energy planning, several components involved in the operation were as follows: The 1st Component: Energy Status. Research was conducted to collect the data on local energy, which included energy consumption of different sectors, energy prices, energy resources in the local area and potential of renewable energy. The 2nd Component: Energy Balance. Energy planning or use of energy technology must be measured by the concrete economic indexes. The tool for analysis of energy planning was called “energy balance”, which would help calculate the energy cost paid to outsiders by the community. If there was no planning, no one would know how much energy would be lost. This information would help the community to find solutions for its problems. However, another set of indexes was the environmental indexes which allows us to calculate the amount of greenhouse gas emitted to the 76 atmosphere by each energy consumption activity and to find some way to limit the scope. The 3rd Component: Sustainable Energy Technology. Sustainable energy technology had to be simple, clean and environmentally-friendly; that is, using renewable fuels and raw materials that matched the demand consumption. People had to learn to be self-reliant and use energy effectively resulting in saving resources labor and expenses. One important thing was that such technology had to be not only simple but also self-manageable by the community e.g. highly efficient cooking stoves, 200-liter drum kilns, biogas fermenting wells, the community biodiesel production system, etc. The 4th Component: Readiness of people in the area. People were a crucial component for community planning at the local level. They had to be prepared to join the planning and implementation process. People joining the planning process at the community level could be members of the community, official or non-official leaders, the housewife group, the entrepreneur group, community experts, the Subdistrict administration organization, government officials in the area, including these with authority to support community affairs.
2.3.3 Strategies for Community Energy Planning The key objective of community energy planning was to create an energy plan at the subdistrict level to increase the capacity of the local administrative organization in energy planning and management. The community energy planning process included 10 steps as follows: The 1st Step: Establishment of mutual understanding within the community: To accomplish energy planning, community people needed to understand the project background and agreed to join the project as representatives or volunteers in the community energy working group in order to further establish a better understanding of energy problems and solutions. The 2nd Step: Forming a community energy working group that understood and was ready to move forward to achieve the project objectives. The 3rd Step: Collection of energy data in the area with representatives and youth in the area could participating in the survey on community energy. 77
The 4th Step: Data processing. Learning about energy would help close the gap of energy planning in the future. The 5th Step: Feedback about community energy to the community. This step enabled people to acknowledge and verify the energy data, including the volume and the financial loss as a result of consumption of each type of energy so that they would review their energy consumption behavior. The 6th Step: Taking a study tour on sustainable energy technology. This step would inspire the use of technology for energy sustainability. The 7th Step: Brainstorming to draft the community energy plan, which would allow people’s participation in planning to find out solutions. The 8th Step: Public hearing about the drafted energy plan to conclude the final plan before seeking for approval for energy planning from the community. The 9th Step: Implementing the plan (pilot project). The plan was carried out through different activities until trainers (multiplier experts) on energy matters were produced. The 10th Step: Summary of joint learning, evaluating problems and obstacles and impacts in order to prepare a plan of the following year.
2.3.4 Strategies for Establishing Alliances and Networks At the ministerial level: Ministry of Energy and Ministry of Interior At organization level: Regional Energy Office, Provincial Energy Office, NGOs, local educational institutions At intra-organization level: joint budget of agencies within the Ministry of Energy Project evaluation: by the third-person team Community energy planning: a new strategic approach by the Ministry of Energy Energy planning originated from the grass root or community level e.g. the subdistrict municipality. A small community developed learning about energy together with fostering and changing the attitude of people so that they would appreciate the value of energy and to realize the real situation of energy. This new strategy, which 78 was considered a new dimension of Thailand’s energy sector, helped to build the following powerful driving forces. 1) A driving force toward the process of learning about energy, the adjustment of the attitude toward energy and the mindset of self reliance in the area of energy. As discussed above, to most people energy seemed to be a remote issue, but, in fact, it was the opposite. In the past, most participants in energy planning did not know how much energy their communities had consumed and for what purpose. Now they realized that the energy issue was something very close to their daily life and had an obvious impact on their economy and environment. Furthermore, they knew that the energy issue could become a crisis if no intervention was taken and only immediate action would solve the problem in a timely manner; otherwise, the issue would affect adversely the community. 2) A driving force toward the well-being of people in the community. People could access further knowledge and apply it to proper and sufficient production and consumption of energy. Accordingly, they could now rely on themselves and live a happier life. 3) A driving force toward job creation in the community which in turn led to development of technology suitable for the area. This allowed the community to lead a better life. Also, there was more demand for energy technology, resulting naturally in more market. There were more job opportunities in the community as people were hired to produce energy-saving tools, equipment for energy transformation, equipment for energy generation, and technology for renewable energy. Fuels in the local area were used to replace fuels imported into the community. The use of local labor and local fuels reflects that fund for investment in energy production was circulated locally, which was a significant factor for economic security at the macro level. 4) A driving force toward immunity as a result of self-reliance and decrease in dependence on energy from outside source. This immunity facilitated the solution of the debt problem. The community had a better opportunity to make their own decisions on, for example, establishing a fund for charcoal production with an aim to solve the debt problem or for reduction of the production cost by reducing the energy cost. 79
5) A driving force toward immunity against environmental and ecological problems. When people were aware that they were surrounded by valuable things that were meaningful for their self-reliance, they would have a better attitude toward protecting their environment, which would help sustain their community. In addition, the health problem would decrease and the living standard of people in the community would become better. 6) A driving force toward power of thought about promotion and development of technology for benefit of the local area. This power came from mutual planning on energy, which would create innovations in the community in the areas of energy management, culture, public relations, and job opportunities. 7) A driving force toward the building of the civil society, the energy network and the multiplier expert network. When the community received knowledge and information about energy, they would realize the impact of their energy consumption. This would encourage their participation to find out the best solution. To sum up, in order to strengthen the locality, it was necessary to educate community people by means of real experience and practice. The data had to be collected and analyzed. Joint decisions had to be made and the lessons summarized and the actions evaluated for further improvement based on participation of people in the area. Community energy planning based on the Royal Initiative of sufficiency economy was a starting point to get answers and options of solutions to the problems in small villages. Participation by all members of the community would help solve big problems such as the country’s energy shortage, trade deficit and environmental destruction. By fostering the learning society, people could live a sustainable life based on self-reliance an the area of energy.
2.3.5 Energy Management Based on The Sufficiency Economy Philosophy The Ministry of Energy adopted the sufficiency economy philosophy to its energy administration i.e., procurement of energy sources for energy security. In 2007 it initiated the community energy planning project under the sufficiency economy philosophy integrated with the way the community consumed energy in order to conserve energy and the environment based on three principles and two conditions as follows: (Ministry of Energy, Policy and Planning Office, 2009). 80
1) Principle of modesty Thai society will be encouraged to consume energy effectively, economically and sufficiently for the ultimate benefit of the society as a whole, which will lead to saving of the energy cost. 2) Principle of reasonableness Energy will be properly chosen to best suit the situation. Domestic or community sources of energy will be promoted before turning to other options or energy import. 3) Principle of immunization Self-reliance will be promoted through the research and development to find alternative sources of energy in the community such as natural resources or unused material in the community. Innovation developed from Thai traditional knowledge will be promoted taking into account appropriate technology for the country’s geo-social context. 4) Condition of knowledge acquisition Efforts must be made to seek for new knowledge and to conduct a feasibility study of new sources of energy well adapted to Thai life style, which will result in continuous energy development. 5) Conditions of adherence to virtues All steps taken for energy management will be done in good faith taking into account the best interest of Thai people. 6) The application of the sufficiency economy philosophy to energy affairs in the country is shown in Figure 2.36. 81
Figure 2.36 Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy to National Energy Affairs Source: Ministry of Energy. Policy and Planning Office, 2008.
2.3.5.1 Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy to energy management The linkage of the sufficiency economy philosophy with three loops modesty, reasonableness, immunization - and two conditions, knowledge and virtues and energy management and conservation can be summarized as follows: (Visakha Phuchinda, 2009): 1) Modesty refers to a balance, not too little or too much. When applying to energy management and conservation, it means not to consume energy lavishly but when necessary with realization of its value. This can reduce the consumption amount and the cost to the level appropriate to one’s status, resources and manageability. 82
2) Reasonableness refers to decision-making on modesty that is based on good reasoning. Community and national energy resources should be prioritized as the first option instead of importation of energy. Benefits from using one’s own resources for energy production will be maximized as an import substitution strategy. 3) Immunization means readiness for change based on planning and preparation after the circumstances have been comprehensively reviewed and analyzed. In terms of energy management and development, immunization may refer to development of renewable energy from community resources or waste and development of energy production based on traditional knowledge, including finding energy for reserve and a variety of energy resources. 4) Knowledge and virtue means comprehensive knowledge of energy and realization of its importance. Local wisdom will be applied to energy management and conservation. Local labor will be used and the community will be given an opportunity to create alternative energy. Renewable energy will also help mitigate environmental problems, especially air pollution. The details are summed up in Figure 2.37
Figure 2.37 Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy to Energy
Management and Conservation Source: Visakha Phuchinda, 2009. 83
Analysis of the application of the sufficiency economy philosophy to energy management was made at two levels as follows (Visakha Phuchinda, 2009): “At the community level: 1) use natural resources available in the community to the maximum benefit e.g. energy generation from renewable energy in the locality (e.g. hydropower, geothermal energy, and generate power such as green fuel from unwanted things or waste and husk in the community electricity plant. 2) depend on labor in the community instead of technology import, and also apply local wisdom to energy production of such energy as biodiesel, oil from Sabu Dam (Jatropha) extraction 3) build up energy security through several energy sources in the community, and 4) energy management by the community by forming a group to find alternative sources of energy, planning and evaluation.” “At the national level: 1) establish a policy and measures supporting community self-reliance in the area of energy 2) provide resources including personnel, budget, material and equipment appropriate for the community at the initial stage so that it can be independent in the long term 3) reduce energy importation by seeking for domestic sources of energy and promoting domestically-produced energy 4) encourage private enterprises to produce their own power supply and sell the surplus to the government through several measures e.g. price and tax incentives, technology and personnel support and 5) maximize the benefit from domestic resources e.g. hydropower, wind power, geothermal energy and energy from waste” In application of the sufficiency economy philosophy to the energy project at the national level (Ministry of Energy, 2009) and to energy management and conservation (Visakha Phuchinda, 2008), the components of community energy management under this sufficiency economy philosophy included 1) modesty 2) reasonableness 3) immunization and 4) knowledge and virtues. The results of the implementation of the community energy plans of the 80 communities under the community energy planning project in 2008 and the 24 communities in the pilot project by the Ministry of Energy indicated that sustainability of the community energy plans during 2006-2008 consisted of 1) development of technology, 2) community model, 3) learning centers, 4) community energy products 5) local energy curriculum, 6) occupations/ enterprises related to energy, 7) community 84 energy fund, 8) financial support from the local administrative organization, 9) energy plan set by the local administrative organization, and 10) multiplier experts Summary of Literature Review on Community Energy Management and Promotion in Various Countries Including Thailand 1) Community Energy Management in Canada Strengths: developing an energy plan and creating a cooperative network. Reason: Energy management in Canada focused on synergised cooperation for integrated management which required development of a cooperation network to achieve the goal. 2) Community Energy Management in USA Strengths: developing an energy plan and promoting community capacity. Reason: The US promoted community capacity in analysis of their own energy consumption by developing technology to help the community do so. 3) Community Energy Management in Denmark and Germany Strengths: developing energy plan and promoting community capacity. Reason: Denmark and Germany underlined the importance of improvement of energy consumption by households and buildings. Facilities were provided to help access to energy sources to promote community capacity. 4) Community Energy Management in Scotland Strengths: developing an energy plan and utilising community capital. Reason: Most activities arose from forming of groups of people in the community as cooperatives to carry out energy management based on trust among the members. 5) Community energy management in China Strengths: 1) developing an energy plan 2) promoting community capacity 3) utilizing community capital/resources and 4) developing cooperative networks. Reason: China emphasized utilization of community resources through development of energy technology, distribution of improved biomass-kilns and cooperation among stakeholders. 6) Community energy management in Brazil Strengths: promoting community capacity. Reason: Brazil chose to develop GIS that could help develop capacity of administration agencies 85 involving in management of community energy, including solar power development for remote areas. 7) Community energy management in India Strengths: 1) developing an energy plan 2) creating cooperative network and 3) utilising community capital/resources. Reason: India paid attention to market channels and development of a cooperative network for production and distribution of energy technology based on community resources. 8) Community energy management in Thailand Strengths: 1) developing an energy plan 2) promoting community capacity 3) transfer of local wisdom 4) utilising community capital/resources 5) creating cooperative networks. Reason: The Thai government agencies strengthened community capacity by making each community realize its community energy situation and share energy technology with community based on the cooperative network of communities to disseminate traditional knowledge leading to getting the most out of available community resources Based on the review of community management in Thailand and other countries, promotion of community energy management involved the following. 1) Energy Planning 2) Building of Community Capacity 3) Transfer of Local Wisdom 4) Utilization of Community Capital /Resources 5) Development of Cooperative Networks However, in order to have a better understanding of community energy management, the researcher also reviewed its other aspects.
2.4 Literature Review of Key Factors for Community Energy Management
Key factors to success in community energy management to be discussed hereafter are significant factors obtained from literature review of community energy management in foreign countries and Thailand. Other aspects of management in relation to community energy are as follows:
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2.4.1 Energy Planning 2.4.2 Building of Community Capacity 2.4.3 Transfer of Local Wisdom 2.4.4 Utilization of Community Capital and Resources 2.4.5 Development of Cooperative Network The details are elaborated as follows:
2.4.1 Energy Planning Community energy management in remote areas of Canada experienced challenges including costs, population distribution and others, which made it necessary to carry out energy planning for long-term benefits. The energy planning process in Canada consisted of 1) team-building, 2) development of community vision, 3) inspection of basic energy resources and others, 4) determining vision, goals and evaluation, 5) data collection and analysis of the current situation and tendency, 6) financial management for the community energy plan and facilities, 7) defining a timeframe for implementation, and 8) implementing the plan and following up the results including evaluation of the output and review of the process of plan implementation from time to time. (Cross, 2005). In Oregon, the USA, the Oregon Department of Energy stated that planning on energy and resources consumption could help the community to achieve sustainable success in the long run. Progress on energy conservation and effective energy consumption along with development of renewable resources helped mitigate the negative impact on the environment due to energy consumption. The planning process included: 1) determining vision by community members 2) collecting the data about the current energy situation 3) analyzing the overall picture of the energy situation 4) defining the goal, the opportunity and participation by different sectors 5) developing an action plan, setting a time schedule and allocating a budget 6) implementing the plan while technology might have to be changed for appropriateness and promoting renewable energy by tax incentives, and 7) evaluating progress and comparing the output. (Oregon Department of Energy, 2008). In Copenhagen, Denmark, energy planning focused on enhancing effectiveness of energy consumption especially of the buildings. An energy distribution network 87 was developed and linked to energy sources to make sure that several types of energy were used. The long term plan was reviewed and revised on a regular basis in a similar manner to planning by Mannheim, Germany, which encouraged the construction of buildings and houses that used energy effectively with other supporting measures, e.g. public transport, energy zone etc. (Guelph Community Energy Plan Consortium, 2007). In Scotland, community energy management primarily stemmed from the fact that community members formed a group to work hand in hand on energy management (Gubbins, 2010; Devine-Wright, Fleming and Chadwick, 2001). Similarly, China stressed utilizing community resources by improving energy technology, spreading out improved biomass kilns and developing cooperation of stakeholders. The integrated energy plan in the local had been developed through the following steps: 1) setting up the management team, 2) designing the plan for local resources based on the survey results, 3) designing an integrated community energy development plan based on the local resources plan, 4) designing the annual development plan, 5) implementing the plan, 6) monitoring and evaluating the performance, 7) determining strategies and evaluation, and 8) ending the plan (Catania, 1999). China decentralized its community energy plan from the national to regional and local level with the belief that planning arising from participation of the community for better understanding of the community energy context would respond to that community’s needs. (Neudoerffer, Malhotra and Ramana, 2001).
2.4.2 Building of Community Capacity According to the Thai Dictionary by the Royal Institute 1999, the term “promotion” means to make things better or more secured. Researchers of various fields of study are greatly interested in community capacity. As such, the definitions of community capacity in the area of development are varied. Although the key concept and definition are commonly established, Chaskin et al. (2007) defines community capacity as the interrelationship of human capital, organization resources and social capital within any given community which can lead to solutions of the common problems or to improvement of community well-being through an unofficial social process or an effort of an individual, organizations and the social network, including a bigger system in which the community is included. 88
Considering the overall picture of community capacity through the concept of community health, Foster-Fishman et al., (2007) further states that the population factor has a limited role for driving community capacity toward change. The key characteristics which can be used as an index for promoting community capacity toward change are common awareness of community problems, ability to solve problems in a harmonized way, and participation of community members in identifying community problems. In other words, people in the community must view that their own community has capacity to solve problems and are eager to do so. In addition, leadership toward change and efficiency in problem-solving also plays an important role in attracting participation from community members. The ability to acknowledge problems by community members contributes to a positive outcome. Acknowledge of their community resources is also a strategy for solving problems. It is a powerful strategy for promoting community capacity-a key tool to solve problems to achieve sustainable management of community resources. Adaptive capacity is the community’s ability to respond to challenges. Any community with such capacity will be able to identify its problems and obstacles and to fix the problems. However, it would be better if the community has its own vision on how to develop strategies to avoid problems and to promote community capacity with participation by community members. (Fabricius et al., 2007). According to Foster-Fishman et al., (2007) the community should put efforts to defining types of participation needed by the community and to developing necessary elements for community development. Some researchers have proposed different types of participation which need different resources and a leader to attract community participation. Fabricius et al., (2007) specified six strategies for promoting community capacity as vision and leadership, knowledge networks, organizations, interrelated management culture, a feasible policy and motivation. An example of the application of the concept of adaptive management to the community natural resources could be seen in the study by Habron (2003) who proposed the community-based adaptive watershed management (CAWM). From the interviews of landowners and residents and from observations of the council and committee on natural resources in the Southwest of Oregon, he found that the council provided information, communicated among members, defined problems and looked 89 for solutions to the problems. He also found that limitation to success came from lack of financial capital and social capital. Financial capital was a main component of success. However, open and trustful communication between members was also crucial. Habron stated that capacity to adapt itself would increase if the community evaluated its community capital to specify relevant resources required for management. Foster-Fishman (2001) states that community capacity is composed of individual capacity, relational capacity, organization capacity and implementation capacity of that community as shown in Figure 2.38
Figure 2.38 Community Capacity
The ability of the community to utilize available resources was a necessary component of community adaptive capacity, which was considered important in determining the community’s ability to benefit from different types of community capital and to strengthen its capacity. 2.4.2.1 Individual Capacity Individual capacity refers to the capacity of individual community members. It includes knowledge, skills, attitude and awareness of each member in that community which have an impact on the outcome of the community operation in the same direction. In addition, it includes capacity of individual members of the community organization. Awareness of problems and belief that solutions exist are important for implementation. (Foster-Fishman et al., 2001). 90
Some researchers studied realization of community members, values and vision of the community future in relation to planning. For instance, Baum (1999) proposed that difficulty in community planning might come from cultural differences, value about competition and lack of awareness of problems and solutions. These differences were barrier to the progress of planning process and could undermine common vision development of stakeholders in the community. These differences could also result in lack of unity among stakeholders, which made it more difficult to develop unity in the community that cultural differences exist. Individual capacity needed to be enhanced in order to avoid mistakes and to allow participants to realize the differences among them. For example, a long- term cultural relationship enabled the development of new vision which reflected the changing environment, which is a real challenge to planning and to the community in the future (Baum, 1998). Under such circumstances, it is necessary to increase community members’ realization of the benefit from management planning for sustainability. This realization of community problems is a crucial step in community management (Mullen and Allison, 1999). Duram and Brown (1998) stated that the resources management project would be useful for increasing community realization. It encouraged community members to work together to achieve the goal. At the same time it encouraged people to play their respective roles in their community, which would result in development of individual capacity (Fabiricius et al., 2007). 2.4.2.2 Relational Capacity Relational capacity refers to the existence of internal and external relations between similarities and differences of each individual. Internal relation is a key to common vision development, interpersonal support, trust and effective cooperation. On the other hand, external relation is significant for creating interaction between different communities which will lead to an opportunity for information sharing and common vision development based on the needs of stakeholders. For instance, as a group of stakeholders, government officers may wish more participation from other groups to build up external relation. (Foster-Fishman et al., 2001) 91
Social capital or interrelationship in the community plays an important role in capacity building. The relationship between an individual and an organization is necessary for information dissemination which may have an impact on how and to what direction a decision will be made (participatory decision making process). By this process the facilitator or planner will have a chance to receive feedback from the community to make better decisions based on the specific needs of the community. Participation by key players in the community is therefore one of the basic factors to success. (Chaskin, 2001) 2.4.2.3 Organization Capacity Development of organizational capacity is a significant process that can result in a powerful driving force for community members to have unity and to achieve any goal. The key components of organizational capacity are leadership, management, communication, financial resources and operational supports (Foster- Fishman et al., 2001). Among the above components, leadership receives much attention, as it can significantly affect the capacity of community organizations. Leadership is identified as one of the most important components of community organizational capacity (Chaskin et al., 2007). It is defined as the interaction between two or more members of any group. The leader brings about change to others and this condition occurs when one member of the group create a stimulus or shows a superior ability to others in the group. His ability can draw interest from other members of the group toward the goal to be achieved. Effective leadership is interaction between group members that can create and maintain the group’s ability to deal with problems and carry on its operation to achieve the goal. Development of knowledge and skills can enhance organizational capacity. Based on trust of other community members and effort, the leader with vision can bring about change in a positive way to the community (Fabricius et al., 2007). Some studies point out that development of leadership is necessary for enhancing community capacity. However, Kaplan, Kaplan and Austin (2008) state that a lot of planners have had limited review at hand, lack of planning experience in dealing with planning. Chaskin et al. (2007) suggest that leadership can be developed by several 92 approaches, especially through formal and on- the-job training on knowledge and skills required by community leaders. With regard to the project designed to promote community capacity, several researchers mention that lack of leadership of local leaders can impede success expected by the project. In other words, participation by other community members decreases, because of lack of leadership of local leaders (Davey et al., 2007). Some researchers therefore highlight the significance of development and creation of local leaders who can stimulate and lead others to pursue the defined vision and who can develop a network with other organizations for sharing knowledge and for working together (Chaskin et al., 2007). Fabricius et al. (2007) stated that the knowledge and organizational network can increase organizational capacity. Knowledge sharing and cooperation to pursue the goal are useful strategies for promoting organizational capacity. The development project based on the needs of stakeholders can help bring about changes in positive way. According to Sussman (2004), there are three types of capacity of an organization: adaptive capacity, programmatic capacity and organizational capacity. Each organization may have a different proportion of these types of capacity as demonstrated in Figure 2.39
Figure 2.39 Van Diagram that Captures the Way Programmatic, Organizational and Adaptive Capacities Interact to Create Organizational Effectiveness Source: Sussman, (2004).
2.4.2.4 Programmatic Capacity Evaluation of programmatic capacity requires understanding of community capacity and project development and management because they can 93 bring about significant changes in the community (Foster-Fishman et al., 2001). For instance, for tourism development in the community to take place, it is necessary to have individual capacity, organizational capacity, community capacity and community empowerment (Aref and Redzuan, 2009) as shown in Figure 2.40
Figure 2.40 Community Capacity Cycle and Project Development (Tourism) Source: Aref and Redzuan, 2009.
Aref and Redzuan (2009) mention that increase in community capacity is a key factor for implementation of any project. This is also the case for tourism. The capacity of community members in participation in tourist activity is a key factor to seccess (Cupples, 2005). Kieffer and Reischmann (2004) and Raik (2002) indicate that promotion of individual capacity involves skill and knowledge development for an individual to strengthen his/her ability in the area relating to their way of living in the community. Promotion of community capacity refers to the necessity to improve decision-making in respect of tourism activities. To achieve this, training may be held at the community or the organizational level and change is required by the initiative of a professional team. Organizational capacity refers to capacity of a community organization or a group of such organizations (Raik, 2002). The three categories of community capacity may overlap.
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Promotion of all the three types of community capacity requires people’s participation, related knowledge and understanding or awareness of the community and leadership. The tourism project is a good example of community empowerment for community development as demonstrated in Figure 2.41 (Aref and Redzuan, 2009).
Figure 2.41 Benefits from Increase in Community Capacity in Relation to Tourism Development Source: Aref and Redzuan, 2009.
Aref and Redzuan (2009) concluded that increase in community capacity involved community empowerment which encouraged an individual, an organization and the whole community to acquire skills, resources, geographical advantages which had not yet been developed and utilized in order to find out strengths and opportunities for further enhancement of community capacity. Socioeconomic factors that support each other to attain community empowerment are emergence of trade and service businesses in the community; consumption of local products and services; attraction of funds, wages and investment to the locality, resulting in higher returns to the community; creation of social capital, networks, volunteers, community activities and culture; enhancement of knowledge, skills and leadership, support from local organizations; employment in the area; promotion of innovations in government services; import substitution by local resources and products, etc. All of the aforementioned support each other, resulting in Local Multiplier Effect as shown in Figure 2.42. (Noya and Clarence, 2009). 95
Figure 2.42 Building of Community Capacity-Local Multiplier Effect Source: Noya and Clarence, 2009.
According to Noya and Clarence (2009), a lesson for policy makers is that they should develop strategies to increase organizational capacity, social capital, community capacity as well as household and individual capacity. Policy makers must establish a relationship among economy, society and community capacity based on the understanding that most support and decision making must originate from the community as much as possible. The economic multiplier effect indicates that actors in all sectors (the public and the private sectors as well as households and individuals) and resources can enhance local capacity.
2.4.3 Transfer of Local Wisdom Knowledge is the ability of humans to do things (Spiegler, 2003). The relationship between knowledge and act is important in the context of environmental management and in the decision making process based on knowledge. Knowledge adequate for the environmental condition is a key component for successful resource management (Ostrom, 1990). This concept has been recognized in the literature concerning environmental resource management. That is, community members should possess a deep knowledge of the environmental condition (Bryant and Wilson, 1998). 96
In practice, implementers in the local area who are not scientists are local experts who have local wisdom (Petts and Brooks, 2006). The term “local wisdom” refers briefly to the body of knowledge relating to local resources held by a group of persons (Giordano et al., 2010). However, different views have been found in literature concerning the nature of local knowledge and who owns that local knowledge and wants to transfer it. Local knowledge is knowledge owned by a person who is not a scientist but this knowledge is based on local wisdom, experiences and action adaptable to local ecology (Ballard et al., 2008). Local knowledge does not depend on any tools (Corburn, 2003) but it is an interaction with the local environment in daily life (Rhoads et al., 1999) before local knowledge is formed. Local knowledge includes common sense, experiences about different phenomena, and expectations relating to the local context (Petts and Brooks, 2006). Local wisdom refers to paradigm or body of knowledge of an individual or a group of people in any given area that is inherited from the former generation or that comes from experiences which have been screened, accumulated, analyzed and applied to achieve the desired results. Local wisdom comes from linking learning with the way of life. It is applicable at the individual or society levels in a consistent and balanced manner. It is specific to the context of a community or locality. (Kowit Phuang-ngam, 2010). With respect to experience, many researchers emphasize the influence of cultural and social values, norms and institutions that drive local wisdom (Blowers et al., 2005). Ballard et al., (2008) qualitatively analysed local wisdom based on the length of the relationship of each person with the local environment differentiated between experts and non-experts on the ground that the former held comprehensive knowledge based on their experiences which influenced what they perceived and structured their thoughts. The original knowledge about the environment is characterised as local wisdom of people living in that area for a long time and holding holistic vision of interaction between human beings and the environment (Bryant and Wilson, 1998) as local wisdom has been built upon accumulated knowledge of trial and error over a period of time. (Berkes, 2009).
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Local wisdom can be classified into five types as follows. (Therdchai Choibamroong, 2011). 1) Tradition, norm, belief and religion referring to practices that are followed from generation to generation and are accepted as true based on reasonable wisdom or belief or faith. This type of local wisdom includes beliefs, philosophies, religions and cults, superstitions, astrology, laws, government norms, indoctrination, inheritances and traditions. 2) Language and literature referring to communication through stories and alphabets. This type of local wisdom covers news, literature, linguistics and grammar, dialects, tales, essays, prosodies, speeches, proverbs, riddles and prophecies. 3) Arts and archaeology referring to things created by human beings for artistic reasons or utilitarian reasons as well as things invented to convey beliefs of groups of people. This type of local wisdom includes drawings, sculpture, architecture, handicrafts, archaeology, city and community planning and cultural sites or sources. 4) Music and recreation refers to expressions of human beings in response to physical, emotional and mental needs. This type of local wisdom covers singing and music, dancing, entertainment, child songs and lullabies, retorts, folk plays, sports and recreation, tourism and culture-related businesses. 5) Life, way of life and technology referring to daily activities of a person or groups of persons, their inventions and development of technology for a better living condition by people in the community or adoption and adaption of outside cultures to their lives. This type encompasses tools, home economics, public health, dwellings, autobiography, technology and occupations. 98
Figure 2.43 Types of Thai Local Wisdom Source: Therdchai Choibamroong, 2011.
Local wisdom can also be classified into 10 branches as shown in Figure 2.44 as follows: 1) Agriculture refers to the ability to integrate the body of knowledge, skills and techniques of agriculture with technology so that a person can rely on himself/ herself under different circumstances, e.g. integrated farming, agricultural solutions etc. 2) Industry and handicraft (production and consumption) refers to the application of modern technology to processing produces in order to slow down distribution into markets and to safe, economical and reasonable consumption. With this process, the community will be able to rely on themselves economically. This types of local wisdom includes production and distribution of handicraft products e.g. group forming of rubber plants, rice mills, handicraft etc. 3) Thai medicine refers to the ability to protect and improve health of people in the community by emphasizing self-reliance in the area of health and hygiene. 99
4) Natural resource and environmental management refers to the ability to manage natural resources and the environment, including conservation, development or utilization of natural resources in a balancing and sustainable manner. 5) Community fund and business refers to capacity in trade management, accumulation of money and wealth, and community fund and business management in order to improve the well-being of community members. 6) Welfare refers to the ability to provide welfare and life quality assurance and to bring about economic, social and cultural security. 7) Arts refer to the ability to produce artistic works e.g. drawings, sculpture, literature, visual art, vocal music etc. 8) Management refers to the ability to operate community organizations and other social organizations in Thai society, e.g. organizational management of the housewife group, the seniority system in the village etc. Learning management is also considered as a significant type of local wisdom, which includes effective learning process, development and transfer of Thai local wisdom. 9) Language and literature means the ability to create works relating to language dialects. 10) Religion and tradition refer to the ability to apply to one’s life religious teachings, beliefs and traditions valuable and suitable for individuals and the environment, e.g. dissemination of religious principles, “forest ordination”, “Bun Pra Tai Khao” festival etc. 100
Figure 2.44 Local Wisdom Branches Source: Therdchai Choibamroong, 2011.
Thai local wisdom is considered as social and cultural capital that needs to be conserved. The detailed procedures for conserving Thai local wisdom as seen in Figure 2.45 are as follows: 1) Research Research should be conducted to collect the data about different aspects of Thai local wisdom at the local, provincial, regional and national levels, especially the background and the current situation of local wisdom. 2) Conservation Conservation can be done by raising awareness and conscience of people in the local area so that they will realize the value, substances and significance of local wisdom through promotion and arrangement of traditional and cultural activities and events. People in the community must be made to feel that it is their responsibility to conserve local wisdom as their community identity. In addition, the local or community museum should be established to demonstrate the lifestyle and background of that community. It is a place where learning can take place and people can be proud of their own community.
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3) Rehabilitation Local wisdom that is going to be lost or has already lost should again be made valuable and important to the way of living in the community, especially basic ethics, moral and value. 4) Development Development should start with creativity aimed at improving local wisdom to fit the current world and to actually benefit a daily life. Local wisdom may be used as a basis to form occupational groups which apply scientific and technological knowledge to production, marketing and management as well as environmental protection and conservation. 5) Transfer Local wisdom that is prudently and thoroughly screened should be transferred to people in the society through family and academic institutions and cultural events to make them realize its value and usefulness, which will lead to appropriate action. 6) Promotion of activities Networks for inheriting and developing local wisdom in the community are established to organize cultural and local wisdom events and activities continually. 7) Promotion of experts Local people should be encouraged to build their capacity and to have an opportunity to demonstrate their local wisdom and to fully develop their expertise. Praising and complimenting local experts should be done either at the community level or a higher level. 8) Exchange Activities for widely exchanging local wisdom and cultures should be arranged. Local wisdom should be domestically and internationally publicized between communities and groups of people via different media and methods.
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Figure 2.45 Conservation of Local Wisdom Capital in Thailand Source: Therdchai Choibamroong, 2011.
2.4.4 Utilisation of Community Capital/Resources 2.4.4.1 Community Resources Community resources refer to all things in the community and may be divided into three major types as follows: 1) community bio-resources which include human beings, animals, plants and microorganisms 2) community physical resources which refer to natural resources, i.e. soil, water, minerals, forests, energy, air and sunlight and 3) resources created by the community e.g. constructions, historic sites, artistic works, traditions and norms, cultures, wisdom, groups and community organizations (Kowit Phuang-ngam, 2010) 2.4.4.2 Community Rights and Community Resource Base There are two types of community rights: internal rights and external rights (Praphas Pintobtang, 2006) as follows: Internal rights refer to the relationship between management and the use of resources by community members e.g. determining water distribution by a community dike, forest conservation tradition or belief, animal-raising in the community’s public place, specifying types of fishing tools etc. 103
External rights refer to the claims of community rights over natural resource management and protection of resources from interference from outside and destruction or change of the pattern of natural resource use which may affect the community way of living. In short, community rights over resources mean that local communities in different ecological conditions, e.g. basins, swamps, lakes, mountains, plains depend on natural resources to earn a living. People in these communities reach agreements and set rules and regulations and procedures for natural resource management for the benefit of the community, taking into consideration sustainability of ecology, economy, society, culture and social justice. Such agreements or rules may be concerned with a common living pattern of the community. They may be in the written form. Community organizations or institutions have a duty to manage the community to fulfil common objectives of that community. (Kowit Phuang-ngam, 2010) 2.4.4.3 Community Capital Flora (1999) states that community capital consists of different types of community resources that are used to improve and create other community resources. Types of community capital have interested many scholars, especially Putnam (2000) who relates it with social capital, and Mullen and Allison (1999) who considered social capital as a key to success in resource management in Alabama. However, some scholars, e.g. Flora (1999) and Hancock (1999), realize the significance of the holistic approach of community capital and propose that a healthy community does not depend on any particular type of capital; in contrast, it depends on the balance of human capital, natural capital, social capital and economic capital. Hancock (1999) suggests that to understand community health, it is necessary to balance the use of different types of community capital. No specific type should be overused in order to establish sustainability. Emery and Flora (2006) identify 4 types of capital: natural capital, human capital, social capital and financial capital. Natural capital includes community properties, e.g. air, geographical location, natural resources and natural beauty. Human capital includes knowledge and skills held by community members to use or increase other capitals. Social capital includes the relationship and the network of people and organizations used for producing desirable results for that community, 104 and, finally, financial capital reflects economic resources needed for producing desirable results for the community. However, in the study on interaction between human beings and the natural environment, Flora (1999) mentioned 4 types of community capital: natural capital, human capital, social capital and financial capital as shown in Figure 2.46
Figure 2.46 Community Capital Source: Flora, 1999.
Kowit Phuang-ngam (2010) describes 4 categories of community capital as follows: 1) Natural Capital: This category includes soil, water, minerals (and air as well), forest etc. It is a key factor for production by all living creatures in the world. Natural capital in any community means that the community has natural resources and is able to utilize them to produce the output in a sustainable manner without damaging them. 2) Financial capital or monetary capital: This type of capital is the result of association in the form of a saving group, a savings cooperator, a credit union cooperative, which is seen as a village bank that accumulates fund and benefits from interest. 105
3) Human Capital: The principle of capitalist economic system explains that humans are considered as one type of capital used in the production. Effort has been therefore made before concluding that only humans use energy for work. This human capital can grow up in a large volume by continual reproduction. If any community has a large amount of human capital, it means that some of its members are qualified or talented persons who are willing to sacrifice for the public’s good, and who hold knowledge, skills and experiences, moral, disciplines and accountability, good attitude toward work and leadership and who can establish a group or network to act for the common good. A community that has abundant human capital can render significant benefit if its capacity is adequately and properly developed. 4) Social Capital: This refers to social relations originated in the community, or social rules that hold people to live in the community with sharing, dependence, trust, moral, public-mindedness, traditions and norms, beliefs and cultures. It can be concluded that “social capital” includes common spirit built on love and bonding of community members, unity, and fair and equal allocation of benefits. As mentioned by many scholars, the researcher would therefore like to consider more about social capital especially the highlight on the roles of social network toward economic development (Putnam, 2000). Social capital manifests less tangible form of capital but a significant element for enhancing economic potential especially in rural areas (Woodhouse, 2006). Putnam (2000) also found that social capital varied from one place to another depending on level of participation and role in the community and general characteristics of the community has direct influence upon success in each community (Arentze, Oppewal, & Timmermans, 2005). Putnam (1994) indicated that social capital refers to a system of social relationship of people in a given community as well as generosity, dependency. The existence of social capital is based on the close social network, the secured social relationship, consistent cooperation and communication and self management in each network. Social capital has many dimensions, such as commitment, reciprocity, collective action, and participation. Sense of belonging to the community and confidence in other community members are important characteristics for sustainability of community development. (Defilippis,2001; Woodhouse, 2006) 106
(1) Commitment Commitment is measured by pleasure of a person voluntarily joining a community activity (Lochner et al., 1999). It has potential to create the highest benefit to himself and the group. Self-development of the rural community needs partnership of the government and private sectors and organizations under agreements (Flora et al., 1997). A community which has low social capital will not be able to achieve economic prosperity (Bridger and Alter, 2006) because people have no commitment to better the community and a community which lacks social capital will have several disadvantages. Miller (2001) points out that lack of social network, trust, participation and support will not lead to mutual support within the community. Weak social relations will negatively affect mutual confidence in the community and limit commitment of people in that community (Gracia and Heriro, 2004). Commitment of the community members is necessary because it will stimulate people in the community to work together for mutual benefits and to strengthen self-development (Woodhouse, 2006). Effort in self- development of the community will being the highest benefit to local resource consumption, which will in turn build an opportunity for people and the community to be successful together (Putnam, 1993). Without commitment, development of the community may not be successful and mistakes from community management will create weaknesses to it. The community which has social capital can use resources for the benefit of the community members (McAdam, 1982). Commitment of the community suggest that community numbers work together because they feel responsible and have a sense of belonging to their community (Lochner, Kawachi and Kennedy, 1999). (2) Reciprocity Reciprocity is an important aspect of social capital, which depends on the relationship between location and social relations (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Reciprocity is a concept which reflects social change, when people in the community work together and help each other for mutual benefits (Hoiman, 1961). Previous research indicated that social relations will increase reciprocity in rural communities, which have a small number of population and are located in remote areas (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Goudy (1977) found that local communities had a 107 close social relationship, which created trust among community members. Reciprocity is important in remote communities, because it increases the feeling of joint responsibility, mutual trust and support (Kikenny et al., 1999). A good relationship between people in the community and retailers is influenced by reciprocity or satisfaction of both parties (Miler, 2001). Businesses, that access and support their community will show trust, which is beneficial to the community (Miler and Besser, 2000). Reciprocity often results from mutual trust in the community, which creates coordination and cooperation for mutual benefits (Flora et al., 1997). Survivability of a business in the community depends on support of community (Wilson, 1980). Mutual trust of the community stemmed from assessment of community ability in a positive manner. Assessment by community people of both community and business organizations is important for judging the success of the community (Niehm, et al., 2009). Moreover, positive assessment of one’s effort has caused satisfaction with outcome of all projects. Mutual trust and mutual support will result in success of community development projects and local businesses (Kikenny et al., 1999). When people in the community have satisfaction, they will participate and support community activities in various ways (Filkins et al., 2000). Putnam (2000) states that a community is a group of people who have a lot of social capital and a strong social network from their working together for the benefit of the community. Social capital promotes not only development of community economy, but also sustainability of economy development as a result of common understanding and social connection among community members. A community which has a lot of social capital will have a high level of social relations (Flora et al., 1997). Reciprocity that is included in social relationship of the community, therefore playing an important role in community development because it helps develop both the community and all business organizations (Bridger and Alters, 2006). (3) Collective Action Collective action is a basic concept of social capital (Coleman, 1988), which gives rise to cooperation between people and local organizations in the community (Putnam, 1996). Collective action happens in a situation in which people in the community are working together and using resources 108 to progress together (Flora et al., 1997). Collective action helps reduce selfishness because people have to work with other people (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Or it can be said that building social capital can limit selfishness and create cooperation (Coleman, 1988). Self management effort of the community needs to be included in economic and social organizations of the community (Flora et al., 1997). Interaction between community members contributes to the growth of social environment of that community. Community social relations makes people take collective action in any work in order to achieve the goal (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Social capital promotes the relationship between community workers (Putnam, 1995). Collective action comes from strong social norms, which not only makes the community better but also increases the growth of community economy and development (Putnam, 2000). Sturtevant (2006) confirms that collective action leads to growth of social capital, steering resources to social interaction and networks of cooperation for community development in the future. Social capital increases economic efficiency of networks and joint social relations of the community, thus making the community better (Putnam, 2000). (4) Participation Participation has been partly discussed when describing relational capacity in the community. However, participation is also related to social capital so details about it are added below. Efforts in self-development of the community help increase participation of people in the community (Sharp et al., 2002). Participation of community people may be in the form of joining charity organizations, associations and informal social activities (Gottlieb, 1981). Participation in community activities makes people work together to achieve specified goals (Zimmerman, 2000). People who participate more in community activities will have a sense of belonging to that community, too (Chavis and Wandersman, 1990). Community development depends on participation of people, which in turn will strengthen the community (Zimmerman, 2000). Besides, community development activities will be successful if these activities have great support by participation of community members, social networks, local business operators and local professionals (Sharp et al., 2002). A community that has strong social capital often receives economic 109 support, which creates an opportunity for the community to develop facilities to increase the life quality of the community (Besser et al., 2008). A community which has a lot of social capital often cooperates in community activities (Sharp et al., 2002) If there is no participation of people in the community, that community will have limited economic development and weaknesses in the business environment will result (Crowe, 2006). In contrast, a community which has strong participation from people in the community will enable it to manage itself which will better the business environment for carrying out local businesses and will generate employment and income. For effort in self management of the community, to be successful, it is necessary for people in the community, businesses, public organizations and private organizations to participate in and give support to such effort. Community resources and community capital is rather related. If the earlier definition of “community resources” is considered, we will find that biological community resources include both human capital and life capital. Physical community resources are similar to natural capital and resources created by the community include basic capital, knowledge capital, wisdom, cultural capital, social capital, etc. Mendis et al. (2003) studied the building of community capacity in terms of self-adjustment to change of weather by considering the concept of systematic integration of community capacity. They considered resources and community capital, together with inputs of the process, as shown in Figure 2.47
Figure 2.47 Integration of Community Capacity Source: Mendis et al., 2003. 110
When building a framework of community capacity of resources and capital, the process and outcome must be considered. Resources and capital are inputs of the process to mobilize forces and to invent management strategies to obtain outcome which shows community capacity. Finally, community assessment, is necessary as the results can be used to revise the related policy. From that point, the process starts again. From the review of literature on community capacity building in self-adjustment to change of weather, Mendis et al. (2003) provides details of important factors related to the concept as shown in Figure 2.48
Figure 2.48 Important Factors of Community Capacity Source: Mendis et al., 2003. Figure 2.48 explains that in building community capacity, we must rely on resources, consisting of physical capital and economic capital (economic security, facilities and technology), cultural capital and social capital (relationship between institutions, cooperation in the community, equality), human capital (information, education, skills, experiences) and ecological capital or natural capital. The process must be carried out by access to resources including management strategies consisting of self-adjustment, participation of people, preparedness to get the outcome of building community capacity (adjustment to weather change). After that the community will be assessed to give reflections and the policy modified for self- adjustment of the community. Then the process starts again.
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2.4.5 Development of Cooperative Networks Learning on basis of previous knowledge is more important in sharing information between development organizations, the government, scholars and communities to gain the most benefits equally (Ramalingam, 2006). Knowledge is different from news and information. Davenport and Prusak (1998) define the term “knowledge” as a combination of experience, values, contextual data and vision of experts, which are assessed and used along with new data and experiences. Knowledge is built and applied by experts in different organizations. Knowledge is not just documents, but is a routine, a process, practice and a norm of an organization. Knowledge of people and organizations in the community is related to social capital. Coleman (1988) defines social capital as composed of two components: social structure and action of operators within that structure. Putnam (1993) refers to social capital in a social organization in term of confidence in each other, trust and a network of people that increases the efficiency of the community in all operations. Gittell and Vidal (1998) specify two main types of social capital: bridging social capital and bonding social capital. Bridging of social capital means bringing people or groups of people to work together, while bonding of social capital is making people who already know each other to work together more closely. In case of small rural communities where their members know each other at a certain level, bonding of social capital is joining the network of community members, while bridging of social capital is the network which links community members (organizations and people) with outsiders. However, it is important to understand that two types of social capital are difficult to separate from each other (Putnam, 2000). Building a body of knowledge means introducing or forming of new ideas, information, technology, values/norms/beliefs and processes in the community. This new knowledge may be built within the community by joint interaction between community members or formal and informal contacts between community members (people, leaders, organizations) with people, organizations, processes, information, or technology outside of the community. Therefore, building of knowledge may be stimulated by strategies for creating social capital both bridging and bonding of social capital. 112
Roger (1995) states that knowledge sharing is knowledge transfer and knowledge translation. It is a process of spreading knowledge from the builder of that knowledge to users of the knowledge in the community. Therefore, an important thing for knowledge sharing is strategies to support better quality and more interaction. An example is community network strategies that focus on developing close relationships in the community (bonding social capital). The relationship of strategies for creating social capital, community capacity development, knowledge building and sharing, and implementation of community policy can be seen in Figure 2.49
Figure 2.49 Network, Knowledge and Concept Source: Rogers, 1995. Figure 2.49 shows that One Village One Product (OVOP) is a concept. One Village (OV) is community capacity. One Product (OP) is part of the structure of community policy (activities, projects, production process and others). Both OV and OP are important elements of the policy (Miyoshi and Stenning, 2008). Strategies for both bridging and bonding of social capital has stimulated both community capacity development and knowledge sharing network, and knowledge building. Bonding social capital promotes knowledge sharing through close interaction of face-to-face communication between community members, including building knowledge through synergies. Social capital bonding also has direct impact on community capacity, especially, on setting norms, values, common vision and increase in the level of community commitment. Bridging social capital means promoting knowledge 113 building by giving advice, new ideas, values, products or processes to the community which contact outsiders. This type of community capital directly affects to community capacity, particularly access to outside resources. Improved sharing and building of knowledge resulting from the network is useful for community capacity development, for increasing planning ability, for plan implementation, and for assessment of the community policy structure, which adds more value to community policy structure. Moreover, planning, plan implementation and evaluation of activities are useful for more capacity development. Naomi and Koichi (2008) concluded in their study of OVOP that network- creating strategies to bridge or bond social capital helped to stimulate, create and share knowledge through the relationship between persons and organizations in the community, thus strengthening the relationship among community members. These relationships and the outcome of building and sharing knowledge gave rise to community capacity development based on common beliefs, values, norms and vision, commitment, including community ability in assessing the present situation and seeking for ways to solve problems. Community capacity development included increased ability in operating the community policy, which was more complicated and valuable. Therefore, increased knowledge building, creating and sharing would bring benefit to community capacity development and policy implementation. Rada (2003) points out three possible ways to generate social capital 1) The Single Sphere-Dominant. A community has no social network or no collective action in the form of synergy to solve problem. It is a community that contacts other communities once in a while. Each community cannot help each other in solving problems. One community or organization controls what has happened and deals with problems without social interaction 2) The Multiple Sphere-Independent. All communities have solved the problems together. However, there is no additional social capital. Each group or each community still has no influence from other communities. Therefore, there is no new network or social capital or hub of any community networks. It can be said that they live independently as in the past. 3) The Multiple Sphere-Synergistic. Groups of communities have worked together, resulting in more social capital and the center of social networks. Communities have built the center of social networks to solve bigger problems in communities. When something happens in the future, this 114 center will be able to operate with wider social capital of the community. Social capital is raised to a higher level and collective action in the form of synergy are shown in Figure 2.50
Figure 2.50 Action and Reaction to Generating Social Capital Source: Rada, 2003.
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2.5 Components of Economic Security
2.5.1 Definition of Energy According to the Energy Conservation Promotion Act of B. E. 2535, energy is the ability to work. Energy exists in things that can generate work. Energy includes renewable energy and nonrenewable energy. Overall, energy refers to things that can generate work, such as heating fuels, electricity, etc. Renewable energy includes energy derived from rice chaff, bagasse, biomass, water, sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, waves, etc. Nonrenewable energy includes energy derived from coal, oil rock, oil sand, crude oil, fuel oil, natural gas and nuclear power, etc. (Energy Conservation Promotion Act of B. E. 2535).
2.5.2 Definition of Energy Security The term “security” is involved in both military policy and non-military policy. Tanaka (1997) specifies 3 main questions for security policy as follows: 1) What to protect? 2) What risks to be protected from? And 3) How to protect? These questions can be considered on the basis of the conventional view of the energy security concept which focuses on demand for oil (Tanaka, 1997). 1) What to protect? In many developing and developed countries, oil is still the main fuel of energy supply. Oil is a strategic fuel, especially in the military and transport. Therefore, oil security is one condition for national security and economic welfare. Oil supply, thus affects oil price stability. 2) What risks to be protected from? When the situation of oil supplies is insecure-from accidents or bad weather, for instance-it places the national economy on risks, which must be protected from. Therefore, maintaining oil price stability is an important component of traditional energy security. 3) How to protect? Protection or prevention is one good way to reduce risks. Diplomatic alliance with oil producing countries is one way to prevent risks. For example, the United States of America has built a good relationship with Saudi Arabia. Meanwhile, change from too much dependence on oil is an important measure of the policy of oil-consuming countries. Some measures are, for instance, generating electricity from nuclear power and increasing use of non-fossil fuels, as 116
Japan does. Many countries have invested in alternative energy technology, such as coal, solar energy, etc. Research and development projects have experienced both successes and failures. Some alternative energy, such as wind energy, is commercially successful. However, success in alternative energy technology also has impact on fossil fuel consumption, which depends on economic and political support of each country and locality including the possibility of finding renewable resources.
2.5.3 Definition of Energy Security Economic Information Division, International Economy Department (2010) defines the term “energy security” as having sufficient energy to serve the demand for it with reasonable prices by considering the impact on the environment in order to achieve balanced and sustainable economic growth. National Economic and Social Development Advisory Council (2008) defines energy security as retaining access to sufficient energy without risks for present and future survival. In addition, Von Hippel (2009) states that energy security includes setting the energy policy to create security in access to oil and other types of fuels. Because of change in the world energy market and international energy problems, including the change of weather condition, international issues, economy and environment, an operational definition of the term “energy security” needs to be redefined to suit the frame of analysis of the energy roadmap or plan in the future in order to create more energy security. International Energy Agency: IEA (1985) once defined energy security as sufficient energy supply under reasonable prices. Later, International Energy Agency: IEA (2001) defines the term “energy security” as reliable energy supply at reasonable prices, while Bielecki (2002) considers energy security means dependable supply and sufficiency under reasonable prices as specified by the market. Bohi and Toman (1996) explain that energy security will exist if the energy sector does not decrease the economic welfare at the national and international levels. They define energy security as “loss of economic welfare” that may result from change in energy prices. Energy insecurity means uncertainty about the match between the energy supply and the demand.
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2.5.4 Components of Energy Security From the review of literature on the components of energy security, the researcher has concluded that main components of energy security were as follows: 2.5.4.1 Energy Supply The traditional view of the energy security concept considers energy security as adequate energy supply (Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes, 2009). The existing energy supply reflects energy security in individual countries, provinces or communities. Energy supply can be considered in other ways, such as availability of energy, geological factors and physical existence of resources. Physical availability and actual existence (geology) of energy sources are important and are the indexes for security of energy supply. All the data used for specifying availability -for example, estimation of reserve, production data, reserve/production ratios, energy which has been expected but has not yet been found, etc. -are related to energy security (Asia Pacific Energy Research Center: APERC, 2007) and (Kruyt,VuurenVries and Groenenberg, 2009). Besides, the Defense Ministry of the United States of America considers that energy security is related to energy supply, that is, sources of energy that can be specified and used – whether they are fossil fuels, alternative energy or renewable energy (coal, biomass, natural gas, garbage, hydrogen, nuclear power, hydro power, wind, sunlight). The supplies must be survivable. That is, sources of fuel and energy must be varied, flexible, durable against damages, and must be sufficient or adequate (Klebber, 2009). Sovacool (2010) made a further study to obtain a comprehensive definition of energy security. He refers to energy supply as availability or having a sufficient supply of energy. Energy insecurity results from unexpected weather, political decisions, military conflicts or strategic reasons. Availability includes having sufficient facilities for transportation, transformation and transmission of supply for energy security. Energy security in terms of availability of energy supply consists of security of production supply, dependence and a variety of supply. 2.5.4.2 Demand-Side Management The demand-side management in terms of energy, i.e., efficient energy consumption management in a broad sense, is prevailing in many countries. When the 118 world has faced energy crises, everyone realizes that production only to serve the need for energy use can definitely bring about many problematic consequences. For example, energy resources are running out. Pollution-based environmental problems are caused by energy consumption. The idea to promote efficient use of energy has therefore been disseminated and researched to find out practical means to energy security. The demand-side management is defined as measures to change the volume and/or characteristics of energy consumption among energy users. Two main purposes of the demand-side management are to adjust energy use among energy users to balance with energy production by using efficient technology or adjusting the energy consumption pattern by managing the energy service. The second purpose is energy conservation. These two purposes were meant to achieve energy security. The traditional energy policy gave importance to security of supply, assuming that the demand was unchanged. This concept was changed in the late 1980 when the concept of demand management was included in energy planning for energy security. Now, the demand-side management of energy is as important as the supply-side management and is considered an important tool for achieving climate change reduction and other environmental targets (Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes, 2011). The traditional concept of energy policy planning for energy security gave little importance to the demand-side risks. Actually, the risks can come from the increased demand which was not easily managed, especially the consumers’ behavior. At the same time, long-term economic recession is a concern because it can cause excessive supply. The uncertainty or the demand-side risk is therefore one of the important factors in the new concept of energy security (Vivoda, 2010). With regard to the demand-side management and energy security, the US Department of Defense confirms that sustainability will result from permanent demand restrictions, garbage reduction, efficient use of alternative and renewable energy, which will lead to energy security. According to Hughes (2009), there are 4 practices of the demand-side management as follows: Practice 1: Review-Review must be made to understand the problems of energy resources, traders and facilities, including the availability of energy supply. 119
In other words, it is necessary to review existing energy, distributors, facilities, and the method to prioritize various energy sources for energy security. Energy service must be reviewed to find out potentially secure energy supply to replace the less secure energy supply. Practice 2: Reduce-Energy consumption must be reduce through energy conservation or efficiency of energy consumption or both. Economical use of energy is positively contributed to energy security (especially if it is the reduced use of insecure energy). It can be achieved by energy conservation or efficiency in energy consumption. Raising energy prices is one way to reduce energy consumption and the public policy to encourage the reduction of energy use is another. Practice 3: Replace – Change to a variety of energy sources can be done by generating various kinds of energy or changing facilities to create alternative energy sources or both in order to achieve energy security. In other words, secure energy sources must be increased to replace insecure energy sources by seeking for diversified energy supply or changing facilities to create alternative energy sources. Practice 4: Restrict-Restriction of new demands to energy is necessary. New demand to secure energy sources must be restricted, although this can cause a problem of shortage of secure energy sources or facilities to serve the needs, thus affecting energy security (Hughes, 2009). Energy security and the demand-side management in terms of decentralization can be more successful if energy sources is small and close to the consumption points. The small-scale energy project is easier to operate as it requires less time for construction and able to generate energy close to the end-users, thus reducing the loss during transmission. This will improve the efficiency of energy management for energy security (Sovacool, 2010). 2.5.4.3 Technology The relationship between technology and energy security is also related to risks of the development and practice of advanced technology. This challenges the energy policy planning for future energy security. The traditional approach underestimated risks and considered only short-term risks, which included accidents caused by nuclear or mistakes of research and development attempts (Wang, Yang, Chen and Yu, 2009). 120
The relationship between technology and energy security relating to the technological risk can be an international issue. Therefore, while the world is changing to the technological-focused energy society, the new concept of energy security gives importance to both domestic and international risks relating to advanced technologies. Energy security in terms of technology includes a variety of energy technology, dependence on raw materials that fit the technology, research and development of energy-related technology (Von Hippel et al., 2011). As for the components of energy security in terms of technology, Sovacool (2010) states that research and development of new energy technology and energy distribution system innovation is necessary, especially diversification of energy technology. Also, diversified energy sources and fuels will lead to energy security. Moreover, Sovacool and Mukherjee (2011) state that technology development and efficiency which is a component of energy security is composed of various elements, i.e. innovation and research, safety and reliability, resilience and adaptive capacity, efficiency and energy intensity, and investment and employment. 2.5.4.4 Environment An important challenge to realization of the importance of energy security is the need to protect the environment. Two major international environment problems relating to the energy use, especially fossil fuels, are acid rain and climate change. The transboundary air pollution has become a controversy among countries in Europe and North America, and a current issue in East Asia (Vivoda, 2010). The relationship between the environment in terms of global climate change and energy security has become a more complicated and broader challenge for energy security. It is necessary to solve the problem of greenhouse gas emissions. Energy security in terms of environment causes no harm to the environment-whether it is the pollution volume in the air, risks to the environment (Von Hippel et al., 2011). Energy security in terms of the environment is acceptability or the social and environmental components. In general, acceptability focuses on the environmental concerns including political, cultural or social restrictions that limit the supply due to the people’s negative perception. Some factors that must be considered for the environmental acceptability are, for example, greenhouse gas emissions and 121 other types of pollution caused by energy consumption, deforestation, land use for the operation of energy-related activities, garbage from energy production, efficiency of energy production. (Asia Pacific Energy Research Center : APERC, 2007 and (Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009). Moreover, many environmental aspects that are components of energy security are pollution, adaptive capacity, land and water. Pollution refers to the level of air pollution both internal and external, that link energy security and the public health, including damages to the environment that are related to energy. Resilience is adaptive capacity or the community’s ability to respond to natural disasters caused by climate change, not only in terms of the quantitative aspects of ecology, e.g. abundance of flowers, number of species, but also the qualitative aspects, e.g. stability and adaptive capacity and the ability of the ecological system to absorb changes and the ability of land to function in the ecological system, i.e. the change of land use related to energy. For example, deforestation for generating energy but causing greenhouse gas emissions to the environment and into water is a bridge between energy and water, i.e., an impact of climate change: melting glaciers and flooding in Bhutan and Nepal and water scarcity in the barren areas of China and India as a result of coal burning and oil leakage, for example (Sovacool, 2010). According to Sovacool (2010), greenhouse gas emissions have caused air pollution, which affects energy security in Asia. Especially greenhouse gas emissions in the future may come from Asian countries because most of the world’s coal is being consumed in Asia. Sovacool and Mukherjee (2011) have formulated an analytical framework of energy security in terms of the environmental and social sustainability, which encompasses land use, water, climate change and pollution caused by energy consumption. 2.5.4.5 Cultural-Social Factors While people need facilities for consumption, construction of industrial plants in many areas has been protested and there is local politics on energy policy planning. Some questions arise. Who has the right to make a decision to establish plants? Who has the right to refuse? And, is it possible for the policy planner to give sound reasons to satisfy all stake-holders? These questions challenge not only the 122 energy security policy maker but also the democratic institution. Hence, social factors are one of the challenges for the current energy security (Vivoda, 2010). Public confidence is one social factor influencing energy security. Public confidence should be separated from public acceptance. Public acceptance is mostly about campaigns to build public relations while public confidence includes more than just public relations, as in the case of an effort to increase public confidence by revealing more information. Social factors and public confidence in energy options are therefore important components for the new concept of energy security. One thing that bridges cultural-social factors to energy security is the acceptability or social and environmental components. In general, acceptability focuses on the environmental concerns including political, cultural or social restrictions that limit the supply due to the people’s negative perception (Asia Pacific Energy Research Center; (2007) and Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009) 2.5.4.6 Military Security The new dimensions of international relations and military risks are challenging the traditional energy policy planning for energy security. The end of the cold war has led to the new level of uncertainty in international politics, even though the risk of world war has been reduced. Therefore, the issue of international relations is included as one aspect of energy security. Energy security in the perspective of military security is what contributes to military security in terms of the energy: e.g. effects of energy risks on military security (Vivoda, 2010). 2.5.4.7 Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency is related to energy security. Energy efficiency means to use less energy to get the same or higher benefit. People can use energy efficiently through advanced technologies, apart from changing their way of energy use in order to achieve efficiency. However, most people neither realize this nor try to change their habits to achieve energy efficiency for energy security. According to James Hansen, a scientist and director at NASA’s Goddard Institute, the key method to prevent climate change is energy efficiency and, according to Vivoda (2010), energy security in terms of energy efficiency is energy security as a result of energy efficiency, e.g. energy efficiency per GDP. 123
Sovacool (2010) states that one component of energy security is energy efficiency. It means to use energy with the highest efficiency and the least loss, to decrease the dependence on insecure supply sources, to delay the depletion of fuel supply and to reduce the violence of energy-related mistakes and accidents. 2.5.4.8 Economy Considering the economy and energy security, overall Asia Pacific may encounter the problem of energy security in terms of the economy since the demand for energy has been increased because of increased consumption while the capacity of domestic production is still doubtful. The dependence on energy import from the Middle East and the lack of adequate infrastructure contribute to the high cost of energy consumption in many countries and the lower rate of returns from the GDP (Zobaa, 2005). Many things must be considered if energy security with no economic losses is to be achieved, e.g. the total energy per GDP, the cost of energy import per GDP or the return from energy export per GDP (Hippel, 2009; Vivoda, 2010). In case of the countries that depend on imported energy, the economic conditions related to the energy is important, since most countries still rely on the overall global energy price. Consumption of energy that the country does not have enough supply of or has to use at a high production cost will result in energy consumption that does not contribute to the improvement on the overall national economy. Although there are economic activities, they may not be cost-effective (Allen, 2009). Asia Pacific Energy Research Center (APERC) (2007) and Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg (2009) state that economic factors are a component of energy security. Affordability or economic components means the ability to find economic components of the energy security, e.g. cost of energy consumption price volatility and money spent by a country/ community for energy resources. 2.5.4.9 Human Security Human security was a new concept presented as a global agenda in the “Human Development 1994” report of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). This report presented an important concept of the people-centered development which included energy as one aspect. According to Vivoda (2010), energy security in terms of human security is energy security contributing to human security in terms of 124 energy. The basic preparation of energy service for people must take into consideration various factors, e.g. the people’s energy accessibility. According to the US Department of Defense, energy accessibility is the surety – i.e., the situation that one can get access to the sources of fuel and energy at all time. Sovacool (2010) mentions that access to energy means equality and justice to get to energy service, and the quality of service, not just quantity, so that households can connect to the electricity system. Accessibility is not just the physical ability to use the energy system or fuels, but also the ability to access energy at an appropriate and justified price level. Moreover, reliability means delivery of high- quality energy service that is safe and hazard-free, loss in case of no electricity, and willingness to pay in case that there is no frequency or electricity and the blackout. Energy accidents or loss of property should be included in the concept of reliability relating to energy access for human security. Accessibility (or geographic components), if considered at the national level, is political geography that prevents energy accessibility. However, accessibility depends on the availability of energy in specific areas. That is, whether of the community can access energy depends on the resources available in that geographical area. 2.5.4.10 International Relationship in Turns of Energy Energy security makes it necessary for international to cooperate to deal with energy. Energy security indicates an ability to protect the people, the society, the government and the economy from energy shortage which can be alterviated by international relationship in terms of energy (Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes, 2009). Energy security can be achieved by the international relationship in terms of energy. The energy security policy must specify the operation about international energy security at the regional and global levels. Whether there is any mutual agreement in the international relationship in terms of energy can be seen in the international or regional MOU, for example (Vivoda, 2010). Because of the differences between consumption and production of resources, it is necessary to access energy geography related to the international relationship. Accessibility might face restrictions e.g. technical, geographical and 125 political, including infrastructure. (Asia Pacific Energy Research Center (APERC) (2007) and Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg (2009). Energy security and international issues about energy trade are concerned with support of the movement of the energy or fuel system, increase in import and export volumes, usage of transfer networks at the international level or usage of infrastructure in a cooperative manner, including cooperation in the geographic dimension – developing energy resources outside the country and reducing trade restrictions. 2.5.4.11 Policy Even though the world has not yet lacked petroleum energy, the world’s energy production capacity has clustered in some areas, making many countries realize the importance of energy security and proceed to regulate energy policies. According to Andrew, Xuanli and Danreuther (2002) and Vivoda (2010), energy policy planning in various dimensions will help to create energy security. Sovacool (2010) considers Vivoda’s energy policy as supervision or management , saying that it is participatory, transparent and stable policy planning with high-quality data presentation for setting the energy policy and pricing, including information disclosure or communication to reach the general public’s participation and cooperation among stakeholders in the energy policy planning and reliability – all of these assign vividly the roles and responsibilities of each related group in order to help create energy security. 2.5.4.12 Investment Investment is one component of energy security. Investment means to properly invest in infrastructure and maintain an adequate employment level in the energy sector, direct employment as a result of production and distribution of energy appliances and infrastructure, indirect employment caused by increased activities to support industries, and induced employment resulting from increased disbursement and investment as a result of increased yields and related consumption (Sovacool, 2010). 2.5.4.13 Price Stability Price stability is the ability to estimate the fuel price or stable energy service price. When the price is unpredictable, it will be difficult for consumers to choose appropriate options concerning energy consumption. Sovacool (2010) also 126 mentions the energy price in terms of affordability, making sure that energy service would be at the lowest price possible and that consumers are able to pay for energy service. 2.5.4.14 Energy Literacy Energy literacy is knowledge of the community or society about energy and how to be informative and educated energy consumers. Training is held to provide knowledge about energy and to teach consumers how to make good decisions about energy, how to access available high-quality data and how to educate children about energy and sustainability as part of the school’s curriculum. From the review of literature about the major components of energy security, the researcher considered that some reviewed components could not be used directly in the study of the energy security components at the community level as they were energy security components at the international level, i.e. military security and international relationship in the area of energy. The components of energy security at the community level from the reviewed literature should be 1) the community’s energy supply, 2) the demand-side management, 3) technology, 4) the environment, 5) cultural-social factors, 6) energy efficiency, 7) the economy, 8) human security, 9) the policy, 10) investment, 11) price stability, and 12) energy literacy. It can be said that the community’s energy policy or plan, energy supply, the demand-side management, energy technology, investment/ fund, knowledge and knowledge management, energy efficiency and price stability are the components of the community energy management, while other components, i.e. the improved environment, the improved society, the improved economy and human security (self-reliance in the area of energy) are components of energy security.
2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study
From the review of concepts, theories and research related to community development, international and domestic energy management, the important factors for energy management, and components of energy security, the researcher formulated the conceptual framework for this study, which was composed of capital/resources, community energy management, outputs and outcome. The details are as follows: 127
2.6.1 Community Capital and Resources Community Capital: Flora (1999) and Handcock (1999) realized the importance of the holistic concept of community capital and proposed that a healthy community did not depend only on a specific type of capital, but on the balance of human capital, natural capital and economic capital. Natural Capital: According to Kowit Puang-ngam (2010), natural capital is an important factor that supports the production of all living things in the world. The fact that the community has natural resources and is able to make use of them and maintain them to protect the environment gives rise to the output that depends on natural resources of the community called the “natural capital.” In this research, natural resources used in the community energy management is biomass organic substances that store natural energy and can be used to produce energy. The sources of biomass can be divided as follows: 1) Agricultural crops, e.g. sugarcane, cassava, maize, which are the major sources of carbohydrate, flour and sugar. They can also be used as energizing plants and produces vegetable oil. Moreover, there were plants grown especially to be used as fuel e.g. oil palms and physic nuts. 2) Agricultural waste, e.g. rice straws, cassava roots, corncobs, soybean crude fibers 3) Wood and wood residues e.g. instant-growing and perennial trees in general, residues from wood factories and residues from the pulp and paper industry 4) Industrial waste streams e.g. paddy husk from the rice mills, molasses and bagasse from the sugar industry and the residues from oil palm extraction 5) Garbage and dung e.g. garbage from fresh crops and animal droppings 6) Some kinds of living things. For instance, seaweed can be used in various ways e.g. non-oxygen decomposition, seaweed biodiesel and hydrogen fuel production. Economic/financial capital. Kowit Phuang-ngarm (2010) indicates that financial capital reflects economic resources required to produce the outcome for the community. The researcher has considered economy/financial capital in following aspects: 1) Budget allocated by the public sector to promote community energy management. 128
2) Funds given by all funds in the community, such as saving fund for community energy management, etc. 3) Subsidy or financial aid which the community has received from other communities for assistance in community energy management. Human Capital. Kowit Phuang-ngarm (2010) indicates that according to capitalist economic principle, human capital is one type of capital used in production. This human capital in the stage of growth will have continuous reproduction. Therefore, when a community has a lot of human capital, it means that it has a group of persons with high qualifications, devotion, good discipline, knowledge, wisdom and skill, moral, high responsibility, a good attitude toward work, especially, in forming a group and creating networks to be the leader of the society. Such a society can be said to have much labor capital, which is very beneficial. If human capital has been adequately developed, it will be an important force for development. The researcher of this study has considered human capital in the following aspects: 1) The number of people in the community or households who participate in community energy management by using biomass energy, regardless of the use of biomass kilns/ stoves or biogas stoves. 2) Local wisdom or local knowledge is knowledge of a person, who is not a scientist, but possesses local wisdom, experience and practice in harmony with the local ecological system (Ballard et al., 2008). Corburn (2003) mentions that local knowledge does not depend on any tool, but on interaction to the local environment through daily life experience (Rhoads et al.,1999), which later became local knowledge through common sense, observation of phenomena, anticipation, or thinking about the local context (Petts and Brooks, 2006). Local wisdom refers to paradigms or the body of knowledge of people or a group of people in any locality, which transfers from generation to generation. Such knowledge has passed filtration, accumulation, analysis and successful implementation. It is connected with the way of life of local people. It can be abstract and concrete knowledge and can be applied from individual to social levels. It has unique characteristics which fit the community context. Local wisdom in community energy management is classified in Section 5, under the heading: Life, Living and technology. It means local people leading a life in conjunction with invention and 129 development of technology to have better living or adopting the culture of other localities to improve their well-being: utensils, domestic science, health, residence, biography, technology and occupation, for example. In addition, there are many types of local wisdom. In the case of community energy management, there are two main types of local wisdom: 1) Local wisdom in natural resource and environment management- referring to the ability to manage, conserve and develop natural resources and the environment to get benefits in a balanced and sustainable manner. 2) Local wisdom in management means the ability to manage all operations of community organizations, and other social organizations in Thai society, such as management of the housewife group and the elderly system in the community, etc. Learning management is an example of very important management that comes from local wisdom. Good education means effective learning process, development and transfer of local wisdom. Social Capital. Putnam (1994) explains that social capital is a system of social relationship of people in the community. People are hospitable to each other and help each other. The existence of social capital can be seen from close social networks, secure social relationships, continuous cooperation, consistent communication and self-management within the network. In this study and research, social capital consists of four components: commitment, trust, collective action and participation (DeFilippis, 2001; Woodhouse, 2006). Commitment: Community commitment is necessary on the ground that it will encourage community members to work together for common benefits and to strengthen self-development effort (Woodhouse, 2006). The effort exercised by community members toward self-development will optimize the benefit of local resource consumption which will allow individuals to succeed together with the overall community (Putman, 1993). Commitment is based on willingness and pleasure of people in the community to carry out planned activities Lochner et al., (1999) and to be partners Flora et al. (1997) as follows: 1) Pleasure and willingness of community members to carry out activities. Commitment is measured by willingness of people to participate in community activities (Lochner at al., 1999). In addition to factors influencing the acceptance of 130 innovation as discussed in the innovation diffusion theory, Roger (1971) states that acceptance of innovation by each individual can vary, and that even though they are in the same society, time required for acceptance of innovation can vary. This reflects pleasure and willingness of each person to carry out activities. 2) Partnership: Partnership refers to the joint investment to do community activities between the government sector and the private sector and organizations under agreements (Flora et al., 1997) and others, e.g. fund raising by people in the community to establish a community cooperative to carry out activities relating to energy management etc. Interdependence: Interdependence is one important aspect of social capital. It depends on the relationship between location and social relations (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Interdependence is a notion that reflects behavioral changes in a society in which community members work together and provide support to one another for the common benefit (Hormans, 1961). In the community, each individual, as a community member, will depend on each other. For example, a household wanting to build a biomass kiln can seek help from those who know how to build it, etc. Working together: Working together is a basic concept of social capital (Coleman, 1988) leading to cooperation between local people and local organizations in a given community (Putnam, 1996). Working together is a situation where people in the community work together and exploit resources to progress together (Flora et al., 1997). Social relations in any community will allow community members to work hand in hand in any activity in order to achieve the goal together (Bridger and Alter, 2006). Working together comes from well-established social norms. It not only brings about welfare to the society but also economic growth and development of that community (Putnam, 2000). Sturtevant (2006) confirms that working together will lead to growth of social capital - a driving force that can convert resources into social interaction and a cooperative network for community development in the future. Participation: The effort for community self-development will promote participation by people in that community (Sharp et al., 2002). This may be done by joining charity organizations, associations or unofficial social activities (Gottlieb, 1981). Participation in community activities will allow community members to work together toward the intended goal (Zimmerman, 2000). And as a result, the person 131 taking part in a community activity will increase his or her role in that community while a sense of belonging to that community will be more intense (Chavis and Wandersman, 1990). Community development depends on participation of community members which will finally strengthen that community (Zimmerman, 2000). Without participation of community members, the opportunity for economic development of that community will be limited while the overall environmental advantage for running community activities will be weakened (Crowe, 2006). On the contrary, any community with active participation by its members will receive full support for community self-development, as the condition in that community is suitable for local and economic activities resulting in more employment and more income (Korsching and Allen, 2004). It can be said that the effort for self- development by any community depends on participation and support of community members, business, government and private sectors. Community organization as defined by Kowit Phuang-ngam (2010) is one of community resources created by a community. In this study, two community organizations involved in community energy management are 1) The subdistrict administration organization is a local organization assigned to administer the community. As far as structure and function theory proposed by Talcott Parsons as discussed in the literature review chapter is concerned, Subdistrict Administration Organization (Actor) has a goal of managing community energy by encouraging households to take part in the process. The subdistrict administration organization must have a good understanding of its norms, status and roles, attitude and belief about how to treat those households in respect of community energy management (situational conditions). The subdistrict administration organization must therefore use different means to meet the goal e.g. establishing a common understanding in the community, setting up the team for community energy management, etc. 2) Community enterprise refers to an association of at least seven community members that carry out activities relating to household well-being, occupations and resource management, community management, productivity, services or others run by groups of persons having a good relationship and a common lifestyle – whether in the form of juristic entity form or others. The researcher’s 132 experience gained from the field study in other communities than the communities under this study suggests that some communities have community enterprises set up to pursue a goal. According to the development capacity and diffusion theory proposed by Sanya Sanyawiwat (1997), a community enterprise is considered another form of social organization to the extent that it is a group of persons from different backgrounds in charge of different functions but at least they have a social relationship, certain responsibilities, and behavioral patterns under cultural rules. In addition, according to the balance and ecology theory of POET Model suggested by Duncan (1964), a community organization/group is one of the components of the relationship between humans and the environment. Technology in this study refers to biomass energy technology. According to the innovation diffusion theory by Roger and Shoemaker (1971), social and cultural change originates from dissemination of new things from one society to another and the latter adopts such things. An innovation includes knowledge, an idea, a technique, a method and technology. With regard to community energy management in Thailand, biomass energy technology at the community level has been widely transferred both within and outside the community with support from the public sector through the local administrative organization, i.e. Subdistrict Administration Organization. Biomass energy technology in this study includes: 1) Biomass kilns of different kinds e.g. 200-L drum kilns both in vertical and horizontal shape, biogas stoves, economic stoves, “billionaire” stoves, and the like. Biomass kilns/stoves use biomass as fuel and their names may differ. The efficiency of current biomass kilns/ stoves has been improved by reducing tar, carcinogenic agent, as well as other pollutants in charcoal. 2) Biogas stoves, biogas tanks and biogas wells are used to produce biogas from biomass e.g. animal droppings, food waste. The balance and ecology theory and the POET Model by Duncan (1964) point out that technology is one of the components of the relationship between human and the environment.
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2.6.2 Community Energy Management Community energy management: biomass energy production and utilization Community Energy Management in this study refers to energy management by households in the community including production and utilization of biomass energy. Some households use wood as firewood or for charcoal production. Some ferment animal droppings to produce biogas and others produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil. Promotion of CommunityEenergy Management From the literature review on concepts, theories and research studies related to community development, community energy management in Thailand and other countries as well as significant factors affecting community energy management, the researcher synthesized an approach to promote community energy management which consists of energy planning, community capacity promotion, local wisdom transfer, utilization of community capital and resources and cooperative network development as follows: 1) Energy planning refers to developing an energy plan by placing projects into the plans of the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization, e.g. a strategic development plan, a 3-year development plan, an action plan, etc. In addition, there are plans that the subdistrict administration organization has developed together with the Provincial Energy Office. 2) Promotion of community capacity: According to the Thai Dictionary of the Royal Institute B.E. 2542, the term “promotion” means making it better or more stable and the term “capacity” means power or properties of the thing that can be developed. For example, a capable person is a person who has hidden ability. If he or she is promoted in the right way, his/her maximum talent will appear. The term “community capacity” is defined by Foster-Fishman et al. (2001) as consisting of personal capacity of community members, capacity from relationship in the community, capacity of community organizations, and capacity of community project implementation. Personal Capacity of Community Members According to Foster-Fishman et al. (2001), personal capacity of community members is considered from knowledge, skills, attitude and realization of individual members of the community, which will affect the outcome of that community in the 134 same direction. In addition, personal capacity is the ability of members of community organizations and other factors significant to the operation in that community e.g. awareness of problems and a belief that there are solutions to the problems. Baum (1999) mentions the significance in community planning of community members’ realization, values and vision about the community future. Capacity from Relationship in the Community There exist internal and external relations of similarities and differences of individual community members. Internal relations is crucial for developing common vision, for gaining cooperation, for building trust, and for working together effectively. External relation is also significant as it brings about interaction between different groups of people, an opportunity to share information and to develop common vision based on needs of different groups. For example, government officials may want more participation from other groups to enhance external relations (Foster-Fishman et al., 2001). Capacity of Community Organizations Development of the capacity of community organizations is a significant process for producing the outcome to the community. Organization capacity will be a driving force for community members to develop unity to meet the established goal (Foster-Fishman et al. (2001)). One of the key components of the capacity of community organizations is leadership the effects of which on capacity of community organizations has been widely discussed. Leadership is considered as one of the most important components of capacity of community organizations (Chaskin et al., 2007). Leadership is defined as interaction between two members of a group. Leadership brings about change affecting others. It occurs when one of the group members creates stimulation or shows that his ability superior to others in the group in respect of the goal to be pursued. Effective leadership is the interaction of group members to build up the group capacity and maintain it to solve problems or to achieve the goal. A leader with vision can effect positive change in the community and establish trust among community members in an effort to improve the community (Fabricius et al., 2007). Capacity of Community Project Implementation Foster-Fishman et al. (2001) indicate that assessment of community capacity of project implementation requires an understanding of community capacity in project development and management. Aref and Redzuan (2009) mention the 135 importance of promoting community capacity for development. Three types of capacity they have discussed are, 1) personal capacity 2) organizational capacity and 3) community capacity. Kieffer and Reischmann (2004) and Raik (2002) indicate that in order to promote personal capacity, a person’s skills and knowledge must be developed to enable that person to have capacity necessary for community life. To promote organizational capacity, it is necessary to seek help from the professional to make changes. Organizational capacity means capacity of the community or a group of local organizations. In respect of community capacity, attention is paid to promotion and improvement of decision making on activities, perhaps through training at the community level (Raik, 2002). According to the development capacity and diffusion theory by Sanya Sanyawiwat (1997), training is a key factor to improve development capacity. Training means providing education for people, especially education that benefits the way of life e.g. development of biomass kilns, training on charcoal production by using different types of kilns etc. Training is one of the methods for educating community people. It is a significant tool for development of natural resources, human resource, social organizations, and social leaders, and for promotion of communication with outside communities. These three types of community capacity can overlap. 3) Local Wisdom Transfer refers to the selection of different kinds of local wisdom through comprehensive consideration in order to transfer it via the family institution, academic institutions and cultural events to people in the society so that they can realize its value and benefits, or to act properly. In addition to transfer and conservation of local wisdom, Therdchai Choibamroong (2011) also proposes a process for conservation of local wisdom in Thailand as follows: Research: Research should be conducted to collect the data on Thai local wisdom in different areas at the local, provincial, regional and national levels. Focus should be on the background and the current situation. Conservation: Conservation can be done by raising awareness of people in the local area so that they will realize the value, substances and importance of local wisdom and participate in traditional and cultural activities and events. People in the community must be made to feel responsible for conserving local wisdom as their community identity. In addition, a local or community museum may be established 136 to demonstrate the lifestyle and background of that community. It is a place to learn such things so that people can be proud of their own community. Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation can be carried out by selecting local wisdom under risk of loss or already lost (especially ethics, moral and value) and making it valuable to the course of living in the community again. Development: Development should start with creativity aimed at improving local wisdom to fit the present world in terms of benefits for daily life. Local wisdom may be used as a basis for forming an occupation group. Scientific and technological knowledge should also be applied for production, marketing and management as well as environmental protection and conservation. Promotion of activities: Support should be given to building a network for continuance and development of local wisdom in communities in order to organize cultural and local wisdom events continually. Promotion of experts: Villagers with local wisdom should be encouraged to increase their capacity. They should have an opportunity to demonstrate their local wisdom and to develop it to the full extent. They should be praised in different ways at the community or a higher level. Exchange: Exchange of local wisdom and cultures should be promoted via different media and methods. Local wisdom should be exchanged between communities and between groups of people, domestically and internationally. 4) Utilization of Capital and Community Resources Community people utilize natural resources and community capital in their production, product distribution and services in order to improve their living standard. 5) Development of Cooperative Networks The community developer defines the term “development” as the state that people in the community and society cooperate in improving their knowledge and skills and their quality of life (Somsak Sisantisuk, 1982). Development is considered as means to the desired ends including a better quality of life of an individual, the community and the society (Yuwat Wutthimethi, 1991). With respect to cooperative networks, Gittell and Vidal (1998) mention two important types of social capital that creates such networks: bridging social capital and bonding social capital. There are two types of networks: internal and 137 external. An internal network is the result of bonding social capital allowing people who are already familiar with each other to work together more closely while an external network refers to bridging social capital of a person or group of people that are not familiar to one another to work together. In case of small communities in the rural area where community members know each other to a certain extent, bonding social capital means joining a network or building a relationship of community members while bridging social capital refers to building up a network of community members (organizations and persons) with those outside the community. It is, however, important to note that both types of social capital cannot be clearly separated from each other (Putnam, 2000). Strategies for either bridging or bonding social capital aims to stimulate community capacity development and sharing and creating of knowledge. A network of bonding social capital will promote face-to-face knowledge sharing and communication between members, including synergic interaction. Bonding social capital can have a direct effect on community capacity in respect of setting norms, values, common vision and enhancement of commitment to the community. A network of bridging social capital will promote knowledge through introducing new concepts, values, products and processes to the community that contacts the outside world. This type of community capital can have a direct effect on access to external resources.
2.6.3 Output Output of community energy management was considered based on the following: 1) Biomass fuel or energy produced by households in the community e.g. firewood, charcoal, biogas and biodiesel and 2) Utilization of biomass energy by households means that there are households using biomass energy as their domestic source of fuel in the community.
2.6.4 Outcome To this end, outcome refers to success in community energy management which is the result of production and utilization of energy by households taken energy security into consideration. In other words, households and the community have a better economic, social and environmental conditions and the ability to rely on 138 themselves for energy sufficiency. The outcome can be divided in 4 aspects as follows: 2.6.4.1 Better community economy: The first outcome of biomass energy use by households is a better economic condition of the community. As renewable energy is used instead of non-renewable energy, households in the community will have a better economic condition, which in turn contributes to a better economic condition of the community. Nonrenewable energy prices vary depending on the market. For example, the domestic price depends on the global market price and so does natural gas, in spite of intervention by the government which alleviates the impact on households and the community. Things that reflect the strength of community economy due to the use of biomass energy are as follows: 1) Decrease in the Energy Cost of the Community: As biomass is available in the community, households can save their domestic and community energy cost significantly although there may be some cost for provision of energy technology, e.g. biomass kilns or biogas stoves, etc. 2) More Job Opportunities: Some households can have more employment related to biomass energy. They learn and develop biomass energy technology or techniques for making good quality kilns or stoves, effective charcoal production, etc. 3) Increase in Community Products: In addition to charcoal to replace nonrenewable energy, other products can be produced from local wisdom, e.g. charcoal shampoo or wood vinegar. Community products also include increase in agricultural yields because of the use of wood vinegar as pesticide. 4) Increase in Income: When people in the community create more jobs and occupations from doing community energy management activities, this will result in increase in their income and in saving the energy cost. 2.6.4.2 Better Social Life in the Community: Several parties are involved in community energy management in Thailand, resulting in their interaction when activities are carried out. Better social life is the result of the following: 1) More Participation by the Community in energy related activities. Participation is a key to success of any activity. The implementation of community planning needs participation from local administration organizations, 139 which will automatically bring about participation from the households. For instance, some households raise swine; the local administration organization may encourage them to produce biogas and train them on how to produce biogas from animal droppings. In case of large swine farms, many parties can involve in energy planning which will attract more participation in energy-related activities. 2) More Acceptance of Opinions on Energy Matters: Without community energy planning, each household would be only a buyer and consumer. But when renewable energy is promoted in the community to replace nonrenewable energy, the households realize the importance of renewable energy and community capacity related to energy, and they then share their opinions more on this matter. 3) Increased Sharing of Knowledge/Community Resources/ Energy: Community energy management in Thailand results in more sharing of knowledge, local wisdom and community resources which will create a culture of hospitality and a norm for living together. Some communities have established their own learning centers and provide training courses for the next generation. 2.6.4.3 Better community environment: According to the National Research Council of Thailand (2011), the result of biomass energy use differs greatly from that of fossil fuel use as carbon dioxide generated from the latter will cause a greenhouse effect while carbon dioxide generated from the former is able to be absorbed by the ecosystem. As such, promotion of biomass energy will certainly improve the overall environmental condition. There are two advantages of biomass energy consumption as follows: 1) Decrease in Pollution: Carbon dioxide generated from biomass energy will be absorbed by the ecosystem, resulting in decrease in air pollution. There is a lot of space in most communities. When people burn biomass, the smoke will spread widely into the atmosphere, so there is little pollution. In addition, households use biomass energy – charcoal or biogas – in their houses with technology such as biomass stoves developed to be more efficient. Promotion of biomass energy helps not only to reduce dependence on external sources of energy but also to promote the use of community resources e.g. agricultural residues, and also to lessen pollution. Some communities have collected the data on types of community energy the households use and have found that the proportion of use of 140 different types of energy has changed significantly. It is important to note that this change has an effect on the pollution condition in the communities. In fact, pollution is lessened because of the use of certain type of energy in the community. 2) Decrease in Chemical Use: Wood vinegar is a by-product of charcoal production under a limited condition. It is a clear fluid, in yellow to red brown color with wood smoke odor, sour taste and a pH value at 1.5-3.7. It can be used for pest control, as fertilizer, a cleaning agent for animal shelters, treatment of athlete’s foot, a component of some cosmetics, anti-fungus coating and a substitute for certain hazardous chemicals. As such, the use of wood vinegar can result in decrease in chemical use in the community. 2.6.4.4 More self-Sufficiency in the Area of Energy: Before implementing the community energy management project by promoting biomass energy or other kinds of energy based on the capacity of each community, most communities consume nonrenewable energy e.g. LPG for cooking, like those living in Bangkok or other cities. This reflects that people in Bangkok or other cities the community itself is still dependent on external energy. After implementing community energy management, people can more rely on themselves regarding energy, that is, they can procure energy source, produce and use energy themselves with existing resources in the community. Self-reliance in the area of energy issue can be summarized as follows: 1) More Access to Energy Sources: utilizing existing resources in the community especially biomass to produce renewable energy to substitute nonrenewable energy procured from external sources, enables households and the community to have more access to energy sources. Instead of purchasing fuels from different sources, households in the community can now procure and produce energy by their own to be used in their houses. Therefore, community energy management can enhance access to energy sources by households. Vivoda (2010) and Sovacool (2010) stated that the ability to access energy sources reflects energy security. 2) Reduction of Energy Shortage: Using LPG for cooking is one form of reliance on nonrenewable energy of the country and the world in which LPG supply has continually depleted. Many countries such as China and Brazil as discussed in the literature review above and Thailand started to use bio-energy to 141 relieve energy shortage in the communities as biomass resources in individual communities can be procured, produced, utilized and reserved. 3) Reduction of the Reliance on Energy from External Sources: When community households have energy management planning and use more biomass, they can reduce the reliance on nonrenewable energy from external sources for domestic activities. From the information above, a conceptual framework of the study can be summarized as shown in Fig. 2.51
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Conceptual Framework of theStudy
2.51 Figure CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
To understand the concept of community energy management for energy security, it is necessary to understand the situation and the context of community energy management and to identify its problems and obstacles. The researcher used such information to create a model for effective community energy management. Furthermore, the findings of the study were used to recommend a policy to support community energy management for energy security. The qualitative research methodology was considered appropriate for this study. The details of the research methodology for this study were as follows:
3.1 Research Design
3.1.1 Unit of Analysis This research aimed to examine the models and factors contributing to success in community energy management for energy security. The unit of analysis for the study was the community (the total of 12 communities), which included both communities that received and those that did not receive an award under the Ministry of Energy’s Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. The data were collected from community households, community leaders, and administrators and officers at the subdistrict municipality and the subdistrict administration organizations of the studied communities. 144
3.1.2 Qualitative Research The objectives of investigating the models and factors contributing to community energy management for energy security were to examine capital and resources used in community energy management; to study community energy management and its promotion; to find out problems and obstacles in community energy management, to identify the output and outcome of the success in community energy management for energy security; and to formulate a model and make policy implications for community energy management for energy security. The methodology appropriate for the objectives above was a qualitative research method. The qualitative method is used to answer various questions of social phenomena and the way of life of the people in the area (Berg, 2009). It is appropriate to study social phenomena from every dimension of the environment in order to find out the relationships between the phenomena and the environment. It emphasizes data derived from opinions and perceptions. This type of data is important in determining meanings, and definitions of various contexts, along with values and ideologies of the subject group. This type of research is usually applied to studies in which continuous following up is required along with analytic induction (Supang Jantavanich, 2006). Qualitative research is a case study of a specific issue in a specific area or an occurrence that has special characteristics (Bogdan and Biklen, 2003). This type of research was considered appropriate for the study because the data were collected from 12 communities throughout Thailand. Berg (2009) mentions that this type of study is a descriptive case study that requires the researcher to present the findings based on the entire conceptual framework.
3.2 Population and Selection of Cases
The Ministry of Energy had implemented the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 individual communities in response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy” and had given awards in various areas to the communities in the project such as 1) energy management 2) participation in the community energy process 3) innovation and technology 4) Local administrative organization’s strength. The researcher selected two groups of communities in the project for data collection:
145 six communities that received awards and six communities that did not receive any award. The following steps were taken to select the communities to be used as case studies. 1) Divide 80 communities into 12 groups, following the Ministry of Energy’s division of its regional energy offices into 12 offices. 2) Select one community from every group according to the division of the Regional Energy office by the Ministry of Energy. The total of 12 communities were enough for qualitative research. However, the researcher found out later that the number of communities was not appropriate for the study’s objectives, he made some change. 3) Select 3 communities that received an award for community energy management because this study was aimed at investigating energy management. 4) Select 3 communities that received rewards in other areas. When added to the communities in item 3), the number was 6 communities, which was half of the total communities intended to study. 5) Select 6 communities that did not receive any award from the list of communities in the Regional Energy Offices in order to get 12 communities from 12 Regional Energy Offices. A summary of the communities and awards is in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Summary of Studied Communities
No. Province Subdistrict Municipal/ Subdistrict District Award Administration Organization Communities that received awards under the Community Energy Planning Project 1 Trang Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Yantakhao Energy Management Organization 2 Prae Mae Lai Subdistrict Municipality Muang Energy Management 3 Sing Buri Korsrai Subdistrict Administration Khai Bang Energy Management Organization Rachan 4 Trat Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Muang Participation in the Organization community energy process 5 Kamphaeng Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Khlongkhlung Local administrative Phet Organization organization’s strength
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Table 3.1 (Continued)
No. Province Subdistrict Municipal/ Subdistrict District Award Administration Organization Communities that did not receive any award under the Community Energy Planning Project 6 Samut Suansom Subdistrict Administration Ban Paew Innovation and Sakon Organization appropriate energy technology 7 Buriram Sri Phum Subdistrict Administration Krasang - Organization 8 Nong Khai Chumpol Subdistrict Administration Phon Phisai - Organization 9 Yasothon Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Sai Mun - Organization 10 Chiang Mai Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality Saraphi - 11 Chumphon Napho Subdistrict Municpality Sawee - 12 Nonthaburi Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Bang Kruai - Organization
Basic information of the communities to be studied is as follows: 3.2.1.1 Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province In the past Nachumhet Subdistrict was a forest area with no communities. Later people from Muang District migrated and settled here to do farming. The first settlement was in the area of Moo 3 Ban Nong Choom Sang Village now. The group that came from Koksaba Subdistrict was the ancestors of the O-in Pojsali family. Those from Tabthieng Subdistrict were the ancestors of Suthikana Trakul, Tong Kwid, Chunet, Phrommi, and Phra Kaew families. The ancestors of the Thepsuwan family came from Moo 5 and Moo 6 Ban Nong Ped at present. 3.2.1.2 Location and Territory Nachumhet is a Subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang Province. It is situated west of Yantakhao District. The distance from the Yantakhao District Office is around 15 kilometers and the distance from the Trang townhall to the south is around 25 kilometers. Its border connects with various subdistricts, districts and provinces. To the north are Koksaba Subdistrict, and Chong Subdistrict in Na Yong District, to the south are Nong Bor Subdistrict, and Proang Jarakae Subdistrict in
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Yantakhao District, to the east is Bantat moutains in Konghra District, Phatthalung Province, and to the west is Koh Pia Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province. 3.2.1.3 Size and Area Nachumhet Subdistrict covers approximately 32,750 rai or around 52.40 square kilometers. It consists of 9 villages: 1) Moo 1 Baan Srai-ngam, 2) Moo 2 Baan Kuan Hin, 3) Moo 3 Baan Ton Prong, 4) Moo 4 Baan Lampikul, 5) Moo 5 Baan Mobmao, 6) Moo 6 Baan Nong Ped, 7) Moo 7 Baan Tong Pla, 8) Moo 8 Baan Lam Khanoon and 9) Moo 9 Baan Kok Doan. 3.2.1.4 Utilizing the area of Nachumhet Subdistrict The area of approximately 30,759 rai or around 76.20 percent is used as follows. Rubber plantations (84%), fruit and perennial trees (7.68%), animal raising (4.64%), rice fields and plantations, and vegetable garden (3.33%) and others (0.33%). The public land is around 9,606 rai or approximately 23.80% 3.2.15 Geography Nachumhet Subdistrict is situated on a plane on the slope of a mountain range and a lowland area emerging from the river flowing from the rough mountain. 3.2.1.6 Mae Lai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province Mae Lai Subdistrict is an old community. In 1981, Wiseman San, Srikwa and Praya Srivichai Sankam along with 40 villagers migrated from Wat Luang in Na Wieng Subdistrict to settle in this area. They were the first settlers. The village headman at that time was Phokhun Jamnongdej Upakarn. He continuously expanded the territory. Later Phor Muang Chompuming (Khun Anukularajakij) persuaded more villagers to join the settlement and he could succeed in extending his power to become a great leader with many followers. The Mae Lai Subdistrict Municipality in Muang District, Phrae Province, is situated at 99 Moo 5, Mae Lai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province. It is 12 kilometers north of the district office. There is 1,708 households or population of 4,772 people there. The majority of people here are engaged in agriculture and earn a living on rice farming, plantations, animal raising, small trades and general employment. Secondary occupations include home industry and general employment when it is not a cultivating season.
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3.2.17 Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province was separated from Koagproaw Subdistrict (Bang Rachan District) in 1931. It is historically important because the Bang Rachan army camp during the war with Burma in the Ayutthaya era is located there. It has a large long river and dense forests along the river banks. This made it appropriate to raid the enemies. That is why Burma was defeated many times. Originally, “Khlong Bang Rachan” was a long canal that met with Khlong Wang Krajub, making the area abundant in sand and pebbles. Where the river met the villagers used to call it “Kho Sai”. Since it was separated from Koagpraow Subdistrict, it was named after its landscape as “Kho Sai” Subdistrict, the name that has been called until present. Kho Sai connects with Baanja Subdistrict and Mai Tad Subdistrict in Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province in the north; Bang Rachan Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province in the south; Phosangho Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province in the east; Photalae Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sung Buri in the west. The households in the subdistrict is 503 in total. The primary occupation is rice farming and plantations. The secondary occupation is general employment. The average income of the people in the subdistrict is 20,023 baht/person/year. Kho Sai Subdistrict has carried out the campaign on using highly efficient gas stoves, 200 L-drum kilns and on application of local wisdom and energy technology in the community (the 3-year plan). The outstanding feature of Kho Sai Subdistrict is integration of local wisdom with the energy plan. The community in collaboration with educational institutions managed to put energy issues in the school curriculum and to pass the knowledge on to other communities effectively. 3.2.1.8 Huang Nam Khao in Muang District, Trat Province The Legend of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has it that early settlements in this area were made by Chinese who came by boat and settled near a water source. The water in this water source was unlike water in other places because it was murky white. The Chinese settlers used the water for agriculture: growing
149 pepper and vegetables. Later more people migrated to the area, and named it “Baan Huang Nam Khao” and now it is Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict. The subdistrict is located on a plateau full of sandy soil. The majority of the population are engaged in agriculture. They own fruit orchards such as rambutan, durian and mangosteen orchards. In the north is Nong Kan Trong Subdistrict and Nong Soan Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province. In the south is Aow Yai Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province. In the east are the Trat river and a bay, and in the west is the gulf of Thailand. 3.2.1.9 Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province Wangkhaem Subdistrict covers the area of around 71,305.5 rai or 112.85 square kilometers. There are 16 villages in the subdistrict, consisting of 3,858 households. The majority of the population earn a living on agriculture: mainly rice farming and animal raising – the most popular are chickens followed by pigs. Wangkhaem Subdistrict connects with Wang Yang Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District in the north; Yang Soong Subdistrict in Kanuvoralakburi District in the south; Taworn Wattana in Srai Tong Wattana District in the east; the Ping River and Mae Lad Subdistrict in the west. The Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization was established by the Ministry of Interior’s announcement on the 16th of December 1996 and was upgraded on the 23rd of February 1997. The division of territorial administration follows the Local Government Statute of B.E.2547. There are now 16 villages in the subdistrict which are Moo 1 Baan Wangkhaem, Moo 2 Baan Ta Kamin, Moo 3 Baan Wangkhaem North, Moo 4 Baan Bueng Lad, Moo 5 Baan Wang Han Nam Dueng, Moo 6 Baan Sarn Jao Mae, Moo 7 Baan Rai Mai, Moo 8 Baan Bor Tong, Moo 9 Baan Toong Lan Kwai, Moo 10 Baan Toong Hantra, Moo 11 Baan Nernboh, Moo 12 Baan Hua Toong Pattana, Moo 13 Baan Na Rai Deaw, Moo 14 Baan Khlong Jareon, Moo 15 Baan Toong Nong Bua and Moo 16 Baan Khlong Muang. 3.2.10 Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Suansom Subdistrict is located on a lowland in the Central Region with the Tha Chin river flowing from the north and the east and the Damnoen Saduak canal passing along the north of the entire subdistrict. Moreover, there are many small
150 canals connecting with the main canal in the area, making the land appropriate for all types of agriculture. The soil is rich and appropriate for agriculture. Suansom Subdistrict is in Ban Paew District in Samut Sakhon Province which has the seashore. In general the climate does not often change. During the hot season, monsoons from the southwest come from the sea to the shore regularly, thus making the weather not too hot. During the cold season there are cold winds coming from the northeast carrying cold air from China, but the it is not very cold. During the rainy season it is influenced by monsoons coming from the southwest. The majority of the population under the responsibility of the Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization earn a living on agriculture. They own coconut, mango, lemon orchards and some raise fish. Some people are engaged in other occupations such as small trades, employees in companies, industrial factories and rice mills. 3.2.1.11 Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province In the past the area of Sri Phum Subdistrict was under the administration of Chumsang Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province. In 1989 the Ministry of Interior upgraded its status to Sri Phum Subdistrict by separating 8 villages from Chumsaeng Subdistrict and later it was upgraded again to be Sri Phum Subdistrict Administration Organization on the 29th of March, 1997. The administrative area now covers a total of 9 villages. In general Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province is on a low-land area and consists of 9 villages: Moo 1, Baan Sri Phum, Moo 2 Baan Sraipuan, Moo 3 Baan Koagsoong, Moo 4 Baan Ta-baek, Moo 5 Baan Tahor, Moo 6 Baan Kamprey, Moo 7 Baan Tim, Moo 8 Baan Kam and Moo 9 Baan Koag Soong Tai. In the north are Huay Samran Subdistrict, and Lamduan Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province. In the south is Kantrarom Subdistrict in Krasang District. In the east is Chumsaeng Subdistrict in Krasang District, and in the west is Muang Pai Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province. There are 988 households in total. Approximately 90% of the population are agriculturalists, especially rice farmers. Some are engaged in employment or small trades. Other households raise and grow fruits as a means to generate extra income.
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3.2.1.12 Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province Phon Phisai Subdistrict is an old subdistrict and it was once the location of the Phon Phisai town. It was established in 1876. The first governor was Luang Sri Maha Phrom. It has been governed by a governor until present. In general it is a lowland area appropriate for agriculture. The majority of the area connects with the Maekong river. There is a lenience point along the border between Thailand and Laos. Naga festival appropriate for tourism is annually held. To the north of the subdistrict are Wat luang Subdistrict and Koodbong Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province. To the south is Wat Luang Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province. To the east is Nong Luang Ging Subdistrict in Fao Rai District, Nong Khai Province. To the north is the Mekong river. 3.2.1.13 Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province Na Wieng Subdistrict is in Sai Mun District. There are 7 villages all together: Moo 1 Baan Na Wieng, Moo 2 Baan Poang, Moo 3 Baan Ba com, Moo 4 Baan Nong Wang, Moo 5 Baan Nong Bua, Moo 6 Baan Na Wieng Noi and Moo 7 Baan Na Wieng. North of the subdistrict is Poan Ngam Subdistrict in Kudchoom District, Yasothon Province. To the south is Dong Ma Fai Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province. To the East is Poan Ngam Subdistrict in Kudchoom District, Yasothon Province. To the west is Pu Ngern Subdistrict in Selabhumi District, Roi Et Province. The land is not flat but undulating. The forests have been deteriorated; the soil is a combination of clay and sand and does not hold water well. Water sources are scattered all over the area, but usually the area can store water all year round. Rice farming relies on rain water but in certain areas rice cultivation can be done twice a year by using water from creeks. The subdistrict has a total of 906 households. 3.2.1.14 Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province Nongfag Subdistrict is on a low-lying area. In the rainy season, it usually floods, causing damages to agricultural areas. Its nine villages are close to one another so people are united and a good relationship has still existed until now. The area covers 5,140 rai. In the north are Wang Tan Subdistrict and Yang Nueng Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province. To the east is Saraphi Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province. To the west is Don Kaew
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Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province, and to the south is Lamphun Province. There are 1,405 households in total. Most households are engaged in agriculture: orchards and plantations. Secondary occupations are fruit processing, small trading, fish farming, animal farming, sewing, and wood crafting. On 27th October 2009, the Ministry of Interior’s announced the change of the Nongfag Subdistrict Administration Organization in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province to the Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality. It covers 8.8 square kilometers or approximately 5,499 rai. The area mostly covers rice fields, low lying land, with many creeks, canals and swamps scattering all over the municipality. It consists of 9 villages which are: 1)Baan Nong Si Jang 2) Baan San Par Sak 3) Baan Nongfag 4) Baan Nongfag 5) Baan Nongfag 6)Baan Gu dang 7) Baan Gu dang 9) Baan San pa sak North. There are 1,405 households in total. 3.2.1.15 Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province Napho Subdistrict covers the area of 45 square kilometers (28,125 rai). It is located on a plain and the Sawee river flows through the north of the subdistrict. The soil is rich and there are hills alternating with plains. There are 6 villages under the subdistrict administration organization: Moo 1 Baan Poh Daeng, Moo 2 Baan Nakram, Moo 3 Baan Kao Suan Durian, Moo 4 Baan Kuan See Tae, Moo 7 Baan Kuan Talom, and Moo 8 Baan Huay Kruad. In the north are Pakpraek Subdistrict and Sawee Subdistrict; in the south is Tuung Tago District; the east is Ta Hin Subdistrict; and in the west is Na sak Subdistrict. The total number of households is 1,791. Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province implemented the Ministry of Energy Project on Community Energy Planning by 80 individual communities in response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy” in order to build the capacity of the community, to equip it with knowledge and ability to manage energy and the environment and to seek for alternative energy technology with emphasis on people and their participation. 3.2.1.16 Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province, is situated on the low-lying land in the north of Bang Kruai District, approximately 5 kilometers from it. In the north are Bang Krang Subdistrict and Bang Sri Muang
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Subdistrict, Nonthaburi Province. In the South is Bang Kruai Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. In the east is Bang Pai Subdistrict and in the west is Bang Kanoon Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. The area covers 5.8 square kilometers or 1,494 rai and the climate is hot and humid. There are a total of 3,893 households in total. The area covers 5.8 square kilometers and is under the responsibility of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization. The subdistrict consists of 5 villages. Furthermore, its landscape is an oval shape which is good for growing fruits, flowers, and the like and for housing projects. During the rainy season some area encounter a heavy flood coming from the forest because there is no dam.
3.3 Data Collection
The population of this research was households in the selected communities. The data were collected from individual households in every village in the subdistrict. Each village did not have the same number of households. Also, some communities had a small number of households that use biomass energy. Because the research was qualitative in nature, the researcher conducted in-depth interviews with households to get detailed information. As the study did not focus on the number of households visited for interviewing, the researcher entered the community and visited as many households as possible until he could get adequate information. Because of this, the number of households interviewed differed from village to village. The number of households that the researcher visited for interview is given in Table 3.2
Table 3.2 The Number of Villages and Households Visited by the Researcher
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. Community villages households households villages visited in the village visited
1 Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, 9 9 2,206 40 Trang Province 2 Mae Lai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae 8 8 1,708 34 Province 3 Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan 6 6 503 29 District, Sing Buri Province
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Table 3.2 (Continued)
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. Community villages households households villages visited in the village visited
4 Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang 5 5 1,129 26 District, Trat Province 5 Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung 16 15 3,858 51 District, Kamphaeng Phet Province 6 Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, 5 5 1,409 22 Samut Sakhon Province 7 Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, 9 9 988 22 Buriram Province 8 Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, 26 26 5,310 73 Nong Khai Province 9 Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, 7 7 906 40 Yasothon Province 10 Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, 9 9 1,405 33 Chiang Mai Province 11 Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District , 8 8 1,791 48 Chumphon Province 12 Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai 5 5 3,893 40 District, Nonthaburi Province
The purpose of data collection in the field research was to show that there were some households in the community that used biomass energy. Apart from collecting the data from the population – the households – the researcher also collected the data from 3 key informants who were at least one administrator (the president or vice president) and officers at each subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization. Other 3 key informants were the community leaders include: at least 2 community leaders are the village headman and/or his assistant. However, when visiting the communities, the researcher found it useful to add more key informants to get more detailed information. The key informants are given in Table 3.33 below.
Table 3.3 Key Informants at the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization (SAO) and Community Leaders
of SAO
member
Secretary
AO
of SAO
of SAO
No.
strict Head strict
district Head district
Total
-
of SAO of SAO of SAO
Village Headman Village
di
-
Community
Sub
-
Officers Officers
Member Member of S
president
Village Headman
Sub
Head of the Office of Head ofof the Office
Ex
President/Ex President
ssistant
President ofPresident the Council
Vice President andPresident vice Vice ex
Village committee
SubdistrictHead Inspector A
Deputy Permanent
Permanent Secretary ofPermanent SAO Secretary
1 Nachumhet 1 1 1 2 1 1 7 Subdistrict, Yantakhao
155 District, Trang
Province 2 Mae Lai 2 1 3 6 Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province 3 Kho Sai 1 1 1 2 1 6 Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province
Table 3.3 (Continued)
Secretary Secretary
No.
district Head district
Total
Secretary of SAO Secretary
-
of SAO of SAO of SAO
district Head district
-
Community
Sub
-
Officers of SAO Officers
Member Member of SAO
president ofpresident SAO
Village Headman
Sub
Head of the Office of Head ofof the Office
Ex
President/Ex President
President ofPresident the Council
Vice President andPresident vice Vice ex
Village committee memberVillage committee
SubdistrictHead Inspector Assistant Headman Village
Deputy Permanent
Permanent Secretary ofPermanent SAO Secretary Permanent
4 Huang Nam Khao 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 Subdistrict, Muang District,
Trat Province 156
5 Wangkhaem 2 1 1 2 1 7 Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province 6 Suansom 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 10 Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province
Table 3.3 (Continued)
Secretary Secretary
SAO
.
No
district Head district
Total
-
of SAO of SAO of SAO
district Head district
-
Community
Sub
-
Officers of Officers
Member Member of SAO
president ofpresident SAO
Village Headman
Sub
Head of the Office of Head ofof the Office
Ex
President/Ex President
President ofPresident the Council
Vice President andPresident vice Vice ex
Village committee memberVillage committee
SubdistrictHead Inspector Assistant Headman Village
Deputy Permanent
Permanent Secretary ofPermanent SAO Secretary ofPermanent SAO Secretary
7 Sri Phum 1 1 1 3 1 7 Subdistrict, Krasang District,
Buriram Province 157
8 Chumpol 1 2 1 4 1 1 10 Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province 9 Na Wieng 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 10 Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province
Table 3.3 (Continued)
Secretary Secretary
No.
district Head district
Total
-
of SAO of SAO of SAO
district Head district
-
Community
Sub
-
Officers of SAO Officers
Member Member of SAO
president ofpresident SAO
Village Headman
Sub
Head of the Office of Head ofof the Office
Ex
sistant Headman Village
President/Ex President
President ofPresident the Council
Vice President andPresident vice Vice ex
ermanent Secretary of ermanentSAO Secretary
Village committee memberVillage committee
SubdistrictHead Inspector As
Deputy Permanent
P ofPermanent SAO Secretary
10 Nongfag 1 1 1 1 6 10 Subdistrict, Saraphi District,
Chiang Mai 158
Province 11 Napho 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 11 Subdistrict, Sawee District , Chumphon Province 12 Bang Si Thong 1 1 3 3 1 1 10 Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province
159
Furthermore, when collecting the data, the researcher found that within the community there were other key informants with important data for the research. The key informants from whom additional data were collected are given in Table 3.4
Table 3.4 Key Informants Where Addition Important Data Was Collected
d d
No.
Office
senate
Volunteers Volunteers
with heart)
Community Community
Durian/House
er of the Local Health of er Health the Local
energy developer
Conservation anConservation
Environment Group
Group Leader of the Group of Leader
Assistant community
Committee Committee on Energy
Women’s Agricultural
President ofPresident the Village
President ofPresident the Energy
Community Plan Energy
community energy group community energy
President of President the Working
and Auditor Government
Committee on the Project Project Committee on the
Energy volunteers /Health Energy volunteers
Lead
President of President the Children’s
President ofPresident the sustainable
Team “Pun Dauy Jai” (ride (ride Team Jai” “Pun Dauy
President ofPresident the environment
Volunteer Volunteer Energy Committee and resources Trat Proovince Trat and Proovince resources
1 Nachumhet 1 Subdistrict, Yantakhao
District, Trang 160
Province 2 Mae Lai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province 3 Kho Sai 1 Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province
Table 3.4 (Continued)
ment Auditor
No.
Office
senate
Energy Committee
Volunteers Volunteers
with heart)
Community Community
Durian/House
energy developer
Conservation andConservation
Environment Group
Group Leader of the Group of Leader
resident ofresident the Energy
Assistant community
Committee Committee on Energy
Women’s Agricultural
President ofPresident the Village
P
Community Plan Energy
community energy group community energy
President of President the Working
and Govern
Committee on the Project Project Committee on the
Energy volunteers /Health Energy volunteers
Leader of the Local Health ofLeader Health the Local
President of President the Children’s
President ofPresident the sustainable
Team “Pun Dauy Jai” (ride (ride Team Jai” “Pun Dauy
President ofPresident the environment
Volunteer Volunteer and resources Trat Proovince Trat and Proovince resources
4 Huang Nam Khao 1 Subdistrict, Muang District,
Trat Province 161
5 Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province 6 Suansom 1 1 1 Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province
Table 3.4 (Continued)
on the Project Project on the
No.
Office
senate
Volunteers Volunteers
with heart)
Community Community
Durian/House
energy developer
Conservation andConservation
Environment Group
Group Leader of theGroup of Leader
Assistant community
Committee Committee on Energy
Women’s Agricultural
President ofPresident the Village
President ofPresident the Energy
Community Plan Energy
community energy group community energy
President of President the Working
and Auditor Government
Committee
Energy volunteers /Health Energy volunteers
Leader of the Local Health ofLeader Health the Local
President of President the Children’s
President ofPresident the sustainable
Team “Pun Dauy Jai” (ride (ride Team Jai” “Pun Dauy
President ofPresident the environment
Volunteer Volunteer Energy Committee and resources Trat Proovince Trat and Proovince resources
7 Sri Phum 1 Subdistrict, Krasang District,
Buriram Province 162
8 Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province 9 Na Wieng 1 Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province
Table 3.4 (Continued)
ride ride
No.
Office
senate
Volunteers Volunteers
with heart)
Community Community
Durian/House
energy developer
Conservation andConservation
ident of the sustainable
Environment Group
Group Leader of the Group of Leader
Assistant community
Committee Committee on Energy
Women’s Agricultural
President ofPresident the Village
President ofPresident the Energy
Community Plan Energy
community energy group community energy
President of President the Working
and Auditor Government
Committee on the Project Project Committee on the
Energy volunteers /Health Energy volunteers
Leader of the Local Health ofLeader Health the Local
President of President the Children’s
Pres
Team “Pun Dauy Jai” ( Team Jai” “Pun Dauy
President ofPresident the environment
Volunteer Volunteer Energy Committee and resources Trat Proovince Trat and Proovince resources
10 Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District,
Chiang Mai 163
Province 11 Napho 1 1 2 Subdistrict, Sawee District , Chumphon Province 12 Bang Si Thong 1 1 1 4 Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province
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The study’s methodologies for data collection are the following 1) Documentary study – The researcher studied documents related to community energy management and building energy security and research reports related to community energy management in order to find answers to the questions in this research. 2) In-depth Interview – This method was employed to collect the primary data from key informants, i.e., the community leaders who had a good knowledge and understanding of community energy management, and administrators of local administrative organizations who were involved in providing community people with knowledge of the methods or principles of community energy management for energy security. 3) Focus Group Discussion – This method was employed to collect the primary data from participants in the focus group who were members of the community. They were allowed to share and exchange views on selected topics relating to community energy management. 4) Observation – This method was also employed to collect the primary data. The researcher collected the data by observing community activities, such as community energy management, different methods and approaches in managing community energy and how community activities in energy were done. To collect the data in the field research, the researcher undertook the following steps of preparation: 1) Understanding the area – The researcher studied the background of each area from secondary data sources and from interviewing scholars and experts from the Ministry of Energy who had first-hand experience with the communities in order to build knowledge and understanding of the communities to be studied. 2) Introductions – The researcher entered the research site by requesting assistance from the experts at the Ministry of Energy who were familiar with the area. They were, for examples, some officials from the Regional and Provincial Energy Office, the subdistrict municipalities and the subdistrict administration organizations. These people assisted in providing important information and identifying
165 key community leaders that the researcher could ask for their cooperation as specified in the research procedures. 3) Building relationships – The researcher contacted the community leaders, community representatives and core leaders of the community. This led to appointments for interviews, conducting in-depth interviews, and holding focus group discussion. 4) Implementation – The researcher conducted the interviews based on the prepared questionnaires. Focus group discussion was conducted at the key informants’ convenience. He also made non-participatory observation to find out community energy management. 5) Evaluation – Upon completion of data collection, the researcher performed qualitative data analysis and presented the results based on the framework of the study in order to build the body of knowledge in this area.
3.4 Instrumentation
The instruments employed in the research consisted of: 1) Structured interview guides – The researcher designed the questionnaires based on the research objectives and the conceptual framework. Open-ended questions were constructed for in-depth interviews and focus group discussion. 2) Observation form – The researcher established observations based on the research objectives and the conceptual framework of the study, which assisted in the efficiency of data collection. Based on the concepts, theories and related studies, the researcher built a conceptual framework of the study in Chapter 2. The important points and information sources are as follows:
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Table 3.5 The Important Point and Information Sources
Points Information Sources
Capital/Community resources Interview guide 1 item No. 4.1 and 4.2 Nature Capital (Various Biomass) Interview guide 1 item No. 4.2 Interview guide 2 item No. 4.1 Observation form item No. 4.2 Economic / Financial Capital Interview guide 1 item No. 4.3 Interview guide 2 item No. 4.3 Observation form item No. 4.2 Human Resource Interview guide 2 item No. 4.4 1) Number of people or households in the Interview guide 2 item No. 4.3 community that participated in Observation form item No. 4.2 community energy management 2) Local wisdom Interview guide 1 item Nos. 3.1-3.4 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 3.1-3.4 Observation form item No. 4.2 Social Capital Interview guide 1 item No. 4.5 1) Commitments Interview guide 1 item No. 4.6 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 4.4-4.5 Observation form item No. 4.2 2) Reciprocity Interview guide 1 item No. 4.7 Interview guide 2 item No. 4.6 Observation form item No. 4.2 3) Collective action Interview guide 1 item No. 4.8 Interview guide 2 item No. 4.7 Observation form item No. 4.2 4) Participation Interview guide 1 item No. 4.9 Interview guide 2 item No. 4.8 Observation form item No. 4.2 Community Organization Interview guide 1 item Nos. 4.1, 4.10 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 4.9 , 4.10 Observation form item No. 4.1 Technology Interview guide 1 item Nos. 4.1, 4.10 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 4.11-4.13 Observation form item No. 4.1
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Table 3.5 (Continued)
Points Information Sources
Biomass energy production and utilization Interview guide 1 item No. 2 Community energy management (production Interview guide 2 item No. 2 process and utilization of biomass energy) Observation form item Nos. 1 – 2 Promotion of biomass energy production and utilization 1. Community Energy Planning Interview guide 1 item Nos. 1.1 -1.7 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 1.1 -1.7 2. Building of Community Capacity Interview guide 1 item Nos. 2.1 -2.4 and item Nos. 2.14 -2..15 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 2.1 – 2.2 Observation form item No. 4.3 Capacity of individuals in the Interview guide 1 item Nos. 2.5 -2.6 community Interview guide 2 item No. 2.3 Observation form item No. 4.3 Capacity relationship within the Interview guide 1 item Nos. 2.7 – 2.9 community Interview guide 2 item No. 2.4 Observation form item No. 4.3 Capacity of community organizations Interview guide 1 item No. 2.10 Interview guide 2 item No. 2.5 Observation form item No. 4.3 Capacity of the community in project Interview guide 1 item Nos. 2.11 – 2.13 implementation Interview guide 2 item No. 2.6 Observation form item No. 4.3 3. Transfer of local wisdom Interview guide 1 item Nos. 3.5-3.8 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 3.5 – 3.8 Observation form item No. 4.4 4. Utilizing community capital / Interview guide 1 item Nos. 4.13 – 4.17 resources Interview guide 2 item Nos. 4.1 – 4.13 Observation form item No. 4.5 5. Cooperative Network development Interview guide 1 item Nos. 5.1 – 5.9 Interview guide 2 item Nos. 5.1 – 5.9 Observation form item Nos. 4.6 (4.6.1 – 4.6.2) Output Interview guide 1 item No. 1 Biomass energy fuel produced Interview guide 2 item No. 1 – 2 Household use of biomass energy
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Table 3.5 (Continued)
Points Information Sources
Outcome : Success in community energy management 1. Better social life in the community Interview guide 1 item No. 6.5 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.5 Observation form item No. 5.5 Reduction of the community energy cost Interview guide 1 item No. 6.1 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.1 Observation form item No. 5.1 Creating more job and occupations Interview guide 1 item No. 6.2 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.2 Observation form item No. 5.2 Increase in community products Interview guide 1 item No. 6.3 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.3 Observation form item No. 5.3 Creating more income Interview guide 1 item No. 6.4 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.4 Observation form item No. 5.4 2. Better social life in the community Interview guide 1 item No. 6.9 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.9 Observation form item No. 5.9 More participation of the community in Interview guide 1 item No. 6.6 the area of energy Interview guide 2 item No. 6.6 Observation form item No. 5.6 Acceptance of opinions on energy Interview guide 1 item No. 6.7 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.7 Observation form item No. 5.7 More sharing/exchange of knowledge/ Interview guide 1 item No. 6.8 community resources/ energy Interview guide 2 item No. 6.8 Observation form item No. 5.8 3. Better community environment Interview guide 1 item No. 6.12 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.8 Observation form item No. 5.12 Reduction of pollution Interview guide 1 item No. 6.10 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.10 Observation form item No. 5.10
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Table 3.5 (Continued)
Points Information Sources Reduction of chemical substance use Interview guide 1 item No. 6.11 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.11 Observation form item No. 5.11 4. More self – reliance in the area of energy Interview guide 1 item No. 6.16 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.16 Observation form item No. 5.16 Increase access to energy Interview guide 1 item No. 6.13 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.13 Observation form item No. 5.13 Reduction of energy shortage Interview guide 1 item No. 6.14 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.14 Observation form item No. 5.14 Reduction of dependence on energy from Interview guide 1 item No. 6.15 outside Interview guide 2 item No. 6.15 Observation form item No. 5.15 Other Issues 1) Community energy Interview guide 1 item No. 1 2) Reasons why there is a need for Interview guide 1 item No. 3 community energy management 3) Energy security Interview guide 1 item No. 4,5 Interview guide 2 item No. 4,5 4) Problems and obstacles in community Interview guide 1 item No. 6 energy management Interview guide 2 item No. 3 Observation form item No. 3 5) Factors affecting success in community Interview guide 1 item No. 7 energy management for energy security Interview guide 2 item No. 6 or success in biomass production and utilization of households 6) Factors under No. 5 of the community Interview guide 1 item No. 8 that lead to energy security Interview guide 2 item No. 7 7) Suggestions on promoting community Interview guide 1 item No. 9 energy management for energy security Interview guide 2 item No. 8
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Table 3.5 (Continued)
Points Information Sources 8) Efficiency in community energy use Interview guide 1 item No. 6.17 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.17 9) Community energy price stability Interview guide 1 item No. 6.19 Interview guide 2 item No. 6.18 10) Additional points and suggestions Interview guide 1 item No. 6.19 relating to the factors contributing to Interview guide 2 item No. 6.19 success in community energy management for energy security
3.5 Data inspection
To check the validity and reliability of the data, the researcher systematically developed a conceptual framework systematically from reviewing related literature and inspect the information by using Triangulation as follows: 1) Data Triangulation – refers to inspection of the data collected at different times/durations or locations and from different people. All the data must be more or less the same. 2) Methodological Triangulation – refers to documentary study, in- depth interviews, focus group discussion and non-participatory observation Furthermore, the key informants were asked to read the summary of the data and make comments and criticisms in order to check the researcher’s interpretation.
3.6 Data Analysis
After studying the models and the factors contributing to success in community energy management for energy security, the researcher determined the following topics for data analysis: 1) Community capital and resources in community energy management by the households 2) Community energy management and promotion
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3) Output and outcome of success in community energy management for energy security 4) Models of community energy management for energy security, problems and obstacles to community energy management, and policy implications for community energy management for energy security. During the data collection the researcher analyzed the data by relying on firsthand experience and talking to people involved in community energy management, including interviewing resource persons and scholars. The data were then analyzed in combination with information from related documents and related studies, and the data from the questionnaires and interviews. The data were described on a logical basis. The researcher tried to avoid biases and subjectivity as much as possible. Qualitative data analysis refers to using the data derived from tools employed in qualitative research such as open ended questions, interviews and observation. The technique for qualitative data analysis are as follows: 1) Typological analysis refers to grouping data into categories or types based on certain criteria. The categories are, for example, natural capital and energy technology, etc. 2) Comparison refers to systematically finding similarities and differences of the qualities or attributes of two sets of data. This is performed in order to conclude the similar and different qualities of the data sets. For example, comparison was made to find out the similarities and differences of two types of communities: those that did not receive any awards and those that received awards under the Community Energy Planning Project, etc. 3) Componential analysis refers to separating the data into parts or components 4) Content analysis refers to analysis of documents and various types of evidence in order to describe and explain the phenomena. 5) Analytic induction refers to drawing general conclusions to relate two or more variables by using case studies or a certain number of data sources that can be analyzed for generalization. By this method the research can establish generalizations from specific case studies. For example, generalizations were made
172 from the case study of communities that received awards and those that did not receive awards under the community energy planning project of the Ministry of Energy etc. 6) Explanation of causes. Explanation of causes refers to correlating between two sets of data. The first set is the deterministic factor of the second set. In fact, there is still controversy over whether there exists the cause-effect relationship. Some scholars offer a way to explain the relationship of the phenomena in other ways, such as conditional relation. In this research, energy security depended on various ‘conditions’ such as biomass energy production and utilization, collecting wood vinegar to be used as insecticide instead of chemicals, etc. Without these conditions, energy security would not occur. 7) Correlation of the data by using sociological imagination – correlating data refers to synthesizing the data into one set in order to explain a phenomenon. Sociological imagination is a concept suggested by C. Wright Mills and refers to the ability of an individual researcher to change his or her perception of phenomenon from one perspective to another or correlating the perception at one level to another level, such as linking households in small communities to the society as a whole.
3.7 Time Line of the Study
Steps in 2555 2556 Implementation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
*Submit the drafted *Propose to advisor for comments *Present the draft *Improve the proposal and collect the data *Data Analysis and summary of the study
Table 3.6 Time Line of the Study
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS OF THE STUDY
The study on “A community energy management model and key factors contributing to success in energy security of the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities in response to the royal initiative of sufficiency economy” was conducted for the following objectives: 1) to investigate community capitals and resources used for community energy management; 2) to examine community energy management and promotion, including problems and obstacles; 3) to find out the output and outcome of successful community energy management for energy security; and 4) to construct a model of community energy management for energy security and to make policy implications for promoting community energy management for energy security. The study focused on biomass energy and community energy management by households in the community, especially on production and utilization of biomass energy. The data in this qualitative study were collected by in-depth interviews of key informants and non-participatory observation. Also, additional information was taken from related documents, textbooks and research reports. Twelve out of 80 communities countrywide were selected and divided into two groups of six communities each as follows: 1) Communities that Received an Award from the Community Energy Planning Project. They were (1) Nachumhet Subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang Province (2) Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province (3) Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province (4) Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province (5) Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province (6) Suansom Subdistrict in Ban
Paew District, Samut Sakohn Province. 174
2) Communities that did not receive any award from the community energy planning project. They were (1) Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasung District Buriram Province (2) Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province (3) Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothorn Province (4)Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province (5) Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province (6) Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. In this chapter, the results of the study are divided into four parts as follows: 1) Community capitals and resources used in community energy management 2) Community energy management and promotion for energy security, including problems and obstacles in community energy management 3) Output and outcome of successful community energy management for energy security 4) A model of community energy management for energy security and policy implications for promoting community energy management for energy security The detailed results of the study are as follows:
4.1 Community Capitals/Resources (Key Factors to Success) Used in Community Energy Management for Energy Security
4.1.1 Community Capital and Resources Used in Community Energy Management After collecting the data in the field research, the researcher analyzed them to find out the factors contributing to success in community energy management. The 12 communities studied were equally divided into two groups based on whether they received or did not receive any award from the community energy planning project implemented by the Ministry of Energy. The results of the study are as follows:
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4.1.1.1 Communities that received an award from the Community Energy Planning Project 1) Nachumhet Subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang Province Community Capital and Resources: Six types of community capital and resources in Nachumhet Subdistrict are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of the study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital Natural capital used in community energy management for biomass energy production and utilization are wood and animal droppings (or dung). Wood is used as firewood or is burned to produce charcoal, while animal droppings are fermented to produce biogas to be used as household fuel. Wood comes mostly from trimmed branches of various kinds of plants/trees naturally growing or being grown in the area: rubber, rambutan, sadao, mangosteen and others. Animal droppings include dung of pigs, cows and chickens raised by individual households. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Energy planning and budget allocation of the subdistrict and household capital: After the community energy planning project and the subsequent projects ended, the subdistrict administration organization has received financial/ economic capital for community energy management from the budget allocated by the government to the strategic development plan, the Three-Year Development Plan (2013-2015) and the annual operation plan. Other agencies also allocated budget to support the local administrative organization’s energy plan in accordance with the concept of integrated budgets and achievements. (3) Human Capital Human capital for community energy management is capital accumulated in individuals, regardless of age, who are involved in implementing the community energy project as producers and users of biomass energy. The researcher has found that after the community energy planning project ended, a large number people have still used biomass energy – firewood, charcoal and biogas. One local wisdom found in Nachumhet Subdistrict is production of charcoal 176 kilns by Fuen Kaewphitak, Vice President of the Alternative Energy Office in Trang Province, who is also a community development volunteer, a regular trainer at the Subdistrict and a former member of the Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization, Community 8 (Moo 8), Nachumhet Subdistrict. Local wisdom about energy development has also been put to use because of the health center’s campaign for people’s health care entitled the “bicycling for community’s health” in which the health center officials ride their bicycles to perform their work in the community in order to reduce the use of fossil fuel energy. Also, herbs are dried by using solar cell ovens. What will be done in the future is launching a campaign on not repeatedly cooking with used vegetable oil but using it to produce biodiesel instead. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective Action and Pparticipation: Although there is no formal or written agreement that people must commit themselves in community energy management, community leaders and people have put their effort together for community energy development. Reciprocity concerning energy in Nachumhet Subdistrict can be seen from the fact that people help each other to do some work. For example, some people help teach others to make kilns/stoves, which in turn promotes an increase of biomass energy production and utilization. An example of collective action and participation is the construction of a learning center where knowledge about energy including the biomass energy is disseminated. Currently, people’s participation in community energy management activities can be found in various occasions. (5) Community Organizations and other Organizations Concerned The interview of key informants has revealed that the community organizations that play a major role in community energy management are the subdistrict administration organization and the Provincial Energy Office. The results of the study are as follows: Energy support given to the community directly and in collaboration with other organizations
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The subdistrict administration organization is the main organization at the subdistrict level that operates the energy project. It coordinates and contacts people inside and outside the community for community development. It promotes all the operational steps as specified in the community development plan, including promoting the households in the community to produce and use biomass energy. The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role in energy support to the community since Nachumhet Subdistrict participated in the community energy planning project. At present it carries out events or activities, such as the “Bicycling for Community Health” project, with the participation of community people and the subdistrict administration organization. The Trang Provincial Energy Office has supported the community development project with technology, and trash bins and has promoted production and utilization of biomass energy made from food waste and wood. (6) Biomass Energy Technology and Other Related Technology Biomass energy technology used in the subdistrict includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, large-sized ovens, earth mound pits (with and without an iron sheet cover), high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, 200- L drum kilns roasting stoves, economical stoves, firewood stoves, biogas stoves and a set of tanks for biomass fermentation to produce biogas. Some households have developed energy technology by changing the method of using a earth mound pit. In the past, they used agricultural waste such as rice chaff to cover the earth mound pit, but now they cover it with an iron sheet. There are technologies other than biomass energy technology in the subdistrict. One is a solar-cell oven at the house of Fuen Kaewphitak. He is Vice President of the Alternative Energy Office in Trang Province, who is also a community development volunteer, a regular trainer at the subdistrict and a former member of the Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization, (Village 8) Moo 8, Nachumhet Subdistrict. In addition, Asia Honda Motor Company Limited installed a solar-cell oven on the campus of Wat Kuannimitsila School, which is the community energy learning center of Nachumhet Subdistrict; a hydro power 178 electricity plant on the campus of Wat Kuannimitsila School, Village 2 (Moo 2) and in the Lamphikul project in Village 4 (Moo 4); and wind-power ventilation rotating balls on the roof of the liquor factory in Village 5 (Moo 5) and on the kitchen roof of the temple (Wat). 2) Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capitals and resources in Maelai Subdistrict are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of the study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital Natural Capital used in community energy management for biomass energy production and utilization are wood, mostly from trimmed branches of various kinds of plants/trees naturally growing or being grown in the area: tamarind, cassia siamea, mango, longan, jujube and others. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Planning of and budget allocation to the energy project of the subdistrict and capital from households: Maelai Subdistrict Municipality in Muang District, Phrae Province in collaboration with the Regional Energy Office and the Phrae Provincial Energy Office has implemented the community energy planning project by providing a budget and promoting local people to participate in the project as well as energy saving activities at the community level. The promotion of community energy management, especially biomass energy, has been carried out in various projects, with the budget allocated by the Maelai Subdistrict Municipality. Besides, financial / economic capital partly comes from households’ investment in producing and/or using biomass energy. (3) Human Capital Actual practice in daily life of the households, their ability to put knowledge of biomass energy into practice and transfer of knowledge and local wisdom of energy technology development.:Human capital is used by the households to produce and use biomass energy in their daily life. In Maelai Subdistrict, there are many households that use biomass energy for cooking. They use wood as firewood or 179 burning it to make charcoal. One local wisdom in the subdistrict is the ability to make and use earth kilns in the households. This local wisdom has been transferred within the subdistrict, resulting in more production and utilization of biomass energy in the community. The local wisdom at the subdistrict has been used in the development of biomass energy technology, as well. That is, by extending a smoke disposing pipe above the roof, smoke at the end of pipe will go up above other households and pass away. Moreover, with the advice of an academic team from Mae Jo University on wood vinegar production, the amount of wood vinegar can be doubled. In addition, the development of technology is evidenced by the development of a roasting stove. In the past, oil from roasted meat would drop directly on burning charcoal and cause smoke that would stick to the roasted meat. The food could be harmful to the health of people who ate it, as it might cause cancer. The newly developed roasting stove is advantageous because charcoal will be placed on along the sides of stove. When meat is roasted, oil from it will drop in the middle of the stove, not on the charcoal. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective action and Participation: Although there is no formal or written agreement that people must commit themselves in community energy management, their involvement in community energy development can be seen from the fact that the subdistrict administrative organization had a public charcoal kiln built for anyone in the community to use for making charcoal. This helps to promote more use of biomass energy. Reciprocity concerning energy in Maelai Subdistrict can be seen from the fact that people help each other to do some energy-related work. For example, they help each other to make earth kilns. In fact, each household in the subdistrict can have a large-sized earth kiln because of the assistance from their neighbors. The report of Maelai Municipality in 2011 on the results of community energy plan implementation revealed that many mobile energy activities had been organized for all organizations and local people to participate in order to realize the benefit of using biomass energy. All organizations in Maelai Municipality 180 seriously enforced energy measures to reduce energy use in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy. There was good cooperation from all organizations in Phrae Province. (5) Community Organization and Other Organizations Concerned The community organization that play a major role in community energy management was the Maelai Municipality and the other organizations concerned were Maejo University, the Provincial Energy Office, the Thai Chamber of Commerce, the Chamber of Commerce in Phrae Province, the Department of Skill Development, the Office of Livestock Development in Phrae Province, and the Office of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Phrae Province. Energy Support Given to the Community Directly and in Collaboration Joining with Other Organizations: The Maelai Municipality was the organization at the local level that played a major role in operating the community energy project and coordinating with community people, contacting people inside and outside the community for community development. It gave supports in all operational steps as specified in the plan, including giving the community support on energy matters. During the first phase of the project, the Regional Energy Office 9 in Phitsanulok, the Provincial Energy Office in Phrae Province, and the advisory team from Maejo University in Phrae Province acted as mentors for community energy project implementation. The Thai Chamber of Commerce, the Provincial Chamber of Commerce in Phrae Province, the Department of Skill Development, the Provincial Livestock Development Office in Phrae province, the Provincial Agriculture and Cooperatives Office in Phrae Province have supported the implementation of the “One rai of rice farming, one hundred thousand baht” project in Phrae Province in response to His Majesty the King’s Initiative of sufficiency economy and the New Agricultural Theory. Visiting the Maelai community and its learning center, where the project headquarters is located, the researcher witnessed many energy-related projects including the use of biomass energy and 200-L drum kilns in charcoal production.
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(6) Biomass Energy Technology Energy technology used to produce biomass energy in the Subdistrict consists of 100 L drum kilns, 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves and firewood stoves. 3) Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Community Capitals and Resources Six types of community capitals and resources in Nachumhet Subdistrict are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of the study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital Sufficiency of Natural Capital: The important natural capital in production of biomass energy of community is wood, mostly from various types of plants/trees growing naturally or being grown in the area, (such as mango, tamarind, manila tamarind, neem, white popinac etc.), and material from crops, such as coconut crust, sugar palm branch. Other types of natural capital which households use to produce biomass energy are construction model wood chips, outside part of palm fruit etc. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Planning and allocation of energy budget: The financial/ economic capital for running the projects is financial support from many government organizations that allocate a budget to the community. It is an integration of the budget and joint achievement. Household Capital and Community Funds: After the community energy planning project and subsequent projects ended, the community energy use of the households has been mainly supported by the households or private capital. Still, the households also have received support from various funds, which play a role in community development. For example, some households in the subdistrict have used the farmer development fund to construct pig pens and to process pig dung to get biogas. The households also have made loans from the million baht fund to produce charcoal for sale.
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(3) Human Capital Community Leaders as Models of Eergy Production and Utilization: Human capital in the community energy management is capital, inherent in every person who takes part in implementing the community energy projects. An example of community leaders who produce and use biomass energy in the household is Khun Somchai Panthong, leader of the community energy planning group (energy trainer), in Kho Sai Subdistrict and also member of the Kho Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization, and Khun Suphap Kochsarn, village headman of Moo 3. Local wisdom and development of community output and outcome Community leaders together with the housewife group use decayed and unwanted fruits such as rambutan , mangosteen, lotus pods, lotus flowers and peels of various fruits to make charcoal which can be used to eliminate smell in refrigerators/rooms. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, there is a group of housewives who know how to weave and make baskets for sale. Therefore, the Kho Sai community add value to bamboo baskets and charcoal by putting charcoal into baskets and decorating them with beautiful ribbons, thus being able to sell them at a higher price. The local wisdom about energy also includes the use of herbs to produce charcoal with pleasant smell by burning herbs and wood together in a 200-L drum incinerator. These herbs are, for example, neem and cassia siamea. The resulted wood vinegar will have a smell of herb. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective action and Participation: There is no obvious agreement on energy matters. However, agreements in other matters can reflect the people’s intention. For example, there are many people in the subdistrict that participate in the million baht fund, without causing any non- performing loans. People in Kho Sai subdistrict are interdependent in terms of energy. They help their neighbors to cut trees or branches of trees. They burn them to make charcoal and give it back. The reciprocity can be seen from the use of solar dryer at the house of Khun Loong Yui, Moo 1 and donating charcoal for cremation. People in Kho Sai Subdistrict always participate in community activities on various occasions. For example, the “Thong Fa Fair” was held in Sing Buri 183
Province. People in the subdistrict joined hands to produce various products for sale such as charcoal, food and sweets. (5) Community Organizations The community organizations which play an important role in community energy management consist of the Subdistrict administration organization and the community health center. Another related public organization is the Provincial Energy Office. Direct Energy Support to the Community The Kho Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization played an important role in implementing the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities under the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy”. As it was the project at the subdistrict level, the subdistrict administration organization had to be the leader and coordinated with the Provincial Energy Office in implementing all the steps specified by the ministry. Although the community health center in the Kho Sai Subdistrict is mainly responsible for providing health service to the community, the leader of the Kho Sai Subdistrict community health center is one who is responsible for promoting and supporting all aspects of community development, including community energy management. Energy Uupport Given to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations: In the case of the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities, the Provincial Energy Office had to coordinate with the Regional Energy Office, the Ministry of Energy, and the subdistrict administration organization. The Provincial Energy Office promoted using 200-L drum kilns and other energy technologies, such as high efficiency bucket stoves. Many households in the subdistrict joined the project and produce such stoves by themselves as they had been trained. At present, the households in the communities have more knowledge, understanding and skills in energy management for their households. Besides, energy support has come from private organizations. For example, the SCG Group and Thai Ceramic Company Limited have invested in biogas fermentation technology in the subdistrict.
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(6) Biomass Energy Technology and Other Related Technology Biomass energy technology includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, economical stoves and biogas stoves. So far, the project of producing charcoal by using 200-L drum kilns is a project in the action plan of the community energy plan of each locality because charcoal is still an important fuel for cooking in rural communities . The production of charcoal by using 200-L drum kilns is not a high technology. Community people can make their own kilns and charcoal. In addition, production of charcoal by using a 200-L drum kiln does not need complicated procedures. Therefore, 200-L drum kilns play an increasingly important role in the production of charcoal in rural communities (Thanit Ruangrungchaikul, 2009). The production of biogas from dung in Kho Sai Subdistrict came from the fact that households have raised pigs and/or cows at their house compounds so they can ferment pig dung and cow dung to produce biogas to replace LPG for household cooking. 4) Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of community resources and capitals are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital Important natural capital in the production of biomass energy in the community is wood, mostly from various types of plants/trees growing naturally or grown in the area, such as rambutan, santol, jack fruit and the like. At Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province, there is plenty of rambutan wood, so many households use it to produce charcoal. However, trimming of trees in orchards is done only during some period of the year, so wood is available for producing biomass energy in large quantity only during the trimming period. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Energy planning and Budget Allocation In order to promote energy saving, Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has allocated a budget to buy technological equipment for households in 185 the Subdistrict. The equipment includes charcoal producing kilns, garbage burning furnances, high efficiency bucket stoves, for instance. The energy promotion through planning and budget allocation by Huang Nam Khao subdistrict administration organization has continued until now. (3) Human Capital The study of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province, reveals that there is widespread use of biomass energy in the community because households has seen benefits from using biomass resources, e.g. wood. The households in Huang Nam Khao subdistrict has benefited from biomass resources in the community, so human capital inherent in every person is an important factor for driving the use of biomass energy in the community. An example of human capital is users of community biomass energy. From the field research in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, reveals that there are a large number of users of biomass energy, especially, charcoal. Many households produce charcoal for their own use to reduce energy expense and many produce it for sale to increase the household income. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is capital, inherent in every person who takes part in implementing the community energy project. Local Wisdom: Local wisdom concerning energy of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has resulted from knowledge development and from effort of the community to apply various resources available there, such as making earth kilns to produce charcoal. Mostly, earth used in making earth kilns comes from termite hill, which is sticky. The kilns will have fewer cracks than when earth found elsewhere is used. Households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict know about the quality of the earth, so most use it to make earth kilns for producing charcoal. Besides, local wisdom about energy can be seen in the use and maintenance of earth kilns. After using the kiln, user will close it by pouring muddy water on the kiln so that it will be thicker and thicker, thus lasting longer. (4) Social Capital Reciprocity, Collective Action and Participation Energy reciprocity can be seen from the fact that people in the community assist each other in making earth kilns for charcoal production to 186 replace earth mound pits, which were used in the past. Some households in the subdistrict give wood vinegar to their relatives, which creates more reciprocity in the Subdistrict. Households’ working together and participation in the community energy project result from coordination at the community level by village headmen, assistants village headmen, subdistrict headmen, and villagers and at the higher level by present and vice president of the subdistract administration organization. Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict received an award for participation in the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities in response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy”. (5) Community Organizations The community organizations that play a major role in community energy management are the Subdistrict Administration Organization and the Community Bank. Others are the Provincial Energy Office and the Electricity Generating Authority in Trat Province. The Huang Nam Khao subdistrict administration organization is the main community organization that has promoted community energy management since it joined the Community Energy Planning Project in 2007. The Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Organization has proposed energy development projects in its three year development plan, which will help to drive the continuity of the community energy projects. The Community Bank of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has been in operation for more than 20 years. Now it is a strong and widely recognized community organization. It has been developed to be a community financial institution which offers both saving deposit and current deposit services. It combines scattered capital sources in the community. It also pay dividends to its members. Besides providing saving service for households, the Community Bank also participates in promoting community energy management by mobilizing people and providing food, desserts, for instance. The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role in energy management since the subdistrict joined the community energy planning project. Apart from involvement in all the procedures, it has arranged training courses, seminars and other activities, while the Electricity Generating Authority in 187
Trat Province assists in running the solar energy project at Moo 3 to materialize the subdistrict plan. (6) Biomass Energy Technology Biomass energy technology in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, in Muang District, Trat Province, includes earth kilns, 200-L drum kilns, economical stoves and high efficiency bucket stoves. Many households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict use earth kilns made of earth from termite hill or brick such as Mon Brick. Sometimes, some households bore a termite hill to make earth kilns. Earth kilns give several benefits. It can produce a large quantity of charcoal. Like a kiln made from 200-liter tank, it gives wood vinegar. Earth kilns are durable, or last long, and thus can be used generation after generation in the households. However, when Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict entered the project, households in the subdistrict were given 200-L drum kiln. The kilns had been used until they broke down and after the people turned to use earth kilns which were suitable for most households in the subdistrict because a large quantity of rambutan wood were available here. 5) Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of Community capitals and resources are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital of the community in producing biomass energy is wood, mostly from various plants/trees naturally grown or being grown in the area, such as mango, coconut palm, orange, Khilek, Krathon, longan, Jack fruit, Eucalyptus, twigs and branches of trees, assorted wood or any kind of plants/trees that can be used as fire wood directly or to produce charcoal. One important natural capital in producing biomass energy is droppings from animals raised on the farm.. Households can make use of animal droppings when the public sector supports them with technology of biogas fermentation. In addition, some households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil.
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(2) Financial/Economic Capital Energy planning and budget allocation of the subdistrict and household capital: During the implementation of the community energy planning project, the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization, the Regional Energy Office and the Provincial Energy Office joined hands in carrying out the project by setting time schedules and budgets as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Energy Promoting Project of Wangkhaem Subdistrict
Time Budget Activity Method schedule (Baht) Alternative 1. Project for 1. Forming a group of users of Energy demonstrating the use 200-liter drum incinerator. of 200-liter drum kilns 2. Organizing training and demonstration of how to operate 200- Sep 2007 15,000 liter drum incinerator. 3. Promotion of charcoal production using 200-liter drum kilns. 2. Project for 1. Forming group of users of compact demonstrating the charcoal. production of compact 2. Organizing training and charcoal from demonstration of how to produce agricultural waste compact charcoal. 3. Promotes production of compact charcoal. 3.Project for building 1. Feasibility study of building Oct 2008 an energy saving garbage burning furnace. garbage furnace 2. Organizing public hearing on the - building of garbage burning furnace. 5,000,000 3. Budgeting. Sep 2011 4. Building of a garbage burning furnace.
Besides the budget to operate the community energy project of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization, part of financial/ economic capital comes from the household investment in production and/or utilization of community energy including biomass energy.
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(3) Human Capital Human capital here refers to producers and users of community biomass energy. When the researcher visited Wangkhaem Subdistrict, he found that there were a large number of users of biomass energy, such as firewood, charcoal, biogas and biodiesel. Many households produced charcoal for their own use to reduce energy expense and to sell as their primary or secondary occupation to supplement their income. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is capital accumulated in every person, regardless of age, who is involved in carrying out the community energy project. One local wisdom in Wangkhaem Subdistrict, is the ability to make and use earth kilns in their own houses. Another local wisdom in Wangkhaem Subdistrict is the ability to produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil by separating water from oil which floats on the water surface. Sunlight is used instead of chemical substance. Water is left to be clear and then is refined with a biodiesel filter. The product is then mixed with diesel oil. This biodiesel can be used with a Kubota engine, which has a one-cylinder engine. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective Action and Participation Energy reciprocity results from the fact that people do some energy-related activities together such as using public kilns, giving charcoal to the neighbors, and the temple (Wat) for use in cremation of the dead, who have no relatives, and so forth. Collective action and participation was intensive, especially at the beginning of the community energy planning project, but now, it has decreased because there is no project that requires team working. If there is, the people are willing to participate and to work together on different occasions. (5) Community Organizations and Other Organizations Concerned The community organizations that directly play a major role in community energy management are the subdistrict administration organization, the community health center, while one outside organization concerned is the Provincial Energy Office. 190
Energy Support Given to the Community Directly and in Collaboration with Other Organizations: The Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization is the main local organization that implements the project, coordinates with local community, contacts people inside and outside of the community for community development. It promotes activities all the steps of energy-related. The learning center for learning about kilns for charcoal and wood vinegar production in this subdistrict also receives direct support from the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization in collaboration with the Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Energy Office. Support is also extended to production of biogas from animal’s droppings. The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role since the Wangkhaem Subdistrict participated in the community energy planning project. It has cooperated in all steps of the project implementation. It has organized training courses, seminars and various activities so that the objectives of the project will be achieved. The Provincial Energy Office has carried out some activities and assigned the community of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization to carry out others. (6) Biomass Eenergy Technology The biomass energy technology at Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, firewood stoves, biogas stoves and biodiesel filters. Currently, technological support to the community concerns production of biogas from animal droppings in households that raise pigs so that they can use biogas instead of LPG for cooking. 6) Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capitals and resources are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organization and technology. The results of study are as follows:
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(1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in biomass energy production in the community is wood, mostly from various types of plants/trees naturally growing or being grown in the area, such as krathon, mango, krathin, manila tamarind. At the learning center for training on energy and agriculture in accordance with sufficiency economy run by Khun Wanna Chanthapuk, a member of Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization, the main raw materials for charcoal production are coconut peels, coconut spathe and waste wood from construction sites or households. (2) Financial/Eeconomic Capital Energy Planning and Budget Allocation The energy management plan of Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization specifies the budget for running the training project on alternative energy technology and energy conservation as seen in Table 4.2
Table 4.2 Budgets for the Training Projects on Alternative Energy Technology and Energy Conservation of Suansom Subdistrict
1st Period 2nd Period 3rd Period 4th Period 5th Period Jul-Sept the fiscal the fiscal the fiscal the fiscal 2007 year 2008 year 2009 year 2010 year 2011 Training project on alternative energy technology and energy (60,000) (115,000) (20,000) (20,000) (20,000) conservation Training on making kilns for charcoal and wood vinegar (50,000) production Highly efficient kilns (100,000) Total (100,000) (115,000) (20,000) (20,000) (20,000)
At present, various groups in the subdistrict e.g., Youth Group, Housewife Group, Million Baht Fund Group, Community Voluntary Group and Female Role Development Fund Group can submit a project proposal to request for a budget to the Subdistrict Administration Organization. Some households have 192 received a fund for assisting farmers from the Provincial Agricultural Group. Some use their personal fund for energy management. (3) Human Capital The key factor for successful community energy management is human-beings-leaders or people. Leaders include organization leaders and natural leaders who possess local wisdom. Community leaders believe that people are very important. If a policy is very good, but there is no one to implement it, or there is neither leader nor followers to take action, that policy cannot be materialized. In other words, there must be participation of people or followers, including the network. The Suansom Subdistrict has a strong network both inside and outside of the community. The leader capability is also important. If the leader has no capability, the project cannot be carried out. If followers are serious in following the leader, but the latter has no leadership, the project will not be successfully implemented. In the Suansom Subdistrict, the leader has tried to drive the energy project continuously. Besides, Suansom Subdistrict also focuses on disciplining young people to have conscience in different matters, including energy for community development, which is deemed as accumulation of human capital. Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy and Development of Technology: Local wisdom in the area of energy in Suansom Subdistrict emerged from the community’s effort to develop technology because of the problems in using 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production. The community leader has tried to improve energy technology by coordinating with welders to design more efficient kilns. Now, energy technology is what the community leader of Suansom Subdistrict is trying to develop. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective Action and Participation In implementing the community energy planning project, community people participated in making decisions on energy planning for their own community. This caused the community to have sense of ownership of the plan and to get commitment from all parties concerned – government agencies, the subdistrict administration organization, and local people. They expressed their opinions in specifying strategies and implementing the strategic energy plan at the community 193 level to achieve the established objectives. Energy reciprocity is evidenced by people’s assisting each other. For instance, a household produces charcoal, and the neighbors will buy it. Collective action can be seen from the community leader’s implementing the community energy project. When vertical 200-L drum kilns were ruined, the community leader worked together with the people to build horizontal 200-L drum kilns for use. People participate in the community energy project because of the need of the households there to lead their lives in line with the philosophy of sufficiency economy. The focus of participation in the community energy project is not just on use of biomass energy from charcoal or firewood, but also on a combination of ways of life based on the philosophy of sufficiency economy. (5) Community Organizations and Other Organizations Concerned : The community organization that directly plays a major role in the community energy management of Suansom subdistrict is the Subdistrict Administration Organization and other organizations concerned are the Regional Energy Office and the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Given Directly to the Community : The Subdistrict Administration Organization plays a role of leadership in pushing the community energy planning project into the action plan. The duration for the project implementation is 4 years. The Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization has an important role in management so that there will be continuity and efficiency. Energy Support Given to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations : The Provincial Energy Office is one organization that has an important role in initiating several projects including the community energy management. In case of the community energy planning project, the Provincial Energy Office coordinated with the Regional Energy Office and the Ministry of Energy. (6) Biomass Energy Technology The biomass energy technology in Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province includes vertical and horizontal 200-L drum kiln, high efficiency bucket stoves and charcoal-pulling equipment. 194
4.1.1.2 Unawarded Communities Under the Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” 1) Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capital and resources are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in biomass energy production of the community is wood, mostly from all types of plants/trees naturally growing or grown in the area : Krathinnarong, Makha, Sadao and others. (2) Financial/Economic Capital The Sri Phum subdistrict administration organization cooperated the Regional Energy Office and the Buriram Provincial Energy Office in operating the “Community energy planning by 80 individual communities in response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. It allocated a budget to support and promote people in the area to participate in setting a community energy plan and arranging energy-saving and energy-conserving activities, including recycling of energy to create immunity for community energy security in the future. At present the financial/economic capital of the community for running the energy project comes from private households. The subdistrict administration organization has not included biomass energy in the three-year development plan. (3) Human Capital Human capital refer to producers and users of biomass energy in the community. During the visit to Sri Phum Subdistrict, the researcher found that there were a large number of biomass energy users who used firewood, charcoal and biogas. They were households that produced biomass energy for their own use to reduce the energy expense and those that produced it for sale to supplement their income. It can be said that human capital in management of community energy is capital accumulated in every person, regardless of age, who is involved in the operation 195 of the community energy project. One local wisdom at Sri Phum Subdistrict is the ability of the households to make earth kilns for their own use. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective action and Participation : Although there is no formal or written agreement on community energy management. The researcher noticed that Sri Phum Subdistrict had public kilns located in the public area or at the temple. People can use them for making charcoal, a kind of biomass energy. The availability of public kilns does not mean that the community people must come to use it. It is just the effort of the Subdistrict Administration Organization to encourage the use of biomass energy in the community. Energy reciprocity in Sri Phum Subdistrict is evidenced by the fact that people help each other in some work. They give each other wood and charcoal that they do not use. People in the community always participate when there is need for cooperation. Normally people here know each other, are familiar with each other and regularly help each other. During the implementation of the community energy planning project, people in the community participated in activities, learnt and worked together. Many villagers made use of 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production. This was the time when they work together or participate in community energy activities. (5) Community Organizations The community organization that plays a major role in community energy management is the subdistrict administration organization and an organization concerned is the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Directly to Community The Sri Phum Subdistrict Administration Organization supported community people to use biomass energy during the project implementation. At present the Subdistrict Administration Organization aims to develop the community in other aspects because there are many households in the community which already use charcoal and firewood. EnergySsupport to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations: The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role is giving energy support since Sri Phum Subdistrict participated in the community energy 196 planning project. There were both activities run by the Provincial Energy Office and those assigned to the subdistrict administration organization, such as organizing energy-related events or activities etc. Although the Provincial Energy Office has still implemented the energy project through Sri Phum Subdistrict Administration Organization, the number of assignments has decreased. (6) Biomass Energy Technology Biomass energy technology, in Sri Phum Subdistrict are square-shaped kilns, vertical-shaped kilns (both kilns have been invented by Subdistrict Administration Organization), 200-L drum kiln,, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves and firewood stoves. 2) Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province. Community Capital and Resources Six types of Community capitals and resources are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in the production of biomass energy of community is wood, mostly from all types of plants/trees, which naturally grow or are grown in the area: ucaliptus, makha, rubber and others. (2) Financial/Economic Capital The Chumpol Subdistrict Administration Organization cooperated with the Regional Energy Office and the Chumpol Provincial Energy Office in operating the Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities”. They gave a financial support and encouraged people in the area to participate in setting a community energy plan and promoted energy-saving and energy conserving energy activities including energy recycling to build immunity for the community so that it would have energy security in the future. However, after the project ended, financial/economic capital came from household investment in producing and/or using community energy including biomass energy. The Chumpol Subdistrict Administration Organization does not include biomass energy in its three- year development plan. 197
(3) Human Capital Human capital refers to producers and users of biomass energy in the community. From a visit to Chumpol Subdistrict, the researcher found that there were a large number of biomass energy users who used firewood and charcoal. They included households that produced biomass energy for their own use to reduce energy expenses and those that produced it for sale as a secondary occupation to increase household income. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is capital, accumulated in every person, regardless of any age, who is involved in the operation of community energy project. Local Wisdom and Ability to Practice and Transfer: One local wisdom at Chumpol Subdistrict is ability to the households of the households to make and use earth kilns. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective action and Participation There is no formal or written agreement on community energy management. In order to promote community biomass energy use, Chumpol Subdistrict provided public kilns, for people in community to use to produce charcoal. The households made no commitment to use them. It was the subdistrict administration organization’s effort to promote the use of biomass energy in the community. Reciprocity in Chumpol Subdistrict has emerged from the fact that people assist each other in some work. They, for example, used public kilns, and help their neighbors to make stoves. At Chumpol subdistrict, people always assist each other and work together whenever there is a chance to do so. People use their labor to help each other as much as possible. Sometimes they offer financial assistance to other community members. The picture of collective action can be seen when collective action is necessary. But normally, people are engaged in their own occupations. When there are activities that help the community to acquire more knowledge, they will send some representatives to do so and these representatives will come back to transfer knowledge to other community people. Participation can be seen in various occasions, such as welcoming visitors who come for a study tour at the community university, etc.
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(5) Community Organizations Interviews of key informants reveal that the community organization which plays a major role in community energy management is the subdistrict administration organization and other organizations concerned are the Ministry of Agriculture, Khonkaen University, the Regional Energy Office Region 6 and the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Given Directly to the Community: The Chumpol Subdistrict Administration Organization is the main local organization directly involved in community development when the Chumpol Subdistrict participated in the community energy planning project for 80 communities in 2007. The Subdistrict Administration Organization gave support to the community directly or in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office made people active because it is a Subdistrict project. There were referendums, study tours and choosing of suitable technology. The households were stimulated to change and to realize the importance of energy planning. Energy Support Given to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations: The community university is a place visited by those on study tours concerning energy production and utilization in Chumpol Subdistrict. This center is operated in line with the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy. It has been financially supported by the Ministry of Agriculture. Other organizations cooperating in the project implementation are, for example, Khonkaen University and the Energy Office Region 6, Ministry of Energy. The projects for development and transfer of suitable energy technology concern, for instance, the use of solar energy in rubber sheet factories and the system production of biogas from waste water generated by the rubber sheet production. (6) Biomass Energy Technology and Other Related Technologies Biomass energy technology in Chumpol Subdistrict includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, economical stove, 200 liter tank roasting stoves and solar cell ovens.
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3) Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothorn Province. Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capital and resources are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in biomass energy production of the community is wood, mostly from all types of plants/trees, which naturally grow and are grown in area. Materials for biomass energy production are wood from plants/trees on the farms and assorted wood. (2) Financial/Eeconomic Capital Energy Planning and Budget Allocation Besides the budget provided directly for the community energy management of Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization, the Energy Office Region 7 also allocated 260,000 Baht to the Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization to select technologies that serve the needs of Subdistrict Administration Organization and the community. After the community energy planning project ended, capital for community energy management came from the private fund of the households. The Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization has not included any energy project in its three year development plan. (3) Human Capital Human capital refers to producers and users of biomass energy in the community. Visiting Na Wieng Subdistrict, the researcher found that there were a large number of users of biomass energy, especially charcoal. These users included households that produced biomass energy for their own use to reduce energy expenses and those that produced it for sale to supplement their household income. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is every person, regradless of age, who is involved in the operation of community energy. From the field research, the researcher found that a large number of households used 200-L drum kilns and earth kilns for charcoal production. 200-L drum kiln is one technology promoted by the government agency. The 200 households had an ability or skill in building or making of such kilns, too. Such knowledge and ability reflects the local wisdom of Na Wieng Subdistrict. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective action and Participation : There is no formal or written agreement on community energy management. However, the researcher found that each household in Na Wieng Subdistrict was determined to carry out the project on biomass energy, especially charcoal and firewood. Energy reciprocity is evidenced by the fact that people help each other in doing some work. For example, they help their neighbors make earth kilns; they work together or participate in subdistrict activities. When the Subdistrict organizes an event or activity, people, schools and Buddhist monks usually participate. (5) Community Organizations From the interviews of key informants about the involvement of community organizations, it was found that the community organizations that played a major role in community energy management were Subdistrict Administration Organization, the Community Health Station and one organization concerned was the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Given Directly to the Community: The Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization is the main organization at the local level that operates the energy projects. It contacts people inside and outside of community for community development. It is the organization which supports all the steps of implementation as specified in the plan, including the community energy project. The Subdistrict Administration Organization demonstrates the use of technologies and supports the production of charcoal by using 200-L drum kiln with emphasis on using wood waste to make charcoal. Energy Support Given to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organization : The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role since Na Wieng Subdistrict participated in the Community Energy Planning project. It has given good cooperation in all the steps. It organized training courses and seminars and managed all activities under the project to achieve specified objectives. The Provincial Energy Office has carried out some projects and assigned the community 201 or the Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization to participate in others, such as organizing events or activities. (6) Biomass Energy Technology Biomass energy technology used in Na Wieng Subdistrict includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, firewood stoves, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, and earth mound pits. Many households in Na Wieng Subdistrict use earth kilns for making charcoal from wood in the orchards. The derived charcoal is for household use or for sale. 4) Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province. Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capital and resources are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in the production of biomass energy in the community is wood, mostly from all types of plants/trees especially longan trees, which grow naturally or are grown in the area, most of which is used as firewood or to make charcoal. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Energy Planning and Budget Allocation Promotion of community energy management, particularly, biomass energy is part of all the projects. The Nongfag Municipality has allocated a budget for this purpose. Besides the budget allocated by the Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality, part of the financial/ economic capital comes from investment of the households in producing and using biomass energy. Even now, the Nongfag Municipality still includes budget allocation for the energy project in the three-year development plan of the subdistrict. (3) Human Capital An example of human capital is producers and users of biomass energy in the community. Visiting Nongfag Subdistrict, the researcher found that there was a large number of biomass energy users, who used firewood and charcoal. They consisted of households that produced biomass energy for their own 202 use to reduce energy expenses and those that produced it for sale to supplement their household income. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is every person who is involved in the operation of the community energy project. Local wisdom, actual practice, knowledge transfer and community leaders as models One local wisdom of Nongfag Subdistrict is ability to make ordinary Thai bucket stoves. They make compact charcoal out of charcoal powder. The community leader teaches people how to mix charcoal powder with tapioca in the ratio of 10: 1. The training happens during the time when the community has no events. Local wisdom and actual practice in daily life of the households There are many households in Nongfag Subdistrict that use firewood as fuel forcooking. Local wisdom about energy derived from actual practice in daily life is placing an old basin on the stove first and then a food pot so the food pot will not be black because the basin will prevent smoke from firewood to touch the pot. Local Wisdom and Community Leaders as Models One local wisdom at Nongfag Subdistrict is an energy innovation of people in the community. For example, Sayan Namwong, who is a member of the Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality, Moo 4, Nongfag Subdistrict, invented a washing machine that uses energy from bicycling. He made it from an old washing machine and a bicycle. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective Action and Participation There is no formal or written agreement on community energy management, but the fact that the people in Nongfag Subdistrict realize the seriousness of the smog problem results in their working together to solve this problem in the community. An example that reflects their cooperation of people is the project of “Exchange of Longan Leaves with Eggs to Save the Environment”, which has been continued since 2008. People in community agree that a meeting will be held every 2 months to identify community problems and some way to solve them.
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Energy reciprocity is evidenced by the fact that people assisted each other in doing some energy-related work such as using common kilns, etc. When Nongfag Subdistrict first participated in the community energy planning project, it received one or two 200-L drum kilns per village. After receiving an additional budget, the Subdistrict Administration Organization distributed more kilns to people. Few people use earth mound pits because they knew that produced charcoal was not tar-free. Now most households make charcoal by using 200-L drum kilns. In Nongfag Subdistrict there were campaigns to produce compost, to separate garbage and not to burn wood waste, but to change it to compost instead. People understand the objectives of “Exchange of Longan leaves with Eggs to Save the Environment” project and participate in it. Sacks are provided for those who want to throw away leaves. More and more people participated in this project and until now the project has been going on. Another project is separating garbage. Blue garbage bins are given to each household to throw food waste and black ones are placed at different public places in the Subdistrict. If a blue garbage bin of any household is full, garbage can be dumped into the black bins. Molasses for making bio fermented water are distributed so that people can produce compost by themselves. Village people especially in Moo 6, work together, and other groups tried to learn from this village. As the village uses its own budget, it cannot carry out the project in cooperation with other communities. There is a screening committee to look after the project and the village can give advice to other villages in the Subdistrict. (5) Community organizations and other organizations concerned The community organization that plays a major role in community energy management is the Nongfag Municipality and other organizations concerned are the Saraphi District Office, the Ministry of Energy, the Informal Education Office, CYMA and the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Given Directly to the Community: The Municipality is a core leader of the community. It works with each village and disseminates knowledge to the people. People in Nongfag Subdistrict put the knowledge into practice. However, they produce charcoal from time to time. If there is a seminar or an event concerning energy, the Nongfag Municipality will send 204 subdistrict representatives to participate in it, so that the representatives will come back to upgrade the people’s knowledge. Direct energy support also comes from the Ministry of Agriculture. The ministry has given a solar-cell oven to an agricultural group of Nongfag Subdistrict for common use. In addition, Nongfag Subdistrict has launched the “Exchange of Longan Leaves with Eggs to Save the Environment” project. The community leader, Village Headman of Moo 6 has requested part of the budget from the Saraphi District Office to buy sacks for storing Longan leaves from the households. Direct energy support to the subdistrict also include providing technology. The support has been given to the subdistrict since it participated in the community energy planning project. The Ministry of Energy gave eighteen 200-L drum kilns to nine communities (2 for each). Later in 2009 the Informal Education Office and in 2010 the YMCA (the Young Men and Children Association) gave additional 200-L drum kilns. The Provincial Energy Office also gave gas covers, a kind of devices to prevent fire from cooking with LPG to spread to the sides thus helping to save more energy. (6) Biomass Energy Technology and Related Eenergy Technology Biomass energy technology in the community includes 200- L drum kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, firewood stoves, charcoal-compacting machines. Another energy technology is solar-cell ovens. 5) Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province Community Capital and Resources Six types of community resources and capitals are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in biomass energy production in the community is wood and animal droppings. Most wood come from all types of plants/trees which naturally grow and are grown in the area, e.g., rambutan wood and residues from plants/trees. Besides, wood is used as firewood for making sweets. Firewood may came from coconut trunks, coconut peels, coconut shells, coffee wood 205 or other plants/trees. Animal droppings used to produce biomass energy are pig dung and cow dung, for example. (2) Financial/Economic Capital Energy Planning and Budget Allocation by Different Organization.: At present financial / economic capital of Napho Subdistrict as specified in the 3 year development plan (2013 – 2015) comes partly from the Napho Phattana Municipality and the rest from other organizations such as the Provincial Energy Office. Individual households still use their own financial/ economic capital to cope with the expenses not financially supported by different organizations. (3) Human Capital An example of human capital is biomass energy users in the community. The researcher visited Napho Subdistrict and found that there were not a large number of users using biomass energy. They used firewood, charcoal and biogas. The biomass energy users included households that produced biomass energy for their own use to reduce energy expenses, those that used it as firewood to cook food for sale to reduce production costs, and those that use biogas instead of LPG. It can be said that human capital in community energy management is every person, involved in implementing the community energy project. Human Capital and Providing Energy Knowledge for Youth: In Napho Subdistrict, energy management is taught to youth at the school in the community so that they will learn how to use biomass energy for cooking. Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy: Some households in Napho Subdistrict use self-made earth kilns. With such knowledge, they can benefit from local resources. (4) Social Capital Participation in the Napho Subdistrict community energy management planning project has resulted from the effort to continuously implement the energy project with the support and promotion of public organizations. For instance, the Chumphon Provincial Energy Office, promoted and financially supported the project initiated by the Ministry of Energy. The Chumphon Provincial Energy Office in cooperation with its Energy Academic Bureau Region 11 received a budget to support the project which was aimed at increasing the efficiency of energy management 206 in a complete cycle at the Subdistrict level in 2011. To arrange the community energy market fair, the Chumphon Provincial Energy Office requested the Subdistrict Administration Organization to send two community energy volunteers to attend the meetings that discussed about the community energy market fair at the regional level. Another example is when Chumphon Province organized activities called “Fair to Honor Prince Chumphon Khet Udomsak” and the “Red Cross Fair for the year 2011” during the 17th – 27th of December, 2011. The Chumphon Provincial Energy Office organized the Red Cross Fair of Chumphon Province and the Community Energy Market Fair at the province level. These events were held to give knowledge about energy coupled with presentation of alternative energy technology and to encourage participation in the project, including exchange of energy knowledge and opinions among community energy volunteers in Chumphon Province. (5) Community Organizations The community organization that directly plays a major role in community energy management is the Subdistrict Administration Organization and one organization concerned is the Provincial Energy Office. Energy Support Given Directly to the Community: Naphophattana Municipality has played a role in promoting the operation of the agricultural housewife group of Khoa Suan Durian Village since the time when it was the Napho Subdistrict Administration Organization. It provided large-sized firewood stoves so that the agricultural housewife group can use to make coconut sugar. Although such support happened in the past, the leader of the agricultural housewife group considered it important for carrying out the group’s activities. Energy Support to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations : At present the Naphophattana Municipality has directly and indirectly helped promote the use of biomass energy within the subdistrict. With regard to the use of biogas derived from fermentation of animal droppings, households in the subdistrict received support from the Provincial Energy Office through the Subdistrict Municipality. Officials have installed all equipment necessary for making biogas and make sure that the equipment can operate well.
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(6) Biomass Energy Technology Biomass energy technology in the community consists of 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pit, large-sized charcoal kilns, large-sized firewood kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, firewood stoves, biogas stoves, charcoal-compacting machines and charcoal grinding machines. 6) Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. Community Capital and Resources Six types of community capital and resources are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The results of study are as follows: (1) Natural Capital The important natural capital in the production of biomass energy in the community is wood, mostly from all types of plants/trees which naturally grow and are grown in the area, such as pomelo, durian, white popinac, lychee, longan, Krathon, etc. (2) Financial/Eeconomic Capital Energy Planning and Budget Allocation by Different Organization and Household Capital : In the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013-2015, the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization specified development strategies for natural resource and environment management and conservation in the third guideline: Promoting, supporting, reducing global warming. Community energy sustainability was put in the plan with the objective of educating the energy leaders and working teams about household energy consumption in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict so that the households in the community can see the value of energy and participate in the contest which promotes using energy economically. The target or product of the project is that 30% of the households in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict will use energy economically. Next, the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization conducted a survey to collect the data for use in planning energy consumption in the households. It organizes the Energy Saving Household Contest once a year. This project receives the budget of 150,000 Baht per year for years 2013 – 2015 or the total of 450,000 Baht for 3 years (2013 – 2015). Besides, 208 financial/ economic capital for energy-related activities also come from the private fund of individual households. (3) Human Capital Human capital refer to users of biomass energy of community. Visiting the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, the researcher found that there were a small number of households that used biomass energy. He did not find any local wisdom about energy. However, there was a problem of contaminated water that Bang Si Thong Subdistrict was facing and the community leaders and village health volunteers (VHV) were trying to solve it. Although they could not deal with the energy problem, the community leader and village health volunteers (VHV) created local wisdom of solving the waste water problem by producing bio-water to reducing water pollution. (4) Social Capital Commitment, Reciprocity, Collective Action and Participation: Energy reciprocity in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict is evidenced by the fact that people help each other in doing some work not related directly to energy. Bang Si Thong people worked together to run the energy project when the community energy planning project began to be implemented in the subdistrict. The Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization built and installed charcoal kilns at Moo 1 and welcomed visitors who made study tours to observe charcoal production. But after flooding, the project was not further implemented. So team working, especially on biomass energy can no longer be seen in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict. People’s participation in the energy project was the past event. However, collective action in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in other matters still exist: for example, participation in the network of the youth group and the elderly group. (5) Community Organizations The community organizations that play an important role in community energy management are the subdistrict administration organization and the Fire Protection Office. Other organizations concerned are the Provincial Energy Office and the District Agriculture Office. Direct Energy Support to the Community: The subdistrict administration organization plays a very important role in giving support in all 209 activities in the subdistrict. Support of the energy projects was the past event. In the past, a 200-L drum kiln was installed permanently at Moo 1 and this kiln was under the roof. The biomass compost factory was also supported by the Subdistrict Administration Organization. Bang Si Thong Fire Protection Office used to be a place for learning biodiesel production. Firefighters were trained to be able to operate biodiesel producing machines. Now biodiesel producing machines are located at the Bang Si Thong Fire Protection Office. Visitors could visit there and the firefighters transferred the knowledge for them, but now, the energy project is no longer in operation. Energy Support to the Community in Collaboration with Other Organizations: The Provincial Energy Office has played an important role since Bang Si Thong Subdistrict participated in the community energy planning project. It was involved in all operational steps of the project. It organized training courses, seminars and other activities to achieve the specified objectives. The Provincial Energy Office has arranged both activities carried out by the organization itself and those assigned to the local administrative organization, such as organizing events or activities. The Provincial Energy Office has worked through the Subdistrict Administration Organization. (6) Biomass Energy Technology and Other Energy Technology Biomass energy technology in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict includes 200-liter drum kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, economic stoves, biodiesel-producing machines. Other technologies are, for example, solar cell ovens and covers of gas stoves.
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4.1.2 Summary of Community Capital and Resources (Factors Contributing to Success) in Community Energy Management for Energy Security Energy management for energy security requires many types of community capital and resources inside and outside the community. Each community may have similar or different capital and resources. Even communities that have similar capital and resources may have different kinds of success in the community energy management for energy security. Therefore, from the field study of 12 communities, the researcher will discuss community capital and resource management for energy security by dividing the topic into 2 parts: 1) Community capital and resources (factors contributing to success) in community energy management for energy security and the sub dimensions of both awarded and unawarded communities under the community energy planning project. 2) The key sub dimensions of community capital and resources found only in awarded communities. 4.1.2.1 Community Capital and Resources (Factors Contributing to Success) in Community Energy Management Energy Security and Basic Subdimensions Both Awarded and Unawarded Communities Under the Eommunity Energy Planning Project Community capital and resources are factors contributing to success in energy security. Both awarded and unawarded communities have natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. The sub dimensions of the basic factors are summarized as follows: 211
Table 4.3 Factors (Community Capitals and Resources) and Basic Subdimensions
that Contributed to Success in Energy Security
Factor Subdimensions (community capital and resources) (awarded and unawarded communities) natural capital Sufficient natural capital financial / economic capital Energy budget planning, energy budget allocation, energy budget, household capital human capital Knowledge about biomass energy, ability to put knowledge into practice and transfer of knowledge, actual practices in everyday life of the household, role model of community leaders, local wisdom. social capital Commitment, reciprocity, collective action, and participation. community organizations and other Direct energy support, support for energy related organizations cooperation with other agencies. technology of biomass energy and Demonstration of the use of technology technology related technology support, adequate technology
The results of the study of community capital and resources and basic sub dimensions of thess factors (See Table 4.3) in both awarded and unawarded communities elaborated as follows: 1) Natural Capital In both awarded and unawarded communities, there are different types of wood depending on the geographical area. Some communities use animal droppings and used vegetable oil to produce biomass energy. It is essential that the community must have adequate natural capital in order to meet the community demand. The field research reveals that some communities have plenty of natural capital, especially wood, while others have been developed into semi-urban or urban areas, so a lot of housing projects have emerged and the space for tree-growing has been diminished. The community leaders comment that the subdistrict now has a limited wood area, causing the less use of this type of natural capital. 212
2) Financial/Economic Capital The studied communities have received a budget to support their proposed community development plans. In additional, one type of capital that affects the success in community energy management is household capital, i.e., self- energy management by households in utilizing biomass energy. Therefore, any cost or investment for household energy has been paid by the households themselves. However, for financial/economic capital to enter the subdistrict or community, especially a government budget, it is necessary for the community to set a plan and to propose it along with projects related to community energy management. Each community has different proposed plans or projects and the amounts of budget related to community energy management, including the budget for the biomass energy project, depending on its need. 3) Human Capital Community energy management requires government agencies, community leaders and local people to implement and each subdistrict has a different combination of these parties. Human capital in a person can be seen from his/her carrying out household and public activities. In Nachumhet subdistrict, people joined together to construct the learning center to disseminate traditional knowledge of the community. This collaboration enabled them to use their skills in construction work to enhance the capacity of the community. Moreover, human capital can be seen in the use of biomass, especially wood. Most people know well about which kind of wood is suitable for coal production. Besides, human capital comes from the ability to put knowledge into practice in daily life and to transfer the knowledge to others, and from a good model of the community leader. For example, the community leader has produced charcoal for use in his households and later he advises local people to do so. Human capital also includes local wisdom in charcoal production of local people in both awarded and unawarded communities. For example, at Haung Nam khao subdistrict, Muang district, Trat province, many people can make earth kilns to produce charcoal. Some communities also have other kinds of knowledge. For example, Maelai subdistrict, Muang district, Phae province was given an award by the 213
Community Energy Planning project located at the local learning center because it had two energy innovation for charcoal production: 200 L drum kilns and roasting stoves. Even though Nongfag subdistrict, Saraphi district, Chiang Mai province did not win any award granted by the community energy planning project, it had local wisdom of preventing pots and pans from being blackened by firewood smoke as well as invention for energy saving devices. Some communities use a small amount of biomass energy so they do not use charcoal kilns. So it can be assumed that they have not developed local wisdom in biomass energy. For example, at Bang Si Thong subdistrict in Bang Kruai district, Nonthaburi province, which is an urban or suburban area, many households are close together and there are many housing development projects, so the residents cannot use firewood and charcoal for cooking. 4) Social Capital There is commitment of both awarded and unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project, although no agreement has been written. For example, Maelai subdistrict in Muang district, Prae province; Sri Phum subdistrict in Krasang district, Buriram province; Chumpol subdistrict in Phon Phisai district, Nong Khai province; there are now public kilns for all people in the villages to used. Moreover, some communities face problems that the people cooperate to solve them. For example, Nongfag subdistrict in Saraphi district, Chiang Mai province has faced the problem of smog from burning charcoal; therefore, they have agreed that they will not make charcoal in an open area. They may do so in an orchard, which is full of trees or use 200-L drum kilns. 5) Community Organizations and Related Organizations Both awarded and unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project have either the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization as the main community organization to provide direct support to people in the community. The field research indicates that Provincial Energy Office is the major organization involved in community energy management in both awarded and unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project. There are other organizations involved in this matter as well. For example, Maelai subdistrict has received support from Maejo University, the Provincial Energy 214
Office and the Reginal Energy Office, the Thai Chamber of Commerce, the Phrae Chamber of Commerce, the Department of Skill Development and the Office of Livestock Development in Phrae province, the Office of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Phrae province. The project that has been supported is the rice farming project “1 rai, 100,000 baht income”. Also, the unawarded communities, such as Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province, have received support from the Provincial Energy Office, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Khon Kaen University and the Energy Department Region 6. These organizations have given support to the subdistrict’s community university. Or Nongfag subdistrict in Saraphi district, Chiang Mai province has been supported for its community energy management by the Provincial Energy Office, Saraphi District Office, the Ministry of Energy, the Department of Informal Education and the CYMA. It can be concluded that organizations concerned have supported the community in running the community energy management and in establishing learning centers as well as allocated budgets to implement the energy projects. For example, Moo 6 in Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province has received a budget from external organizations to operate the project entitled “Exchange Longan Leaves with Eggs to Save the Environment”. 6) Biomass Energy Technology and Others It can be briefly stated that types of biomass energy technologies found in all communities are 200 L-drum kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves which the Ministry of Energy has encouraged local people to use. 200 L-drum kilns can produce carcinogens-free charcoal. The traditional technology of charcoal production, i.e. earth mound pit would produce charcoal with carcinogens that may contaminate food and may cause cancer. Using 200 L-drum kilns, the user can also collect wood vinegar to be used as organic pesticide instead of chemical pesticide. The researcher has also found another kind of biomass energy technology, i.e., earth kilns. Like 200 L-drum kilns, earth kilns can produce wood vinegar. Other types of biomass energy technology are earth mound pits, a traditional type of technology for charcoal production, economic stoves, biogas stoves in Nachumhet Subdistrict in Trang Province; Kho Sai Subdistrict in Sing Buri Province; 215
Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Kamphaeng Phet Province; a biodiesel-producing machine at Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Nonthaburi Province. Energy related technologies that exist in the studied communities are a solar-cell plant at Nachumhet Subdistrict in Trang Province and Kho Sai Subdistrict in Sing Buri province; solar-cell ovens at Nachumhet Subdistrict in Trang Province, Chumpol Subdistrict in Nong Khai Province, Nongfag Subdistrict in Chiang Mai Province, and Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Nonthaburi Province; and the hydro power electricity plants at Nachumhet Subdistrict in Trang Province. 4.1.2.2 Additional Subdimensions of Community Capital and Resources in Awarded Communities Apart from factors that have basic sub dimensions in awarded and unawarded communities in the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities, the awarded communities have additional sub dimensions as follows:
Table 4.4 Factors (Community Capital and Resources) and Additional Dimensions of Awarded Communities Under the Community Energy Planning Project Factor (Community Capital Additional Subdimensions Community and Resources) (Only Awarded Communities) Nachumhet subdistrct, Natural capital Using a diversity of biomass Yantakhao District, Concerned organizations Support from the private sector Trang Province Technology A variety of energy technology and technology development Maelai subdistrict, Organizations concerned Support-providing organizations Muang District, Phrae Technology A variety of energy technology and Province technology development Kho Sai subdistrict, Khai Organizations concerned Support from the private sector Bang Rachan District, Technology A variety of energy technology Sing Buri Province Wangkhaem subdistrict, Natural capital Tree growing campaign Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province Suansom Subdistrict, Financial/economic capital Large-scale investment Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province
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The field research to the awarded communities revealed that the awarded communities have additional subdimensions of the factors from the unawarded communities as follows: 1) Nachumhet Subdistrct in Yantakhao District, Trang Province Nachumhet Subdistrict has a variety of biomass such as animal droppings (chickens, pigs and cows) which are used to produce biogas. The community has received support from the private sector to construct a learning center at the school campus so that youth can have more knowledge about technology. This awarded community is different in technology from the unawarded communities because it has various kinds of biomass energy technology, namely 200 L-drum kilns, earth kilns, large-sized ovens, earth mound earth mound pits (covered with an iron sheet), high efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves, grilling/roasting stoves made from 200-L drum kilns, economic ovens, firewood stoves, biogas stoves and fermentation tanks to produce biogas, and garbage furnaces. Other types of energy technology are water pumping bicycles operated by human labor, solar cell ovens, solar-cell plants, and hydro-power plants. Nachumhet subdistrict technology has been developed by local people and the learning center. The technology developed at the local level is earth mound pits covered with an iron sheet instead of husk as in the past. This is similar to 200 L-drum kilns and earth kilns. 2) Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province Maelai Subdistrict has three learning centers that focus on energy: the learning center for energy, agriculture and sufficient economy, the learning center for alternative technology and energy conservation which focuses on the application of solar energy at the sports ground, and the learning center about the garbage bank under the waste management and separation project. The learning centers in Maelai Subdistrict have received support from several organizations, so the centers can operate continuously. These learning centers have become a driving force for community energy. Moreover, Maelai District has various kinds of energy technology. In particular, the learning centers have learners from inside and outside the community who want to know about energy technology developed in the subdistrict: 1) The 217 development of a 200 L-drum kiln. A smoke-releasing pipe is connected to the kiln to collect wood vinegar to use as insecticide. This pipe is raised above the roof so smoke will not disturb nearby households. Besides, this technique helps to double the derived amount of wood vinegar. 2) The development of a grilling/ roasting stove. The old-design roasting stove had nothing to prevent oil from food to drop directly to the burning charcoal below, so smoke will come up and stick to the food. Those who eat such food can have cancer. But the new design of a roasting stove is different in that charcoal can be placed along the sides of stove and oil is allowed to drop in the middle of the stove. 3) Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Kho Sai Subdistrict has various kinds of technology – for example, 200 L-drum kilns, earth kilns, large-sized ovens, earth mound pits (covered with an iron sheet), biogas stoves, high efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves. This has led to more use of biomass energy. Moreover, Kho Sai Subdistrict has been supported by the private sector to produce biogas from animal droppings, which results in more visits from other communities to learn this technology. 4) Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province With regard to natural capital, especially wood, the community has launched a tree-growing campaign entitled “one tree per one person”. Such a campaign has created sustainability of forests, important biomass for the community. By encouraging local people to grow trees, sustainable advantages will continue. 5) Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Households in the community have invested largely in biomass energy. For example, they invest in charcoal production by using 200 L-drum kilns, starting from purchasing a 200 liter-tank to be used as a kiln and then purchasing wood for large-scale production. A smoke pipe is linked to the kiln to collect wood vinegar. Besides, they purchase a tool to sweep charcoal fragments for further use. From the field research, the researcher concludes that six factors contributing to success in community energy management for energy security are natural capital, 218 financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and related organizations, biomass energy technology and other related technologies. Each factor has basic sub dimensions which are found in awarded and unawarded communities under the community energy planning project. 4.1.2.3 Summary of Key Factors Contributing to Success in Energy Management Found in the Awarded Communities Under the Community Energy Planning Project The key factors in community energy management that stimulate biomass energy utilization in the subdistrict (not only biomass energy production and utilization in households) are divided into two groups : internal factors and external factors as follows: 1) Internal Factors The internal factors consist of natural capital, human capital and community organizations. The conclusions are summarized as follows (1) Natural Capital Biomass available in the community that are used in community energy management for energy security are wood, animal droppings, and used vegetable oil. For example, at Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province, there is a large amount of rambutan wood, because most households has a large amount of wood from rambutan trees in their orchards. Although all the awarded communities do not have any specific type of wood as natural capital like Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, these communities have their own natural capital as well. (2) Human Capital Community energy management has arisen from human action. Without any production and utilization of biomass energy by local people, community energy management would not have taken place. People can make use of community capital and resources to get the maximum benefit. People can invent technology for biomass production and utilization. People can manage energy through many plans of the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization. They can be involved in community energy management as trainers, community energy volunteers or others.
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(3) Community Organizations The subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization has a major role in community energy management. It has set strategies and energy projects into the 3-year plan of the subdistrict so that community energy management has continued in the community. Community energy management in some communities, is also continuously supported by other community organizations. For example, the community health center in Nachumhet Subdistrict, Trang Province launched a campaign entitled “Pun Dauy Jai” (ride with heart) for the good health of local people or a campaign on energy conservation by village health volunteers who visit the area under responsibility by riding a bicycle or a campaign for not using used vegetable oil and a campaign for using used vegetable oil to produce biodiesel. The community health center at Kho Sai Subdistrict in Sing Buri province has supported the sufficiency economy and energy efficiency project in the community. The community bank of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province has promoted local people to save energy. 2) External Factors External Factors refer to organizations outside the community. The conclusions are as follows: One external organization related to energy projects is the Provincial Energy Department, which has a major role in community energy management. It works with the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization in all subdistricts that joined the community energy planning project. Moreover, the Provincial Energy Department has supported activities about community energy management and learning centers such as the learning center that provides knowledge about production of kilns and wood vinegar, the learning center that provides knowledge about production of biodiesel from used vegetable oil at Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province. Other organizations concerned are Provincial Agricultural Office and the Provincial Chamber of Commerce. They help to bring about success in community energy management in Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province. For example, the learning center that provides knowledge about the agricultural and energy was established and became a model of learning centers that combined a 220 knowledge of organic agriculture and energy. They manage community energy through the learning centers by demonstrating charcoal production or utilization of local energy, etc. The private organizations that have an important role in promoting community energy management are SCG Group and Ceramic Thailand Industries Co., Ltd. These companies have invested in technology of fermentation of animal dropping to produce biogas in Kho Sai Subdistrict. Therefore, the key internal factors to success in community energy management in awarded community under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” in Response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy” consist of natural capital, human capital and community organizations. The external factors are agencies concerned. Both internal and external factors play an important role in community energy management as they encourage biomass energy utilization in the subdistrict. 4.1.2.4 Summary of Key Factors in Unawarded Communities Under the Community Energy Planning Project Key factors in unawarded community under the Community Energy Planning Project that caused them not to receive an award are only internal factors as follows: 1) Natural Capital and Human Capital as Internal Factors (1) Natural Capital Biomass available used in community energy management in the unawarded communities is wood and animal droppings. For example, Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province has a lot of longan wood because many households has longan orchards. The whole community has a large amount of this type of natural capital. Even though all the awarded communities have no specific type of natural capital unlike Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province, they have their own natural capital as well. (2) Human Capital Human capital is mostly used for biomass production and utilization in households. Human capital helps build and promote rural technology for biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Human capital this sense is seen in various plans of the subdistrict municipality or the subdistrict administration organization of some communities only -for example, Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province; Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, 221
Chumphon Province; and Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. Human capital refers to trainers and community energy volunteers in some communities, such as Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province and Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province. At present, the subdistrict has its own learning center that provides knowledge about energy and agriculture by trainers or community energy volunteers. Other unawarded communities still lack any energy management project trainers or community energy volunteers.
4.2 Community Energy Management
This study examined two aspects of community energy management: biomass energy production and utilization and biomass energy promotion and utilization. The latter concerned energy planning building of the community energy capability, transfer of knowledge and local wisdom in the area of energy, utilization of benefits from community capital and resources, and development of a cooperative energy network within and outside the community. The findings from the 12 communities are as follows:
4.2.1 Six communities that Received an Award from the Project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to Royal Initiative on Sufficiency Economy Are: 4.2.1.1 Nachumhet in Yantakhao District, Trang Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Households in Nachumhet Subdistrict produce and use biomass as fuel. Wood is used as firewood or is burnt into charcoal. Before the implementation of the community energy planning project, most households made charcoal in a traditional way, using earth mound pits. Most households got wood from plants/trees that naturally grew or were grown in the area. Later Nachumhet Subdistrict received energy technology support from the community energy planning project, which provided a 200-L drum kilns to use for producing charcoal from wood in the community. But this technology 222 depreciated because of long use. Most households have then turned back to the traditional way of charcoal production. Improvement of biomass energy production and utilization after the project was launched, has been made by local people. Earth mound pits have been developed that is no longer covered with husk or saw dust. An iron sheet is now used to cover the hole in a similar manner to a 200-L drum kiln. At present, not only is wood used for biomass energy production and utilization but also animal droppings are fermented to produce biogas for household use. Animal droppings used in fermentation are dung of pigs, cows and chickens. 2) Promotion for Community Energy Management Support in biomass energy production and utilization consists of energy planning, building of community capacity of energy, transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy, utilization of benefits from community capital and resources, and development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings of the study are as follows. (1) Energy Planning This study focuses on investigating various energy plans in many plans of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially on a three-year strategic plan, which determines strategies, projects and budgets for the future, and examining the energy plans of 12 communities under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Energy Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: Prior to the implementation of the community energy planning project, the plan of the Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization included access to electricity, (a main energy source), and other public utilities. The energy planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization can be seen in public health care. The community health center supports the energy-saving project in the subdistrict’s three- year development plan. This project which is called “Bicycling for community health care” also received support from other state agencies, i.e., the Provincial Energy Office, the Provincial Administration Organization and the Subdistrict Administration Organization. In the village, volunteers in this project are encouraged to ride bicycles 223 to work instead of motorcycles. The volunteers also assist in a campaign on raising people’s awareness of energy saving. Community energy management has been placed in various annual plans of the Subdistrict Administration Organization energy year in order to promote the continuous use of energy produced from community resources. The Subdistrict Administration Organization has promoted using energy from nature. Any village that need support in any activity is allowed to propose its plan to the subdistrict administration organization, which will include such a plan in its annual plan, will provide the energy project with a fund to run it and will follow up the plan implementation. The community has also received support from outside organizations. For example, it can ask for funding from an outside source when the Subdistrict Administration Organization cannot financially support any project alone. An example was funding from the Provincial Administration for rubber drying plant. The subdistrict administration organization will set an annual plan with clear objectives that benefits the community in different ways. In other words, the plan will serve the community needs as specified by the survey. At present, the Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization has placed in its three-year development plan the alternative energy project including strategies for environment development and management of natural resources, an approach to the development, and monitoring and rehabilitation of natural environment, as seen in Table 4.5
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Table 4.5 An energy Project in the Three-year Plan (2013-2015) of the Nachumhet
Subdistrict Administration Organization
Goals Funding received (Baht) Expected Responsible Order Project (Output of results Agency the project) 2013 2014 2015
1. Project that - Support the Increase Office of the supports use of people’s Permanent alternative alternative awareness of 50,000 50,000 50,000 District energy and energy and energy and Administrative energy energy environment Office conservation conservation conservation
Community Energy Planning: Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization carried out community energy planning in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office of Trang Province, following the community energy planning process prescribed by the Ministry of Energy. The process started with explaining the project at subdistrict and community meetings. Working groups are formed consisting of village headman representatives from the Subdistrict Administration Organization, teachers, volunteers, housewife group and local wisdom people. Community energy data were gathered and then presented at community meetings. Furthermore, a study tour was arranged to see appropriate technology at Thoongsong Subdistrict in Nabon District, Nakhonsithammarat Province. The next step was drafting the community energy plan in the community meetings. Also, the working group held meetings to adjust the plan in line with the results of the public survey and submit the plan to the Subdistrict Administration Organization. After the implementation, the lessons learned were summarized. Community energy management of Nachumhet Subdistrict was systematic. A team was formed. Its responsibility was to make people realize the importance of energy, energy conservation, to find alternative energy and to encourage people to community resources. An energy projects that stemmed from the community plan was generating electricity with hydro power.
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(2) Building the Community Energy Capacity This topic includes providing knowledge of energy for community people, study tours to observe energy management in other communities, and producing energy volunteers. The findings of the study are the following: Providing Knowledge of Energy to the Community: Energy capacity in subdistrict has been built by community volunteers who work together to provide community people with knowledge and understanding on various topics - energy production and use of biomass energy in households. Taking Study Tours to Observe Energy Management in Other Communities: Energy capacity at Nachumhet subdistrict was built by taking community people and youth for a study tour to observe energy management in other communities in order to gain more knowledge and understanding about charcoal production because all rural communities have wood. Producing Energy Volunteers: Energy capacity has been built by producting community energy volunteers who have a knowledge about energy and who can pass it to local households. The Ministry of Energy set a guideline for community energy management for the energy volunteers (2 volunteers per community) to follow. The Trang Energy office organized a training course and observation tours for these volunteers. The Ministry of Energy assigned the Provincial Energy Office to promote activities that strengthened the volunteers, knowledge and network under the project on “Building efficiency in overall energy management at the subdistrict level in 2011” with the purpose of achieving sustainable management of local resources. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic includes transferring local wisdom through the learning center and disseminating local wisdom by trainers and guest speakers. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Knowledge/Wisdom Through the Learning Center: In Nachumhet Subdistrict, transferring local wisdom happens continuously. Apart from the community learning center near Wat Kuannimittasila School, Nachumhet Subdistrict is now constructing a second learning center at Moo 8 to spread knowledge of biomass energy to the public, to exhibit different types of energy technology and to 226 give information about biomass energy production and utilization. Furthermore, experts are available to give lecture on specific topics to various visitors and to people in the subdistrict.
(1) (2) Figure 4.1 (1) Khun Vin Anuraks, Assistant Village Headman subdistrict at Moo 8, near the community energy learning center of Nachumhet currently undergoing construction and the sign that reads “model community for sustainable energy management”. (2) The area inside a pavillion of the learning center where public relations posters and other informative media are located for raising awareness of energy matters.
(4) Utilization of Community Capital and Resources The topic covers utilization of natural capital, utilization of financial/economic capital and utilization of social capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing of Natural Capital: Apart from wood and animal droppings, other natural capital has been utilized in Na-choom subdistrict: for example, water from canals in the subdistrict which converge at Payak-Kao before going to the sea. There are five small canals in Nachumhet subdistrict : namely, Lampikul, Lam- tu, Lam-Kanun, Lampina and Srai-ngam. All the five canals are used in the mountain pipe water system and local people can use water free of charge. People in Nachumhet subdistrict that benefit from this water resource are those in Moo 8 Klong Lam Kanoon, Moo 4 Klong Lampikul, Moo 2 Klong Lampina where a small-scale electricity generating plant with small-sized automatic electrical panels that generates electricity for the school and a small learning center are located. 227
In addition to using water to generate electricity, Nachumhet subdistrict utilizes wind power in ventilation. At the monastery’s kitchen and at the liquor factory, rotating balls installed on the roof for ventilation are rotated by wind power. The roof of the liquor factory is low and liquor distillation makes it very hot. Similar to the monastery’s kitchen, installing rotating balls for ventilation that are driven by wind power enables the heat to be released. Utilizing Financial/Eeconomic Capital: The field study reveals how Nachumhet subdistrict benefits from financial/ economic capital. The subdistrict benefited from the fund allocated by the Provincial Energy Office to construct the learning center. This learning center displays biomass energy technology where community members are able to learn more about biomass energy. Thus, the center promotes biomass energy use. Utilizating Social Capital: The Provincial Energy Office has allocated a fund to purchase energy technology or equipment for the learning center constructed by community people. Cooperation in construction of the learning center is social capital, and Nachumhet subdistrict benefits from this social capital, which in turn promotes biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks Within and Outside the Subdistrict This topic covers cooperation between groups within the community, organization of energy-related activities in the community, and establishment of the learning center to accommodate the network from outside the community. The findings are as follows: Cooperation Between Groups Within the Community, Arrangement of Energy-related Activities in the Community, and Establishment of the Learning Center to Accommodate the Network From Outside the Community: In addition to cooperation of community members in constructing the learning center in Moo 8, to accumulate the network from outside the community, collective action can be seen in other activities. For example, the housewife group prepares food for those who come to the subdistrict for a study tour. The “home stay” business group provides accommodation for them. Cooperative energy-related activities are done by various 228 groups within the community. In fact, community energy management has progressed along with development in other social aspects. 4.2.1.2 Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before the implementation of the community energy planning project, many households in Maelai Subdistrict burnt wood to produce charcoal as well as burnt rubbish to get rid of it. There were cooperative efforts between the subdistrict administration municipality, Maejo University and the provincial Energy Office in solving energy and garbage problems. Energy problems and garbage problems are related in terms of garbage disposal. An operational research was conducted before the implementation of the energy plan in 2007. In the research, community people were trained to separate 3 types of waste: wet rubbish, harmful rubbish and recycling rubbish. After implementing the community energy planning project, the subdistrict focuses on generating electricity by using biomass energy derived from wood in line with the traditional lifestyle. One activity in Maelai subdistrict, a survey on community development was conducted by the subdistrict administration organization with the aim to find out the local people’s living condition and administrative problems, and energy problems. At present, community energy management, especially in the area of biomass energy produced from wood in the community has continued. The traditional lifestyle of the community is still the same in terms of biomass energy use, i.e. the use of firewood and charcoal. Some households make charcoal by different kinds of kilns/stoves, such as earth mound pits covered with husk, earth kilns and 200-L drum kilns. However, some communities, such as Moo 7, have encountered the pollution problem stemming from charcoal production because of the direction of the wind. Households in Moo 7 do not produce charcoal, but they use wood and LPG for cooking. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management In this study, promotion of community energy management included community energy planning, capacity building for the community, energy transfer of local wisdom on energy, utilizing community capital and resources, and 229 development the cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning This topic covers various energy plans by the subdistrict administration organization, especially the three-year strategic plan, funding for current and future projects and the community energy plans that had been implemented since 2007 under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings concerning energy planning are as follow: Energy Planning of the Subdistrict Municipality: At present, community biomass energy management is still going on as seen in various plans of the Maelai Municipality. The Maelai Municipality set strategies and a budget for each energy project in its three-year development plan in order to build people’s awareness and knowledge in utilizing natural resources and energy efficiently. Energy projects are so important that Maelai Subdistrict wants to implement them continuously. The findings based on the report that summarized activities under the action plan of the year 2013, strategies and building people’s awareness of the importance of utilization and conservation of natural resources and the environment to ensure sustainability are as follows:
Table 4.6 Summary Report of the Plan/Projects/Activities of Maelai Subdistrict Municipality in 2013
Strategy/Approach Project Total Fund Strategies concerning infrastructure, natural resource and environment Building people’s awareness and conscience in using natural resources and energy efficiently and sustainably, including finding 4 365,000 solutions to the problems and rehabilitation. 230
Community Energy Planning: The initial implementation of the community energy planning project by Maelai Subdistrict, the Energy Office of Phisanuloke Region 9, the Phrae Provincial Energy Office and the advisory team from Maejo University included 10 steps as follows: 1) holding meetings of related officials 2) holding meetings with the community 3) Data collection 4) Data processing and analysis 5) Giving feedback to the community 6) Taking observation tours on sustainable energy technology 7) Drafting an energy plan 8) Arranging a public hearing 9) Implementation of the project and 10) Drawing conclusions and writing a report. After the completion of these steps, the focus was on holding energy-related activities and producing experts and community volunteers in order to create sustainability in the community in the area of energy. (2) Building of the community energy capacity This topic covers taking observation tours to other communities, providing of information related to energy to the public and demonstrating how to use energy technology, conducting research on energy, and producing energy trainers. The findings are as follow: Taking Study Tours to Other Communities: The field research in Maelai Subdistrict and the in-depth interviews of community leaders and households there reveal that there energy capacity has been built in villages in Maelai Subdistrict. For example, last year community leaders from 4 provinces in 4 regions: Chaing rai, Pattalung, Kanjanabhuri and Surin were invited to join the “good energy” fair. Also, a campaign was launched for community people to use different kinds of energy-saving stoves. These were examples of activities that the ministry assigned the Provincial Energy Office and the later assigned local communities to handle. Providing Knowledge of Energy to the Public and Eemonstrating How to Use Energy Technology: After the end of the community energy planning project, many activities were done to increase the energy capacity of the community. The Maelai Municipality organized several activities in order to promote energy technology. An example was demonstration on how to use gas derived from husk. The community could learn from the activity and could apply the knowledge in their daily life. 231
Taking Study Tours and Producing Multiplier Experts: The Mai Lai municipality arranged an activity to increase the capacity community energy planners under the energy community plan revision. Representatives of the community energy planners were taken for an observation tour outside the community in order to be exposed to new technology and practice. This was an activity that supported capacity building of process trainers and technology trainers who were the personnel of the local administration organization. Upgrading the trainers’ capacity can increase biomass energy production and utilization in the community as long as the knowledge is transferred between communities. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy: This topic covers transfer of local wisdom by experts and through the learning center, transfer of local wisdom related to energy by energy trainers, and transfer of local wisdom to the youth. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom Through the Learning Center: Transfer of local wisdom in Maelai Subdistrict took place in many ways: through learning centers and /or by community experts at various places on various occasions. Community households can learn about many types of energy, including biomass energy, which will promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. The following are the energy learning centers that the researcher visited to collect the data.
Figure 4.2 Khun Suthep Sumonthakul, Deputy Mayor of the the Maelai Subdistrict Municipality at the model Energy Learning Center in Maelai Subdistrict
The Learning Center Where the Project “One Rai One Hundred Thousand Baht” Is Located (This Center Is Supported by many organizations): This learning center demonstrates organic farming of rice, vegetable and animal 232 raising. Because the center is run by the government standardized procedures are followed. Agricultural products are standardized, and various agencies cooperate in carrying activities, such as the municipal government, the Provincial Agricultural Office and others. The learning center operates as a community enterprise.
Figure 4.3 The Area Around the Learning Center “1 Rai 1 Hundred-Thousand”, with a Learning Pavilion and a 200-L Drum kiln
The Learning Center That Provide Knowledge About Alternative Energy Technology And Energy Conservation: This learning center uses energy from solar-cell panels installed in the sports ground, making it possible to use accumulated energy for lighting during the night. The Learning Center That Provides Knowledge About The “Rubbish Bank” Under the Operational Research Project: Research on waste disposal management of Maelai Subdistrict reveals that the subdistrict established a learning center that provides knowledge about the “Rubbish Bank”. The center provides knowledge of waste disposal, such as garbage separation for recycling. The subdistrict administration organization collaborated with other agencies within and outside the community in waste disposal management. A campsign was launched for community people to participate in garbage separation, thus reducing garbage burning. In the past some households burnt garbage, which negatively affected the environment. Also, they had experienced a loss of benefit from recycling until the garbage management project was introduced. Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy by Local Experts: The learning centers have organized courses in which experts provide knowledge on energy to the community. There are several learning centers in the subdistrict: the learning center that serves as a model of energy management, the 233
“One Rai, One Hundred Thousand Baht” learning center, the learning center that provides knowledge about alternative energy technology, and the learning center that provides knowledge about the “Rubbish Bank”. – Other communities take study tours to Mai Lai subdistrict to learn about energy management from local experts. Furthermore, the households in the subdistrict could learn about alternative energy technology from the learning centers and can seek advice from the experts of these learning centers. This promotes the production and utilization of biomass energy in the community. Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy to Youth: Many activities to transfer local wisdom related to energy were held after the community energy planning project was implemented. The report of the results of the community energy planning project indicates that Maelai Municipality carried out a project of having multiplier experts transfer knowledge about energy to school students and be guest speakers on many occasions. The Energy Office in Phrae province supported the project, which developed youth who would later become representatives in raising people’s awareness of energy conservation in the future. Furthermore, the report on the results of implementing the community energy planning reject indicates that the Maelai municipality has incorporated knowledge of energy into the community school curriculum, thus transferring local wisdom. The Provincial Energy Office of Phrae province has cooperated with Baan Maelai School in Muang district, Phrae Province to do this. (4) Utilization of Social Capital and Community Resources This topic covers utilization of community organizations and other organizations concerned, and utilization of natural capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing of Community Organizations and Other Organizations Concerned: People in Maelai Subdistrict benefit from the community organizations and other related organizations that promote the production and utilization of biomass energy in the subdistrict. Support come from various agencies, such as the Thai Chamber of Commerce, the Provicial Chamber of Commerce of Phrae province, the Department of Skill Development, the Office of Livestock in Phrae Province, the Provincial Agriculture and Cooperatives Office in Phrae Province. The project “One 234
Rai, One Hundred Thousand Baht” was located in Maelai Subdistrict. This project focuses on not only agriculture but also on charcoal production using 200-L drum kilns. Utilizing Social Capital: The Maelai Subdistrict Administration Organization built earth kilns in public places for households to use for charcoal production. It was evidence of the intention of the Subdistrict Administration Organization to show its commitment to promoting the use of wood to produce biomass energy. Therefore, community members’ using these public kilns means that they benefit from this social capital and the Subdistrict Administration Organization is successful in promoting biomass energy in the community. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks Within and Outside the Community: This topic includes cooperation among various groups within the community, cooperation in doing activities within the community, and cooperation in doing activities outside the community. The findings of the study are as follows: Cooperation in Doing Energy-Related Activities Among Various Groups Within the Community: Development of a cooperative energy network within Mai Lai Subdistrict can still be seen now. The report on the results of implementing the community energy planning project during 2006-2010 by Mai Lai Municipality indicates that produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil by various groups in the community. The fried pork skin production group, the Rhao Tan production group, the sweetened fried pork production group, and the farmer group have produced biodiesel from used vegetable oil. This has resulted in decease in energy expenses. The fact that different groups work together reflects the cooperative energy network development in the subdistrict. Organizing Energy-Related Activities Outside the Community: With regard to development of a cooperative energy network outside the community, the report on the results of the community energy planning project indicates that Maelai Municipality started promoting the role of local multiplier experts in 2007, when a cooperative energy network was developed outside the community. That is, the Provincial Energy Office in Phrae province along with Maelai municipality arranged a study tour to other communities to learn about alternative energy technology, to 235 exchange knowledge about energy and to have interaction with others. Community energy planners and energy trainers also went with the study tour group to enhance their knowledge; thus strengthening energy trainers of the community. 4.2.1.3 Kho Sai Subdistrict in Kai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before Kho Sai Subdistrict joined the community energy planning project, each household produced charcoal with earth mound pits. Later the state agency concerned introduced 200-L drum kilns, a new kind of technology, to them. It also gave advice on how to use this technology to reduce tar from produced charcoal. At present, community energy is mainly managed by the households themselves, in line with the lifestyle of individual households. Furthermore, community energy management was related to the character of the members of each household. Some households produce biomass energy as a primary occupation; others as a secondary occupation, depending on what they think they can benefit from biomass energy. Some households produce biogas from animal droppings for use instead of LPG. The public and private sectors has supported them with appropriate technology for fermentation. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management has been promoted by the energy plan of the subdistrict, building of the community energy capacity, transfer of local wisdom on energy, utilization of capital and community resources, and development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy planning This research focuses on the energy plan of the subdistrict administration organization, especially the three-year development plan, which set strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and on plans of the studied communities implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: 236
Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: Before joining the community energy planning project, the Kho Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization had set its annual plan based on a public hearing. The energy project implemented was mainly the electricity project. Like households in other communities, households in Kho Sai were merely energy consumers. They did not play any distinctive role in energy management. They used various sources of energy in their households, such as LPG, firewood and charcoal. Charcoal is mostly produced by using earth mound pits with the traditional knowledge that has been passed down from generation to generation. Currently, there are subsequent projects on community energy management in the subdistrict plan. Especially the three-year development plan contains the alternative energy project in its strategic economic development. Another strategy includes the use of local wisdom along with new technology. The project on promotion of local wisdom and energy-saving technology and the projects for local wisdom development are shown in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Brief details of the Three-year Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of Kho Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management
Amount of fund (Baht) Expected Agency No. Project Objective 2013 2014 2015 outcome responsible 1 Project of Area and people 50,000 50,000 50,000 People in Subdistrict promoting in Kor Sai Khor Sai Administration local wisdom Subdistrict, Moo subdistrict Office of and energy- 1 – 6 acquire Permanent saving implementing knowledge Secretary technology in the projects that about energy the community help reduce and practice energy expenses energy at the villege / conservation subdistrict level (2 – 3 projects/year)
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Table 4.7 (Continued)
Amount of fund (Baht) Expected Agency No. Project Objective 2013 2014 2015 outcome responsible 2 Project of Individuals with 50,000 50,000 50,000 People in Subdistrict supporting the local wisdom in Khor Sai Administration development the subdistrict subdistrict Office of of local who train acquire Permanent wisdom interested knowledge Secretary people about energy and engaging in energy conservation
Community Energy Planning: In addition to the community energy planning of Khor Sai Subdistrict in accordance with the procedures set by the Ministry of Energy, the Khor Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization has developed the three-year development plan (2013–2015) that specifies strategies, such as launching the project on “development of the sufficiency economy community” as initiated by His Majesty the King to carry out the community energy planning project speedily and widely. As a result, more and more people have adopted new energy- saving technology and adapted it to match the way of life in the community. The subdistrict administration organization has imposed strategies to enable people to be self-reliant, reducing dependence on external factors. Khor Sai Subdistrict has received energy-saving technology from the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DAEDE). The subdistrict administration organization established learning centers to provide knowledge in the area of energy conservation so that local people can choose the energy-saving technology appropriate to the community lifestyle. There is integration of budgets and plans, and the personnel from different organizations, and extension of the learning base on energy to other communities. The subdistrict administration organization acts as the learning center to disseminate knowledge of energy saving and develops it into a standard learning center to accommodate study tours.
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(2) Energy Capacity Building for the Community This topic includes educational support and transfer of knowledge about energy to other communities. The findings are as follows: Educational Support: Educational support to the subdistrict administration organization officers who are involved in the community energy planning has contributed to biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Educational support will upgrade the officers’ knowledge in other areas that can be applied to the energy matter and will improve their ability to pass that knowledge onto households in the community. Transfer of Knowledge About Energy to the Community: Capacity building of the community is achieved through public relations. For example, knowledge about charcoal production using the 200-L drum kiln can be acquired at the community learning center “Baan Uncle Yui”. Furthermore, in the subdistrict there is a news-disseminating tower set up for local announcements about community activities and for spreading knowledge about energy, and for informing the people where or from whom to get more information. Providing knowledge about energy and giving additional sources of knowledge can help to promote biomass energy production and utilization of the community. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy: This topic covers local wisdom publicized through the learning centers, transfer of local wisdom between individuals and transfer of local wisdom by energy experts. The findings are as follows: Transfer of Local Wisdom Through Learning Centers, by Experts, and Between Individuals: At the community learning center, there is formal and informal transfer of local wisdom to people within and outside the community by community experts, resulting in energy conservation. The learning center provides knowledge of biomass production using 200-L drum kilns and wood vinegar with herbal smell. Other activities are, for example, growing herbs, producing coal-in- basket products by the weaving housewife group, coal shampoo and various other products. 239
Figure 4.4 Community learning center in Kho Sai subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachun District, Sing Buri Province
(4) Utilization of natural capital and community resources There are no obvious sub-topics for discussion. However, many households in Khor Sai Subdistrict use biomass energy. Therefore, it can be said that households here benefit from natural capital and community resources. The findings are as follows: Overall Benefit from Capital and Community Resources: People in Khor Sai Subdistrict at present benefit from community capital and resources in community energy management. They use technology, wood or animal droppings, to generate income. For instance, they earn more from selling charcoal and they use charcoal and wood vinegar in their households, which helps reduce the use of LPG and chemical pesticides. Some non-monetary benefits are, for example, helping each other in the community, participation in producing community products. The benefits mentioned above promote the use of biomass energy in the community. (5) Cooperative Energy Network Development Within and Outside the Community This topic covers cooperation between various groups in the community, development of a cooperative network outside the community through learning centers and support from the private sector. The findings are as follows: Cooperation Between Various Groups in the Community: A cooperative energy network among various groups in the community has been developed. Many groups have been formed in the community such as the agricultural housewife group, the rice-mill group, the bio-fertilizer group, the weaving group and the energy group. These groups link together as a network. Some community 240 members belong to more that one group, resulting in reciprocal support that facilitates coordination. An example of benefits from the network of different groups in the community is “charcoal in a basket”, a community product by the weaving group, which helps promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Cooperative Network Development Outside the Community Through Learning Centers and Support from the Private Sector: Coopeartive network development outside the community happened after the Khor Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization took a study tour to see energy technology in other provinces. Presently, Khor Sai subdistrict is a place where people from other communities come to learn about energy at its learning center. This has resulted in an increase in cooperation with outsiders. Furthermore, cooperative network development outside the community also resulted from the fact that some villages in the subdistrict have received support on energy from the private groups like SCG. Also, the Thai Ceramic Industrial Company Limited has invested in building wells for fermenting biogas in some households which raise pigs in Moo 6. 4.2.1.4 Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before implementing the community energy planning project, people in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict used firewood and charcoal as household fuels. At present, the majority of households own rambutan orchards, so they use rambutan wood to produce charcoal for household use and for sale. Trat province is a tourist destination with many beautiful islands, so charcoal is sold to restaurant operators on different islands. Charcoal has been produced continuously in many households until present. 2) Promotion of Biomass Energy Management Biomass energy management was promoted by setting an energy plan, building energy capacity for the community, transferring local wisdom on energy, utilizing community capital and resources and developing cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows:
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(1) Energy planning The study of community energy planning in this research focuses on the energy plan of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, the three- year development plan that set strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and the energy plan of the communities under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Energy Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: Before joining the community energy planning project, the Khor Sai Subdistrict Administration Organization mainly stressed electricity projects and activities under its different plans. Households in the community were electricity consumers. When implementing the project, the subdistrict administration organization emphasized the importance of energy so that community people would be aware of the value of energy in the future because energy scarcity might occur. Presently, apart from the use of wood as household energy, the three-year development plan of the Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Organization, includes the alternative energy project in its strategies for development of public utilities, public amenities and infrastructure, for expansion of the electricity zone and installation of public lighting. Furthermore, strategies are imposed for agricultural development and natural resource and environment management, such as building people’s awareness of the value of natural resources and the environment and participation in solving the problem of waste disposal, water pollution and other environmental problems. 242
Table 4.8 Brief details of the Three-year Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of the Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Organization related to community energy management
Strategies for developing public utilities, public amenities, and infrastructure
No Project Objective Target Amount of fund (Baht) Expected Agency . group outcome Responsible 2013 2014 2015
1 Solar People use People in - 100,000 - Local Provincial energy alternative Moo 3 people can Electricity- project, energy, thus save energy Generating Moo 3 lowering of and use Authority in expenses alternative Trat Province/ energy the Civil Engineering Department Building people’s awareness of the value of natural resources and environment and participation in solving the problems of waste disposal, water pollution, and other environmental problems 1 Model of To have People in - 150,000 - Local Subdistrict the energy- alternative Moo 1-5 people can Administration saving and energy and save energy Office of alternative to save and use Permanent energy use energy in the alternative Secretary community energy
A monthly meetings is usually held to integrate solutions of the problems in the community. Every month, the village headman of each village holds a meeting of community people before the 26th of every month. After that the community leaders, the village headman, the assistant of the village headman and the members of the Subdistrict Administration Organization will group the problems in their meeting before passing up the problems to the subdistrict level. To sum up, community problems are identified at the community level and some are solved at the subdistrict level. The problems are then passed to the provincial level by the subdistrict representative and finally the fund will be allocated down to the subdistrict level for project implementation.
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Community Energy Planning: In 2007, Huay Nam Khao Subdistrict joined the community energy planning project under the Ministry of Energy. The Subdistrict Administration Organization provided a fund to support alternative energy promotion in the community in the form of a working team consisting of president, vice president, and members of all Subdistrict Administration Organization and local people. Each community gave 200-L drum kilns and high efficiency bucket stoves to community people. The community also received a reward for its participation in the community energy planning project. However, the project promotion was not continuously carried out, although house holds still use biomass, especially producing from wood. (2) Building of Community Energy Capacity This topic covers study tours related to energy and training on energy to the community, and education support. The findings of the study are as follows: Study Tours and Training on Energy: Capacity building of the community has continued. Huay Nam Khao Subdistrict took observation tours outside the community. People in the community use wood as fuel because wood is abundant in the area. Now they are also encouraged to use alternative energy. Observation tours and training help promote production and utilization of energy generated from wood. Educational Support: Huay Nam Khao Subdistrict financially has supported the Subdistrict Administration Organization staff to further their education in various educational institutions through local funding sources, such as that of the Provincial Administration Organization. The project is not compulsory, but it is a means of capacity building. The Subdistrict Administration Organization personnel have seen the importance of self-development. Fro example, the ex-president of the Subdistrict Administration Organization had further his education until he got a Master’s degree. The overall capacity of the organization comes from the personnel with high education. The higher education the staff have, the more efficient the organization in meeting its objectives.
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(3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic covers transferring local wisdom in the area of energy between community members, transferring local wisdom in energy within the household, and transferring local wisdom in the area of energy by experts. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy Between Community Members and Within the Household: People in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict transfer local wisdom to their neighbors and to their household members. This helps promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. The majority of households own rambutan orchards, so they have plenty of rambutan wood to produce charcoal for household use. Skills and knowledge about biomass energy, such as the method of charcoal production using earth kilns, has been passed on within the household and between the households in the subdistrict. Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy by Experts: Apart from transferring local wisdom within the community, Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict transfers its local wisdom to other communities that take a study tour there. Households in the subdistrict listen to the lectures on energy during their welcoming visitors. They can apply the local wisdom they learn from the lectures to produce and use biomass energy, especially charcoal. (4) Utilization of Community Capital and Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital and utilizing energy technology. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Natural Capital: Households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict own rambutan orchards, so each household can use rambutan wood to produce charcoal for household use. Therefore, their utilization of this natural capital help promote the use of biomass energy in the community. Utilizing Energy Technology: The field research reveals that households in Huang Nam Khao subdistrict have home-made earth kilns for charcoal production. Some households pass this local wisdom of earth kiln construction to their household members. Utilizing energy technology, i.e., earth kilns, helps increase biomass energy use within the community. 245
(5) Development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community This topic covers cooperative networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: Cooperative Networks Within and Outside the Community: Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has developed cooperative networks both within and outside the community. In the meetings at the village level chaired by the village headman, various issues are summarized and submitted to the president of the subdistrict administration organization. The subdistrict administration organization will send its representative to the meeting at the provincial level which consists of representatives from different sectors in the same province. This integrated meeting has contributed to development of cooperative networks within the community from the village level to the district level and to the provincial level. Various issues including energy issues will be discussed at the meetings of all levels. 4.2.1.5 Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before the implementation of the community energy planning project in 2007, biomass energy made from wood and animal droppings was used by households. Wood was used as firewood and for charcoal production. Community energy management emphasized alternative energy produced with resources in the community in line with sufficiency economy. Presently, households still use wood as fuel or for charcoal production. Many households use earth kilns and earth mound pits as did in the past, but some households now use the 200-L drum kilns. In addition, some households receive support for producing biogas from animal droppings and biodiesel from used vegetable oil. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic covers setting an energy plan, energy capacity building for the community, transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy, utilizing 246 community capital and resources, and development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning This research on community energy planning focuses on various energy plans of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year development plan that sets strategies, projects and funding for present and future projects and the community plan that each studied community implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Energy Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: The three-year development plan of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization contains the energy project under the strategies for promoting public health care and quality of life of local people, an approach to health care development and promotion, the training courses and observation tours for health volunteers and energy development volunteers; and under strategies for environmental development -developing and rehabilitating natural resources and the environment, and supporting the project on building biogas wells.
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Table 4.9 Brief Details of the Three-year Development plan (2013-2015) Related to Community Energy Management of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization
Strategies for promoting public health care and quality of life of the people. Approach to public health care promotion
No. Project Objective Target Group Amount of fund (Baht) Expected Agency outcome responsible
Project output 2013 2014 2015
1 Training and To build energy Organizing 100,000 Village health Public Health observation tour capacity of training courses volunteers Division of the project for village health and observation have Subdistrict village health volunteers and tours for village capability to Administration volunteers and energy health work Organization energy development volunteers and development volunteers energy volunteers development volunteers Strategies for promoting public health care and quality of life of the people. Approach to public health care promotion No. Project Objective Target Group Amount of fund Expected Agency outcome responsible Project output 2013 2014 2015 1 The project of To promote Produce biogas 20,000 People can Public Health biogas wells alternative wells in 3 areas gain benefits Division of the energy use, from waste Subdistrict pollution Administration reduction and Organization maintenance of the environmental quality
Apart from firewood and charcoal, people are encouraged to produce biomass energy by using animal droppings. The Subdistrict Administration Organization, in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office, has installed biogas technology for households that raise animals. This technology helps reduce bad odor, thus improving the environment.
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Community Energy Planning: When Wangkhaem Subdistrict joined the community energy planning project, it carried out the energy project, following the ten steps prescribed by Ministry of Energy. Under this project which continued for 4 years, the subdistrict received 200-L drum kilns which later deteriorated because of long use. The subdistrict administration organization also did activities other than stated in the project of the Ministry of Energy. As a result, it received an award for good governance from the community energy planning project of the Ministry of Energy. (2) Building of Energy Capacity for the Community This topic covers study tours to observe energy management and training on energy for the community. The findings are as follows: Observation Tour on Energy Management: The field research including in-depth interviews with community leaders and households indicate that energy capacity in the community has been built. Recently, community leaders and community volunteers of community development have taken study tours and training on energy to increase their capacity of energy management. In the past emphasis was given to different aspects. However, the households are encouraged to use biogas if they raise pigs, so the households have capacity to produce energy from raw materials or available resources in the area. This promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. (3) Transferring Local Wisdom in Energy This topic covers transferring local wisdom through learning centers and transfer local wisdom through local experts. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom Through Learning Centers and Through Local Experts: Local wisdom has been transferred in many instances. For example, experts at the learning center have an opportunity to welcome visitors who want to learn about 200-L drum kilns, wood vinegar production and the way of life in line with sufficiency economy. The households in the community can learn from the learning center about production and utilization of biomass energy from wood, especially charcoal and wood vinegar production. 249
Figure 4.5 Learning center that provides knowledge about charcoal kilns and wood vinegar production supported by the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization in collaboration with the Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Energy Office.
Apart from the learning center that provides knowledge about charcoal kilns and wood vinegar production, Wangkhaem Subdistrict also has another learning center to provide knowledge about bio-diesel production. Both learning centers are promoted by the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office in Kamphaeng Phet Province. The learning centers are sometimes visited by outsiders. In the researcher’s opinion, the learning center that provides knowledge of producing bio-diesel from used vegetable oil helps to promote the production and utilization of biomass energy in the community. Outsiders visiting the learning center could also apply the knowledge in their community, as well. (4) Utilization of Capital and Community Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital and utilizing energy technology. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Natural Capital: People in Wangkhaem Subdistrict utilized natural capital which are wood, animal droppings and used vegetable oil to produce biomass energy. Utilizing natural capital helps promote biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict – whether the natural capital is wood or animal droppings. Utilizing Energy Technology: The field research reveals that many households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict use biomass energy and several kinds of energy technology. Most households the researcher visited use earth kilns 250 and earth mound pits to produce charcoal. Some households use the 200-L drum kilns. Also, energy technology for biogas production and a machine for filtering vegetable oil are used. Energy technology used in the community promotes biomass energy production and utilization in the community. (5) Cooperative Energy Network Development within and Outside the Community This topic covers cooperation between groups, arrangement of community activities, and establishment of learning centers to accommodate an energy network outside the community. The findings are as follows: Cooperation Between Groups, Arrangement of Community Activities and Establishment of Learning Centers for an Energy Network Outside the Community: A cooperative network within the community has been developed when different groups in the subdistrict work together. For example, the housewife group in Hantra village work together with the energy group. Local people learn how to produce charcoal and wood vinegar with 200-L drum kilns together at the learning center. The learning center thus helps promote biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. At the provincial level, the Provincial Energy Office has cooperated with the Wangkhaem Subdistrict Administration Organization to encourage the use of biogas in households that raise pigs. 4.2.1.6 Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass energy production and utilization Prior to joining the community energy planning project in 2007, some households in the community used wood as fuel and only a few produced charcoal from wood. They managed their energy based on sufficiency economy. The use of wood as fuel in the community has been encouraged by the community leaders up until present. However, people are faced the problem of the deterioration of public kilns. The community leaders of Suansom Subdistrict believe that the philosophy of sufficiency economy should be applied to community energy management. Many households have applied this philosophy to various areas and not just energy. Moreover, youth have been taught many things about energy. 251
2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic covers energy planning, building of energy capacity for the community, transferring local wisdom in the area of energy, utilizing capital and community resources, and development of cooperative energy network within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning This study focuses on energy planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year plan that includes strategies, projects and funding for present and future projects, and on the community energy plan that the studied community implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The results are as follows: Energy Planning of Subdistrict Administration Organization: Presently, the three-year development plan of the Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization includes the energy project in its strategies for promoting health and quality of life, an approach to public health development, the charcoal and wood vinegar production project, and its strategies for environmental development, an approach to rehabilitation of natural resources and environment and the project of establishing the learning center to provide knowledge about alternative energy.
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Table 4.10 Brief Details of The Three-year Development plan (2013-2015) of the Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization Related to Community Energy Management
Strategies for promoting health and quality of life: An approach to Public health development No. Project Objective Target Group Fund and Source Expected Agency outcome responsible Project Output 2013 2014 2015
1 Project of Community can People in 40,000 40,000 40,000 People Subdistrict charcoal kiln develop their local Suansom received Administration and wood wisdom in line with Subdistrict knowledge in Office of vinegar alternative energy alternative Permanent production technology energy and Secretary energy conservation Strategies for environmental development An approach to rehabilitation of natural resources and environment 1 Project of Exchange of Establishment 40,000 People have Subdistrict establishing the knowledge of energy of the learning received Administration learning center technology within center for knowledge Office of for alternative and outside the alternative about energy Permanent energy community energy Secretary technology
Community Energy Planning: In 2007 Suansom Subdistrict carried out the energy plan by following the procedures in the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. The project received support from an outside organization, i.e. the Thonburi Rajabhat University. Initially, the community people encountered difficulty in understanding the project. The subdistrict then provided lecturers and students to give them explanation. After that the people could carry out the project by themselves. In short, the implementation of the plan received participation from the community. (2) Building Energy Capacity of the Community This topic includes training on energy for the community and observation tours to see energy management. The findings are as follows: Training on Energy for the Community: Building of energy capacity for the community in energy stemmed mostly from visiting other communities and from training. This promoted biomass energy production and utilization. The 253 community and households learn how to use alternative energy. Currently, charcoal is produced in the community, which partly results from accumulated knowledge from training. Study Tours to Observe Energy Management: Study tours on energy management have stimulated biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. Villagers have an opportunity to learn how to produce wood vinegar and many came back to produce charcoal and vinegar in their households. Some households use wood vinegar as pesticide in their orchards as a substitute for chemical pesticide. It is more economical and environmental friendly. In short, households are able to put what they learn into practice. Building Community Capacity and Educating Youth in Various Areas Including Energy: Capacity building for the Suansom subdistrict includes educating youth in various areas including energy. This has been achieved by teaching the youth to have a positive attitude toward various things, to follow the philosophy of economy sufficiency and to save energy. In the case of energy, youth have been taught to ptoduce and use biomass energy to reduce the purchase of non- renewable energy such as LPG. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic includes transferring local wisdom through learning centers, educating youth about energy, and transferring local wisdom by experts. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom in Energy by Local Experts and Through Learning Centers Community energy management began when the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities was implemented in 2007. The community has provided knowledge of energy to its people and has become a place of study tours from outsiders. Local wisdom in the area of energy and agriculture is transferred through the learning center, following the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy. The experts at the center or even the president of children council can transfer local wisdom to those within and outside the community who visit the center. 254
Educating Youth About Enery: Youth in Suansom Subdistrict have been taught about energy to promote use of biomass energy. Community experts demonstrated how to make charcoal to youth who learn both theory and practice. Youth have been taught to understand that various resources in the community have values. If they know them, they can gain benefits from them. Energy-related activities are arranged in community schools. (4) Utilization of Community Capital and Resources This topic covers utilizing human capital and utilizing natural capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Human Capital: From related documents and the field study, the researcher has found that Suansom Subdistrict had many experts in the area of energy. These experts received training and had an opportunity to take observation tours to other communities, especially to see biomass energy management. The experts thus have a good knowledge and understanding of biomass energy and can transfer the knowledge to community people so that the latter can produce and use efficiently. Therefore, it can be said that utilizing human capital in Suang Som Subdistrict helps promote the use of biomass in the subdistrict. Utilizing Natural Capital: There are 30 model households the sufficiency economy village in Suansom Subdistrict that still use wood as fuel. What the households do is in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy. They used natural capital to produce energy . The subdistrict was awarded a prize for a green village and a prize for a sufficiency economy village. The area of Suansom Subdistrict is not good for animal raising but is good for rice farming, pawn and fish- raising. Some households use wood as firewood or produce charcoal from it. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks Within and Outside the Community During the field study, the researcher did not find any cooperative energy network development within the community, but observed that there was cooperative networks in other areas, such as cooperation among the public health centers in the subdistrict and an energy network outside the community to buy kilns/ stoves.
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4.2.2 Six communities that did not receive any award from the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. The six communities studied and community energy management are elaborated below. 4.2.2.1 Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before Sri Phum Subdistrict joined the energy project of the Ministry of Energy to promote biomass energy production and utilization, the majority of households used charcoal and firewood as fuels. Charcoal was produced by using earth mound pits. Some households used earth kilns. Households found wood from their farms and orchards which saved their energy cost. Many households were poor. However, when the project on community energy planning by 80 individual in response to the Royal Initiative of “sufficiency economy” was implemented, 200-L drum kilns were introduced for common use. But after 1-2 years these 200-L drum kilns broke down because of its long use. Some households resorted to the traditional ways of charcoal production, i.e., using earth mound pits and earth kilns. Presently, some households still use the 200-L drum kilns which have been given to them again after the project on community energy planning ended. Even though Sri Phum subdistrict has received less support in community energy, many households still use wood as fuel or for charcoal production because people here see the value of wood as material for producing charcoal. Earth mound pits are mostly used for this purpose. Some use earth kilns and not many use 200-L drum kilns. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic covers energy planning, energy capacity building for the community, transfer of local wisdom in energy, utilizing capital and community resources and cooperative energy network development within and outside the community. The findings are as follows:
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(1) Energy planning This research focuses on various energy plans set by the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year development plan that imposes strategies and fund for the present and future projects, and on the community energy plan of the studied communities implemented in 2007 under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: In the past, energy planning was made by the subdistrict administration organization with focus on infrastructure management, including electricity. People in Sri Phum Subdistrict had a low income. The community needed development in public utilities including electricity. When joining the project of the Ministry of Energy, the Subdistrict Administration Organization implemented the energy planning project following the steps set by the ministry. It see importance of building awareness of energy saving and the use of alternative energy. At present, community energy management of Sri Phum Subdistrict lacks continuous support. In other words, it receives less support from state agencies, especially support for energy technology and training. However, each household still uses wood as fuel. When the subdistrict formulates a community plan to serve the community’s needs, and energy, especially biomass energy, is emphasized. Today households in Sri Phum Subdistrict mainly use firewood and charcoal as fuels. Community Energy Planning: Sri Phum Subdistrict set its community plan, following the planning procedures set by the Ministry of Energy. People participated in determining an approach for energy management and energy technology to use in the community, taking observation tours to other communities, and in preparation and implementation of the community energy plan. Sri Phum Subdistrict was given 200-L drum kilns (2 kilns for each village) for common use by local people to produce charcoal and wood vinegar. Local people also produce charcoal and kilns/stoves as community products. The center for these products was Moo 6. However, the 200-L drum kilns are no longer working; they broke down. 257
(2) Building of Energy Capacity of the Community This topic covers training and study tours to observe energy management. The findings are as follows: Training and Study Tours to Observe Energy Management: Training and study tours help promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. The subdistrict have organized training and study tours outside the province to observe energy management in other communities. The community leaders found that community energy management in Sri Phum Subdistrict differed from other communities because there was hardly promotion in energy management in the subdistrict. Households in the subdistrict had already produced and used charcoal; that is why, the subdistrict administration organization focused on other areas of community development. After the training and the study tours, community leaders turned to promote biomass production and utilization. Training and study tours on energy are therefore useful because the knowledge can be applied to household energy management. (3) Transferring Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic covers transferring local wisdom by experts and between villagers, and through learning centers. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom by Local Experts and Between Villagers: Transferring local wisdom of the subdistrict on various occasions has promoted biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Many households in the subdistrict use firewood and charcoal. The villagers are well equipped with knowledge of kiln-making. Some households do not learn this skill from outside the community but from members of the community who transfer local wisdom generation after generation. Furthermore, some villagers can be trainers for those visiting the community. For example, an assistant to the village headman in Moo 9 usually demonstrates how to make charcoal to visitors and community members also welcome visitors who came on observation tours. Transferring Local Wisdom Through Learning Centers: The learning center that provides knowledge of energy and agriculture is located in Sri Phum subdistrict. Households in the subdistrict can learn how to produce and utilize biomass energy, including how to do farming at this learning center. The 258 learning center provides information on economy sufficiency and others such as farming, animal raising and small-scale rice mills and charcoal production. However, some equipment, such as the 200-L drum kilns, water pumping bicycles, deteriorated due to their long use. However, sufficiency economy still continues. The sufficiency economy way of life can be seen there. The learning center transfers local wisdom of how to produce charcoal with 200-L drum kilns. Community members also join visitors when there are demonstrations in this matter, so they learn the technique at the same time. This enables community members to see the importance of wood and to apply the knowledge to their own energy management. They can also ask local experts for advice if they have any problem.
Figure 4.6 Learning Center that Provides Knowledge of Sufficiency Economy
(4) Utilizing Community Capital and Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital and utilizing social capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Natural Capital: Utilizing natural capital of the community promotes biomass energy use in the community. It enables the community to carry out the energy project. The households there see the benefit of using wood as fuel or for making charcoal. The project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities in response to the Royal Initiative of economy sufficiency also enables them to see the importance of community resources. Nearly 100% of the energy in the community is a mixture of charcoal, firewood and LPG, although the proportion may be different, depending on how individual houses see the benefit from wood. Utilizing Social Capital: The Sri Phum Subdistrict Administration Organization built earth kilns in public places for households to use. 259
The organization did so to show its commitment of promoting the villagers to use biomass energy produced from wood. The households using common earth kilns means that they use social capital, which promotes the biomass energy use in the community. (5) Cooperative Network Development within and Outside the Community This topic covers cooperation between groups within the community and joint energy-related activities within the community. The findings are as follows: Cooperation Between Different Groups in the Community: Cooperative energy network development within and outside the community stemmed from formal and informal coordination at the local level. Formal cooperation can be seen from official documentation between the local administrative organization and other organizations. And informal cooperation refers to contacts within the organizational network and the energy working group. Organizing Joint Energy-Related Activities Within the Community: Cooperative network development with outsiders to promote biomass energy production and utilization can be seen from joint energy-related activities in the subdistrict. Meetings are held to invite outside organizations such as the Isan Development Foundation to provide knowledge of charcoal production. The subdistrict administration organization supports joint activities in the community. Apart from gaining knowledge, the villagers can build a good relationship with agencies that provided knowledge for them. 4.2.2.2 Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before Chumpol Subdistrict entered the project on community energy planning project of the Ministry of Energy, many households had already used wood as fuel and for charcoal production. The majority of households in remote, rural areas made charcoal by using traditionsl technology: earth kilns. In some urbanized villages charcoal is used less and less as it is replaced by LPG. The differences between villages in Chumpol subdistrict give rise to different ways of using energy, 260 including biomass energy. There is difference in the lifestyle of the community in terms of biomass energy before and after the community energy planning project was launched. In the past, the majority of households used earth kilns located in their orchards to make charcoal and then moved it to use in the households. During the subdistrict’s implementation of the community energy planning project, households in the community used the 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production. They learnt how to use these kilns, and therefore more and more households use them. However, the number has declined when the 200-liter kilns deteriorated as time passed. Currently, the households use earth kilns for charcoal production as before. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management Promotion of community energy management could be seen through the energy plan, building of energy capacity for the community, transfer of local wisdom in energy, utilization of community capital and resources, and cooperative energy network development within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning The study of energy planning focuses on the energy planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year development plan that defines strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and on the community energy plan that the studied communities implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Energy Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: Until now the community energy plan has been made on the basis of a public hearing to find out the community’s needs and what local people have viewed as important. Before undertaking the community energy planning project, the subdistrict gave importance to distribution of electricity to all the community which covered 26 villages. Energy planning of the community was still continuous during the implementation of the community energy planning project. However, after the project 261 ended, the biomass energy project was not included in the energy plan. Still biomass energy like firewood and charcoal has used in the households. Community Energy Planning: Community energy planning of the subdistrict during the community energy planning project followed the procedures set by the Ministry of Energy which continued for 4 years. During the first year of the project implementation, there were meetings of community leaders in the subdistrict, data collection, sharing of opinions, and observation tours to other provinces. After the first year, support came to other aspects. For example, energy volunteers were sent out to be trained outside the community. Implementing the energy project enables the subdistrict to promote the use of biomass energy with support from organizations in and outside the community and participation of the villagers in joint activities. The community people have used wood for fuel and for charcoal production for a long time. During the implementation of the community energy planning project, people used energy technology like the 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production. But after they deteriorated, the households turned back to earth kilns. (2) Building Energy Capacity of the Community This topic covers study tours to observe energy management outside the community and training on energy. The findings of the study are as follows: Study Tours and Training on Energy: The field research and interviews with community leaders and households reveal that capacity building for Chumpol Subdistrict stemmed from study tours and training on biomass energy in the past. This has promoted biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Currently, Chumpol subdistrict joined with other subdistricts in attending training courses and taking study tours held at the provincial level to learn about energy management. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic covers transferring local wisdom through learning centers and providing youth with the knowledge about energy. The findings are as follows: 262
Transferring Local Wisdom Through Learning Centers and Providing Youth with the Knowledge About Energy: The community university displays many kinds of energy technologies such as a solar cell plant for drying rubber sheets, biogas fermentation tanks, solar-cell water boilers, ordinary Thai bucket stoves, and others. It trains people on how to lead their lives in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy by 1 from outside experts. Its experts also transfer local wisdom to their visitors. For example, a youth group has been given a basic knowledge about energy technology. At the same time, local people are allowed to listen to lectures given to the visitors. Transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy, including charcoal production, using ordinary Thai bucket stoves, high efficiency bucket stoves and others, helps to promote production and utilization of biomass energy derived from wood in Chumpol Subdistrict.
Figure 4.7 The Community University following the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy (The energy learning center in Chumpol Subdistrict displays energy technology such as a solar-cell rubber sheet drying plant , tanks for fermentation of waste water from rubber sheet production to produce biogas; solar-cell ovens; ordinary Thai bucket stoves, etc.
(4) Utilizing Community Ccapital and Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital and social capital. The findings are as follows: 263
Utilizing Natural Capital: Utilizing natural capital, especially wood, helps promote in biomass energy use in the community, enables it to carry out the biomass energy project successfully. Wood people use come from trimming tree branches or felling trees, such as Makha tress, Ucaliptus trees, etc. Utilizing Social Capital: The Chumpol Subdistrict Administration Organization placed earth kilns in public places for common use in order to show its commitment on promoting biomass energy production and use. The fact that households use the common kilns means that they benefit from social capital. (5) Development of Cooperative Networks within and Outside the Community This topic covers establishment of learning centers to accommodate the network in and outside the community. A cooperative energy network within the community has been developed from coordination between community leaders and between villages. They cooperated in establishing the community university, with the support of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Other agencies such as Khon Kaen University, the Provincial Energy Regional Office 6, and the Ministry of Energy also participated in production of biogas from waste water and production of kilns/ stoves that use biomass energy. 4.2.2.3 Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before implementing the community energy planning project, the households in Na Wieng Subdistrict made charcoal by using earth kilns and earth mound pits. Many households used community resources such as various types of wood. The main occupation in the village is rice farming. Villagers use wood as fuel and change it into charcoal for household use. However, before the subdistrict entered the Community Energy Planning Project, the households had not participated in the energy planning process at the subdistrict level, only at the household level. After the subdistrict joined the community energy planning project, villagers had an opportunity to use 200-L drum kilns. Presently, households still use this type of kilns, but the majority use earth kilns as before. Individual households use wood as fuel and for charcoal production. 264
Community energy management by the subdistrict administration organization focuses on developing the community in many aspects. A development plan is made in order to address different needs of the community. Many households in the community already use firewood and charcoal, so the subdistrict does not have any project to promote the use of wood or biomass energy. There are many types of trees in the subdistrict which villagers use as fuel so they rarely use LPG for cooking. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic includes community energy planning, building of energy capacity for the community, transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy, utilization of community capital and resources, and development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning The study focuses on the energy planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year development plan that set strategies, projects and funds for present and future project, and the community energy plan that the studied community implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Planning of Subdistrict Administration Organization: Before joining the community energy planning project, the Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization stressed the electricity project which was a basic public utility for the community, including other public utilities. During the community energy planning period, the Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization (now Na Wieng Municipality) put the energy projects (some of which were related to biomass energy) into the subdistrict plan. After the community energy planning project ended, the Subdistrict Municipality did not put the energy projects, especially the biomass energy project into its annual plan, but in other development projects because the households had already used biomass energy, especially wood. Community Energy Planning: Using biomass energy from wood – firewood and charcoal - is the lifestyle of the community. Biomass energy was used by individual households before the community energy planning project was 265 implemented. When the community joined the Project, it implemented the project in accordance with the guidelines specified by the Ministry of Energy, in collaboration with Yasothon Provincial Energy Office. People in the district participated in the planning process by helping to identify the energy problems. Study tours were arranged to find the most appropriate energy technology for the community. There was also a public hearing about the subdistrict plan so that people would cooperate in carrying out the plan. Therefore, biomass energy management can be seen from villagers setting the energy plan together, and management of biomass energy technology for common use. (2) Building Energy Capacity of the Community This topic covers training on energy for the community and study tour on energy management. The findings are as follows: Training on Energy for the Community and Study Tours on Energy Management: Capacity building for the community received support from state agencies, such as the Ministry of Energy. The Office of Regional Energy Region 7, in collaboration with the Office of Provincial Energy, recruited community energy volunteers to promote biomass use in the area and to carry out the community energy planning. The Provincial energy Office in Yasothon organized workshops and seminars to train people on how to save energy and to train community energy volunteers to promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic covers transferring local wisdom by experts and transferring of local wisdom between villagers. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom Through Experts and Between Villagers: Transferring local wisdom by experts can be seen from the state agencies organizing various activities and community energy volunteers taking study tours to many other communities to gain knowledge of energy management in order to transfer the knowledge to the community. Once the community members have gained knowledge, they can pass that knowledge to other members in the community. Besides, transferring local wisdom can be seen from community people helping each other, which promotes production and utilization of biomass energy. For instance, 266 people help their neighbors to build kilns and transfer the local wisdom of using a earth kiln to produce charcoal. (4) Using Utilization of Community Capitals and Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Natural Capital: Using natural capital helps promote the use of biomass energy in the community. Currently, households in Na Wieng Subdistrict play an important role in community energy management. The use of natural capital help people to earn more income from selling charcoal, reducing of the energy costs by using charcoal instead of LPG. The community people sees the value of wood available in their surrounding. They do not have to buy wood to use as fuel or to make charcoal. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks within and Outside the Community The topic covers arrangement of energy-related activities in the community, cooperation between groups in the community and holding energy- related together with people outside the community. The findings are as follows: Arrangement of Energy-Related Activities and Cooperation Between Different Groups in the Community: The Na Wieng Subdistrict Administration Organization cooperated with the Regional Energy Office 7 (Ubon Ratchathani) in organizing energy-related activities. Villagers not only helped organize these activities but also participated in them. Furthermore, cooperative networks were developed in the community in daily life people built a good relationship among community members. Good relationship came from the community energy planning network. Even though the community energy planning project ended, these relationship and networks still continue. Joint Arrangement of Energy-Related Activities With Outsiders: The community energy planning project received support mainly from the Regional Energy Office and the Provincial Energy Office. Other outside organization were the Faculty of engineering, Ubon Ratchathani University and the Isan community Foundation. During the project implementation there were continuously joint energy- related activities and contacts with other organizations in order to build an energy 267 network with other communities to encourage biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. 4.2.2.4 Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization The community energy management project of Nongfag Subdistrict before it joined the community energy planning had to do with decreasing energy consumption and reducing and utilizing rubbish. The community used biomass as a source of energy in line with the traditional way of life. People especially used firewood and charcoal in their households. Before joining the project, Nongfag people were hardly aware of the smog problem. During the implementation of the community energy planning project, a number of people in Saraphi District had a respiratory problem. This made them more aware of the smog problem. The Subdistrict Administration Organization launched a campaign of not burning garbage. Charcoal production, although still allowed, could be done by using 200-L drum kilns only in order to lower the impact of smog on the community. Currently the use of wood for charcoal production has decreased because the villagers want to decrease the problem of smog. The subdistrict was a provincial model of smog reduction. Many households in the subdistrict live in the housing projects but the majority of households still use firewood as fuel. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management The topic includes preparation of an energy plan, building of energy capacity for the community, transfer of local wisdom in energy, community capital and resources, and cooperative energy network development within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: (1) Energy Planning This research focuses on the energy planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially in the three-year development plan that specifies strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and the community energy plan in the studied communities in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: 268
Planning of the Subdistrict Administration Organization: Before entering the community energy planning project, Nongfag Subdistrict set a plan that focused on reducing energy use, decreasing rubbish and utilizing waste. The district promoted the use of economical light bulbs. For example, when households paid local taxes, they would receive energy-saving light bulbs. To sum up, the subdistrict’s biomass energy management came with solving the problem of smogs resulting from garbage burning in the subdistrict. The problem of smog in the district has caused so serious health problems that the district launched a campaign against this problem. In addition, the people were requested to produce charcoal with 200-L drum kilns only in places where there were many trees. Currently, the subdistrict put the energy project into the subdistrict development plan based on the people’s needs derived from the public hearing. The plan includes a campaign against garbage burning such as the “Exchange longan leaves with eggs” project. This is because burning longan leaves can cause more smog in the subdistrict. Besides, the subdistrict plan includes energy-related employment i.e., promoting producing energy-saving ordinary Thai bucket stoves as an occupation and a campaign for using energy efficiently. Employment and skills are built. For example, villagers are taught how to make clay firepot. The three-year plan of the Nongfag Municipality includes the energy project in the strategies for promoting and generating employment, an approach to agricultural occupation promotion in accordance with sufficiency economy, and promotion of highly efficient ordinary Thai bucket stove production. 269
Table 4.11 Brief details of the Three-year Development Plan of Nongfag Municipality (2013-2015) Related to Community Energy Management
Strategies for employment promotion and development An approach to promotion and development of agricultural employment following the philosophy of sufficiency economy No Project Objective Target Group Amount of Fund Expected Agency
. (Project Output) 2013 2014 2015 outcomes responsible
1 Supporting Support interested 30,000 Production of Subdistrict production of production of people energy-saving Administration high quality ordinary Thai ordinary Thai Office of ordinary Thai bucket stoves bucket stoves Permanent bucket stoves to save Secretary energy use Strategies for management of natural resources and the environment (3-year development plan) An approach to developing awareness in environment and natural resource promotion 1 Raising People will Activities in 10,000 10,000 10,000 People will Subdistrict awareness in conserve building conserve Administration energy energy and awareness in energy Office of conservation use energy Permanent and alternative conservation Secretary alternative energy and utilization energy use of alternative energy
Community Energy Planning: Nongfag Subdistrict carried out the energy project following the 10 steps set by the Ministry of Energy; meanwhile, it has continuously promoted garbage reduction and employment in biomass such as producing ordinary Thai bucket stoves. Each village received two 200-L drum kilns which were in public places and all households could use them. Later the 200-L drum kilns deteriorated and now they cannot be used. Community people were aware of the problem of smog so they resorted to using firewood instead of charcoal. (2) Building of Energy Capacity for the Community This topic includes training and study tours on energy management. The findings are as follows: Training and Study Tours on Energy Management: The field research including interviews with community leaders and householders reveal that capacity of Nongfag Subdistrict has been built by taking study tours and training 270 to increase the knowledge of community energy, which promoted biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. The Office of Academic Affairs and the Provincial Energy Office arranged training courses to upgrade the knowledge and skills of community energy volunteers so that they could apply the knowledge to their community development. The work of these volunteers partly helped to promote biomass energy use. Many households in Nongfag Subdistrict own longan orchards. The community people were encouraged to use alternative energy or renewable energy. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in Energy This topic includes transferring local wisdom by experts. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy by Experts: Local wisdom has been transferred by experts in the district, especially on alternative energy made from longan trees which are abundant in the subdistrict. The households has received knowledge on biomass energy, an alternative energy that can be found in the community. This has promoted biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Transfer of local wisdom related to energy by local experts goes together with promotion of the use of 200-L drum kilns to reduce the smog problem of in the subdistrict. (4) Utilization of Community Capital and Resources This topic covers utilization of natural capital and utilization of human capital. The findings are as follows: Utilizing Natural Capital: The household’s use of natural capital helps promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. The households in the subdistrict still use wood as fuel to avoid charcoal production, which causes smog. Utilization of Human Capital: The use of human capital to promote biomass energy production and utilization in Nongfag subdistrict stemmed from the leaders having an opportunity to provide knowledge of energy for households and taking study tours to see energy management in other subdistricts. Because of the smog problem, many people had the respiratory problem. At present, this problem has already been solved and the subdistrict received a reward for this 271 matter. Apart from people in and outside the community coming to learn from the smog-reducing project, the community leaders have an opportunity to lecture about the use of firewood as fuel and charcoal production by using 200-L drum kilns to reduce smog. Human capital in this case is the knowledge and skills of the community leaders which stimulate in the use of biomass energy in the community. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks Development within and Outside the Community This topic includes organizing energy-related activities within and outside the community. The findings are as follows: Organizing Joint Activities Within and Outside the Community: The field study reveals that cooperative network development both within and outside the community supports biomass energy production and utilization. A cooperative energy network within the community started to develope when other communities took a study tour to Moo 6 to observe the operation of the “Exchange longan leaves with eggs for healthy environment” project. Observation tours within the community have created a cooperative network that leads to cooperation in many activities, including production and utilization of biomass energy, which helps reduce the smog problem. In other words, cooperative network development in the community can contribute to appropriate production and utilization of biomass energy in the community to reduce smog. Cooperative network development outside the community came from the subdistrict’s seeking funds from outside the community, such as a fund from the Informal Education Office to support the energy project. Moo 6 requested a fund from this organization to purchase energy equipment, including stoves that use biomass energy. Furthermore, the representatives of Nongfag Subdistrict has also held energy-related activities in collaboration with agencies outside the community such as the Provincial Energy Office in order to promote alternative energy use to reduce the subdistrict problems
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4.2.2.5 Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province Community Energy Management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization Before entering the project, the villagers had already made charcoal but not so much. They mostly used earth mound pits and earth kilns to produce charcoal for household use as most preferred gas stoves. However, at present some households still use charcoal and firewood for cooking because they are resources available in the community and because the cost is lower than LPG, the price of which is increasing. Currently, many households still use wood and charcoal as fuels, although more and more households turn to use LPG. During the implementation of the project of the Ministry of Energy, the villagers saw benefits from using wood. If they made charcoal, they could get wood vinegar that could be used as a pesticide instead of chemicals. The surplus charcoal could also be sold to neighbors or stores in the community to increase income. At present, using wood as fuel or for charcoal production can be seen in the community. The majority of households now still benefit from wood in accordance with their traditional way of life. Most households use earth mound pits because 200-L drum kilns that the subdistrict received for common use were broken. Some households use firewood but most use charcoal because it can be kept longer. Villagers in Moo 3 have been promoted to produce biogas from animal droppings, so they learn more about utilization of alternative energy. However, the majority of villagers prefer LPG and use biomass energy just to reduce the fuel cost of their housholds. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic includes energy planning, building of energy capacity for the community, transfer of local wisdom in energy and utilization of community capital and resources, and development of cooperative energy networks within and outside the community in the area of energy. The findings are as follows:
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(1) Energy Planning The study of energy planning focuses on plans made by the Subdistrict Administration Organization, especially the three-year plan that specifies strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and the community energy plan that the studied community implemented in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Planning of the Subdistrict Municipality: Energy Planning at the Napho municipality startes with a meeting of many parties including government agencies and households in the subdistrict. The aim is to identify community problems, needs and an approach to community development. The local development committee hosts the meeting, and then drafts a plan that will be considered before being put to use. The plan for energy management made by the Subdistrict Municipality helps promoting energy saving and raising awareness on issues concerning energy. Before entering the project, the community launched a campaign on energy saving and there were several activities to promote people to do this such as giving energy-saving light bulbs free of change. Furthermore, the subdistrict provided related information to the local people, especially the youth because they were believed to influence their parents. Various plans of the subdistrict at that time mostly addressed electricity need and various other problems and needs obtained from the meetings of local people. Presently, even though the project ended, the Napho municipality still develops a plan to continuously promote use of energy from wood, such as the use of biomass stoves and including biogas made from animal droppings. However, the management of community energy has lacked continuity in certain areas such as maintenance of the learning center that provides knowledge of energy management. The learning center has old and deteriorated equipment and needs improvement. The Subdistrict Municipality, therefore, has placed the improvement of the learning center in its three-year development plan. The energy projects in the three-year development plan are shown in Table 4.12 as follows:
Table 4.12 Brief Details of the Three year Development plan (2013 – 2015) of the Napho Subdistrict Municipality Related to Community Energy Management
Amount of Fund (Baht) Project Objective Project Output Expected outcome Agency responsible 2013 2014 2015 Campaign on public To save energy and to use People have conscience in 10,000 10,000 Saving energy, Subdistrict relations to make people energy for the best benefit energy use production of lowering of fuel cost Administration Office save energy brochures are for PR. increasing income of the Permanent Hiring advertising the public’s realizes Secretary
274 company to launch PR. the value of energy
Promotion/Support of the Strengthening the center Support the Center for 500,000 500,000 500,000 The learning center for Subdistrict center for alternative alternative energy technology energy Administration Office energy technology and and energy conservation of the Permanent
saving energy 274 energy conservation (Subdistrict Municipality Lowering energy cost, Secretary , the
(Subdistrict Municipality Moo 3) twice per year increase income of 80% Provincial energy Moo 3) of the target group Office of Chumphon realizing the value of Province energy Establishing the learning To save energy Establishing the learning and 300,000 The learning center for Subdistrict and build demonstration To find alternative energy, the demonstration center for energy Administration Office center for alternative To lower the energy cost alternative energy technology Energy saving of the Permanent energy technology and of the household and energy conservation Lowering cost, increase Secretary and the energy conservation To make people see the (1 center) income Provincial Energy value of energy 80 % of target group see Office of Chumphon the value of energy Province
Table 4.12 (Continued)
Amount of Fund (Baht) Agency responsible Project Objective Project Output Expected outcomes 2013 2014 2015
Promoting the use of To save energy Having 200-L drum 50,000 Using alternative energy to replace Subdistrict 200-L drum kilns to reduce energy kilns for common use LPG Administration Office of expense in every village (total Decreasing the energy cost the Permanent Secretary to increase income of 18 stoves/kilns) Increasing income 80% of people receiving promotion
Promoting gas To save energy and to Biogas production 150,000 150,000 150,000 Using alternative energy instead of Subdistrict 275 production from find alternative energy to from droppings of LPG Administration Office of
animal droppings reduce expense animals such as pigs, Decreasing the energy cost the Permanent Secretary chicken, cows, etc. (at Increasing income least 15 households) 80% of people receiving
275 promotion
Promoting the use of Save Energy and use Biomass stoves, 14,000 14,000 Saving energy Subdistrict biomass stoves and energy for the highest Target group Lowering the energy cost Administration Office of kilns benefit employment, e.g. Increasing income the Permanent Secretary coconut and banana People’s realizing the value of groups, etc. (total of energy 2 groups per year)
Support of Purchase of charcoal 200,000 People see the value of energy and Subdistrict agricultural groups compacting machines and participate in energy conservation Administration Office of Sufficiency additional equipment in the Permanent Secretary , economy (energy order to generate the Provincial energy conservation group) employment Office of Chumphon Province
Table 4.12 (Continued)
Fund and Source (Baht) Project Objective Project Output Expected outcome Agency responsible 2013 2014 2015
Support of agricultural Purchase of charcoal 200,000 People see the value of energy Subdistrict groups compacting machines and and participate in energy Administration Sufficiency economy additional equipment in order conservation Office of the (energy conservation to generate employment Permanent Secretary group) , the Provincial 276 energy Office of
Chumphon Province
276
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Community Energy Planning: The Napho subdistrict is a model of energy management in Chomphon province that implemented the community energy planning project of the Ministry of Energy. When the project was implemented, the subdistrict municipality requested an extra fund for the energy projects in its three-year development plan to strengthen the community. The subdistrict has followed the guidelines of the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” since October 2006. It has also received funds from related agencies. Meetings of different parties and a public hearing were held to get comments on the community energy management plan and the knowledge transfer project. The Napho Subdistrict Municipality established a learning center to provide knowledge of energy technology at Ban Khao Suan Durian in Moo 3 ,where both state and private agencies have visited during their study tours. Furthermore, the subdistrict provides training for energy trainers and volunteers and sent its personnel to attend various energy-related activities. (2) Building Energy Capacity of the Community This topic includes training on energy and energy use for the community, study tours on energy, and educational support. The findings are as follows: Training on Energy and Providing Knowledge about Energy for the Community: State agencies at the provincial and the subdistrict levels have cooperated in building energy capacity for the community by providing knowledge and training for local people in order to promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Capacity building has continued after the community energy planning project ended. At present, the Provincial Energy Office of Chumphon Province encouraged the subdistrict to use biogas made from animal droppings by inviting community members to participate in its seminars and activities. The project provided local people with knowledge about how to use biogas safely. The center for energy engineering and the environment of the Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, was funded by the Department of Alternative Energy and Energy 278
Conservation to carry out the project and to promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Study Tours on Energy Management: Napho subdistrict has taken of took study tours to other communities continuously. For example in 2011, representatives of the subdistrict participated in a seminar and workshop and a study tour. The subdistrict in collaboration with the representatives of the mass media and other community leaders set an action plan to promote energy conservation and to develop alternative energy in the community. These leaders transfer the knowledge of biomass energy to community people in order to promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Educational Support: Educational support of the energy staff could promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. The officers of the subdistrict municipality received scholarships to earn a Master’s degree. The funding were from the Napho Municipality. Education enabled its personnel to develop community energy management, including production and utilization of biomass energy. (3) Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy This topic includes transferring local wisdom through the learning center, and transferring local wisdom by experts. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Knowledge Through the Learning Center: The community energy management project was implemented under the Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” in 2007 to build capacity of the community. The community learning centers were established to formally and informally transfer local wisdom to people within and outside the community. The establishment of the learning centers has promoted biomass energy production and utilization in the subdistrict. However, the field study reveals that the learning center for energy management in the subdistrict had deteriorating technology, so transferring of local wisdom through the learning center is decreasing accordingly.
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Transferring Local Wisdom by Experts: Currently, transfer of local wisdom by the community experts is still going on. These experts are invited by state agencies to train people in other communities.
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
Figure 4.8 Energy Technology at the Learning Center for Energy Management in Napho Subdistrict (1) a 200-L drum kiln – vertical model (2) a 200-L drum kiln – horizontal model (3) a solar energy stove (4) A water pumping bicycle (5) A garbage disposal furnace and (6) Solar cell panels
(4) Utilization of Community Capital and Resources This topic covers utilizing natural capital, utilizing energy technology and utilizing human capital. Utilizing Natural Capital: Using natural capital in the community directly supports the use of biomass energy. Biomass energy come from all kind of biomass. Households that have wood, gain benefit from using biomass energy. People in Napho Subdistrict use wood and animal droppings to produce biomass energy. Some households also use materials from trees, such as coconut shells, as fuel. 280
Utilizing Energy Technology: Apart from energy technology in biomass energy production and utilization, the Napho subdistrict municipality lent energy technology to other agencies for use in various occasions such as exhibitions of energy technology by the Provincial Energy Office. It encourages households or villagers to learn more about energy and biomass energy production and utilization. The villagers in the subdistrict have participated in activities held by the province and worked with other parties involved in the activities. Utilizing Human Capital: Community energy management in some villages of this subdistrict has received support of biogas use from state agencies concerned. The villages that have received state support are those where community leaders play an important in promoting community development. People’s use of human capital reflects the promotion of production and utilization of biomass energy in the community. (5) Development of Cooperative Energy Networks Development within and Outside the Community This topic covers cooperation between groups within the community and carrying out energy-related activities with other communities. The findings are as follows: Cooperation Between Groups Within the Community: There has been cooperation between different groups in the community, i.e., the sugar-producing group and the housewife group, resulting in various joint activities in which both groups used biomass energy to produce their goods.
Figure 4.9 Cooperative work between the sugar producing groups and the housewife group in Napho Subdistrict
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Organizing Joint Energy-Related Activities Outside the Community: Cooperative energy network development outside the community can be seen from cooperation between state agencies with the Napho Subdistrict Municipality at the provincial level in holding an exhibition to disseminate information on energy, which helps promote production and biomass energy use in the community. 4.2.2.6 Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai, Nonthaburi Province Community energy management 1) Biomass Energy Production and Utilization in the Community Presently, people in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict rarely use firewood and charcoal, although there are shops and warehouses which sell charcoal taken from outside the subdistrict. Wood is not abundant in this subdistrict and the household lifestyle has changed in line with community changes. Currently the 200-L drum kilns received in 2001 broke down and the subdistrict also encountered the flood problems causing trees to be decreased in number. At present the subdistrict has rarely produced charcoal for consumption and nearly every household use LPG. Only some households use wood for fuel to make desserts. Some households purchase charcoal just to bake food. In the past, people in the subdistrict used to produce charcoal but now they no longer do so. The subdistrict has been more and more urbanized and most orchard areas were replaced by housing projects. Flooding made it easier to make a decision to stop producing charcoal and growing fewer trees, resulting in the decrease in tree-growing areas. Consequently, there is now less wood to produce biomass energy. 2) Promotion of Community Energy Management This topic includes building of energy capacity in the community, strengthening the potential of the community in the area of energy, transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy, utilizing community capital and resources, and cooperative energy network development within and outside the community. The findings of the study are as follows: (1) Energy Planning This research focuses on the community energy planning of the Subdistrict Municipality, especially the three-year development that specifies 282 strategies, projects and funds for present and future projects, and the community energy plan that the studied community set in 2007 under the project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to His Majesty’s Royal Initiative on “Sufficiency Economy”. The findings are as follows: Energy Planning of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Municipality: In the past the plan of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict focused on building infra-structure. In the case of energy, emphasis was on households throughout the subdistrict being able to access electricity, including maintenance and addition of public utilities in the community. The community has been urbanized and housing projects appeared in the subdistrict. Orchards were changed into residences. Electricity consumption has increased and the community development plan focuses on other aspects. Although there is no promotion of biomass energy production and utilization, the Subdistrict Administration Organization has a plan and projects in community energy management. The subdistrict administration organization focuses on a campaign for energy saving, and allocates a fund for this campaign. Furthermore, the community leaders are determined to implement the community energy plan. They set the direction of the operation, such as biodiesel production from used vegetable oil. The energy planning of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization was carried out by asking villagers to identify their energy problems and needs at public meetings. The information is used to set an approach to serve the community needs. Various issues are considered and are placed in the plan along with solutions. The energy management has been placed in the three-year development of the subdistrict administration organization under the strategies for development of natural resources and environmental management and conservation to reduce global warming, thus attaining sustainability.
Table 4.13 Brief Details of the Three Year Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization Eelated to Community Energy Management
Strategies for development of natural resources and environment management and conservation (Three Year Plan) An approach to reduce global warming
Goals Funding and Source (Baht) Agency No. Project Objectives Expected outcomes Project Output 2013 2014 2015 responsible
1 Project on To provide knowledge for energy for 30% of households in 150,000 150,000 150,000 Assistant planners Subdistrict Community Energy core leaders and working group to Bang Si Thong and working groups Administration Sustainability understand household energy Subdistrict decrease implementing the Office of the
consumption in the subdistrict. energy consumption plan Permanent 283
To enable the community to see and data collection about lowering of energy Secretary be aware of the value of energy in household energy consumption and order for them to participate in the consumption costs contest on energy saving planning on household Public awareness of energy use in the the necessity for subdistrict energy saving in the organizing a yearly community contest for the best energy saving household 284
Community Energy Planning The Bang Si Thong Subdistrict Administration Organization collaborated with the Provincial Energy Office Nonthaburi in setting the community energy plan. The process followed the 10 steps determined by the Ministry of Energy, starting from creating understanding among the community members and forming a community energy working group to collect and process the data, and to give feedback to the community. Furthermore, study tours were taken to observe energy technology activities followed by drafting an energy plan, holding a public hearing, implementing the plan, drawing conclusions and reporting the results. Although Bang Si Thong Subdistrict is semi-urban, they are active in producing charcoal as alternative energy. During the implementation of the community energy planning project, the subdistrict community members shared the use of a 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production from wood for household use. Furthermore, they produced bio- diesel from used vegetable oil with officers of the Office of Fire Protection providing information and demonstrating various types of energy technology such as solar energy stoves that were supplied by the Ministry of Energy. After the end of the community energy planning project, community energy management of the subdistrict no longer continued, especially during the flood in 2011 until present. When the subdistrict was flooding, the 200-L drum kilns for charcoal production were broken down. Many trees were affected by the flood and thus being unable to use to the full extent. Each household had to give priority of what they would do with wood; therefore, after the flood, charcoal production came to a halt. (2) Building of Energy Capacity for the Community This topic covers study tours and training on energy. The findings are as follows: Study Tours and Training on Energy: Capacity building for the community in terms of energy was carried out to develop the capacity of community leaders, community volunteers, and households so that they would have a better knowledge and understanding of how to use chicken baking ovens, garbage disposal furnaces, and high efficiency bucket stoves, which could promote biomass energy production and utilization in the community. 285
(3) Transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy This topic includes transferring local wisdom by experts and transferring local wisdom through the learning center. The findings are as follows: Transferring Local Wisdom by Experts: Community energy management stemmed from implementing the community energy planning project in 2007 and subsequent projects. Community capacity has been built when local people welcomed visitors that took a study tour to observe the projects. Transferring of Local Wisdom Through the Learning Center: The community leaders and the volunteers have tried to solve the problem of water pollution. The learning center was established to tackle various problems in the community with local wisdom. Currently, the subdistrict focuses on bio-fermentation for cleaning polluted water, and the project is still going on. Even though bio water fermentation is beyond the scope of energy, the researcher considers it to be in the area of energy because this process needs leaves and other material to produce compost. That is, the subdistrict used leaves as biomass. (4) Utilizing Community Capital and Resources The field research in the subdistrict reveals that the subdistrict is in the process of urbanization. More land has been used for housing projects and households live much closer to each other and there is less land for growing trees. Traditional agricultural occupations have given a way to new ones, especially employment in business. Due to the flood, many trees and 200-L drum kilns were destroyed, causing the energy management project to come to a halt. Community capital and resources have not been obviously utilized. There has been no concrete promotion of biomass energy production and utilization. In fact, biomass energy is used in some households only. (5) Cooperative Energy Network Development At present there has not been any cooperative energy network development, but such development has been found in other areas in the subdistrict such as the network of the elderly within and outside the community and the network of youth. The findings of the study are as follows: Cooperative Network Development in the Community: Cooperative network development in the community has stemmed from relationships 286 between people with the community. The interactions among community members have given rise to a strong network. However, the energy network cannot be obviously seen, but other networks exist such as the network for the elderly and the network of youth. The youth look after the elderly on various occasions. Cooperative Network Development Outside the Community: Cooperative network development outside the community has emerged because of the community energy planning project. When the planning project began, community members took study tours to observe energy technology in other provinces. In the past Bang Si Thong Subdistrict was the place which outsiders visited for study tours. This brought about development of cooperation with outsiders. However, the biomass energy project was no longer implemented, so development of the energy network now cannot be clearly seen. Nevertheless, there are cooperative networks with outsiders in other areas, especially the elderly network.
4.3 Outputs and Successful Outcome of Community Energy Management
The output of community energy management can be seen from the utilization of biomass energy, such as firewood, charcoal, biogas and biodiesel. Households in the community use biomass energy, which means that the community has households that use biomass energy as fuel in their houses. Successful outcome in community energy management is energy security, which is measured by 4 indicators: better community economy, better community social life, better community environment and more self-reliance in the area of energy. The results of data analysis and observation of 12 communities - six communities which received an award and six communities that did not receive any award under the project on community energy planning by 80 individual communities are given below:
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4.3.1 Six Communities which Received an Award in the Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” 4.3.1.1 Nachumhet Subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang ProvinceOutput: Two considerations are 1) Biomass Fuel Production Nachumhet Subdistrict has biomass energy produced from biomass such as wood and animal droppings. Types of biomass fuels produced in Nachumhet Subdistrict are as follows: Charcoal: Charcoal is stored in the household and used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. Charcoal is produced from burning wood, found in the community. Households store charcoal as fuel for cooking. Nachumhet Subdistrict is a rural area, full of wood resources which households can use as firewood or for making charcoal. The reason why households use wood is that they can find wood from their orchards or their plantation. In case households or community leaders are not convenient in producing charcoal themselves, they will buy from shops which buy it for sale from charcoal producers in the community. Firewood: Firewood is accumulated or stored for use as fuel for further production of biomass energy Apart from storing and accumulating firewood for household use, the household can use it as fuel for biomass energy production. Biogas: Biogas is produced from animals droppings used as fuel in further production biomass energy Besides wood from trees in orchards and plantations in the subdistrict which is a valuable resource for fuel. Some households that raise animals can use animal droppings to produce biogas. Some households in Nachumhet Subdistrict ferment animal dung (i.e. pig dung, cow dung and chicken dung) to make biogas for use as fuel for cooking. They receive support from Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization in doing so. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in community use charcoal, firewood or biogas as a source of biomass energy. The results of the field study are as follows: 288
Table 4.14 Households (some in the community) that Use Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Kinds of Technology Concerning Biomass Energy: Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth Earth Economic bucket stove/ Production Use Use No. Name List Moo charcoal Use LPG drum kiln klin mound pit stove ordinary Thai for own Firewood Biogas to use bucket stove use 1 Khun Narong Kong ban 1 2 Khn Nongnut Ruenkaew 2 3 Khun Daeng Ruenkaew 2 4 Khun Juan Tubtim 2 5 Khun Preecha Tubtim 2 6 Khun Chueoy Jitsavut 2 7 Khun Somcjit Rodphan 3 8 Khun Tawee Khamklieng 3 9 Khun Manom Chunet 3 10 Khun Kamjud Chunet 3 11 Khun Wanna Chumchua 3 12 Khun Prida Kamduangrom 3 13 Khun Choi Songsua 3 14 Khun Priya Kongsin 4 15 Khun Rani Tuankam 4 16 Khun Yiem Panthai 4 17 Khun Wian Rungsrisombat 5 18 Khun Wandee Bunlert 5 19 Khun Jumnien Songsuwan 5 20 Khun Spawadi Chunet 5 21 Khun Kritha Thepsuwan 5 22 Khun Narong Vichien 6 23 Khun Liab Khwankam 6 24 Khun Samran Inseni 6 25 Khun Thammanoon Chuban 6 26 Khun Yom Kliengkaew 6 27 Khun Tawee Khwannimit 6 28 Khun Jai Saengsi 7 29 Khun Sukon Makjit 7 30 Khun Nu-im Pannin 8 31 Khun Anan Kaewson 8 32 Khun Fuen Kaewpitak 8 33 Khun Ied Maseng 8 34 Khun Win Anurak 8 35 Khun Sayan Chukong 8 36 Khun Plek Chukua 8 37 Khun Suthirak Payakpan 9 38 Khun Kaew Sukhum 9 39 Khun Sommai Chaipet 9 40 Khun Pisitpong Panyasiripan 9 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 289
Households in Nachumhet Subdistrict use biomass energy – charcoal, firewood and biogas. Many households use such biomass energy as the main fuel in their households. Those that use charcoal either produce it themselves or bought it. Most households that produce charcoal use earth mound pits. Some households use firewood and others used biogas as main fuel for cooking. Of the 40 households, the researcher visited, seven of them used only LPG, five only charcoal, one only firewood, three many kinds of biomass energy (firewood and charcoal), and twenty-four both biomass energy and LPG. The findings indicate that there are households in subdistrict which use biomass energy. However, the secondary data as seen in Table 4.15 reveal biomass energy such as charcoal and firewood are not used as much as LPG.
Table 4.15 Quantity of Energy Consumption in Nachumhet Subdistrict Classified by Type of Energy:
Amount used per year Type of Energy Percentage (ton equivalent to crude oil : toe) Electricity 78.82 21.06 Wood charcoal 6.78 1.81 Firewood 7.44 1.99 LPG 40.52 10.83 Kerosene 0.00 0.00 Benzene 152.28 40.69 Gasohol 91 3.93 1.05 Diesel 84.44 22.56 Total 374.21 100.00
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) more self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Economy Reducing the Community Energy Cost: Most people in Nachumhet Subdistrict use biomass energy as fuel. Food shops in the community can reduce the energy cost to a great extent. Even households in community can also save 290 the energy expense by using biomass energy instead of non-renewable energy such as LPG. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and More Income: In Nachumhet Subdistrict, some households produce charcoal as a secondary occupation to earn extra income. The use of biomass energy helps create an occupation of producing charcoal for sale. Some households in the subdistrict produce charcoal for their own use. Surplus charcoal is sold to earn a little extra money. Charcoal production provides a channel for households to earn a living or to find supplementary income. The interviews of 40 households in Nachumhet Subdistrict reveal that there are 18 households that produce charcoal, accounting for 45% of the total housholds visited by the researcher. Five out of these 18 households (or 28%) produce charcoal as a secondary occupation, accounting for 13% of the total households visited by the researcher. It can be concluded that there are still a number of households in Nachumhet Subdistrict that produce charcoal as a secondary occupation to earn extra income. (2) Better Social Life in the Community More Participation of Community in the Area of Energy: More participation of the community in energy stemmed from the fact that the subdistrict received a financial support in constructing the Community Energy Learning Center at Moo 8. Such a financial support or budget covered equipment only, exclusive of the labor cost of construction and, therefore, people in the subdistrict had to use their labor to construct this learning center, which is now still in operation. Such participation has resulted in people being close to each other and learning more about energy. More Sharing/Exchange of Knowledge/Community Resources/Energy: People in Nachumhet Subdistrict have joint benefits from community resources; that is, water resources are used to produce electricity for the whole community. In other words, people in Nachumhet Subdistrict share energy. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Pollution: Burning wood to produce charcoal, the households can also collect wood vinegar to use as 291 insecticide, replacing chemical pesticide, resulting in better community environment. Out of 40 visited households in Nachumhet Subdistrict, there are 4 households, or 10% that produce charcoal and collect wood vinegar. This accounts for 22% of the total households visited by the researcher. This is a moderate percentage. Meanwhile, there are three households, or 8% of the 40 visited households that produce biogas from animal droppings. The outcome of using wood vinegar as pesticide is better community environment because of reduction of the use of chemicals. Moreover, fermentation of animal droppings helps reduce bad smell that disturbs people in the community to a certain level. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: There are many households in Nachumhet community that can better access to energy because they use biomass energy derived from wood and animal droppings instead of nonrenewable energy such as LPG. Access to biomass of the community is possible from the fact that households in the community have orchards and raise animals, they can use animal droppings to produce biomass energy. Reduction of Energy Shortage: One benefit from using biomass energy in Nachumhet Subdistrict is reduction of energy shortage. Types of alternative energy in the subdistrict include biomass energy, water power, wind power and solar energy. These types of alternative energy help to reduce energy shourtage that otherwise might have help people in Nachumhet Subdistrict use biomass, i.e., wood and animal droppings, to produce biomass energy and use it instead of nonrenewable energy like LPG. Reduction of Dependence on Energy from Outside: Using firewood instead of LPG enables many households to reduce dependence on energy from outside. The households in Nachumhet subdistrict can find biomass to produce biomass energy to replace nonrenewable energy, making the overall community reduce dependence on LPG, which has to be procured from outside of the community. Using firewood or charcoal produced for their own use and/ or for sale implies the ability of households to reduce dependence on energy from outside of the community.
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4.3.1.2 Mealai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production The households in Maelai Subdistrict produce biomass energy from biomass, i.e, wood. Firewood and charcoal are also stored in the households to use as fuel for further producing biomass energy. The results of the study on biomass energy produced in Maelai Subdistrict are as follows: Many households in Maelai Subdistrict still produce and use. They burn wood to make charcoal for household use. Some households produce charcoal in a large quantity; thus they can sell the surplus while other households buy charcoal from shops in the community to use as fuel in their households. The stored charcoal can be used as fuel in further production of biomass energy. Charcoal: In short, charcoal is produced and/or stored in households for present and future use. Many households in Maelai Subdistrict are self-reliant in fuel. They use firewood that come from wood in their orchards and plantations for cooking. Also, firewood is used to further produce biomass energy. Firewood: In short, firewood is stored in households to use as fuel. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in the community that use biomass energy are users of firewood and charcoal as a source of energy. The results of the field study are as follows:
293
Table 4.16 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Earth kiln Production Charcoal Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood for own use to use bucket stove
1 Khun Veerachai Pluangsri 1
2 Khun Adinan Muen-ong 1
3 Khun Chanai Chanprik 2
4 Khun Luang Hongpitakchon 2
5 Khun Ta Thanalai 2
6 Khun Surin Ritnan 2
7 Khun Kanong Puangmuan 3
8 Khun Oon Mautsa 3
9 Khun Songkran Suwanrat 3
10 Khun Kanawut Wongthai 4
11 Khun Pian Inya 4
12 Khun Sutham Krungsri 4
13 Khun Boonserm Namlai 4
14 Khun Supa Krungsri 4
15 Khun Boonyuen Prinang 4
16 Khun Manoon Wong-arin 5
17 Khun Sriwong Suksap 5
18 Khun Narin Mayara 5
19 Khun Phongsri Chumpuwang 6
20 Khun Thamnong Wongput 6
21 Khun Insuan Wongkham 6
22 Khun Duen Ketsuriyapong 6
23 Khun Somboo Singhe 7
24 Khun Buaran Srikhwa 7
25 Khun Phongpan Nongsae 7
26 Khun Kamol Saengkeng 7
27 Khun Fongnuan Wanglang 7
28 Khun Malai Wanglang 7
29 Khun Bung-on Inkanya 7
30 Khun Noi Insee 7
31 Khun Thongsri Wongmuangkaen 7
32 Khun Udon Khampin 8
33 Khun Loey Laisong 8
34 Khun Rit Laikham 8 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 294
Households in Maelai Subdistrict still use charcoal and firewood. Many households use such biomass energy as the main fuel for cooking. Some produce charcoal themselves; others buy it. Most households that produce charcoal use earth kilns. Some households use firewood as the main fuel. Of all 34 households visited by the researcher, three used only LPG one only firewood and 30 biomass energy together with LPG. The data indicate that households in subdistrict still use biomass energy. The secondary data as seen in table 4.17 reveal that people in Maelai Subdistrict use firewood and charcoal more than LPG.
Table 4.17 Quantity of fuel used in Maelai Subdistrict classified by type of energy Quantity Used per Year Percent Type of Energy (kg/year) Charcoal 210,585.92 50.04 Firewood 144,278.84 34.29 LPG 65,930.80 15.67 Total 420,795.56 100.00
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) Better community economy 2) Better social life in the community 3) Better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy. (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of Community Energy Cost: Households in Maelai Subdistrict use biomass as fuel for cooking, enabling them to save energy expense. The households use wood directly as firewood or they use it to make charcoal for cooking. Similarly, food vendors use biomass to save the cost. Some households in the subdistrict use firewood as fuel for baking ho-mok, making sweets, to reduce the expense. Some households buy charcoal at the price of 100 – 120 baht per sack. The price for tamarind wood charcoal was 300 baht per sack, and assorted wood charcoal 250 baht per sack. These households consider it more economical than LPG, the price of which is 370 baht per tank. Besides, firewood and charcoal lasted longer than LPG. After firewood has been used, it will become charcoal, which can be kept for further use. 295
Creating More Jobs and Occupations: Within Maelai Subdistrict, some households sell charcoal as a secondary occupation, which enables them to generate additional income during free time. After the Community Energy Planning Project ended, there have been various additional jobs and occupations, such as making kilns/ stoves for sale within the community, collecting wood vinegar as a by-product from charcoal production to be used as pesticide instead of chemical substances. Wood vinegar can also be used to water plants when mixed with water, can reduce bad smell of animal dung. Generating More Income: Of all the 34 households of Maelai Subdistrict visited by the researcher, there are 12 households or 35%) which produce charcoal. Four of the 12 charcoal-producing households (or 33%) take charcoal production as a secondary occupation, accounting for 12% of the total households visited by the researcher. It can be concluded that a number of households in Maelai Subdistrict are engaged in charcoal production as a secondary occupation to generate extra income. Increase in Community Output: The development of the model learning center for energy management in Maelai Subdistrict has caused community output to increase. Biomass energy is produced for household use. Other communities, also want charcoal, people in the subdistrict produce surplus charcoal to meet the demand, thus leading to the increased community output. (2) Better Social Life in the Community More Sharing/Exchange of Knowledge/Community Resources/Energy: Households in Maelai Subdistrict share community resources, for example, There were public kilns for common use in charcoal production, the people shared this technology. These public kilns in Maelai Subdistrict were earth mound pits. In the vicinity, there was a water pool, from which water could be taken to distinguish fire for charcoal burning. This is an example of sharing of community resource use. Acceptance of Opinions on Energy: More acceptance of opinions concerning energy in Maelai Subdistrict started from the fact that charcoal production in Moo 7 which was located up wind emitted smoke that annoyed people and children in the community. Annoyed people informed the village headman and 296 there was an agreement that Moo 7 had to stop charcoal production because it had impact on the community environment. At present, households in Moo 7 use wood as firewood. They no longer produced charcoal. Besides, acceptance of opinions concerning energy can be seen from a public hearing that sought opinions on making earth kilns among people in the subdistrict. Strength, weaknesses and suggestions were discussed to get acceptance of all the parties concerned. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Reduction of Pollution: The by-product of using wood to make charcoal is wood vinegar for use as pesticide instead of chemical substances, resulting better community environment. In Maelai Subdistrict, one household (or 3%), which burn charcoal and collect wood vinegar. This accounted for 8% of the total visited households. This percentage is quite low. The use of wood vinegar instead of pesticide, however, has resulted in better community environment because of the reduction of the use of chemical substances. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Increased Access to Energy: Households in Maelai Subdistrict use biomass energy to increase access to energy. Biomass energy as alternative energy enables the community to get access to more energy. Some households use biomass energy as the main fuel and LPG as a supplementary fuel in time of emergency – that is, when they ran out of firewood and charcoal. Using biomass energy makes the overall community able to access more energy within the community. Reduction of Energy Shortage: Many households in Maelai Subdistrict use biomass energy. Some households use biomass energy as the main fuel for cooking. These households think that this type of energy is sufficient; there is no more energy shortage. However, many households buy LPG to store in the houses in case that they want to finish cooking quickly, while some households used LPG as the main fuel and biomass energy as supplementary energy. These households think that there is no energy shortage. Reduction of energy shortage in Maelai Subdistrict has also resulted from the fact that some villages can buy charcoal from other villages. For example, households in Moo 7 buy charcoal produced by households in Moo 4 and Moo 2. 297
Reduction of Dependence on Energy from Outside: In Maelai Subdistrict, biomass energy derived from wood, is used as firewood or for burning to make charcoal in order to reduce dependence on energy from outside. Households in Maelai Subdistrict use firewood and charcoal as supplementary fuels in cooking, so they can reduce the purchase of LPG from outside the community. Some households in Maelai Subdistrict use firewood as the main fuel and LPG as supplementary energy. In this way they can considerably reduce dependence on LPG, which had to be bought from outside. In this way, one tank of LPG can last for many months. Reduction of dependence on energy from outside of Maelai Subdistrict has also stemmed from hiring other persons to make charcoal so that they do not have to buy LPG. 4.3.1.3 Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production In Kho Sai Subdistrict, biomass energy produced from biomass, i.e., wood and animal dung, is used as fuel. Wood is directly used to be firewood. It can be stored in the household to be used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. Biomass energy produced from animal droppings is biogas, which can be used as fuel for further production of biomass energy, too. Types of biomass energy which can be produced in Kho Sai Subdistrict are as follows: Charcoal: Charcoal produced by using of 200-L drum kiln and earth mound pit can be used for further production of biomass energy Comparing the amount of cancer-initiating substance of charcoal made by a 200-L drum kiln and that made by a traditional kiln, Thanit Rungruangchaikul (2009) summarized that a 200-L drum kiln yielded averagely 23.14% of charcoal (including firewood in front of the kiln), while a traditional kiln gave 19.99% on an average excluding chaff used in the charcoal making process. Charcoal produced by a 200-L drum kiln had better quality than charcoal produced by a traditional kiln. The former had on an average stable carbon of 77.08% and average heat of 7,573 calories per gram, which was higher than charcoal derived from a 298 traditional kiln, which had on an average stable carbon of 59.37 and average heat of 6,827 calories per gram. Firewood: Firewood is accumulated or stored as fuel for household use and for further production of biomass energy. Some households in Kho Sai Subdistrict ferment animal droppings to make biogas for cooking. Biogas: Biogas produced from animal droppings can be used as fuel in further production of biomass energy. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in the community that use biomass energy are those that use charcoal, firewood or biogas as a source of biomass energy. The results of the field study are as follows: 299
Table 4.18 Households (some in the community which Use Biomass Energy and LPG and Various types of Technology Concerning Biomass Energy : Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province
High efficiency Charcoal 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Earth kiln Production Use Biogas Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood for own use bucket stove
1 Khun Nuannoi Vorasiri 1 2 Khun Sinuan Chorat 1 3 Khun Khem Suriwong 1 4 Khun Sakda Pucha 1 5 Khun Chub Maka 1 6 Khun Somchai Panthong 1 7 Khun Pharadee Muanmuang 2 8 Khun Sa-ad Boonsom 2 9 Khun Chub Mailieng 2 10 Khun Korn Plaenak 3 11 Khun Supap Kotchasan 3 12 Khun Sommai Kiewchan 3 13 Khun Boon-uan Sawekvihan 3 14 Khun Ponpan Saengvilai 3 15 Khun Boonlue Talaka 3 16 Khun Yupapon Buathong 3 17 Khun Prasit Khiewlai 3 18 Khun Samruam Sangthong 4 19 Khun Wannee Matchim 4 20 Khun Prasert Saboo 4 21 Khun La-ied Pomngern 4 22 Khun Kaew 4 23 Khun Subin Petthong 4 24 Khun Boonluen Kimhuay 4 25 Khun Niyom Chansong 5 26 Khun Mali Nutyoo 5 27 Khun Payung Nitra 5 28 Khun Mattana Mupae 6 29 Khun Linda 6 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
Many households in Kho Sai Subdistrict also use charcoal, firewood or biogas as the main fuel. They use charcoal that they themselves produce or purchase. Most households making charcoal by using an earth mound pit. Some households use firewood and others used biogas as the main fuel for cooking. Of all 29 households, four households use only LPG; eight charcoal only; four, many kinds of biomass energy (firewood and/or charcoal and/ biogas); and thirteen, biomass 300 energy in combination with LPG. It can be concluded that many households in this subdistrict use biomass energy. Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of Community Energy Cost: In Kho Sai Subdistrict, wood is used to make charcoal for household use, so the energy cost of the community is decreased. Especially, food shops use charcoal as fuel. Some food shops get charcoal from their relatives to reduce the fuel cost. Biomass energy like firewood and charcoal helps households and the community to save money because they do not have to buy LPG. Money can also be saved by using technology like economic stoves. Creating More Jobs or More Occupations: Some households in Kho Sai Subdistrict community can take charcoal production as their occupation. They produce charcoal for sale. They are experts in biomass energy production by using a 200-L drum kiln or a earth kiln. Some households produce charcoal and sell it to vendors. Generating More Income: Of all the total of 29 households in Kho Sai Subdistrict that the researcher visited, 24 household, or 83% of the total, produced charcoal. Among them, five or 17% of the total, produce charcoal as a secondary occupation. This accounted for 21% of the charcoal-producing households that were visited by the researcher. The researcher concluded that there were a number of households in Kho Sai Subdistrict that produced charcoal as a secondary occupation and generated income from it. (2) Better Social Life in the Community More Sharing/Exchange of Knowledge/Community Resources/Energy: There is share energy sharing in Kho Sai Subdistrict such as giving wood that the owner does not want to other people because the latter has helped him the trees. The people who receive the wood use it to produce charcoal and give charcoal back to the wood owner in return. This is a kind of sharing and exchanging 301 of community resources in Kho Sai Subdistrict. Sharing of community resources also occurs among relatives. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Reduction of Pollution: From the process of charcoal production, households can collect wood vinegar to use as pesticide instead of chemical pesticide. This contributes to better community environment. Visiting Kho Sai Subdistrict, the researcher found that there were 4 out of 29 households, or 14% that make charcoal and collect wood vinegar. This number accounted for 17% of the total visited households. The researcher concluded that this percentage was high. There were five households, or 17% of the total households that use animal droppings to make biogas. Moreover, using wood vinegar instead of chemical pesticide has resulted in better community environment. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: Households in Kho Sai Subdistrict use biomass energy made from wood and biogas made from animal droppings, so they can better access other kinds of energy than LPG. The increased access to energy of Kho Sai Subdistrict stemmed from easy access to biomass energy. Households there can find biomass in their orchards and farms and animal droppings from animals they raise to produce energy for household use. Reduction of Energy Shortage: Charcoal production by households in subdistrict enables them to accumulate charcoal for use when needed and enables the community to reduce energy shortage. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, many households make charcoal for their own use. Some keep charcoal in bags for future use; other build a small wooden cage to keep the charcoal. Because they store charcoal for future use, there is no shortage of energy for cooking. Reduction of Dependence on Energy from Outside: The fact that households in Kho Sai Subdistrict produce charcoal for their own use and/ or for sale indicates their ability to reduce dependence on energy from outside. Some households in the community depend on biomass energy made from wood which are burnt to make charcoal use instead of LPG. Some households use LPG when necessary, so one tank of 15 kilograms of LPG can be used for one year. This indicates reduction of dependence on energy from outside. 302
4.3.1.4 Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict has biomass energy produced from biomass, i.e., wood. Biomass energy fuels which can be produced in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, were as follows: The field study in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict reveals that many households still depend on biomass energy from wood. The households burn wood to make charcoal and keep it for household use. Some households that have a large quantity of output can sell it too. Charcoal which is kept can be used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. In Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, many households own rambutan orchards, so they use trimmed rambutan branches to make charcoal. Charcoal: Charcoal is produced by using of a earth kiln and a 200-L drum kiln for household use and for further production of biomass energy Firewood which households store or accumulate for household use can be used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. In Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, there are only some households that use wood directly as firewood. Most of them burn wood to make charcoal for household use. Firewood: Firewood is stored or accumulated to use as fuel for further production of biomass energy. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in the community that use biomass energy are users of charcoal and firewood as a source of biomass energy. The results of the field study are as follows:
303
Table 4.19 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Eechnology: Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L-drum bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Earth klin Production charcoal to Use LPG kiln ordinary Thai Firewood for own use use bucket stove
1 Khun Vichit Achiva 1
2 Khun Chusri Hongklai 1
3 Khun Vilai Suebsorn 1
4 Khun Jarae Kongplew 1
5 Khun Piroon Pidthong 1
6 Khun Amnuay Krataichan 1
7 Khun Sanssanee Chansung 1
8 Khun Chuchart Toeloeng 2
9 Khun Sum-ang Phuenrang 2
10 Khun Nimnuan Sangworn 2
11 Khun Virat Siengkoh 2
12 Khun Viran Pim-ubon 2
13 Khun Somkuan Nga-jua 3
14 Khun Somsami Thawinwong 3
15 Khun Attapon Suebsorn 3
16 Khun Thavorn Thawinwong 3
17 Khun Prasong Prompilas 3
18 Khun Somsak Inthasuwan 3
19 Khun Sakorn Petnai 3
20 Khun Udom Ratyao 4
21 Khun Chang Kannayat 4
22 Khun Sumrit Sila-art 4
23 Khun Tom Sungthim 4
24 Khun Bumpen Hongbin 5
25 Khun Manat Suebsung 5
26 Khun Siw Uebsapap 5
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
304
Many households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict use charcoal and firewood. They use biomass energy as the main fuel. They peoduce charcoal themselves or buy it. Most households make charcoal by using earth kilns. Some households use firewood and charcoal as the main fuel for cooking and making sweets. Of all the 26 households that the researcher visited one household uses only LPG, 10 only charcoal, many kinds of biomass energy (firewood and charcoal), and 14 biomass fuel in combination with LPG. It can be concluded that most households in this subdistrist use biomass energy. Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Securit: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy. (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of Community Energy Cost: Using wood in the area to make charcoal for cooking to replace LPG results in decrease in the energy cost of the household. Charcoal which households use instead of LPG comes from burning wood branches. This can help reduce the energy expense. Although some households in the community think that they can use raw material in the community to produce biomass energy and help the community to reduce the energy cost, they still reserve LPG to use when necessary. In addition, within Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, people make desserts called Mokaeng and Khanom Chan by using firewood as fuel, which helps reduce the community energy cost. Creating More Jobs or Occupations: In Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, many households mainly work in their rambutan orchards and making charcoal for sale from rambutan wood as a secondary occupation. This secondary occupation had emerged from a large supply of rambutan wood, and a great demand for charcoal from restaurants on islands which are tourist attractions in Trat Province. Charcoal production became an occupation that people in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict can do at home and sell it to orders. Generating More Income: Of all the 26 households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict visited by the researcher 23 households, or 88% make charcoal. Out of this number, 10 households, or 38% produce charcoal as a secondary 305 occupation. This accounts for 43% of the total households that the researcher visited. It is concluded that there are a number of households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict that produce charcoal as a secondary occupation in order to generate more income. (2) Better Social Life in the Community Sharing/Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/ Energy: Charcoal production by households in the community reflects community energy management. There has been increasing sharing of community resources, particularly among relatives. Some households talk wood for their relatives to make charcoal and gave some back to them. Although some households have rambutan wood, they have no earth kiln so they borrow one from their neighbors. This is a kind of sharing of community resources in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Pollution: Many households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, collect wood vinegar, which is a by-product of charcoal production, to use as pesticide so they can reduce the use of chemical substances in their orchards. The results of the field study indicate that of all 26 households, five, or 19% collect wood vinegar. This account for 22% of the total number of visited households. The researcher has concluded that this is a good. The outcome of using wood vinegar instead of insecticide is better community environment as a result of reduction of chemical use. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: Many households in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict use charcoal derived from burning wood found in the community for cooking. The households think that making charcoal for their own use enables them to get easy access to energy and do not have to depend on LPG. Reduction of Energy Shortage: Self-reliance in the area of energy partly reduces energy shortage. There are rambutan orchards in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict and people can use rambutan wood to make charcoal for household use and for sale. Rambutan wood is plentiful during the trimming period. Reduction of Dependence on Energy from Outside: Dependence on energy from outside can be reduced when Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict can produce and accumulate energy for use in the community. There is 306 plenty of rambutan wood in the community. In the past 2 years, some households used LPG as reserved fuel. Before that they used biomass energy from charcoal. The households can now reduce buying LPG from outside the community. Many households use biomass energy as the main fuel for cooking, so they are able to use a 15-kilogram tank of LPG for 3–4 months. People’s using of biomass energy in subdistrict, therefore, helped reduce their dependence on nonrenewable energy which has to be supplied from outside the community. 4.3.1.5 Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaengphet Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production Wangkhaem Subdistrict has biomass energy fuel produced from biomass, which is wood, animal droppings and used vegetable oil. Types of biomass energy produced in Wangkhaem Subdistrict are as follows: Charcoal: Many households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict produce and use biomass energy. Households burn wood to make charcoal and store it for use. Some households which can produce a large quantity of charcoal so they can sell it; others buy charcoal within the community for cooking. Charcoal can also be used for further production of biomass energy. Firewood: Biomass energy which households use is firewood. The firewood is also be used as fuel in further production of biomass energy. Biodiesel: Biomass energy which can be produced also includes biodiesel made from used vegetable oil. Biodiesel is produced and used as fuel in further production biomass energy 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in the community that use biomass energy are users of charcoal, firewood , biogas, and biodiesel oil. The results of the field study are as follows:
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Table 4.20 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Kloongkhlung District, Kamphaengphet Province
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth Earth bucket stove/ Productio Use Use Use No. Name List Moo charcoal Use LPG drum kiln klin mound pit ordinary Thai n for own Firewood Biogas Biodiesel to use bucket stove use
1 Khun Potchanee Puengnin 1
2 Khun Fung Pansuk 1
3 Khun Kaew Inrat 1
4 Khun Jarun Buakhao 1
5 Khun Panom Pungthuang 2
6 Khun Sawoey Jinburi 2
7 Khun Somsak Saensong 2
8 Khun Payao Nakthevi 2
9 Khun Rakang Ruangfak 2
10 Khun Sichon Jinpan 2
11 Khun Sawat Chupinit 2
12 Khun Samran Roongjaeng 3
13 Khun Sanit Jinda 3
14 Khun Long Muenjan 4
15 Khun Jumpee Nenta 5
16 Khun Chalaem Pongpin 5
17 Khun In Pochalaem 5
18 Khun Panuwat Chinwongtan 5
19 Khun Lumyai Tiencharoen 6
20 Khun Thanaporn Tidtor 6
21 Khun Ploen Boon-in 6
22 Khun Paiwieng Nokaew 6
23 Khun Paengram Inklub 7
24 Khun Payud Deerat 7
25 Khun Kon Kadaeng 7
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 308
Table 4.20 (Continued)
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth Earth bucket stove/ Productio Use Use Use No. Name List Moo charcoal Use LPG drum kiln klin mound pit ordinary Thai n for own Firewood Biogas Biodiesel to use bucket stove use
26 Khun Chaiwat Panvitayakoon 7
27 Khun Samorn Kaewtom 8
28 Khun Thanapon Sukjabjai 8
29 Khun Butri Sumpao 8
30 Khun Mali Kaewpinit 8
31 Khun Pongsiri Nentakong 9
32 Khun La-ied Soomsaeng 9
33 Khun Sumontra Pimpa 9
34 Khun Mara Buasra 9
35 Khun Srinuan Puangsomjit 9
36 Khun Somboon Buapaeng 10
37 Khun Boonchuy Bantoon 10
38 Khun Prakong Thaisri 11
39 Khun Sawaeng Sriboonpaeng 12
40 Khun Rahat Wongdeeying 12
41 Khun Kruawan Kaewpan 12
42 Khun Amnat Nuankamsing 13
43 Khun Juan Sokuma 13
44 Khun Somchai Kingjumpa 13
45 Khun Suchart Yaisoong 13
46 Khun Jumlong Iemsa-ard 14
47 Khun Boonchoo Iemsa-ard 14
48 Khun Pisan Sisod 14
49 Khun Pat Khiewsonghong 16
50 Khun Jorn Nentakong 16
51 Khun Pratuan Suakaew 16
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 309
The households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict use biomass energy in form of charcoal, firewood and biogas. Most households use biomass energy as the main fuel at home. There are both charcoal the households themselves produce and charcoal that they buy. Most charcoal produced at home is made with a earth kiln. Some households use firewood and others use biogas as the main fuel for cooking at home. Of all the 51 visited households, one household uses only LPG, 11 only charcoal, two various biomass fuels, and 37 both biomass fuels and LPG. It can be concluded that many households in the subdistrict still consume biomass energy, and based on secondary data in Table 4.21, the quantity of biomass energy consumption of Wankhaem Subdistrict is large in comparison with other energy sources.
Table 4.21 Quantities of Energy Consumption of Wangkhaem Subdistrict Categorized by Their Types
Amount of Use Per Year CO2 emission Type of Energy Proportion Proportion (Tons, as equivalent to the crude oil: toe) (Kg)
Electricity 342.87 3.83 2,408.00 18.07 LPG 845.50 14.38 2,670.29 20.04 Diesel 1,724.13 29.33 5,445.24 40.86
Benzene 886.60 15.08 2,800.10 21.01
Paraffin oil (Kerosine) 0.98 0.02 3.10 0.02 Charcoal 2,061.29 35.06 - 0.00
Firewood 17.59 0.30 - 0.00
Total 5,878.97 100.00 13,326.74 100.00
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Cconomy Reduction of Community Energy Cost: Households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict use biomass energy for cooking at home, so they can save the fuel cost or expense. Some households use firewood for cooking; others burn wood to make charcoal for cooking. Some households do so to reduce their expenses because 310 they do not a high monthly income. Some shop owners use charcoal to save the energy cost. Furthermore, there are many households in Wankhaem Subdistrict that use biogas made from animal droppings to save the fuel cost. They also receive technological support for biogas production from the government agency concerned. Creating More Jobs or Occupations: In Wangkhaem Subdistrict, some households sell charcoal or are hired to make charcoal so they can generate income to support their families. The wage for charcoal production is 800 baht per kiln or 1,500 baht per 2 kilns. The hirer will bring wood to the charcoal producer and charcoal will belong to the hirer. The charcoal producer will properly put charcoal in sacks. Generating More Income: Of all the 51 visited households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict, 39 houses, or 76%, produce charcoal and three of them (6%) takes it as the primary occupation. Ten households, or 20%, take it as a secondary occupation. It can be concluded that there are many households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict that take charcoal production as a primary occupation or a secondary occupation. (2) Better Social Life in the Community Sharing/Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/ Energy: Households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict share community resources, especially wood, between acquaintances. Some households give trimmed wood to households that want it. Wood is valuable and cannot be easy to access. Sometimes there is not much wood to meet the demand of households. Also, the households that know each other sometimes produce charcoal together. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Pollution: By burning wood into charcoals, households can collect wood vinegar as pesticide to replace of chemical pesticide, so the community’s environment has become better. The field study reveals that there are 8 out of 51 visited households (16%) that produced charcoal and wood vinegar, or 21% of the total visited households that made charcoal. The percentage is high. Meanwhile, there are four households (8%) using animal droppings to produce biogas. The result of applying wood vinegar as pesticide is better environment in the community because of the reduction of chemical use. Also, 311 fermenting animal droppings can lessen strong smell that disturb neighbors in the community to a certain level. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better access to Energy: In Wangkhaem Subdistrict, many households that use biomass energy can get access to community resources, especially wood grown by the households or naturally growing in the household area and in public places in the community. Biogas is used in Wangkhaem Subdistrict because people can get access to energy by fermenting animal droppings derived from animals that they raise. They also get technological support by the government. Many households in Wankhaem Subdistrict use energy made from many kinds of biomass at home. This enhances their ability to access community energy. Decrease in Energy Shortage: In Wangkhaem Subdistrict, many households use wood as firewood for their own consumption. Some buy charcoal from their neighbors to use instead of LPG, which costs more. The biomass energy use at Wangkhaem Subdistrict can reduce the energy shortage, especially LPG because biomass is available in the subdistrict. Households in the subdistrict find that biomass energy use set them free from worry about energy shortage because they can be self-reliant. They can produce energy from community resources and accumulate fuels for future use as the main or additional fuel of the households. Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: Households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict buy LPG from outside. When the households used many kinds of biomass energy instead of LPG, they can reduce dependence on LPG supplied by outside sources. Many households in Wangkhaem Subdistrict use charcoal as fuel for cooking, grilling, roasting, and boiling. So they do not have to buy LPG. They, however, reserve LPG in households to use when they are in a hurry. Some households in the subdistrict use only biomass energy; they do not store LPG. Some households do not produce their own charcoal but buy it from the shops that carry charcoal or from households in the community. They depend on fuels produced in their community.
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4.3.1.6 Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production Suansom Subdistrict has biomass energy made from biomass such as wood. The results of the study are as follows: Charcoal: Charcoal used in the households is produced by using wood available in the community. Suansom Subdistrict is a rural area enriched with wood resources that can be used as firewood or be made into charcoal. The fact that households use wood as fuel is partially due to the availability of food in orchards or plantations. Charcoal is kept in the households and is used for household cooking and for further production of biomass energy. Some households may buy charcoal at shops which get charcoal from those who produce it for sale. Firewood: In Suansom Subdistrict, households collect and keep firewood for their own consumption. They can use it as fuel for further biomass energy production. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization There are many households in the community that use charcoal but only a few use firewood. Both charcoal and firewood are the main sources of biomass energy. The results of the study are as follows:
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Table 4.22 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province
High efficiency Chicken Charcoal Buy 200 L- bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Grilling Production charcoal to Use LPG drum kiln ordinary Thai Firewood stove for own use use bucket stove
1 Khun Charin Chaibangyang 1
2 Khun Somkid Khiaopho 1
3 Khun Prajuab Worawattana 1
4 Khun Sompran Srithan 1
5 Khun Chatree Songkakun 1
6 Khum Manop Wongthanom 1
7 Khun Krittidet Kerdjaroen 1
8 Khun Sanya Mee-liang 2
9 Khun So Phosasin 2
10 Khun Boontham Jetsee 3
11 Khun Kanya Pongwijit 3
12 Khum Suthin Dinop 4
13 Khun Somsak Thongkampra 4
14 Khun Wanna Janthapuk 4
15 Khun Boonchuay Krathu 4
16 Khun Prapai Thongprapai 4
17 Khun Somchat Thongkampra 4
18 Khun Bubpha Thongkampra 4
19 Khun Yupa Sienman 4
20 Khun Panor Sainiyom 5
21 Khun Ekalak Khaosa-ard 5
22 Khun Somsak Ngiewsomboon 5
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 314
Based on the data in Table 4.22, the households in Suansom Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal and firewood, but several households use LPG as the main fuel for cooking. Of all the 22 visited households, there were 8 households that consume LPG, only 2 only charcoal and 12 biomass energy together with LPG. It can be concluded that households in the subdistrict still consume biomass energy. However, the secondary data in Table 4.23 reveals that Suansom Community consumes less biomass energy made from firewood and charcoal than LPG.
Table 4.23 Volume of energy consumption per year and Co2 Emission; Suansom Subdistrict 2009
Amount of Use Per Year CO2 emission Type of Energy Proportion (Tons, as equivalent to the crude oil: toe) (Kg)
Electricity 47.44 17.0 323.7 LPG 38.34 13.7 159 Diesel 98.26 35.1 215.3
Benzene 88.51 31.6 249
Gasohol 0.44 0.2 1.39 Firewood 3.81 1.4 -
Charcoal 2.91 1.0 -
Total 279.71 100.00 948.39
Source : Suansom Subdistrict Administration Organization, 2009
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) The Better Community Economy Reduction of the Community Energy Cost: The fact that households in Suansom Subdistrict use wood to produce charcoal helps reduce the cost of energy consumption in the community. Especially those households who run food shops use charcoal as fuel in their shops. Some households produce charcoal by 315 using 200 L-drum kilns. But the public kilns were broken, so they buy charcoal and can save their household expenses. Creating More Jobs or Occupations: Some households in Suansom Subdistrict take charcoal production as their occupation. Some produce their own by using 200-L drum. They order raw material, i.e., wood from outside because they produce a large volume of charcoal continually. They produce tar-free charcoal and collect wood vinegar for sale. Generating More Income: Of all the 22 visited households in Suansom Subdistrict, 7 houses or 32%, produce charcoal. One household (5%) took it as a primary occupation or 14% of the total visited households. One household (5%) took it as a secondary occupation or 14% of the total visited households. It can be concluded that there are many households in the subdistrict that take charcoal production as a primary occupation and a secondary occupation to earn additional income. (2) Better Social Life in the Community Sharing/ Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/ Energy: There is informal exchange of knowledge of energy and other topics among households in Suansom Subdistrict. The knowledge of charcoal production can be gained from the learning center. Households share wood. Those who do not want it give it to other households. This is the way of life of the community. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Pollution: Households in Suansom Subdistrict use wood vinegar to replace chemical substances. They can get wood vinegar as a by-product of charcoal production. This positively affect the community environment. There are 4 out of 22 visited households in Suansom Subdistrict, or 18%, that make charcoal and wood vinegar or 57% of all visited households. The percentage is high. The use of wood vinegar as pesticide has resulted in better community environment because of reduction of chemical use. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy More Access to Energy, Decrease in Energy Shortage and Reduction of Dependence on External Sources of Energy: In Suansom Subdistrict, 316 self-reliance in the area of energy stemmed from using firewood or charcoal as fuel for cooking. Households in the community can get access biomass energy made from wood, which is mostly available in their orchards. The access to energy in the community has increased, although not many households consume biomass energy. Some households in Suansom Subdistrict consume firewood and charcoal as the main fuels for cooking to reduce the energy shortage and the dependence on energy from outside the community. However, some households buy charcoal. Overall, the community consume biomass energy as a replacement of non-renewable energy.
4.3.2 Six Communities Which Did Not Receive Any Award in the Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” 4.3.2.1 Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasang District, Buriram Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production Households in Sri Phum Subdistrict use biomass energy made from biomass such as wood. The results of the study are as follows: Sri Phum Subdistrict is a rural community where most villagers are agriculturists. There is plenty of wood available in orchards and plantations that households can use as firewood and to produce charcoal in their households. Some households have wood, although not much, but they make charcoal because of their realization of its benefit. Firewood and charcoal are stored at home to be used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization The results of the field study are as follows:
317
Table 4.24 Households (some in the community), Which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province
High Earth efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth Use No. Name List Moo mound bucket stove/ Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln kiln Firewood pit ordinary Thai for own use to use bucket stove 1 Khun Thewin Wathookjai 1
2 Khun Anan Sattrupinat 1
3 Khun Pae Nikarnram 1
4 Khun Ruek Kinkaew 2
5 Khun Rien Palaram 3
6 Khun Kraisorn Kaewplang 3
7 Khun Subin Permnid 4
8 Khun Pol Phispeng 5
9 Khun Atthaya Piriram 5
10 Khun Somchai Pawingram 5
11 Khun Lakkhana Ngamchoei 5
12 Khun Buakaew Padram 6
13 Khun Surat Chuamram 6
14 Khun Sakchai Pniram 7
15 Khun Jit Prapasai 7
16 Khun Mueang Moothong 7
17 Khun Somjit Phanwichat 7
18 Khun Samroen Yaemram 8
19 Khun No Thongnam 8
20 Khun Chob Phoncharoen 9
21 Khun Boonluay Wimanram 9
22 Khun Bang-orn Nongram 9
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
318
The households in Sri Phum Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal, firewood and biogas. Of all the 22 households visited, 5 households consume only biomass energy of several kinds (firewood and charcoals) and 17 biomass energy together with LPG. The majority of households reserve LPG for use in their households. It can be concluded that many households in Subdistrict consume biomass energy. The secondary data in Table 4.25, confirms that many households in Sri Phum Subdistrict consume biomass energy.
Table 4.25 Number of Households Consuming Following Types of Energies of Sri Phum Subdistrict No. of households Type of Energy Percent (%) out of the total of 879 households) Electricity 879 100.00 Charcoal 771 87.71 Firewood 458 52.10 LPG 509 57.91
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of the Community Energy Cost: Apart from the use of biomass energy to reduce the cost of energy for household cooking, households in Sri Phum Subdistrict benefit from doing local business and general business at home, e.g. producing silk, selling noodles. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Generating More Income: Of all the 22 visited households, 18 households or 82% produce charcoal. And from that number, there are 3 houses (14%) taking it as a secondary occupation, accounting for 17% of the total charcoal-producing households. It can be concluded that there are many households in Sri Phum Subdistrict that take charcoal production as a secondary occupation to earn an extra income. 319
(2) Better Social Life in the Community Sharing/Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/ Energy: In Sri Phum Subdistrict, knowledge about making kilns/ stoves is exchanged and wood is distributed among the relatives and the acquaintances in the community. There is also sharing of community resources in Sri Phum Subdistrict where the owners of paddy fields and plantations allow their acquaintances to find wood in their rice fields orchards and plantations for charcoal production. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Reduction of Pollution: The by-product of charcoal production is wood vinegar which can be used as pesticide, which in turn, contributes to the improved condition of the community’s environment. The field research reveals that in Sri Phum Subdistrict there are 4 out of 22 visited households or 18%, that produce charcoal and collect wood vinegar, accounting for 22% of the total households that produced charcoal. This percentage was high. The use of wood vinegar to replace chemical pesticide can improve the community’s environment. (4) More Self-reliance in the Area of Energy More access to energy, decrease in energy shortage and reduction in dependence on external sources of energy In Sri Phum Subdistrict many people produce charcoal in the paddy field and bring back to be used as fuel at home. They store charcoal at home so they can have access to energy anytime they want to. They view that one benefit of using biomass energy in their households is decrease in energy shortage because wood - or wood residues from furniture making, for example - is available in the community. Moreover, in Sri Phum Subdistrict, many households use biomass energy made from wood available in the community instead of buying LPG from outside. Some households can reduce LPG dependence and use only one tank of LPG for as long as 4 months so the dependence on external sources of energy is decreased.
320
4.3.2.2 Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production In Chumpol District there is biomass energy fuel made of biomass i.e. the wood. The study results are as follows; The fieldwork in Chumpol Subdistrict reveals that there are many households in the community that produce and use biomass energy like charcoal. They burn wood to make charcoal and store it for future use at home. Some households sell surplus charcoal while others buy charcoal to be used at home. The stored charcoal can be used as fuel to produce more biomass energy. Stored and Collected Firewood to be Used as Fuel to Further Production of Biomass Energy: Furthermore, firewood which is collected and stored for future use at home can be used as fuel to produce more biomass energy. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization The biomass energy-using households in the community use charcoal and firewood. The results of the study are as follow:
321
Table 4.26 Households (some in the community), which Uses biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province
High efficiency Earth Charcoal Buy 200 L- bucket stove/ Use Use Paddy No. Name List Moo Earth kiln mound Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln ordinary Thai Firewood Husk pit for own use to use bucket stove 1 Khun Jiraporn Pisaipan 1
2 Khun Jittakorn Danit 1
3 Khun Noo Saepua 1
4 Khun Sai Nantaya 2
5 Khun Srisawat Singhakiri 2
6 Khun Nit Malila 3
7 Khun Dokmai Yamma 3
8 Khun Chamnan Pitak 4
9 Khun Tonglee Tamkana 4
10 Khun Sorawayut Klangnok 4
11 Khun Noo Pewthaisong 5
12 Khun Saman Tanphadung 5
13 Khun Kasem Thipphrom 6
14 Khun Rachan Suwannet 6
15 Khun Sunan Boonphrom 6
16 Khun Chanida Boonpa 7
17 Khun Borworn Makham 7
18 Khun Noy Tajanrat 7
19 Khun Thongsao Pilaiphan 8
20 Khun Thonglor Promkhamkhao 9
21 Khun Thongphoon Chanchamni 9
22 Khun Samorn Suaysa-ard 10
23 Khun Lamphun Sawang-am 10
24 Khun Samran Jadtree 10
25 Khun Khum Jadtree 10
26 Khun Shong Waedlom 10
27 Khun Sudjai Roekkhana 10
28 Khun Saranya Jarlao 11
29 Khun Boonrueang Sawaengngam 11
30 Khun Piya Minichit 12 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 322
Table 4.26 (Continued)
High efficiency Earth Charcoal Buy 200 L- bucket stove/ Use Use Paddy No. Name List Moo Earth kiln mound Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln ordinary Thai Firewood Husk pit for own use to use bucket stove 31 Khun Suthana Phaengsaen 12
32 Khun Songkram Rachalao 13
33 Khun Choeng Srisuphan 13
34 Khun Borworn Baoraksa 13
35 Khun Soonthorn Koatboonma 14
36 Khun Phaeng Wijit 14
37 Khun Thongsuk Niyomyat 14
38 Khun Prasert Ruangthawee 15
39 Khun Suwapat Phathinan 15
40 Khun Wandee Swarak 15
41 Khun Songkran Sritabutr 16
42 Khun Mon Singsiri 16
43 Khun Thong Arsasuk 17
44 Khun Wilaiporn Phongthong 17
45 Khun Porn Silakom 18
46 Khun Somsak Duangpamorn 18
47 Khun Harn Singsathorn 18
48 Khun Boonnam Khamdaeng 18
49 Khun Boonma Saenboon 18
50 Khun Thaweesak Saengpim 19
51 Khun Songpol Prasertsang 19
52 Khun Choengchai Sena-arj 19
53 Khun Wong Phudaensai 20
54 Khun Son Saengsawat 20
55 Khun Thong Saengsuek 21
56 Khun Sukan Sritrangkham 21
57 Khun Phaithoon Somboon 21
58 Khun Charnchai Pisaiphan 22
59 Khun Win Konru 22
60 Khun Supat Sopasoonthorn 22 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
323
Table 4.26 (Continued)
High efficiency Earth Charcoal Buy 200 L- bucket stove/ Use Use Paddy No. Name List Moo Earth kiln mound Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln ordinary Thai Firewood Husk pit for own use to use bucket stove 61 Khun Boonhom Phuti-at 23
62 Khun Thongwan Saengprasit 23
63 Khun Boonjan Wiangsinma 24
64 Khun Nipon Siriwicha 24
65 Khun Sawai Srihachat 24
66 Khun Noojeen Ratanasoongnern 24
67 Khun Ka Surarak 25
68 Khun Chanon Worabutr 25
69 Khun Likhit Singhasiri 25
70 Khun Wanchai Sukchaisri 25
71 Khun Wichien Klangnok 25
72 Khun Chaweewan Pinyo 26
73 Khun Thida Phutthakun 26 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
The households in Chumpol Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal, firewood and biogas. Most households use biomass energy as the main fuel at home. In the case of charcoal, there were both households that produce charcoal and ones that buy it. Most households make charcoal with the earth kiln. Some use firewood and others use biogas as the main fuel for cooking at home. Of all the 73 households, 10 use only LPG, 13 only charcoal, 9 various kinds of biomass energy (firewood & charcoal) and 41 a combination of biomass energy and LPG. It can be concluded that people in the community of Chumpol Subdistrict use biomass energy. Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy
324
(1) Better Community Economy Reduction of Community Energy Cost: Households in Chumpol Subdistrict use biomass as fuel for cooking at home, so they can reduce their energy expenses or save the energy cost. Some use biomass, i.e. wood, directly as firewood or burn wood to produce charcoal for cooking. Others buy charcoal for use since it is cheaper than LPG. Some households which are engaged in food business also use biomass to save the cost e.g. frying dough sticks (pa-tong-go), frying banana, boiling water to make noodle soup, making vermicelli (kanom-chine), and grilling chicken. However, some households in Chumpol Subdistrict use paddy husks as fuel for making desserts. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Generating Income: Of all the 73 visited households in Chumpol Subdistrict, 35 houses, or 48%) produce the charcoal. And from that number, 5 households (or 7%) take charcoal production as a secondary occupation, accounting for 14% of the overall households that produced charcoal. It can be concluded that there are some households in Chumpol Subdistrict that take charcoal production as a secondary occupation to earn extra income. (2) Better social Life in the Community More Sharing/ Exchanging of Knowledge/ Community Resources/ Energy: In Chumpol Subdistrict, the sharing/exchange of knowledge, community resources and energy in the community has increased through the distribution of wood or wood vinegar among the acquaintances. Public kilns in public places are shared and households allow their acquaintances to use their kilns for charcoal production. The community leader and the households in the community exchange their knowledge concerning the use of biomass energy made from local resources available in the community. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Substance Use and Reduction of Pollution: The by-product from charcoal production is wood vinegar. Wood vinegar is used as pesticide, replacing chemical pesticide. This contributes to the improved condition of the community’s environment. The field study in Chumpol Subdistrict, reveals that 5 households out of 73 visited households (7%) produced charcoal and 325 wood vinegar, accounting for 14% of the total visited households that produced charcoal, which was a rather low percentage. The outcome of using wood vinegar to replace pesticide is improved community environment as a result of the reduced use of chemicals. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: By using biomass energy instead of the non-renewable energy like LPG, many households in Chumpol Subdistrict can get better access to energy for cooking. The ability to get more access to energy in Chumpol Subdistrict has stemmed from the use of biomass, especially the wood available in the locality, to produce fuel for using at home. Apart from LPG, the ability to get more access to energy of community people has resulted from the possibility to buy charcoal as alternative energy at the price of 120 baht per sack. Decrease in Energy Shortage: Charcoal production in Chumpol Subdistrict enables households to have charcoal for use at any time they want so the energy shortage in the community is decreased because of the increase in energy accessibility. Many households in Chumpol Subdistrict use various kinds of biomass energy as an alternative to LPG. This behavior has decreased the likelihood of energy shortage in the community. Households can find wood from the plantations to use as firewood, and they can produce charcoal at home or buy it. Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: The use of biomass energy made from the wood, i.e. firewood or charcoal, can help decrease the dependence on external sources of energy. Some households use biomass energy, both firewood and charcoal, as fuel for cooking at home without the need to buy LPG. Many households in Chumpol Subdistrict produce charcoal with the earth mound pit in the orchards. They put charcoal in bags or sacks and brought back home, decreasing the dependence on LPG which has to be brought in from outside the community. Many households in Chumpol Subdistrict view that they can grow trees while LPG has to be bought only.
326
4.3.2.3 Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production In Na Wieng Subdistrict there is biomass energy fuel made from biomass i.e. wood and animal droppings. The study results are as follows: The fieldwork in the community of Na Wieng Subdistrict reveals that many households in the community produce and use charcoal. They burn wood to make charcoal and store it for future use at home. Some households produce surplus charcoal for sale while others buy charcoal within the community. The stored charcoal can be used as fuel to further produce biomass energy. Firewood stored and accumulated for future use at home can be used as fuel to produce biomass energy 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Households in the community use charcoal and firewood as a source of biomass energy in their households. Some households use non-renewable energy instead of biomass energy. The results of the study are as follows:
327
Table 4.27 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province.
High efficiency Charcoal Earth Buy Use 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Productio No. Name List Moo mound charcoal Firewoo Use LPG drum kiln kiln ordinary Thai n for own pit to use d bucket stove use
1 Khun Boonjan Thongfuang 1
2 Khun Prapas Kamnamtiang 1
3 Khun Pramuan Motham 1
4 Khun Buakan Srisuk 1
5 Khun Suthin Thongmanee 1
6 Khun Ngoen Thongfuang 1
7 Khun Saisawang Thongfuang 1
8 Khun Waiyuth Saisaeng 1
9 Khun Niwat Srisuk 1
10 Khun Thongdee Thongfuang 2
11 Khun Somboon Chaikham 2
12 Khun Sompong Sosud 2
13 Khun Singthai Wieangsamut 2
14 Khun Samarn Srisuk 2
15 Khun Pradab Maneekorn 2
16 Khun Samai Kaewrimkhwa 3
17 Khun Khamboon Srijan 3
18 Khun Pramuan Thongfuang 3
19 Khun Sam-ang Parpom 3
20 Khun Thawee Thongfuang 3 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 328
Table 4.27 (Continued)
High efficiency Charcoal Earth Buy Use 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Productio No. Name List Moo mound charcoal Firewoo Use LPG drum kiln kiln ordinary Thai n for own pit to use d bucket stove use
21 Khun Thongdee Ratchari 4
22 Khun Thongdaeng Sawangwong 4
23 Khun Sa-ard Ratchari 4
24 Khun La-moon Thongsom 4
25 Khun Khajorn Ai-arworn 4
26 Khun Krasae Thongbai 5
27 Khun Somnuek Khajornsombat 5
28 Khun Nonglak Khajornsombat 5
29 Khun Samruay Chaisaeng 5
30 Khun Suwannahong Chaisaeng 5
31 Khun Somboon U-thong 5
32 Khun Aree Srisuk 6
33 Khun Mongkol Srisuk 6
34 Khun Lamphun Srisuk 6
35 Khun Somjeen Dangpoanthong 6
36 Khun Naiyanath Khamsaen 7
37 Khun Noo-arn Khamsaen 7
38 Khun Surasak Thongfuang 7
39 Khun Sunthorn Kongthawee 7
40 Khun Thawee Srijan 7 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
The households in Na Wieng Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal and firewood. Many households use biomass energy as the main fuel at home. In the case of charcoal, there are both households that produce charcoal and those that buy it. Most households produced charcoal at home with the earth kiln while others used firewood for cooking at home. Of all the 40 visited households, one household used only LPG, 6 only charcoal, 13 various kinds of biomass energy (firewood & charcoal), and 20 households a combination of biomass energy and LPG. It can be concluded that people in Na Wieng Subdistrict still use biomass energy and the secondary data in Table 4.28, also supports the fact that many households in subdistrict use biomass energy. 329
Table 4.28 The Number of Households Using LPG, Charcoal and the Firewood
The No. of households using Type of Energy (From all the 780 households as of Proportion (%) 2010) LPG 695 89.1 Charcoal 735 94.2 Firewood 3 0.4
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better community economy Reduction of the Community Energy Cost: Many households in the subdistrict use only firewood and charcoal at home instead of LPG. Wood twigs or branches can be used as firewood, thus reducing the LPG purchase. Some households do not produce charcoal but buy some for use in order to save the energy expense or to decrease the energy cost in small businesses. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Generating More Income: Of all the 40 visited households in Na Wieng Subdistrict (or 85%), 34 households produce charcoal. And from that number, 11 households, or 28% of the total visited households, take it as a secondary occupation, accounting for 32% of the total charcoal producing households. It can be concluded that there are many households in subdistrict that take charcoal production as a secondary occupation to earn extra income. (2) Better Social life in the Community More Sharing/ Exchanging of Knowledge/ Community Resources/ Energy: In Subdistrict, there is sharing of community resources among the households. Some co-use the charcoal kilns with their neighbors while others share produced charcoal with their relatives in the same community. Some households in Na Wieng Subdistrict even share firewood with their acquaintances in the community. 330
(3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Substance Use and Reduction of Pollution: From charcoal production, the households can get wood vinegar to be used as pesticide to replace chemical pesticide. This, in turn, can contribute to the improved condition of the community’s environment. The fieldwork in Na Wieng Subdistrict reveals that there were 4 out of 40 visited households (or 10%) that produce charcoal and collect wood vinegar, accounting for 12% of the total charcoal- producing households. This percentage was rather low. The outcome of using wood vinegar to replace chemical pesticide is the improved community’s environment as a result of the reduced use of chemicals. (4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better access to Energy: Many households in subdistrict use biomass energy, thus increasing their access to energy. In other words, biomass energy has become an alternative for households. Some households use biomass energy as the main fuel and store LPG as an alternative fuel for emergency. Decrease in Energy Shortage: Many households in subdistrict use wood twigs or branches as firewood and burn wood to make charcoal for household use. Some produce charcoal and put it in sacks and stored it at the house to avoid energy shortage. The households in subdistrict view that the use of the biomass energy helps them to be free worry about energy shortage because they can produce fuel out of the resources available in the community, either as the main or as an alternative fuel. Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: Most households in subdistrict view that producing charcoal for domestic use or for sale can help decrease their dependence on external sources of energy. To have the self-reliance in the area of energy, some households produce charcoal and store it for years for future use without depending on LPG, which needs to be brought from outside. They use LPG only when they are in a hurry.
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4.3.2.4 Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production Households in Nongfag Subdistrict use firewood and charcoal – biomass energy made from biomass i.e. wood. The study results are as follows: Most biomass energy produce in the households is firewood from the orchards. Many households in subdistrict can get wood from lychee orchards. Firewood is kept for domestic use and for further production of biomass energy. In this subdistrict, however, only a few households produce and use charcoal. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Many households use firewood and some households use charcoal. The results of the study were as follows:
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Table 4.29 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Production charcoal to Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood for own use use bucket stove
1 Khun Sa-ard Tonman 1
2 Khun Boon Promma 1
3 Khun Oonruan 1
4 Khun Boonma Somjai 2
5 Khun Kam-Auan Fongkam 2
6 Khun Sanid Rod-ruan 2
7 Khun Suna Woraphon 3
8 Khun Surasak Wangphueng 3
9 Khun Jinda Ngaotham 3
10 Khun Jaran Jaroensuk 4
11 Khun Sayan Namwong 4
12 Khun Kaew Kawichai 4
13 Khun Rangsit Fongmee 4
14 Khun Wirat Ngaotham 6
15 Khun Saman Saengsai 5 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
333
Table 4.29 (Continued)
High efficiency Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use No. Name List Moo Production charcoal to Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood for own use use bucket stove
16 Khun Supat Sukantha 5
17 Khun Phraiphorn Ninphet 5
18 Khun Witthaya Kanthawong 5
19 Khun Inthorn Thana-kan 6
20 Khun Wichien Chatri 6
21 Khun Nimmnuan Yana 6
22 Khun Sommana Sriwichai 6
23 Khun Prasit Boonsoong 7
24 Khum Amphan Yongkaew 7
25 Khun Boonnop Somboon 7
26 Khun Sien Namcharoen 7
27 Khun Bualiao Jumpla 7
28 Khun Sa-ngad Ngaothong 8
29 Khun Thawin Hinsaeng 8
30 Khun Duangnet Hinsaeng 8
31 Khun Samphan Fongsak 9
32 Khun Khwandao Jumpla 9
33 Khun Kannika Kadeesong 9 Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
The households in Nongfag Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal and firewood. Many households use biomass energy as the main fuel at home. In the case of charcoal, there are both households that produce charcoal and ones that buy it. Most households produce charcoal at home with a 200 L-drum kiln while others use firewood as the main fuel for cooking at home. Of all the 33 visited household, only one household used LPG; two, only firewood; and 13, a combination of biomass energy and LPG. Most households use firewood as the main fuel. It can be concluded that households in this subdistirct use biomass energy and the secondary data as in Table 4.30, confirms that the use of biomass energy in the form of firewood and charcoal is higher than the use of LPG.
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Table 4.30 Amount of Various Kinds of Energy Used in Nongfag Sub-dsitrict
Amount of Use Per Year Type of Energy (Tons, as equivalent to Percent (%) the crude oil : toe) Electricity 190.7 9.2 Charcoal 21.0 1.0 Firewood 253.3 12.2 LPG 230.1 11.1 Paraffin oil (Kerosine) 1.0 0.0 Benzene 91 447.6 21.6 Benzene 95 315.2 15.2 Gasohol 91 9.8 0.5 Gasohol 95 9.1 0.4 Automotive Diesel 585.7 28.3 Biodiesel B5 3.7 0.2 Biodiesel B100 2.3 0.1 (Automotive) LPG 1.1 0.1 TOTAL 2,070.6 100.0
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of Community Energy Cost and Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Income: Of all the 33 visited households in the subdistrict, 9 households (or 27%) produced charcoal. And from that number, 3 households (or 9%) take it as a secondary occupation, accounting for 33% of the total households that produced charcoal. It can be concluded that there are some households in subdistrict that take charcoal production as a secondary occupation to earn extra income.
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(2) Better Social life in the Community More Sharing/Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/Energy: The increased sharing/exchange of knowledge/community resources/energy in Nongfag Subdistrict can be seen from the sharing/exchange of knowledge/community resources/energy among the villagers-sharing firewood with the acquaintances in the community, for example. Increase in Acceptance of Opinions on Energy: The acceptance on energy in Nongfag Subdistrict has been increased because the people are now aware of the smog problem in Saraphi District, which is the cause of respiratory diseases in the community. The community leader has broadcast the program entitled “Let’s stop burning” supported by the Pollution Control Department so that the villagers can see the importance and realized the negative impact of garbage burning. Charcoal production is not prohibited but it has to be done in the orchards where there are many trees, not in the open space. It has to done with a 200 L-drum kiln. Most households agree that the smog problem is caused by burning and that they should use wood directly as firewood and should not burn wood to make charcoal. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Reduction of Pollution: From charcoal production, the households can get wood vinegar to be used as pesticide to replace chemical pesticide, which contributes to the improved condition of the community’s environment. The fieldwork in Nongfag Subdistrict reveals that 2 out of 33 visited households in Nongfag Subdistrict (6%) produce charcoal and collect wood vinegar. The number of households that produce wood vinegar is quite small, accounting for 22% of the total households that produced charcoal. Even though a small proportion of the households produce charcoal and wood vinegar, the use of wood vinegar to replace chemical pesticide can improve the community’s environment because of the reduced use of chemicals.
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(4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: Many households in Nongfag Subdistrict use biomass energy, which increases their access to energy. In other words, biomass energy has become an alternative for them to get better access to energy. Some households use biomass energy as the main fuel and LPG as an additional fuel for emergency use. The use of biomass energy in the subdistrict enables the community access energy more easily. Decrease in Energy Shortage: Many households in subdistrict use biomass energy, especially firewood as the main fuel for cooking at home. Some households in the community use the biomass energy and LPG alternatively resulting in decrease in the energy shortage. They buy LPG and keep it as a reserve fuel for use when in a hurry. However, some households use LPG as the main fuel for cooking and use biomass energy as the reserve energy. They view it as a way to prevent the energy shortage as well. Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: In Nongfag Subdistrict, households’ use of biomass energy in the form of firewood or charcoal helps reduce the dependence on the external energy. Some households in subdistrict use charcoal and firewood as additional fuel for cooking to reduce the purchase of LPG from outside. Many households use biomass fuel i.e. firewood, as the main fuel at home and use LPG as the reserve energy for cooking when in a hurry. They view that wood twigs or branches that are not used to produce charcoal can be used directly as firewood and largely helps decrease their dependence on LPG which needs to be brought from the outside. One tank of LPG can last several months. 4.3.2.5 Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production In Napho District, biomass energy was made from biomass, i.e. wood and animal droppings. The results of the study were as follows; Firewood and charcoal: The fieldwork in Napho District reveals that many households still produce and use biomass energy – firewood and charcoal. Firewood is kept for domestic use and for further production of biomass energy. 337
Biogas: Some households in Napho District ferment animal droppings or dung to produce biogas for cooking. Biogas is also used as fuel for further production of biomass energy. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Biomass energy using households in the community are the users of the charcoal, firewood and biogas. The results of the study are as follows: 338
Table 4.31 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province
High efficiency Big Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use Use No. Name List Moo Bucket Earth kiln Firewood Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood Biogas Stove for own use to use bucket stove
1 Khun Jerm Uchuparb 1
2 Khun Ratree Chana 1
3 Khun Boontin Thongnapoh 1
4 Khun Watjana Palang 1
5 Khun Somwang Krutsuwan 1
6 Khun Taeng Wongsuwat 2
7 Khun Kamporn Guanchoo 2
8 Khun Kularb Chana 2
9 Khun Wimon Chana 2
10 Khun Panom Art-harn 2
11 Khun Adun Sapchine 2
12 Khun Chinchutha Sawangsook 2
13 Khun Pramote Khwanmuang 2
14 Khun Somwiang Kongsaengkaew 3
15 Khun Wittaya Mueysook 3
16 Khun Suchart Saengbangmod 3
17 Khun Narin Piman 3
18 Khun Rewat Phromharn 3
19 Khun Wirat Phromharn 3
20 Khun Wirat Sinwisai 3
21 Khun Apichart Piman 3
22 Khun Yutthana Saengbangmoon 3
23 Khun Prayad Sakae 4
24 Khun Samnao Nuysook 4
25 Khun Udma Piangjan 4
26 Khun Norm Nuysook 4
27 Khun Lawan Nuysook 4
28 Khun Yun Ngamjad 5
29 Khun Jirawan Songprapa 5
30 Khun Pranee Klin-obchoei 5
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 339
Table 4.31 (Continued)
High efficiency Big Charcoal Buy 200 L- Earth bucket stove/ Use Use No. Name List Moo Bucket Earth kiln Firewood Production charcoal Use LPG drum kiln mound pit ordinary Thai Firewood Biogas Stove for own use to use bucket stove
31 Khuh Wichit Pinnarat 5
32 Khun Bussara Wikitrakorn 5
33 Khun Chaloem Sookkaew 6
34 Khun Praphai Phromkhunthong 6
35 Khun Wanpen Dussadee 6
36 Khun Wethasil Phromkhunthong 6
37 Khun Wachira Wangkrit 6
38 Khun Udom Yoysawad 7
39 Khun Wiboon Uthai 7
40 Khun Weerayuth Chuaytem 7
41 Khun Wutthichai Chuaytem 7
42 Khun Phaiboon Wongsuwat 7
43 Khun Somkid Prathabkaew 8
44 Khun Thaworn Thongnapho 8
45 Khun Hern Rodmanee 8
46 Khun Suthon Jirathum 8
47 Khun Jare Hadtha 8
48 Khun Pranee Siriwilai 8
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
The households in Napho Subdistrict use biomass energy in the form of charcoal, firewood and biogas. Many households use biomass energy as the main fuel at home. In the case of charcoal, there are both the households that produce charcoal and those that buy it. The households that use charcoal as the main fuel produce charcoal at home. Some buy charcoal for domestic use and others use biogas as the main fuel for cooking at home. Of all the 48 visited households, nine households used only LPG; four, only charcoal; one, various kinds of biomass fuel (firewood and charcoal); and thirty-four, a combination of biomass energy and LPG. It can be concluded that people in subdistrict still use biomass energy and the secondary data in Table 4.32, confirms that the use of biomass energy in the form of firewood and charcoal is lower than the use of LPG.
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Table 4.32 Quantity of Various Kinds of Energy used in Napho Subdistrict
Amount of Use Per Year Type of Energy (Tons, as equivalent to Proportion (%) the crude oil : toe) Electricity 106.54 20.49 Wood Charcoal 22.15 4.26 Firewood 6.33 1.22 Paddy Husk 0.11 0.02 LPG 123.49 23.75 Benzine 200.50 38.56 Diesel 60.91 11.71 TOTAL 520.03 100.0
Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) The Better Community Economy Reduction of the Community Energy Cost: Using wood available in the area to produce charcoal or to be firewood contributes to the decreased cost of energy in the community, especially in the households using firewood and charcoal as fuel in their small businesses. For example, the housewife group of Ban Suan Durian, Moo 3 use firewood as fuel to produce coconut sugar. People in Moo 8 use firewood as fuel to dry young nipa leaves. The households in the subdistrict that use biomass energy for cooking at home can save the cost of energy, too. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Generating More Income: In Napho Subdistrict, a few households take charcoal production as a secondary occupation. The fieldwork indicates that charcoal production among the households in the community is just a small business. Of all the 48 visited households in the subdistrict, 19 households (or 40%) of produced charcoal. One household or 2% households takes it as a primary occupation, accounting for 5% of the households 341 that produced charcoal, and 2 households (or 4%) take it as a secondary, accounting for 11% of the total households that produced charcoal. It can be concluded that there are still a few households in the subdistrict that take charcoal production as a primary occupation or secondary occupation to earn extra income. (2) Better Social Life in the Community More Sharing/Exchanging of Knowledge/Community Resources/Energy: In Napho Subdistrict, there is increase in the sharing of community resources, i.e., community energy. Some households make biogas by fermenting animal droppings taken from their relatives who raised pigs and cows. (3) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Use and Reduction of Pollution: The community is now using more biomass energy. Especially at Ban Khao Suan Durian Moo 3, people produce biogas from animal droppings to use as fuel for cooking. This decreases pollution especially the smell of animal dung in the community. The production of biogas helps improve the condition of the overall community environment. Some households produce charcoal and get wood vinegar as a by-product to be used as pesticide replacing chemical pesticide. The fieldwork reveals that in Napho subdistrict there were 3 households out of 48 visited households (or 6%) that produce charcoal and wood vinegar. The number is quite small, accounting for 16% of the total households that produced charcoal. The percentage of the households that get wood vinegar during the charcoal production is quite small. There are 3 households of the total visited households (or 6%) that make biogas from animal dung. The number is quite small too. Using wood vinegar as the replacement of chemical pesticide helps improve the community’s environment because of the reduced use of chemicals and the dung fermentation also helps reduce the bad smell of animal droppings. 4) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Better Access to Energy: Many households in subdistrict use biomass energy, which enhances their ability to access community resources, especially wood from trees that naturally grow or are grown at home and in public places where all the community members can use for their benefits. The use of biogas in the subdistrict comes from the availability of animal dung in the households that 342 raise animals and government technical support. Many households in subdistrict use various kinds of biomass energy at home to increase their access to energy. Decrease in Energy Shortage: Many households in subdistrict use biomass energy. Some use it as the main fuel for cooking at home, so there is no energy shortage. Some households buy LPG and keep it as reserve energy for use when in a hurry. However, some households used LPG as the main fuel for cooking and used biomass energy as reserve energy. They view it as a way to prevent the energy shortage as well. Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: Apart from the use of biomass fuel to replace LPG which needs to be brought in from outside, many households in the subdistrict still use agricultural materials such as coconut shells as fuel at home in order to decrease the dependence on external sources of energy. 4.3.2.6 Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province Output: Two considerations are: 1) Biomass Energy Production In Bang Si Thong District, little biomass energy is produced. Only some households produce charcoal and the amount of charcoal produced is enough to be used at home only. Very few households use biomass energy like firewood and charcoal. 2) Biomass Energy Utilization Some households in the community use biomass energy - charcoal and firewood. The results of the study are as follows:
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Table 4.33 Households (some in the community), which Uses Biomass Energy and LPG and Various Types of Biomass Energy Technology: Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province
High efficiency Charcoal Earth Firewood Hollow bucket stove/ Buy charcoal No Name List Moo Production Use Firewood Use LPG mound pit Stove Stove ordinary Thai to use for own use bucket stove
1 Khun Nathapat Wongsuwan 1
2 Khun Chawat Buamuong 1
3 Khun Prasert Pakheekhao 1
4 Khun Supaporn Parkpean 1
5 Khun Nipawan Dadpoo 1
6 Khun Anusorn Eawsa-ard 1
7 Khun Theerawat Kleebpueng 2
8 Khun Boonmee Thiammuang 2
9 Khun Sumon Naksuk 2
10 Khun Somboon Paewsakun 2
11 Khun Ekalak Chusri 2
12 Khun Sunee Pattanakunpong 3
13 Khun Prasit Khemthong 3
14 Khun Weeraphan Pakdeehun 3
15 Khun Weerayuth Kaewkhao 3
16 Khun Manoo Ma-orn 3
17 Khun Angthong Chongsawang 3
18 Khun Boonjua Nataworadilok 3
19 Khun Nittaya Kaewkhao 3
20 Khun Narinya Ngamnet 3
21 Khun Pradit Jumphol 4
22 Khun Jamras Buamuang 4
23 Khun Pranee Suetrongtrakoon 4
24 Khun Boonsom Sermsukmaitree 4
25 Khun Anan Kongphueng 4
26 Khun Chotmanee Thadprem 4
27 Khun Phuan Phusua 4
28 Khun Miean Thiammueang 4
29 Khun Pichit Ritdee 4
30 Khun Lampoei Namsapak 4
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel. 344
Table 4.33 (Continued)
High efficiency Charcoal Earth Firewood Hollow bucket stove/ Buy charcoal No Name List Moo Production Use Firewood Use LPG mound pit Stove Stove ordinary Thai to use for own use bucket stove
31 Khun Thongpriew Klomsaeng 4
32 Khun Yodsak Sukrotjanee 5
33 Khun Sompol Tumninkarn 5
34 Khun Somboon Kerdpoka 5
35 Khun Banjong Buamuang 5
36 Khun Samruay Songyoo 5
37 Khun Prajuab Buamuang 5
38 Khun Udon Satsue 5
39 Khun Charat Boonnak 5
40 Khun Piset Satsue 5
Green color means households which use that type of technology. Dark blue color means households which use that fuel as the main fuel. Light blue color means households which use that fuel as supplementary fuel.
The households in the subdistrict use less biomass energy in the form of charcoal and firewood. Only some households use biomass energy as fuel at home. There are many households that use LPG as the main fuel for cooking at home. Of all the 40 households, 26 households used only LPG; only one, charcoal; and 13, a combination of biomass energy and LPG. Most of the households mainly use LPG and those who use charcoal buy it from outside rather than producing it themselves. It can be concluded that the households in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict still use the biomass energy but as additional energy and rarely, so households produce charcoal for household use. This fact is supported by the secondary data shown in Table 4.34 below.
Table 4.34 Type of Energy and Amount of Use
Amount of Use Per Year Type of Energy Proportion (%) (toe/year) Electricity 1128.94 49.01 LPG 334.52 14.52 Benzene 226.36 9.83 Diesel 613.76 26.64 Wood 0.05 0 TOTAL 2,303.63 100.0 345
The use of biomass energy in the form of wood in this subdistrict is very low comparing to other kinds of energy. However, these statistics were collected in 2007. Now there are changes in the subdistrict; it has been urbanized. The interviews of the village headmen and the energy volunteers in the subdistrict, indicate that the use of biomass energy here is very low and the community stopped producing charcoal because the central kilns were damaged due to the flood in 2011. Successful Outcome in Community Energy Management Energy Security: Four considerations are 1) better community economy 2) better social life in the community 3) better community environment and 4) More self-reliance in the area of energy (1) Better Community Economy Reduction of the Community Energy Cost Some households in subdistrict still use firewood for making Thai sweet meat and others use charcoal as the fuel in their businesses, which helps them to save money, and the cost of energy in the community is reduced. Moreover, some but not many, households use firewood and charcoal as fuel instead of LPG. Creating More Jobs or Occupations and Generating More Income: Of all the 40 visited households in the subdistrict, only one household (or 3%) produces charcoal just for its own use. So, there are no households that take charcoal production as an occupation. (2) Better Community Environment Reduction of Chemical Substance Use and Reduction of Pollution: The fieldwork in the subdistrict reveals that some households produce charcoal for their household use but there is no evidence that they collect wood vinegar. So, no trace of the environmental benefit from the by-product of charcoal product is found in subdistrict. (3) More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy More Access to Energy, Decrease in Energy Shortage, and Decrease in Dependence on External Sources of Energy: Some households in subdistrict use firewood and charcoal, so they can get more access to energy than 346 those using LPG only. Using biomass energy can decrease the energy shortage and the dependence on external sources of energy. However, only a small number of households use firewood and charcoal.
4.4 Models of Community Energy Management for Energy Security
This part presents the results of field research in each community in the areas of community capital and resources, community energy management (production and utilization of biomass), community energy management support, and the effects of community energy management. In order to consider the model communities for energy security, the researcher summarized the studies of each community to produce a holistic view of the communities and present the models in community energy management towards energy security.
4.4.1 Overall Results of the Study of Community Energy Management for Energy Security In this section, the researcher will summarize the findings from each of the two community groups which are: 1) Communities that received an award under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” 2) Communities that did not receive any award under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” A summary and conclusions of the findings for each group are as follows: 4.4.1.1 Communities that Received an Award under the project, Community Energy Plan of 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative “Sufficiency Economy” 1) Summary of the Study of Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community 347 energy management of the Nachumhet subdistrict in Yantakhao district, Trang Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources consist of natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organization and technology. They are the factors contributing to the success in community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital of the subdistrict is wood from trees that naturally grow or are grown within the subdistrict: rubber trees, neem trees, rambutan trees, and mangosteen trees. Also, wood used by the households as direct fuel or for making charcoal is considered as natural capital. Furthermore, natural capital extends to using animal droppings to produce biogas through fermentation. (2) Financial/economic capital in the community at present is financial/economic funds come from the three-year development plan of 2013 – 2015 of the subdistrict administration organization including funds from individual households. (3) Human capital consists of government officials, community leaders, and village headmen who are responsible for biomass energy promotion. Furthermore, human capital is the knowledge and the ability of the community to produce goods and use technology effectively such as building stoves. (4) Social capital can be easily seen in certain areas such as in Moo 8, where there is cooperation in building the community energy learning center. There is no contract but the members assist each other in the construction. Another example of social capital that exist is how the villagers assist each other in making stoves. (5) The Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration organization is the community organization in the subdistrict which plays an important role in conducting various activities and working in collaboration with community locals and related agencies such as the Provincial energy Office. (6)Technology in biomass energy consists of the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pit, ordinary Thai bucket stoves, economical stoves, firewood stoves, biogas stoves and biomass fermentation tanks. These technologies are used for both the production and utilization of wood to generate biomass energy. Furthermore, there are other types of energy-related technology such as the solar-cell drying room and the solar-cell stoves. 348
(2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Energy Prior to the project, Community Energy Plan of 2007, the majority of households had been producing charcoal by using the earth mound pit. During the project, the 200-L drum kiln which was situated at a central public location in the village was introduced and used. But after the broke down of the 200 liter kilns, many of the households resorted back to using the earth mound pit but with a metal plate to cover the opening. At present, some households grow domesticated animals and receive technological support in biogas fermentation from the Provincial Energy Office. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management promotion consists of (1) setting an energy plan. The Subdistrict Administration Organization has placed the energy project in its three-year development plan of 2013 – 2015. The Community Energy Planning project was carried out in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office in 2007. (2) Capacity building exists, such as sending community representatives to study about energy outside the community and providing information and training to energy volunteers. (3) Dissemination of local wisdom through the temporary learning center near the school and in the future at the community energy learning center that is currently undergoing construction. (4) Utilization of community capital and resources can be seen from the use of water power and wind power which are natural capital. The cooperation of the villagers in the construction of the community learning center is considered as social capital (5) An example of cooperative network development is the cooperative energy network of the housewife group who serve food to those who take a study tour to observe the energy management. Furthermore, there is a home stay group that accommodates those from outside the community who take a study tour to their community. (4) Output Nachumhet Subdistrict has several biomass fuels as a result of arising from community energy management, which are firewood and charcoal produced by burning wood and biogas from animal droppings. Charcoal is produced by technologies, such as the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns and earth mound pits. 349
Furthermore, wood that the households use directly as fuel is also considered as biomass energy. Community households still produce and use biomass energy for household use (5) Outcome The products of the subdistrict enables it to have biomass energy, resulting in various benefits such as improvement of the community economy and decrease in the energy cost because the households can use natural capital – wood and animal droppings – to produce biomass energy. Some households use animal droppings to produce biogas by means of fermentation. Many households do not have to purchase wood but they can find it in their surroundings, which helps lowered the LPG expense. There is also increase in employment, job opportunities and income from selling charcoal. Social life of local people is better due to the production and utilization of biomass as seen in the increase in community participation in energy-related activities. In Moo 8, villagers assist each other in constructing the learning center. Furthermore, social life has improved as seen in their sharing resources and energy electricity generated from water power within the subdistrict and at the school. The acceptance of opinions among community people has also increased as in the case of the construction of the learning center. Improvements in the environment can be seen from using wood vinegar derived from charcoal production instead of chemical pesticide. Another important outcome is self-reliance in the area of energy because of energy management of households. The households are now self- sufficient in energy. They collect wood and produce their own charcoal and biogas made from animal droppings as an energy source for cooking. The households and the community as a whole can get access to energy and decrease energy scarcity.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy 1. Natural capital: Rubber trees, Neem Community energy management : Production and 1. Biomass Fuel Production Management trees, Rambutan trees, and Mangosteen utilization of biomass energy 1) Charcoal from burning Outcome trees. 1) Prior to the, Community Energy Planning project, wood is a source of Energy Security 2. Financial/ economic capital: Funding the majority of households produced charcoal by biomass energy 1. Better community economy from the Subdistrict Administration using earth mound pits. During the project, (processed by earth kilns, 1) Reduction of community Organization. households used the 200-L drum kilns which were 200-L drum kilns and energy cost. 3. Human capital: Capacity of individuals, public kilns in each village. earth mound pits). 2) Increase in employment both producer and users of biomass 2) After the public 200-L drum kiln deteriorated, many 2) Wood in household is opportuinties. energy in the community including local households turned back to earth mound pits for stored as a biomass 3) Increase in income from selling wisdom in biomass energy production charcoal production with a metal sheet to cover the energy source. charcoal. and energy technology. opening instead of burying it as before. 3) Biogas derived from 2. Better Social life in the community 4. Social Capital 3) Currently some households raise farm animals and animal dropping 1) Villagers learne more about 1) Commitment: written agreement but receive technological support in producing biogas fertilization. energy from participation in there was cooperation of villagers in from animal droppings. 2. Biomass Energy Utilization building the energy learning the construction of the energy Promotion of Community Energy Management 1) Many households center. learning center. 1) At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in produce and use firewood 2) Increase in sharing of resources 2) Reciprocity in stove making. the Three- Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – /charcoal/biogas. and electricity generated from 3) Collective action and participation in 2015) of subdistrict. The Community Energy water power. constructing the learning center. Planning project was implemented in 2007. 3. Better community environment 350 5. Community Organizations: Subdistrict 2) Building community capacity: Sending community
1) Decrease in chemical use by Administration Organization, Public representatives to study about energy outside the using wood vinegar instead of Health Center,other related agencies; community, and providing information and training chemical pesticide. to energy volunteers . Provincial Energy Office, and Private 2) Decrease in pollution. Sector. 3) Transfer of local knowledge through the learning 3) Decrease in odor from animal center on the school campus and transfer of local 6. Biomass energy technology: 200-L drum droppings. kilns, earth kilns, large baking stoves, wisdom at the learning center now under 4. More self-reliance in the area of earth mound pits, and ordinary Thai construction. energy bucket stoves, economical stoves, 4) Utilization of community capital and resources: use firewood stoves, biogas stoves and of wood, water power and wind power which are 1) Increase in access to energy fermentation tanks, rubbish burning natural capital, and use of social capital in 2) Decrease in energy shortage furnances and technology related to construction of the community learning center. 3) Decrease in dependence on energy such as solar-cell drying shed 5) Cooperative Network Development from within and outside energy sources by using and solar-cell baking stove. outside the community: cooperation between the wood, charcoal and biogas. energy network and the housewife network. The housewife group serve food and beverage to those who take a study tour to the energy project. Another instance is when villagers have areanged home stays to accommodate outside guests visiting the project. Figure 4.10 Summary of the Study: Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province 351
2) Summary of the Study of Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Mai Lai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources which are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to success of community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital comes from wood and trees naturally growing or being grown in the area. Most wood comes from various trees such as tamarind, cassod tree, mango, longan and prunes. Wood is used directly as fuel and also is burnt to make charcoal. (2) Financial/ economic capital refers to the budget allocated from the Regional Energy Office and private funds from individual householders. (3) Human capital refers to the ability of government officials concerned, community leaders and villagers who produce and utilize biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital comes from local knowledge, ability of the householders to make earth klins, innovation in charcoal production by using the 200-L drum kilns and also development of grilling stoves which prevents oil to spill on the burning charcoal. (4) Social capital can be seen from people’s cooperation in producing public kilns located in public areas of the subdistrict in order for community members to use for charcoal production. This indicates promotion of biomass energy production and utilization in the community. Even though there is no written agreement, the villagers cooperate amongst themselves to build kilns for public use. (5) The community organization of the subdistrict that plays an important role in energy management is the Maelai Subdistrict Municipality. Its role is to manage the community energy project from the start until its completion. Other organizations involved are Maejo University, the Provincial Energy Office and the Regional Energy Department. These organizations assisted in carrying out the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency 352
Economy”. Furthermore, the Chamber of Commerce Phrae Province, the Department of Labor Development and the Department of Livestock Development in Phrae Province along with the Department of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Phrae Province funded the projects such as the rice farming project, “One Rai, One Hundred-Thousand Baht”. (6) Biomass technology found in the subdistrict is 100-L drum kilns, 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, ordinary Thai bucket stoves and firewood stoves. These types of energy technology are used in production and utilization of biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Community energy management is aimed at solving the problem of burning rubbish and waste disposal. The majority of households produce charcoal by using earth kilns. Some households use the earth mound pits and the 200- L drum kilns. Some village are faced with an pollution from charcoal production. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management promotion consists of (1) setting an community energy plan. The Maelai Subdistrict Municipality place the energy project in its Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. It carried out the community energy planning project in cooperation with the Provincial Energy Office in 2007. (2) Last year community capacity was built by having community representatives to join the project of “Plentiful Energy in 4 Region” launched in 4 provinces. A campaign was launched for people to use economical stoves. This was the project at the ministerial level. The Provincial Energy Office was assigned to carry out the project. Furthermore, after the implementation of the community energy planning project, the subdistrict have done various activities for building community capacity continuously such as supporting the use of energy gas, increasing the capacity of community energy planners and educating school students about energy in the “Ton Kla Chumphon” project. (3) Local wisdom in the area of energy is disseminated by local experts at various places and on various occasions, and through the subdistrict learning centers, e.g., the learning center for “One Rai, One Hundred- Thousand Baht”, the learning center for alternative energy technology and energy conservation, the learning center for “Garbage Bank”, etc. (4) Community capital and 353 resources of the subdistrict are utilized by households in the community especially natural capital, wood to produce biomass energy in many households and also the use of technology for charcoal production. Social capital is utilized by cooperation between villagers in stove-making. (5) Cooperative networks from within and outside the community have been developed. An example of this cooperation is seen in biodiesel production with the cooperation from other village groups such as the pork cracking group and the agricultural group and others in order to produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil. A cooperative network from outside the community has been developed. Outsiders have taken study tours to observe energy management in the subdistrict. The Provincial Energy Office took community people for a study tour to observe charcoal production with the use of the 200-L drum kilns, and biogas tank fermentation. (4) Output Mai Lai Subdistrict has benefited from the community energy management. Households in the community use biomass energy produced from wood, i.e., charcoal. Within the community, production and utilization of biomass energy still continue in many households. (5) Outcome The products of Maelai Subdistrict reflect biomass energy utilization, which has brought about many improvements in the community economy, e.g. decrease in the energy cost and the use biomass energy as alternative energy. The energy cost of the households is lower because they can benefit from nature capital, which is wood that can produce charcoal. Moreover, there is an increase in employment and income for the households, and the community is improved. Some households also produce wood vinegar and sell it at the learning center while other households sell charcoal. The social outcome is clearly seen, there is sharing of resources and energy. In Moo 7, people accept the criticism that charcoal production at home has caused pollution and has disturbed people close by, so they agree to use earth kilns to reduce pollution. The environment is improved too, as the community use wood vinegar, which were more environmentally friendly, instead of chemical pesticide. 354
Another outcome observed in the community is that the community is self-sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. Households are able to depend on themselves in producing biomass energy for their individual houses. This increases access to energy and decreases the energy shortage. It also decrease the dependence on LPG which has to be brought in from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management 1. Natural capital: Tamarid, Cassod Tree, Mango, Community energy management : production and 1. Biomass Fuel Outcome Lamyai, Prunes and mixed wood. utilization of biomass energy Production Energy Security 2. Financial/economic capital: Funding from the 1. Community energy management to solve the problem of 1) Charcoal made from 1. Better community economy Regional Energy Office when the community joined waste disposal. burning wood is a 1) Decrease in the energy cost of the the community energy planning project; current 2. Currently, the majority of households produce charcoal by source of biomass households due to the use of wood and funding from the subdistrict municipality including using earth kilns. Only some households use earth mound energy (produced by charcoal individual household funds. pits and the 200-L drum kilns. earth kilns, 200-L 2) Increase in employment opportunities drum kilns and earth 3. Human capital: ability of government officials, 3. Some villages encountered pollution problems using from 3) Increase in income from selling charcoal community leaders and villagers involved in the charcoal production, so charcoal is not produced there and mound pits). (the number is small) production and utilization of biomass energy firewood and LPG are used instead. 2) Wood is stored as a 4) Increased community products (e.g. coal including local wisdom on how to make earth kilns Promotion of community energy management biomass energy and wood vinegar) in the learning center and innovative use of 200-L drum kilns and source. 1. At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in the 2. Better social life in the community innovation of roasting stoves. 2. Biomass Energy Three- Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of 1) Sharing of resources, energy, knowledge 4. Social Capital Utilization subdistrict. The Community Energy Planning project was and wood 1) Commitment: no agreement was written but there implemented in 2007. 1) Many households 2) Increase in community participation and was cooperation of villagers in the construction of produce and use 2. Continuously building of the community capacity: In acceptance of views on energy. There is an the energy learning center. charcoal /firewood. 2012, Community representatives join in the “Good agreement to stop charcoal production 2) Reciprocity : People help each other in making energy in 4 Regions” project and others. because of smoke disturbance earth kilns. 3. Transfer of local knowledge by local experts through the 3. Better community environment 3) Collective action: the subdistrict was given the energy learning centers, e.g. the learning center for “One 1) Decrease in the use of chemical pesticide 355 200-L drum kilns, so community people assisted rai, one hundred thousand baht”, the learning center for by using wood vinegar instead and each other in management of the common kilns. alternative energy technology and energy conservation, decrease in pollution 4) Participation: activities arranged by related the learning center for “garbage bank” under the 2) Decrease in tho odor of animal droppings agencies and villagers who became aware of operational research on waste disposal methods and by changing animal droppings in to biogas energy issue. activities to transfer knowledge to educational institutes 4. More Self-reliance in the area of energy 5. Community Organizations: Mai Lai Subdistrict and school curriculum. Municipality and other related agencies (e.g. 4. Utilization of community capital and resources: use of 1) Increase in access to energy Provincial Energy office; Ministry of Energy; the wood, and technology to produce biomass energy for 2) Decrease in energy shortage Chamber of Commerce, Phrae Province; Department households. 3) Decrease in the dependence on energy of Labor Development; Department of Livestock 5. Utilization of social capital, e.g. cooperation between from outside sources by using wood and Development, Phrae Province; Department of villagers in making stoves/kilns. charcoal Agriculture and Cooperatives, Phrae Province) 6. Cooperative Network Development within and outside the assisted in funding projects such as the rice farming community: cooperation between groups in various project, “One Rai, One Hundred-Thousand Baht” community activities such as production of biodiesel from which is implemented in the district). used vegetable oil and cooperation outside the 6. Technology: 100-L drum kinls, 200-L drum kilns, community, such as the subdistrict municipality earth kilns, earth mound pits, ordinary Thai bucket cooperated with agencies outside the community such as stoves and firewood stoves. Other technology the Provincial Energy Office in the energy and alternative includes water pumping bicycles and electricity technology study projects. generated by using solar energy at the sports ground. Other management issues: 1) Development of community products
Figure 4.11 Summary of Study: Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province 356
3) Summary of the Study of Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachen District, Sing Buri Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community and Capital Resources Community capital and resources which are natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organization and technology are the factors contributing to success of community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital means wood found naturally growing in the area, or being grown there. Most wood come from various types of trees such as Mango, Tamarind, Manila Tamarind, Coconut, Neem, Horse Tamarind and wood waste from construction. (2) Financial/ economic capital refers to monetary funds received by the Subdistrict Administation Organization, funds of individual households and funds accumulated within the community where households can make loans to serve their needs including energy. When joining the project, the community received funding from the Provincial Energy Office. (3) Human capital refers to the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital also refers to the community knowledge on how to use technology to increase the value of such its products as the production of scented wood vinegar with natural herbs and burning fruits in order to produce charcoal shaped fruits for odor suction. (4) Social capital can be seen from cooperation and participation between various groups in the community. For example, members of the community assist each other in various community activities such as funerals and merit making. Also, the community shared technological resources such as the solar-cell drying shed. (5) One community organization of the subdistrict is the Maelai Subdistrict Municipality, which played an important role in building awareness and knowledge on energy in the earlier stages of the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in 2007”. Another organization was the community health center which 357 has played an important role in raising prople’s awareness on energy. (6) Biomass energy technology in the subdistrict consists of the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, biogas stove, economic stove and high efficiency bucket stoves. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in both the production and utilization of biomass energy. Another energy technology in the subdistrict was the solar-cell drying shed. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Originally, the majority of households produced charcoal by using earth kilns and earth mound pits. During the Community Energy Planning project implementation, the 200-L drum kilns were used until they was broken. At present, the majority of households still use earth mound pits, and a few use earth klins and the 200-L drum kilns. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management consists of (1) setting an energy plan, which is placed in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013-2015. The community Energy Planning project in 2007 was implemented in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) capacity building in the community can be seen from providing scholarships to Subdistrict Administration Organization staff and disseminating news and information to the community (3) dissemination of local wisdom in the area of through the learning center to community people and outsiders who visit the center (4) utilization of community capital and resources (5) cooperative network development in the community can be seen from the cooperation of various group within the community like the weaving group that works with the energy product development group (fruit charcoal in weaved basket). A network is also developed with people outside the community. (4) Output The subdistrict benefit from the community energy management. Households use biomass energy fuels, i.e. charcoal made from wood and biogas made from animal dung fermentation. Charcoal is produced by various technologies such as the 200-L drum kiln and the earth mound pit. Different methods of charcoal production affect its quality (Thanit Ruengroongchaikul, 2009. For 358 example, the 200-L drum kiln produces a higher quantity of charcoal than the earth mound pit. Furthermore, charcoal produced by the 200-L drum kiln give more heat. In fact, community households use biomass energy to a large extent. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy yields many advantages such as improvement of the community economy by decreasing the energy cost and having alternative energy. The energy cost of households is low because they can use natural capital, i.e. trees and wood in their orchards to produce charcoal. Moreover, there is an increase in employment and income, which in turn contributes to the economic growth of the community. The social outcome is clearly seen since there is sharing of resources and energy. The environment is improved because community people use wood vinegar which is more environmentally friendly instead of chemical pesticide. Another outcome is that the community is self-sufficient and reliant in the area of energy. Individual households produce biomass energy for their own use, which increases their access to energy and decrease the energy shortage and the dependency on LPG, which has to be brought in from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management 1. Natural capital: Mango, Tamarind, Manila Community energy management: production 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome Tamarind, Coconut shells , Neem, Horse and utilization of biomass energy 1) Charcoal made from burning wood Energy Security Tamarind, and wood waste from construction. 1. Originally, before implementing the project is a source of biomass energy 1. Better Community economy 2. Financial/ economic capital: in 2007, the majority of households produced (produced by earth kilns, 200-L 1) Decrease in the energy cost of the charcoal by using earth mound pit and earth drum kilns, earth mound pits). 1) Funding from the Provincial Energy Office households because of the use of firewood when joining the Community Energy Planning kilns. 2) Firewood is stored in household as and charcoal project. 2. At the beginning of the project, 200-L drum biomass energy source. 2) Increase in employment opportunities kilns were introduced and they were used 2) Funding from the Subdistrict Administration 2. Biomass Energy Utilization 3) Increase in income in selling charcoal Organization. until they were down. At present, the 1) Many households produce and use majority of households produce charcoal 2. Better social life in the community 3) Individual households funds charcoal / firewood / biogas. using earth mound pits. Only some 1) Sharing of resources, energy, knowledge 3. Human Capital: ability of government officials, households use earth kilns and the 200-L and wood. community leaders and villagers involved in the drum kilns. production and utilization of biomass energy. 3. Better community environment Furthermore, human capital also come from local Promotion of community energy management 1) Decreased use of chemical pesticide by knowledge of making scented wood vinegar and 1. At present, setting an energy plan and placing using wood vinegar decoration with fruits roasted. it in the Three- Year Energy Development 2) Decrease in pollution
Plan (2013-2015) of subdistrict. The 359 4. Social Capital 4. More Self-reliance in the area of energy Community Energy Planning project was 1) Commitment: Monetary funds (may be used for implemented in 2007. 1) Increase in access to energy energy). 2. Building of community capacity by providing 2) Decrease in energy shortage 2) Reciprocity between households in charcoal scholarships, and dissemination of news and 3) Decrease in the dependence on outside production, sharing resources, such as the solar knowledge. energy sources by using wood and charcoal energy drying shed. 3. Dissemination of local knowledge through 3) Collective action and participation in activities the learning center. related to energy. 4. Utilization of community capital and 5. Community Organizations: Subdistrict resources: using wood and energy technology Administration Organization, Local Community to produce biomass energy and biogas. Health center and other organizations conderned 5. Cooperative network development both such as the Provincial Energy Office. within and outside the community: 6. Biomass energy technology: 200-L drum kiln cooperation between groups in the (horizontal), earth kilns, earth mound pits, ordinary community in various activities such as the Thai bucket stoves and firewood stoves. Other basket weaving group and charcoal producing types of technology are water pumping bicycle, group and the private enterprises such as solar-cell drying shed. SCG funding some community project. Other management issues: 1. Development of community products
Figure 4.12 Summary of the Study: Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachen District, Sing Buri Province 360
4) Summary of the Study of Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District , Trat Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources which are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organization and technology are the factors contributing to success of community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital here is wood and trees found naturally growing in the area or being grown there. Most wood come from various trees such as rambutan, mangosteen, wild-mangosteen, jack fruit, and others. (2) Financial/economy capital refers to monetary funds received by the subdistrict administration organization, funds of individual households and funds accumulated within the community. During the implementation of the project lauched by the Ministry of Energy, the community received funding from the Provincial Energy Office. (3) Human capital is the ability of govern officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital is also local knowledge of how to use technology which was been passed down from generation to generation. (4) Social capital here is cooperation and participation between various groups to carry out community activities. For example, members of the community assist each other in making earth kilns and participated in several community projects. (5) The community organization of the subdistrict, along with the community bank, played an important role in building people’s awareness and knowledge of energy in the earlier stages of the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” in 2007. (6) Types of biomass energy technology in the subdistrict include the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, biogas stoves, economic stoves and high efficiency bucket stoves. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in both production and utilization of biomass energy. 361
(2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass The majority of households produce charcoal by using earth kilns which they have made themselves. During the project, some households used 200-L drum kilns. But after they deteriorated, the households have used large earth kilns for making charcoal. Charcoal is produced for households use and helps increase the community’s income. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management consists of (1) The Subdistrict Administration Organization setting an energy plan and placing it in the three-year development plan (2013 – 2015). In 2007 the subdistrict administration organization implemented the Community Energy Planning project in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Community capacity has been built by taking a study tours to observe energy projects outside the community and welcome visitors to the community’s energy project. Furthermore, scholarships have been given to community members by the government to increase their knowledge. (3) One local wisdom that is transferred is the knowledge of producing, maintaining and repairing earth kilns. This knowledge has been disseminated in both individual households and between households and between communities. (4) Community capital and resources such as rambutan trees is utilized. In the past, villagers just burnt the unwanted trees but now unwanted trees are used for making charcoal. (5) Cooperative networks both within and outside the community, have been developed at the village level up to the subdistrict level and provincial level, through integrated meetings and participation. (4) Output The subdistrict’s products that come from community energy management are (1) biomass energy fuels which are charcoal made from wood and biogas made from animal droppings. Charcoal and biogas are used as fuels. (2) Community households produce and use biomass energy to a great extent. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy has contributed to the growth of the community economy, devrease in the energy cost and having alternative energy. The household energy cost is lower because they can benefit from natural capital – 362 wood that they can find in the area and use it to produce charcoal. Moreover, there is an increase in employment and in income for the community. The social outcome can be clearly seen, as there is sharing of resources and energy. The environment is improved because the community people use wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly, instead of chemical pesticide. Another outcome is how the community is self-sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. The majority of the households grow fruit trees such as rambutan, mangosteen or durian in their orchards, so they can use the wood from these trees to produce charcoal as a source of biomass energy. Households can depend on themselves in getting fuel for cooking, as each household produces biomass energy for use at home. This has increased their access to energy and has decreased the energy shortage. Their dependence on LPG decreases, so is the dependence of energy from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management 1. Natural capital: Rambutan, Mangosteen, Wild- Community energy management: production and 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome mangosteen, Jack fruit, and other types of wood. utilization of biomass energy 1) Charcoal from burning Energy Security 2. Financial/economic capital: Funding from 1. Majority of households make their own charcoal using wood was a source of 1. Better community economy Provincial Energy Office when the subdistrict earth kilns. biomass energy 1) Decrease in capital energy in households joined the Community Energy Planning project, 2. After the project ended, the 200-L drum kilns deteriorated (processed by earth due to the use of wood and charcoal the Subdistrict Administration Organization funds and finally were broke down, so at present the majority of kilns and 200-L drum 2) Increase in employment and individual households’ funds. households produce charcoal by using earth kilns which can kilns). 3) Increase in income 3. Human capital: ability of government officials, produce a large volume of charcoal as a source of income. 2) Firewood in household 2. Better social life in the community community leaders and villagers involved in the Promotion of Community Energy Management were stored as biomass 1) Sharing of resources, energy, knowledge production and utilization of biomass energy. 1. At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in the energy source. and wood. Human capital also comes from the local Three- Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of 2. Biomass Energy Utilization 3. Better community environment knowledge of charcoal-making by using earth subdistrict. The Community Energy Planning project was 1) Many households 1) Decrease in the use of chemical pesticide kilns, building and maintenance of earth kilns. implemented in 2007. produced and used by using wood vinegar instead and 4. Social Capital 2. Building of community capacity: taking study tour to charcoal but the decrease in pollution
363 1) Reciprocity and dependency in the coal projects outside the community; welcoming visitors to its minority used 4. More Self-reliance in the area of energy
making process, sharing resources. project; scholarships granted by the government or private firewood as fuel. 1) Increase in access to energy 2) Collective action and participation: work fund. 2) Decrease in energy shortage related to energy. 3. Transter of local knowledge by teaching villagers how to 3) Decrease in the dependence on outside 5. Community Organizations: Subdistrict make earth kilns and maintain it and how to make charcoal. energy sources due to the use of wood Administration Organization, the Community 4. Utilization of community capital and resources: use of and charcoal Bank and other related organizations like the wood and technology especially earth kilns to produce Provincial Energy Office. biomass energy. 6. Biomass energy technology: earth kilns, ordinary 5. Cooperative network development both within and outside Thai bucket stoves, 200-L drum kilns and the community: integrated meeting of all parties concerned economic stoves. from the village level to the subdistrict, and provincial.
Figure 4.13 Summary of the Study: Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province 364
5) Summary of the Study of Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community and Capital Resources Community and capital resources which are natural capital, funding/economy, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to success of community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital is wood and trees naturally growing in the area or being grown there. Most wood come from various trees such as Mango, Coconut, Tangerine, Cassod and Wild Mangosteen found in orchards and rice fields. Another natural capital is animal dung used for biogas fermentation. (2) Financial/economic capital refers to funds received by the subdistrict administration organization, an individual household’s funds and funds accumulated within the community. During the implementation of the community energy planning project, the community received funding from the Provincial Energy Office. (3) Human capital is the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital refers to local knowledge such as the ability to use technology in charcoal making, including specific skills of individuals that can be used in the production and utilization of biomass energy. (4) Social capital exists even though there is no obvious agreement. There is cooperation and participation between various groups in the community. For example, members of the community assist each other in various community projects. (5) The local administration organization of the subdistrict along with the community bank, has played an important role in building the people’s awareness and knowledge of energy, creating cooperation among groups such as the housewife group and the energy group. Outside agencies such as the Provincial Energy Office also supports the Subdistrict Administration Organization in establishing learning center in the subdistrict. (6) Biomass energy technology in the 365 subdistrict includes 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, biogas stoves, high efficiency bucket stoves and firewood stoves. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in both production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, biogas is extracted from animal droppings and bio-diesel from used vegetable oil. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Usage of Biomass Prior to joining the Community Energy Planning project in 2007, the households had already used wood as fuel and made charcoal by using earth kilns and earth mound pits. The 200-L drum kilns were used during the implementation of community energy planning project. At present these kilns were broken down, so the households resorted to earth kilns and earth mound pits. Some households still use the 200-L drum kilns. Some households produce biogas from animal droppings to be used for cooking instead of LPG. Furthermore, bio-diesel from used vegetable oil is produced in the subdistrict. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Support Community energy management is promoted by 1) the Subdistrict Administration Organization’s setting an energy plan, and placing it in the Three-Year Development Planning project (2013 – 2015). In 2007 it collaborated with the Provincial Energy Office in carrying out the Community Energy Plan. (2) There are community capacity building activities, such as study tour to observe energy projects outside the community and welcoming visitors to the community’s energy project. At present, study tours focus mainly on biogas. (3) Local wisdom is transferred by disseminating the knowledge on stove-making, wood winegar production and bio-diesel production at the learning center (4) Community capital and resources are utilized such as wood for charcoal production and animal droppings for biogas production. Local technologies as well as the cooperation within the community are beneficial in the production of energy (5) Cooperative networks in the community within and outside the community have been developed through many instances such as the cooperation between the housewife group and the energy group in the community and cooperation of the subdistrict administration organization and the Provincial Energy Office in doing energy-related activities. 366
(4) Output The subdistrict’s products that have resulted from community energy management are (1) biomass energy fuels-charcoal made from wood and biogas made from animal droppings. Charcoal and biogas are used as fuels for households. (2) Community biomass energy from wood. Some households also use biogas made from animal droppings and some use bio-diesel from used vegetable oil. (5) Outcome Utilization of biomass energy has brought about may benefits such as improving the community economy by decreasing the energy cost and having biomass energy as alternative energy. The households’ energy expense is also decreased because they benefit from natural capital – trees and wood in the area – which are used for charcoal production. Moreover, there is an increase in employment and income for the community, resulting in the betterment of the economy. The social outcome is clearly seen as there is sharing of resources and energy. There was no clear evidence that participation has taken place or that the views on energy have been accepted. The environment, is improved because the community use wood vinegar which is more environmentally friendly instead of chemical pesticide. Another outcome is that the community is self- sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. The majority of households grow fruit trees, such as rambutan, mangosteen or durian in their orchards and used the wood of the trees to produce charcoal, which is a source of biomass energy. Households can rely on themselves in finding fuels because they produce biomass energy for their own use. This has increased access to energy and decreases the dependence on energy from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management 1. Natural capital: Mangos, Coconut, Tangerine, Community Energy Management: Production and 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome Cassod Tree, Wild Mangosteen, and various Utilization of Biomass Energy 1) Charcoal produced is a Energy Security types of wood and branches found in 1. Prior to the Community Energy Planning Project, the source of biomass 1. Better community economy orchards and rice fields. majority of households make their own charcoal using energy (produced by 1) Decrease in capital energy in households 2. Financial/economic capital: Funding from earth kilns and earth mound pits. earth kilns and the due to the use of wood and charcoal Provincial Energy Office when joining the 2. After the project ended, the 200-L drum kilns deteriorated 200-L drum kilns). 2) Increase in employment opportunities Community Energy Planning project, the and broke down, so at present the majority of households 2) Wood in household is 3) Increase in income Subdistrict Administration Organization produce charcoal using earth kilns and earth mound pits. stored as a biomass 2. Better social life in the community funds and funds of individual households. Promotion of Community Energy Management energy source. 1) Sharing of resources, energy, knowledge 3. Human capital: the ability of government 1. At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in the 3) Biomass energy from and wood officials, community leaders and villagers Three- Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of animal dropping in 2) No obvious community participation and involved in production and utilization of subdistrict. The Community Energy Planning project was some households. acceptance of views on energy biomass energy. Human capital also comes implemented in 2007. 4) Bio-diesel made from 3. Better community environment
from people’s skills such as producing of 2. Building of community Capacity: They were often done used vegetable oil. 1) Decrease in chemical use by using wood 367 biodiesel from used vegetable oil. in the past, but at present, it is decreasing. 2. Biomass Energy Utilization vinegar instead of chemical pesticide and
4. Social Capital 3. Dissemination of the local knowledge of making and 1) Many households decrease in pollution 1) No obvious commitment maintenaning kilns and how to make charcoal, wood produce and use 4. More self-reliance in the area of energy 2) Reciprocity in charcoal production vinegar and bio-diesel. charcoal/ biogas but 1) Increase in access to energy and sharing of resources 4. knowledge dissemination at the learning center. the minority use 2) Decrease in energy shortage 3) Collective action and participation in 5. Utilization of community capital and resources the firewood as fuel. 3) Decrease in dependence on outside energy energy related activities benefits of community and capital resources: use of wood sources by using firewood, charcoal and 5. Community Organizations: Subdistrict and technology to produce biomass energy. biogas instead of LPG that needs to be Administration Organization, related 6. Cooperative Network Development within and outside purchased from outside agencies, e.g. Provincial Energy Office. the community: many groups cooperated within the 4) The use of biodiesel, thus lowering the 6. Technology: 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, community. Also, cooperation occurrs between the energy cost high efficiency bucket stoves, biogas and bio- Subdistrict Administration Organization and the diesel filtering equipment. Provincial Energy Office in doing activities related to energy.
Figure 4.14 Summary of the Study: Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province 368
6) Summary of the Study of Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Kamphaeng Phet Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community and Capital Resources Community and capital resources, which are natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology, are the factors contributing to the success of the community energy management. The findings of the study are (1) Natural capital are wood and trees found naturally growing in the area or being grown there. Most wood comes from various trees, such as Mango, Horse Tamarind, Tamarind and Wild Mangosteen, Coconut shells and Coconut leaves. (2) financial/economic capital refers to funds received by the subdistrict administration organization, an individual household’s funds and funds accumulated within the community. When joining the project, the community received a fund from the Provincial Energy Office. Some funds also came from the Provincial Agricultural Working Group. (3) Human capital refers to the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass. In addition, human capital includes making youth realize the value of energy. Furthermore, the local wisdom us used to produce high quality charcoal. This is considered to be a way to “sufficiency economy”. (4) Social capital comes from acceptance of views on the community energy plan. There is no cooperation among the households in charcoal production but the households purchase it from other households. Cooperation in the subdistrict can be found in using 10 public kilns during the community energy planning project implementation. When the kilns deteriorated, the community leaders and community members cooperated in repairing them. The community people participate or cooperate in various energy issues in line with the “Sufficiency Economy”. (5) The subdistrict administration organization has played an important role in building awareness and knowledge of energy, building cooperation among different groups such as the youth group and the energy group. Also, there is 369 collaboration with related agencies outside the community such as the Provincial Energy Office which supports the Subdistrict Administration Organization in creating youth’s awareness of the importance of energy. (6) Types of Biomass energy technology in the subdistrict are 200-L drum kilns (both vertical and horizontal), high efficiency bucket stoves and charcoal shoveling machines. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in both production and utilization of biomass energy. However, there is rarely charcoal production from wood now and some households purchase wood and charcoal to be used as fuel. There is no production of biogas from animal droppings in Suansom Subdistrict. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Prior to joining the Community Energy Planning Project in 2007, households had already used wood as fuel and for making charcoal. During the project, there was an increase in making charcoal by 200-L drum kilns. Later the 200-L drum kilns deteriorated. At present, the majority of households use wood and LPG for cooking and charcoal is mostly purchased from outside the community. Only a few numbers of households make charcoal from the 200-L drum kilns. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) setting an plan and placing it in the Three-Year Development Plan (2013 – 2015). In 2007, the Subdistrict Administration Organization carried out the Community Energy Planning project in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Building of community capacity can be seen from study tours to observe the energy projects outside the community and welcoming visitors who came to the subdistrict to see its project. Furthermore, emphasis is placed on building capacity of youth within and outside the community to handle various social issues including energy. (3) Local wisdom is transferred by disseminating the knowledge of kiln/ stove making, wood vinegar production and animal farming such as chicken, fish and others following the philosophy of “Sufficiency Economy”. This activity is done at the learning center. Furthermore, workshops on energy-saving are held at the learning center where there is training on alternative energy. (4) Utilizing community capital and resources such as using wood directly as fuel. A number of households do not produce their own coal 370 because they do not have charcoal making kilns. Many households directly used wood as fuel and incorporate the concept of “Sufficiency Economy” in various aspects of Thai daily life. (5) Cooperative network development in the community both within and outside the community is not clearly seen except in the area of public health. However; there are on-going contacts with outsiders to purchase kilns for charcoal production, for instance. (4) Output In 2012, Suansom Subdistrict use biomass energy, i.e., charcoal and firewood around 22.5 tons/year to 4.38 tons/year, respectively. These figures were estimated by the Region 4 Energy Office and the King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi. Based on the statistics of biomass energy consumption in 2012, the proportion of households that purchased charcoal from outside sources was 88% of the total of households using charcoal. Only 12% produced their own charcoal by using earth mound pits. There were 781 households that used charcoal and 53 households that use firewood (Region 4 Energy Office and King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi, 2012). (5) Outcome The utilization of biomass energy has yielded many advantages. For example, the households that use charcoal or wood as fuel can decrease their energy cost. Some households take charcoal production as their occupation. They can increase their income from charcoal and wood vinegar production. However, only a few households do this. The social outcome is clearly seen from people’s sharing of resources and energy. The environment is also improved because people use wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly, instead of chemical pesticides. However, due to the small volume of charcoal production of wood vinegar is limited as well. Wood vinegar is sprayed at an orchard of the learning center. Dependence on biomass energy can be seen from purchasing charcoal from outside and using it as fuel in cooking. Only a few households produce their own charcoal.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management 1. Natural capital: Mango, Horse Tamarind, Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome Tamarind and Wild Mangosteen, Coconut of Biomass Energy (Estimated in 2012 by Regional Energy Security shells and Coconut leaves. 1. Prior to the Community Energy Plan Project, the majority of Energy Office and King Monkut’s 2. Financial/ economic capital: Funding from households made their own charcoal from earth mound pits. University of Technology, 1. Better community economy Provincial Energy Office when joining the 2. After the project ended, the 200-L drum kilns broke down so Thonburi). 1) Decrease in the energy cost of Community Energy Planning Project, the the community leaders has promoted the use of the 200-L 1) Quantity of consumption/ year: households due to the use of Subdistrict Administration Organization drum kilns instead. 22.5 ton of charcoal and 4.38 firewood and charcoal but the funds and funds of individual households 3. At present, the majority of households used firewood and ton of wood and 237.41 ton of number of households that use and agricultural funds. charcoal as fuel to replace LPG. Most of charcoal is purchased LPG. both types of biomas energy is 3. Human capital: the ability of government from outside the community. Some households produce 2. Biomass Energy Utilization in small. officials, community leaders and villagers charcoal by using 200-L drum kilns and earth mound pits. households (Estimated in 2012 by 2) Increase in employment involved in the production and utilization of Promotion of Community Energy Management Regional Energy Office and King opportunities and income (only biomass energy making youth see the value 1. At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in the Three- Monkut’s University of Technolgy, in some households). of “Sufficiency Economy”. Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of subdistrict. Thonburi). 2. Better social life in the community 4. Social Capital The Community Energy Planning project was implemented in 1) 781 households using charcoal; 1) Sharing of resources, energy, 1) Commitment: Exchanging views on 2007. purchasing 88% charcoal from knowledge and wood.
371 community energy management 2. Building of the community capacity: providing training for outside sources. 3. Improvement in the environment
2) Reciprocity purchase of charcoal from youth and study tours to energy projects outside the 2) 53 households using firewood. 1) Decrease in the use of chemical other households community. (especially at the learning 3) Collective action and participation: 3. Dissemination of local knowledge of energy and “Sufficiency center) by using wood vinegar share of public kilns and following the Economy” through the learning center; training on energy instead of chemical pesticide philosophy “Sufficiency Economy”. saving; setting the policy on alternative energy; and training and decrease in pollution. 5. Community Organizations: the Subdistrict for community energy leaders. 4. More Self-reliance in the area of Administration Organization, and related 4. Utilization of community capital and resources: use of wood energy agencies, e.g. Provincial Energy Office. as fuel. Households do not process charcoal because they do There is an appropriate self - 6. Technology: 200-L drum kilns (horizontal not have kilns or they may believe it is time consuming. dependence on energy but most and vertical), high efficiency bucket stoves 5. Cooperative network development within and outside the charcoal is purchased from and charcoal shoving machines. community: public health network within the community. The outside sources. Subdistrict Administration Organization cooperate with related agencies outside the community about energy technology.
Figure 4.15 Summary of the Study: Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province 372
4.4.1.2 Communities that did not receive any award under the project, on a Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy 1) Summary of the Study of Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province: The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources consist of natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology. They are factors contributing to the success in community energy management. The findings of the study are 1) Natural capital of the subdistrict is wood from trees naturally growing or being grown in the district. Most wood comes from various trees such as Ormosia wood, Horse Tamarind, Neem Tree and general trees. Households use wood as firewood occur in both using it as direct fuel and for making charcoal. 2) Financial/ economic capital in community energy management at present comes from the households’ own fund in the production of biomass energy. The Subdistrict Administration Organization do not have any energy project and fund for biomass energy in any of its development plans. The Provincial Energy Office provided a fund only during the implementation of the Community Energy Planning project. 3) Human capital refers to the ability of government state officials, community leaders, and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass. Furthermore, human capital also came from local knowledge of technology which is passed. At present, human capital is households in which production and utilization of biomass is still important. 4) There is social capital in the community, although there is no obvious commitment. For instance, the subdistrict administration organization built public kilns at a monastery and public places. This shows the intention of the organization to support charcoal production in the community. Reciprocity can be seen when villagers share and exchange wood and charcoal. 373
Furthermore, the villagers are more than happy to participate in community activities. 5) Community organization in the subdistrict that plays a major role in energy management is the Subdistrict Administration Organization. It collaborate with the local people and outsiders like the Provincial Energy Office in organizing activities. 6) Biomass energy technology in the subdistrict consists of 200-L drum kilns, Subdistrict Administation Organization square kilns, Subdistrict Administration Organization vertical kilns, earth kilns, earch mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves, and firewood stoves. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in production and utilization of biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Prior to entering the project launched by the Ministry of Energy, many households were poor and did not generate much income. Cooking was done mostly by using charcoal and firewood. Earth mound pits and earth kilns were used for charcoal production. During the project, households began using the 200-L drum kilns but they deteriorated after being use so households resorted to the use of earth mound pits and earth kilns. Even at present, there are no projects that support biomass energy in the subdistrict. (3) Production of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) setting an energy project and placed it in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. In 2007 the Community Energy Planning project was implemented in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Building of community capacity can be seen from study tours of the energy projects outside the community and welcoming visitors who come to observe the community’s energy project. Furthermore, there is training on energy technology, e.g. biogas fermentation, and charcoal production. (3) Local wisdom of kiln has been dissimirated at the learning center for sufficiency economy, but the 200-L drum kilns and the water pumping bicycles were broken down. (4) Community capital and resources, that households use are firewood and charcoal. (5) There are both formal and informal cooperative network development within and outside the community, i.e., direct and indirect collaboration at the organizational level and the community level. 374
(4) Output The subdistrict’s output as a result of community energy management is biomass energy fuels, e.g., charcoal made from wood. Community households widely produce and use biomass energy made from wood within the community. No biogas from animall droppings is produced and used. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy gives rise to many advantages. The community economy is improved because the energy cost is decreased due to the use of biomass energy as an alternative. Households get benefit from natural capital, which is trees and wood that they can find in the area and use for charcoal production. The households can save money from butying energy from outside, expecially households that sell food. They use firewood and charcoal instead of LPG for cooking. Moreover, there is increase in employment and income for the community. The social outcome in the community is clearly seen from people’s sharing of resources and energy. However, there is no obvious community participation and acceptance of views on energy management. The environment is improved because the community use wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly instread of chemical pesticide. However, in Sri Phum Subdistrict the use of wood vinegar is still quite minimal. Another outcome is that the community is self-sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. Households is that can accumulate charcoal and use it as fuel for cooking. Households can depend on themselves in finding fuel and produce biomass energy for their own use. This increases access to energy and decreases energy scarcity, which also decreases the dependence on LPG which has to be brought in from outside sources.
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Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management Community Energy Management: Production and Outcome Natural capital: Ormosia wood, Horse Tamarind, Neem Tree 1. Biomass Fuel Utilization of Biomass Energy Energy Security and general trees. Production Financial/economic capital: Currently, households use their own Prior to the on community energy planning project, Charcoal is a 1. Better community economy funds in the production of biomass energy. The Subdistrict the majority of households made their own charcoal source of biomass Decrease in the energy cost of households Administration Organization do not have any plan and fund for using earth mound pits and earth kilns because they energy. resulting from using firewood and charcoal, biomass energy management in any of their development plans. were poor and had low income. Charcoal because many households in subdistrict use Funds from the Provincial Energy Office were provided only After the project ended, the 200-L drum kilns broke production by the such biomass energy. during the Community Energy Planning Project implementation. down, so villagers turned back to earth mound pits 200-L drum kilns, Increase in employment, and income for Human capital: ability of government officials, community and earth kilns. At present, there are no project that earth kilns and some households. leaders and villagers, local knowledge and the ability in the support biomass energy use in the subdistrict. earth mound pits. 2. Better social life in the community production and utilization of technology. Promotion of Community Energy Management Firewood is stored Sharing of resources, energy, knowledge and Social Capital At present, the Subdistrict Administration for household use. wood.
375 No obvious commitment. However, the Subdistrict Organization does not have any energy project in the 2. Biomass Energy No obvious increase in community
Administration Organization builting public kilns indicates Three-Year Development Plan. The Community Utilization participation and acceptance of views on its intention to encourage the community to produce Energy Planning was implemented in 2007. Many households energy. charcoal. Building of the community capacity: training and in the community 3. Better community environment Reciprocity: Sharing and exchanging of wood and charcoal study tours to observe energy activities. Most of produce and use Decrease in pollution Collective action and Participation in community energy these activities happened in the past. charcoal and wood Using firewood vinegar instead of chemical activities: such as welcoming visitors to the energy project. Dissemination of local knowledge related to as fuel. pesticide. Community Organizations: the Subdistrict Administration sufficiency economy including energy, through the 4. More self-reliance in the area of energy Organization and related agencies e.g. Provincial Energy Office. learning center. Equipment were broken down. Increase in access to energy Technology: 200-L drum kilns, Subdistrict Administration Utilizing community capital and resources: using Decrease in energy shortage Organization square kilns, Subdistrict Administration wood to produce biomass energy. Decrease in the dependence on outside Organization vertical kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high Cooperative Network Development: formal and energy sources by using firewood and efficiency bucket stoves/ ordinary Thai bucket stoves and informal collaboration at the local, organizational charcoal instead of LPG that needs to be firewood stoves. and community levels. purchased from outside.
Figure 4.16 Summary of Study: Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province 376
2) Summary of the Study of Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community and capital resources which consist of natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to the success in community energy management. The findings of the study are 1) Natural capital of the subdistrict is wood from trees that grow naturally or are grown in the area that include various types of trees such as Eucalyptus, Ormosia, and other wood in the area. Households use it as firewood and for making charcoal. 2) Financial/economic capital in the community energy management at present comes from the households’ own funds in the production of biomass energy. The Provincial Energy Office provided a fund only during the implementation of the Community Energy Planning project. At present the subdistrict administration organization does not have any biomass energy projects in any of its development plans. 3) Human capital is the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization biomass energy. Human capital also includes the local wisdom which has been passing on to people in and of technology outside the community. At present, households give importance to production and utilization of biomass energy. 4) Social capital can be seen from the intention of the subdistrict administration organization to promote charcoal production in the community. It has provided public kilns for this purpose. People depend on each other by sharing or exchanging wood and charcoal. Furthermore, people assist each other in making kilns. They will participate in activities that require participation such as welcoming visitors to the community university. 5) The subdistrict administration organization is the community organization of the subdistrict, which plays an important role in community development. It sets an energy plan for the community. Other 377 organizations concerned are the Provincial Energy Office, the Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperatives in the community, Khon Kaen University, the Energy Office Region 6 and the Provincial Energy Office. 6) Biomass energy technology in the subdistrict consists of 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves, economic stoves and 200 liter grilling stoves. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in production and utilization of biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Before the project was launcher, the households here had used wood as fuel, especially in rural villages. Some villages have been urbanized, so households use less charcoal than LPG. The majority of households produce charcoal by using earth kilns in the orchard and take it back home for household use. This is the way of life of the villagers, and at present they still do the same. During the project implementation, the households used 200-L drum kilns provided in the public places. But after they deteriorated, villagers turned back to using earth kilns. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) setting an energy plan and placing it in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. Before this the Subdistrict Administation Organization carried out the Community Energy Planning project in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Community capacity was built by sending community representatives to study about energy outside the community and providing information and training to energy volunteers. However, at present there has been decreased in study tours. (3) Local wisdom is disseminated by providing knowledge to those who visit the project. (4) Community capital and resources that is utilized is local technology. Wood is a type of natural capital that is used to produce biomass energy. Local people help each other in making the charcoal kilns, producing charcoal and maintaining the kilns. (5) Cooperative network development in the community can be seen from the cooperation of the community leaders in collecting the data for this research. Cooperation from outside organization can be seen in establiching the Community University by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Cooperatives. Khon Kaen University and the Regional Energy Office develop and transfer appropriate energy 378 technology, providing a solar energy shed for drying rubber and a stystm for producing biogas from waste water. (4) Output The subdistrict’s output from community energy management includes biomass energy fuel i.e., charcoal made from wood. Charcoal is produced by various types of energy technology such as earth kilns, 200-L drum kilns and earth mound pits. Furthermore, biomass energy includes wood that the households accumulate to be used as fuel in their houses. The community households still produce and use biomass energy made from wood. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy yields many advantages to the community. In the community economy is improved because the energy cost decreased due to the use of biomass energy as alternative energy. Households benefit from natural capital, which are trees and wood that they can get in the area and later make it into charcoal. The households can save cost of buying energy from outside. Moreover, there is increase in employment and income for the community because some houses can produce wood vinegar for sale. The social outcome is clearly seen because people share resources and energy. Community participation and acceptance of views on energy management is not better that before. The environment is improved because the community uses wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly, instead of using chemical pesticides. However, in Chumpol Subdistrict, the practice is still quite minimal and only a few households sold charcoal and wood vinegar.
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Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization Management Outcome Natural capital: Eucalyptus, Ormosia, and various 1. Biomass Fuel Energy Security woods in the area. of Biomass Energy Production 1. Better community economy Financial and economic capital: At present, The household especially in reral villages use wood as fuel before the Charcoal is a Decrease in the energy cost of households use their own funds in the production of project implementation. Some villages have urbanized, so the use of source of biomass biomass energy. The Subdistrict Administration firewood and charcoal as fuel in these households becomes less and energy. many households by using firewood and charcoal. Organization do not have any plans and funds for the use of LPG increases. Charcoal produced biomass energy projects in any of its development The majority of households use earth kilns in the orchard, when they by the 200-L drum Increase in employment, and plans. Funds from the Provincial Energy Office was income in some households. produce charcoal, which is transported to the houses for use. This is kilns, earth kilns given only during the Community Energy Planning the way of life of the villagers, and at present they still follow the and earth mound 2. Better social life in the community project implementation. same practice. During the project implementation, households pits. Sharing of resources, energy, Human capital: the ability of government officials, increased the use the 200-L drum kilns but after they deteriorated, Firewood is stored knowledge and wood vinegar. community leaders and villagers including local villagers turned back to using earth kilns. by the households No obvious increase in wistom and ability to produce and utilize biomass After the project ended, the 200-L drum kilns broke down. The to use as fuel. community participation and energy technology. villagers turned back to using earth mound pit and earth kilns. 2. Biomass Energy acceptance of views on energy. Social Capital Promotion of Community Energy Management Utilization 3. Improvements in the Environment Commitment: the Subdistrict Administration At present, the Subdistrict Administration Organization does not Many households Decrease in pollution by using Organization has public kilns for community have any energy project in the Three-Year Development Plan. The in the community wood vinegar instead of households to produce charcoal. This is the 379 Community Energy Planning was implemented in 2007. use wood as chemical pesticide. intention of the Subdistrict Administration firewood and
Building of community capacity: training and study tours to energy 4. More self-reliance in the area of Organization to encourage the community to use produce and use activities. These were mostly done in the past. energy biomass energy. charcoal as fuel, Reciprocity: Sharing stoves and helping each Dissemination of local knowledge through the Community too. Increase in access to energy. other in making kilns. University by providing knowledge of energy to visitors. Decrease in energy shortage. Collective action and Participation: the Utilizing community capital and resources: using wood to produce Decrease in the dependence on community people assist each other in group biomass energy, using local technology and using social capital outside energy sources by using work and other activities. (assisting each other in making and maintaining kilns). firewood and charcoal instead of Community Organizations: the Subdistrict Cooperative Network Development: seen from the collaboration and LPG that needs to be purchased Administration Organization and related agencies, cooperation of the community leaders in the various villages in the from outside. e.g. Provincial Energy Office, Regional Energy district. Office, Khon Kaen University and Ministry of Cooperative network development from outside resulted from the Agriculture and Cooperatives. cooperation of the agencies that support the establishment of the Technology: 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, high Community University, and the development of appropriate energy efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves, economic technology such as the solar energy rubber stove and the biogas stoves and 200 liter grill stoves. Other types of system from water waste. energy technology include solar energy stoves and solar energy rubber drying shed. Figure 4.17 Summary of Study: Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province 380
3) Summary of Overall Study: Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community and capital resources which consist of natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to success in the community energy management. The findings of the study are 1) Natural capital is wood from different types of trees that naturally grow or are grown in the area. The households use wood directly as fuel or for making charcoal. 2) Financial/ economic capital at present comes from the households’ own funds in the production of biomass energy. The fund from the Provincial Energy Office was provided to the community only during the Community Energy Planning project. At present, the subdistrict administration organization does not have any biomass energy projects in any of its development plans. 3) Human capital is the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Human capital also includes the local knowledge and the ability to invent and make use of technology. 4) Social capital can be seen in the households’ reciprocity on each other and cooperation and participation in the community. There is no agreement or commitment that many households have to produce and use biomass energy but they do so. (5) The Subdistrict Administration Organization, the community organization of the subdistrict is which plays an important role in biomass energy promotion within and outside the community. Other related organizations were the Provincial Energy Office which supported the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy”. It held training activities directly and through the Subdistrict Administration Organization. 6) Biomass energy technology in the subdistrict consists of the 200-L drum kilns and high efficiency bucket stoves. Very few 381 households use earth mound pits. It can be concluded that biomass energy technology is used in production and utilization of biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Households had been using wood as fuel before the district joined the community energy planning project. At present, the use of LPG has increased but it is used only in a hurry. Most households produce charcoal using earth kilns, 2000L drum lilns and earth moung pits. The 200-L drum kiln was used at the beginning of the project, and at present some households are still using this type of kilns. Currently, community energy management focuses on households’ production and utilization of biomass, even though there is no support from the Subdistrict Administration Organization. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) setting an energy plan and placing it in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. The community energy planning project was carried out in 2007 in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Building of the community capacity has been done by selecting community energy volunteers to undergo training, and to provide people with knowledge of energy, wood vinegar and charcoal production. (3) Local wisdom is disseminated through various activities and community cooperation. (4) Utilization of community capital and resources especially is enhanced from wood is promoted. (5) Cooperative network development can be found between the Subdistrict Administration Orgnization, schools, villagers and monks. A network has been also developed outside the community between the Subdistrict Administration Organization, and Regional Energy Office, Provincial Energy Office, Ubonratchathani University and the Isarn Community Foundation, for example. (4) Output The subdistrict’s output from the community energy management includes biomass energy fuel, i.e., charcoal which is used as fuel. Charcoal is produced by various types of technology such as earth kilns, 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns and earth mound pits (very few households use this type of 382 technology). The community households widely produce and use biomass energy from wood. (5) Outcome Utilizing of biomass energy yields many advantages: improvement in the community economy because the energy cost is decreased due to the use of biomas energy as alternative energy. The households benefit from natural capital, which are trees and wood that they can find in the area and use to produce charcoal. Because of this, the households can save the cost of buying energy from outside, especially for cooking. Moreover, there is increase in employment and income for the community. The social outcome in the community is clearly seen. People share resources and energy. However, there is no increase in the community participation and acceptance of views on energy management. The environment is improved because the community use wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly, to replace chemical pesticide. However, in Chumpol Subdistrict, only a few households kept wood vinegar. Another outcome is the community is now self-sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. The households accumulate their own fuel and charcoal to use as a source of energy for cooking. Households can rely on themselves in finding fuels and produce biomass energy for their individual houses. This increases the access to energy and decreases energy shortage. Decreasing in the dependence on LPG also decreases the dependence on energy from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Community Energy Management: Production and Management Natural capital: wood found in the area Utilization of Biomass Energy 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome Financial and economic capital: At present, Charcoal is a source of biomass energy. Energy Security households use their own funds in the Households use wood as fuel even before joining the Charcoal produced by the 200-L drum production of biomass energy. The community energy planning project. At present, more kilns, earth kilns and earth mound pit. 1. Better community economy Subdistrict Administration Organization and more households use LPG, but mostly as reserve Firewood is stored for household use. Decrease in the energy cost because does not have any plan and fund for a energy for use when they are in a hurry. 2. Biomass Energy Utilization of the use of charcoal in many biomass energy project in any of their The majority of households use earth kilns, 200-L drum Many households in the community households. development plans. The fund from the kilns and earth mound pits. The 200-L drum kilns have produce and use charcoal and wood as Increase in employment, secondary Provincial Energy Office was provided been used since the project on community energy plan fuels. occupations and income of only during the implementation of the started. At present, some households still use 200 liter households that sell charcoal. Community Energy Planning project. kilns. 2. Better social life in the community Human capital: government officials, At present, community energy management is carried Sharing of resources, energy, community leaders and villagers, including out by households even though tere is no support from knowledge, charcoal and stoves/ kilns local knowledge and the ability to produce the Subdistrict Administration Organization among neighbors. and use technology. Promotion of Community Energy Management 3. Better community environment Social Capital At present, the Subdistrict Administration Organization Decreasing in chemical use and Commitment: Villagers use biomass does not put the energy projects in the Three-Year pollution by using wood vinegar energy mostly from wood. Development Plan. The Community Energy Planning instead of chemical pesticide. Reciprocity: Sharing kilns and charcoal project was implemented in 2007. 4. More self-reliance in the area of energy and helping each other in making kilns/ Building of the community Capacity: training Increase in access to energy. stoves. community energy volunteers, providing training on Decrease in the dependence on 383 Collective action and Participation: knowledge and awareness of energy saving and taking outside energy sources by using community people assist each other in study tours to observe wood vinegar and charcoal wood and charcoal instead of LPG the group. Villagers, schools and monks production. for cooking that needs to be also join community energy activities. Dissemination of local knowledge through various purchased from outside. Community Organizations: the Subdistrict activities in the community. Administration Organization and related Utilizing community capital and resources: overall, this agencies, i.e., Provincial Energy Office, has occurred in a tangible form such as using natural Regional Energy Office. capital (wood) and energy technology. Biomass energy technology: 200 liter Cooperative Network Development: there is charcoal kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency collaboration and cooperation of community leaders in bucket stoves, earth mound pits. various villages in the subdistrict. Cooperative network development both within and outside the community: A network in the community has been developed among the Subdistrict Administration Organization, schools, villagers and monks. A network outside the community has been developed among the Subdistrict Administration Organizations, the Regional Energy Office, the Provincial Energy Office, Ubonratchathani University and Isarn Community Foundation. However, the network development both within and outside is now decreasing. Figure 4.18 Summary of Study: Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province 384
4) Summary of the Study of Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources which consist of natural capital, financial/economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to the success in community energy management. The findings of the study are 1) Natural capital of the subdistrict is wood from trees that naturally grow or are grown in the area. Most are from longan trees and other trees in the subdistrcit. Wood us used directly as fuel or for making charcoal. 2) Financial/economic capital at present come from the households’ own funds in the production of biomas energy and from the Provincial Energy Office. 3) Human capital refers to the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital also includes the local knowledge and the ability to produce and make use of technology such as the ability to mold stoves, and local wisdom of preventing pots and pans from being blackened when wood is used as firewood for cooking. Furthermore, certain villagers have invent some innovation for energy saving, such as washing machines that use energy from cycling. 4) Social capital can be seen from the fact that the subdistrict shows concerns about smoke in Saraphi District. So the community people refrain from producing charcoal in an open space to solve the problem. Reciprocity can be seen from the villages’ assisting one another in charcoal making and sharing charcoal. Participation is seen in the implementation of various community projects, such as the project on “garbage separation”, etc. 5) Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality is the community organization of the subdistrict which plays an important role in carring out the energy projects and in providing knowledge to the villagers, while the District Office provides a fund for community development. Other related organizations are the Ministry of Energy that has provided the solar energy 385 technology and CYMA that help to support charcoal production. 6) Biomass energy technology used in the subdistrict consist of the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves and 200 liter grilling stoves. These technologies are used to produce biomass energy from wood. Another energy technology is solar energy stoves. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Energy Prior to entering the community energy planning project, the households had already used wood as fuel and produced charcoal. In this way, households could reduce their energy consumption, lowering waste and recycling garbage. They were hardly aware of the problem of smog, but when the project was launched, they were more aware of this problem. At present, charcoal is mostly produce in orchards with the 200-L drum kinls to lessen smoke. However, not many households produce charcoal. Villagers have decreased burning garbage to lessen smoke. Most households use wood as fuel. Biomass energy management in the households of the subdistrict differs from households in the housing projects. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) setting an energy plan and placing it in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. The community energy planning project was carried out in 2007, in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Building of the community capacity is seen in the training of the community energy volunteers by the Office of Academics and the Provincial Energy Office of Chiang Mai Province. (3) Local wisdom was transferred through training. Knowledge about alternative energy is transferred. Through the Nonformal Education Center in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province. Community experts also have an opportunity to transfer local wosdom to the general public. (4) Utilizint community capital and resources can be seen from the use of wood and charcoal for cooking. New energy technologies are not used that much because there has been a campaign to decrease smoke. Social capital is evidenced by the villagers sharing charcoal kilns and wood with their neighbors. (5) Cooperative network development can be from study tours between villages. Especially Moo 6 carried out the project called “Exchange of longan leaves of eggs 386 for better environment”. Networks has been developed because community leaders ask for a budget from the Department of Nonformal Education to support various projects in the community. (4) Output The subdistrict’s output from community energy management are (1) Biomass energy e.e., charcoal and wood. A large number of households use wood as firewood, and some households produce charcoal at their houses using the 200-L drum kilns because this lessens smoke than burning wood in the open area. However, some households still produce charcoal by using earth mound pits but they do it in orchards where there are many trees in order to lower the impact of smoke. (2) The production and utilization of biomass energy by the community households are prevailing in the community, especially biomass energy made from wood and LPG is used only on urgent occasions. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy in Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province has given many advantages, one of which is improved community economy because the energy cost is decreased due to the use of biomass energy as alternative energy. The households can save money because they benefit from natural capital, which are trees and wood that they can find in the area and use it to produce charcoal. The households do not have to buy fuels from outside. Moreover, there was increase in employment and income as wood vinegar can be sold to generate extra income. The social outcome in the community is clearly seen. People shared resources and energy between acquaintances and 200-L drum kilns. However, there is increase in community participation and acceptance of views on energy. People are aware of the problem of smog in the subdistrict and garbage burning should be avoided. Charcoal should be produced in the orchards, etc. The environment is improved because wood vinegar, which is more environmentally friendly, is used instead of chemical pesticide. However, in Nongfag Subdistrict on a few households collected wood vinegar for this purpose.
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Another outcome is that the community is self-sufficient and self-reliant in the area of energy. Households can find and accumulate their own fuel and produce charcoal as a source of energy for cooking. This increase accesses to energy and decreases the energy shortage. They do not have to on LPG which have to be bought in from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Natural capital: Most wood are from Longan trees Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization 1. Biomass Fuel Production Management and other types of wood. of Biomass Energy Charcoal is a source of Outcome Financial/Economic capital: At present, funding Prior to entering the Community Energy Planning project, the biomass energy. Energy Security comes from the Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality, households had already used wood as fuel for charcoal Charcoal is produced by 1. Better community economy the households’ own funds in the production of production. the 200-L drum kilns, Decrease in the energy cost because biomass energy and sunds from the Provincial Moreover, the households focused on decreasing energy earth kilns and earth of the use of firewood and charcoal Energy Office. consumption and on recycling garbage. There was little mound pits. in the households. Human capital: the ability of government officials awareness of the problems of smog, until the project was Firewood is stored for Increase in employment and income and the ability of villagers in producing and implemented. Then the awareness of this problem has household use. because some households, although utilizing biomass energy by using different types of increased. 2. Biomass Energy Utilization small in number, produce wood technology. Charcoal was mostly produced in the orchard where there were Many households in the vinegar for sale. Local wisdom of pots and pans from being many trees and 200 liter kilns were used to decrease smoke. community produce and 2. Better social life in the community blackened and energy saving innovations such At present, not many households use wood as charcoal. use charcoal and firewood Sharing of resources, energy, as the washing machine that uses the power Villagers cooperate in lessening the problem of smoke. Most as fuel. knowledge, charcoal and stoves from bicycling. households used firewood as fuel. among neighbors and the use of 200- Social Capital Biomass energy management in the subdistrict may differ from L drum kilns together.
388 Commitment: Villagers have cooperated in village to village because some houses are in housing Acceptance of views on energy as
solving the problem of smog by refraining from development projects. But in general most households use seen in the agreement to decrease producing charcoal in the open area. firewood as fuel. smoke by not producing charcoal in Reciprocity: Sharing kilns and charcoal and Promotion of Community Energy Management Support the open area. helping each other in making stoves/ kilns. At present, setting an energy plan and placing it in the Three- 3. Better community environment Collective action and Participation: the Year Energy Development Plan (2013 – 2015) of subdistrict. Decreasing in chemical use and community assist each other in various The Community Energy Planning project was implemented in pollution by using wood vinegar communal projects such as separating garbage, 2007. instead of chemical pesticide. etc which have been being continued for a Building of community Capacity: Training for community 4. More self-reliance in the area of number of years up to now. energy volunteers. energy Community Organizations: the Subdistrict Disseminating of local wisdom through various activities and Increase in access to energy. Administration Organization , District Office and providing knowledge on alternative energy. Decrease in dependence on outside related agencies e.g. Provincial Energy Office, Utilizing community capital and resources: Using wood as fuel energy sources by using wood and Regional Energy Office, Department of Non-formal and for charcoal production but due to the campaign against charcoal instead of LPG that needs to Education, Ministry of Energy. smoke, people rarely use charcoal now. Social benefits can be be purchased from outside. Biomass energy technology: 200 liter charcoal seen from people assisting each other in making charcoal kilns kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, 200 and in sharing of wood. liter grilling stoves and other types of energy Cooperative Network Development: taking study tours to technology such as the solar energy stove. observe energy activities in Moo 6 by other villages and also welcoming visitors from outside the community. Figure 4.19 Summary of Study: Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province 389
5) Summary of Overall Study: Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community and Capital Resources Community and capital resources which consist of natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organization and technology are the factors contributing to the success in community energy management. The findings of the study are: 1) Natural capital of the subdistrict is wood from various types of trees such as rambutan and material such as coconut shells. Animal droppings such as pig dung is used to produce biogas. 2) Financial/ economic capital in the community energy management at present comes from the Provincial Energy Office, Napho Subdistrict Municipality, and from the households’ own funds in production of biomass energy. 3) Human capital refers to the ability of government officials, community leaders and villagers involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Furthermore, human capital includes working together in many activities and local wisdom of using energy technology such as earth kilns. 4) Social capital includes the subdistrict’s attempts to have continuous support for community energy project by the government. The subdistrict administration organization’s three-year development plan, the biomass energy project and improvement of the community energy learning center are included. However, there is no obvious commitment, reciprocity and cooperation. 5) Nongfag Subdistrict Municipality is the community organization of the subdistrict which plays an important role in carring out the projects and in providing knowledge to the villagers. The district office also provides a fund for community development. Furthermore, there are other related organizations such as the Ministry of Energy, Regional and Provincial Energy Office, and the Department of Industrial Promotion that directly and indirectly support the promotion of biomass energy utilization. There is no obvious on commitment, reciprocity and cooperation. 6) Biomass energy 390 technology used in the subdistrict consists of 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves and biogas. These technologies are used for producing biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Energy Before joining the community energy planning project, the households had already used wood as fuel. Moreover, charcoal was mostly made by using earth mound pits and earth kilns. During the project implementation, villagers realized that using wood as fuel had many advantages. For example, the 200-L drum kiln can help produce wood vinegar to be used as pesticide. Surplus charcoal can also be sold. At present, households still use earth mound pits because the 200-L drum kilns broke down. The households use wood and charcoal more than LPG for cooking. Currently, there are households which use biogas that come from animal dung fermentation. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community Energy Management Support consists of (1) setting an energy plan, and placing it in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – 2015. The Community Energy Planning project was implemented in 2007 in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Community capacity has been built by providing scholarships, knowledge and training, seminars. (3) Local wisdom is transferred to outsiders who visit the community energy project. A present the learning center is undergoing improvement under the Three-Year Development Plan. Knowledge is disseminated by community experts to those outside the community. (4) Community capital and resources are used to produce biogas. The use of wood and charcoal as fuel, on the other hand, was minimal. (5) Cooperative network development within the community is not evident in some villages, but development of a network with outsides can be evidently seen, i.e., between the community and Provincial Energy Office. (4) Output The subdistrict’s output from community energy management includes biomass energy fuels – charcoal, wood and biogas made from animal droppings. Both charcoal and biogas are used as fuel in biomass energy production. Charcoal is 391 produced by technologies such as 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns and earth mound pits. Community households use biomass energy. Within the community, the production and utilization of biomass are not prevailing and majority of the households do not sell biomass energy. (5) Outcome Utilizing the benefits of biomass energy yields many advantages which are improved community economy by decreasing the energy cost and using biomass energy as alternative energy. The households benefit from natural capital, which are trees and wood in the area which can be used to produce charcoal. Also animal dung can be used to produce biogas. As a result, the households can save money from buying energy from outside the community. In short, there is increase in employment and income for the community. The social outcome is clearly seen local people share resources and energy. The environment is the improved because the community use wood vinegar which is more environmentally friendly instead of chemical pesticide. Using animal droppings make biogas enables the community to decrease odor from animal dungs. Another outcome is the community is now self-sufficient and self- reliance in the area of energy. Households can accumulate their own fuel and charcoal as a source of energy for cooking. Households can depend on themselves in finding fuel and produce biomass energy for their individual homes. This increases success to energy and decrease the energy shortage. Since they depend less on LPG, it means that they decrease their dependence on energy from outside sources.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Natural capital: Rambutan wood, other wood, Community Energy Management: Production and 1. Biomass Fuel Production Management coconut shells, pig dung and cow dung Utilization of Biomass Energy Charcoal is a source of biomass Outcome Financial/ economic capital: Funding from the Before joining the community energy planning project, the energy Energy Security Subdistrict Municipality and other agencies, households had already used wood as fuel and for charcoal Charcoal produced by the 200- 1. Better community economy and personal household funds production L drum kilns Decrease in the energy cost of the Human capital: the ability of produces and During the implementation of the project, villagers got Charcoal produced by earth households because they use biomass uses of biomass energy in the community. wood vinegar for use as pesticide by using 200-L drum kilns and earth mound pits fuel Human capital results from educating youth kilns. Surplus charcoal is sold to stores in the community Firewood is stored for Increase in employment, and income about energy. Local wisdom is found only in At present, most households still use earth mound pits household use for some households making and using earth kilns in some because the given 200-L drum kilns deteriorated. Wood Biogas made from animal 2. Better social life in the community households and charcoal is not used as much as LPG. Currently, some droppings Minimal sharing of resources, energy, Social Capital households in the subdistrict use biogas made from animal 2. Biomass Energy Utilization knowledge, kilns/stoves Commitment: there is no obvious dung fermentation Many households in the 3. Better community environment commitment, reciprocity and collective action Promotion of Community Energy Management community produce and use Using animal droppings to produce among villagers but they participate At present, the Subdistrict Municipality has put the biomass charcoal, firewood and biogas biogas, thus decreasing odor in the continuously in activities held by state energy project in the Three-Year Development Plan of as fuel. community. Some households collect
392 agencies such as biogas production by the 2013 – 2105. The Community Energy Planning project was wood vinegar, which more
community leader in some villages implemented in 2007 environmentally friendly, and use it Community Organizations: the Subdistrict Building of community Capacity: granting scholarships, instead of chemical pesticide Municipality, and related organizations such proving knowledge through training courses and seminars 4. More self-reliance in the area of energy as the Provincial Energy Office, the Dissemination of local knowledge : This occurred mostly Increase in access to energy and Department of Industrial Promotion, etc. in the past, expecially visitors coming to Napho Subdistrict decrease of energy shortage Biomass energy technology: 200 liter vertical to observe energy-related activities but now the learning Decrease in the dependence on outside kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, high center is deteriorated, so dissemination of local wisdom energy sources by using wood and efficiency bucket stoves, large firewood occurs only on some occasions in which community charcoal instead of LPG that needs to stoves, biogas stoves and biogas containers experts provide knowledge to people outside the be purchased from outside community Utilization of community capital and resources: The use of biogas is clearly seen, but people still use wood and charcoal less and less Cooperative Network Development: This is not evident. It happens only in some villages. However, there is a network between the community and the Provincial Office
Figure 4.20 Summary of Study: Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province 393
6) Summary of the Study of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province The results of studying the community capital and resources, community energy management (the production and utilization of biomass), and community energy management promotion, the output and outcome of community energy management of the Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province are summarized as follows: (1) Community Capital and Resources Community capital and resources which consist of natural capital, financial/ economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and technology are the factors contributing to the success in the community energy management . The findings of the study are 1) Natural capital comes from various types of trees such as Pomelo trees, Durian, Tamarind, Laichi, Lamyai, Wild Mangosteen and others. 2) Financial/ economic capital at present comes from the Subdistrict Administration Organization and the households’ own funds. 3) Human capital refers to local wisdom and the ability of villagers and others involved in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Now the member of households that produce and use biomass energy is very small. At present local wisdom is not applied to biomass energy in the district. However, local wisdom in other areas are bio-water and music. 4) Social capital commitment in biomass cannot be obviously seen. There is no reciprocity in terms of energy. However, people worked together at the beginning of the project and has continued until present. There is cooperative work between the yough network and the elderly network, but participation in energy-related activities has decreased. Other agencies that participate in energy management are, for example, the Office of Hazard Provention that participated in bio-diesel production in the past. At present this biodiesel project is waiting for more support. 5) The Subdistrict Administration Organization plays and important role in building people’s awareness of energy issues at the beginning of the project on Community Energy Planning of 80 Individual Communities in 2007. Other related agencies are the Provincial Energy Office, the Regional Energy Office and the Ministry of Energy. 6) Biomass energy technology in the district consists of the 200- 394
L drum kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, economic stoves and biodiesel production machines. These types of technoloty are used to produce biomass energy. (2) Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of Biomass Energy At present, there is little use of firewood and charcoal in Bang Si Thong Subdistrict. The subdistrict does not have many trees and the households’ lifestyle has changed due to urbanization. Moreover, the subdistrict has stores that buy charcoal from other community to sell. In the past, people in the subdistrict used to make charcoal. But after the 200-L drum kilns that the subdistrict received when joining the project deteriorated, there was hardly charcoal production. Trees became less after the year 2011 which it flooded in the area. Nearly every household uses LPG, and only a few use wood as fuel for making deserts or they purchase charcoal only for roasting or grilling. Also, a very few households produce charcoal. Now, the subdistrict is semi-urban. The space is limited because the villagers have been selling their land to housing projects. (3) Promotion of Community Energy Management Community energy management support consists of (1) Setting an energy plan, which is placed in the Three-Year Devolopment Plan of 2013 – 2015. The community energy planning project was implemented in 2007 in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office. (2) Building of community capacity includes taking a study tour. Now this activity is handle done. (3) Dissemination of local wisdom to outsiders who came to observe the community energy work. Now, this is no longer carried out. Other communities now come to observe the elderly project. (4) Community capital and resources is hardly utilized. Some households use wood as fuel for preparing desserts. Few households use charcoal. (5) Cooperative network development within and outside the community is not clearly seen. But there are other networks such as the network of youth and the elderly. (4) Output The outcome of community energy management includes (1) Biomass fuel. Now households hardly use charcoal, although some still use firewood to cook disserts. (2) The field research and the secondary data reveal that there are only a few households that use charcoal and wood. Also, only a few 395 households produce charcoal in a traditional way by using earth mound pits. A few households store wood as biomass energy source. The accounts for less than 1% of the overall energy consumption. In the past, the community produced biodiesel from used vegetable oil. (5) Outcome Utilizing biomass energy yields many advantages which are: improved community economy because the energy cost is decreased due to the use of biomass energy as alternative energy. Households benefit from natural capital, which are trees and wood that they can get in the area and use it to produce charcoal. Because of this, the households can save money from buying energy from outside. Moreover, there is increase in employment and income of the community. The social outcomes in the community are clearly seen from their sharing resources and energy in the past. The environment is improved because of the decrease in chemical use and pollution. In the past, people used wood vinegar, which was more environmentally friendly, as pesticide. At present, there is no more charcoal production. The energy volunteers focus on using bio-water to treat polluted water instead of chemical substances. Only a few households use firewood and charcoal as fuel.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management Natural capital: Pomelo trees, Durian, Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization of 1. Biomass Fuel Outcome Tamarind, Laichi, Lamyai, Wild Mangosteen Biomass Energy Production Energy Security and others At present, people at Bang Si Thong Subdistrict hardly use firewood Charcoal is hardly 1. Better community economy Financial/economic capital: Funding from and charcoal produce now. Decrease in the energy cost because of the used Subdistrict Administration Organizatio and The subdistrict does not have many trees as a result of the flood in 2011 Secondary data wood and charcoal as fuel but only the number other agencies and personal household funds and the households’ lifestyle has changed. There are plants that buy shows that only some of households that use biomass energy is small Human capital: the ability of producers and charcoal from other places and sell it to community people. In the past, households produce Increase in employment, and income for some users of biomass energy who are now rarely the subdistrict used to produce charcoal. But now there are only a few charcoal in a households – that buy charcoal from other found, including other participants including trees, and the 200-L drum kilns broke down, so only a few households traditional way – by places to sell in the subdistrict local wisdom in the area of energy, which is produce biomass energy using earth mound 2. Better social life in the community not promoted. Other local wisdom in this area At present, nearly all households use LPG. Only some households use pits In the past, there was sharing of resources and are bio-water and music firewood to cook desserts or some use charcoal (produced by them or Firewood is stored as energy. Social Capital bought) for grilling. The district has become semi-urbanized, and a source of biomass 3. Better community environment
Commitment, reciprocity and collective villagers sold their land to housing projects energy in some Decrease in the use of chemical substance and 396 action: in energy it was not evident, but was Promotion of Community Energy Management houses in pollution. In the past, the community used
evident in other social aspects At present, the Subdistrict Administration Organization has set the Data shows that the wood vinegar but at present, there is no more Participation: seen in agencies such as the biomass energy project in the Three-Year Development Plan of 2013 – percentage of the charcoal production by the community energy fire department, the youth and the elderly 2015. It implemented Community Energy Plannning project in 2007 biomass energy use volunteers and the volunteers for the bio-water Building of community capacity: In the past, many study tours were is very low – less At present, community energy volunteers Community Organizations: the Subdistrict arranged to observe energy-related projects outside the community than 1% of the produce bio water to treat polluted water in Administration Organization, and related Dissemination of local wisdom: In the past, visitors were welcome and overall energy canal organizations such as the Provincial Energy there was demonstration of charcoal production, but at present this is no consumption 4. More self-reliance in the area of energy Office, Department of Hazard Prevention longer practiced. However, local wisdom in other areas is transferred – 2. Biomass Energy Increase in access to energy and decrease in Technology: 200-L drum kilns, high visitors come to observe the project on the elderly Utilization energy shortage, decrease in the dependence efficiency bucket stoves, biodiesel production Utilizing community capital and resources: A few households still use Not many households on outside energy sources (for households that machines and other technologies like the solar wood as firewood or for charcoal production in the community use firewood and charcoal) energy stove and gas cooking cover Cooperative Network Development: Only the network has been formed produce and use of youth and the elderly. An energy network cannot be clearly seen charcoal and firewood as fuel
Figure 4.21 Summary of the Study of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province 397
4.4.2 Models of Community Energy Management for Energy Security Based on the results of the study, the researcher has formulated models of community energy management for energy security. The following models are as follow: 4.4.2.1 Models of community energy management for energy security in the communities that did not receive any award under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” Figure 4.22 shows the community energy management models for energy security in communities that did not receive any rewards under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of “Sufficiency Economy”. Community capital and reources requires the following: 1) Natural capital refers to biomass that will be used in community enegy management which must be adequate to meet the demand. 2) Financial/ economic capital requires community organizations to set a budget for energy work. This also includes the households’ funds. 3) Human capital refers to knowledge of biomass energy, the ability to put knowledge into practice and disseminate this knowledge and applying it the daily life by the households. 4) Social capital refers to commitment. For example, public kilns for public use built by the Subdistrict Administration Organization reflect its intention in supporting biomass energy use. Furthermore, social capital refers to dependence on one another, collective action and community participation. 5) Community organizations and other organizations concerned must provide support to the community directly or in collaboration with other agencies. 6) The use of technology must be demonstrated. Furthermore, support is required to ensure that the needs of the community with regards to technology are met. Natural capital in the management of community energy is wood and animal droppings used in the households to produce biomass energy. Financial/ economic capital is use for carrying out various activities such as purchasing new energy technology and funding various energy-related projects. Human capital is used in managing community energy by those involved in community energy projects – members of household that produce and use of biomass energy and community 398 leaders that support the production and utilization of biomass energy. Also, human capital include officials of the local organization who participate in various energy activities. Social capital consists of commitment or intention of organizations concerned in creating biomass energy in the community. An example is the Subdistrict Administration Organization’s initiative in building public kilns. This is seen as a determination to creating biomass energy in the community. Reciprocity occur between households in the production and community energy use such as lending kilns to neighbors, sharing of charcoal and kilns, etc. Cooperation occurs in various energy-related activities such as building the subdistrict learning center to provide knowledge about energy and in participating in managing the commutity energy from the start of the project as well as participating in energy-related activities where the community people can work together. The Subdistrict Administration Organization or Subdistrict Municipality must respond to the needs of the community, which includes community energy management. Funds come from the community organizations and other agencies. Biomass energy technology is adopted by the community in the production and utilization of biomass energy. Futhermore, support for the community energy management consists of 5 dimensions: 1) Setting a community energy plan by the Subdistrict Administration Organization or the Subdistrict Municipality. In the past, these organization, in collaboration with the Provincial Energy Office, set the Community Energy Plan. 2) Community capacity has been built by providing knowledge and training to community people, taking observation tours, granting scholarships to government officials and producing multiplier experts and community energy volunteers in order to implement the community energy project. 3) Local knowledge of energy is transferred by experts or through the learning center or among villagers. The youth are educated to see the value of energy. Local wisdom is disseminated from generation to generation in the household. 4) Using community capital and resources which refers to using natural capital, i.e. biomass energy, using economic capital, human capital, social capital, community organizations and energy technology in the production and utilization of biomass energy. 5) Cooperative network development within and outside the community requires arranging energy-related 399 activities with the community. This also requires cooperation between groups in the community and energy-related activities outside the community along with learning centers that supports the outside network on energy. Community energy management of the production and utilization of biomass energy will lead to success in management, which consists of 2 parts: output and outcome. The output includes the amount of biomass fuel production and biomass energy utilization. The outcome is energy security which consists of 4 parts: 1) Better community economy – this is shown in decrease of the energy cost of the community, increase in employment, and increase in biomass energy production and in income. 2) Better social life in the community. This is shown in the increase in community participation on energy-related activities, acceptance of views on energy, sharing/exchanging of community resource/energy. 3) Better environment of the community can be seen form decrease in pollution and chemical use. (4) More self- reliance in the area of energy – this refers to the increase in access to energy, decrease in the energy shortage and decrease in dependence on energy from outside sources. The results of the field research and the results of the study of models in the community energy management for energy security in the case of communities that did not receive awards under the project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” are as follow:
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management Natural capital Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization 1. Biomass Fuel Production Outcome - Sufficiency of natural capital of Biomass Energy (firewood, charcoal, biomass) Energy Security Financial / Economic Capital 1) Producing and using charcoal as fuel for household cooking Better Community Economy - Budget planning for energy 2) Using wood as fuel for household cooking 2. Biomass Energy Utilization - Decrease in the energy cost of the community - Funding and budget allocation for 3) Production and utilization of biogas made from animal - Increase in employment the energy project droppings as fuel for household cooking - Increase in income - Funding for the energy project Promotion of Community Energy Management - Increase in community products - Household funds 1) Carrying out community energy planning Better Social Life in the Community Human capital I. Setting the strategic plan and development Plan - Increase in community participation in the area of - Knowledge of biomass energy II. Setting the Three- Year Development Plan energy - Practical ability and ability to pass III. Setting the action plan - Increase in acceptance of energy views on the knowledge of energy IV. Setting the community energy plan - Increase in sharing/exchanging of - Practice in daily life 2) Community Capacity Building knowledge/community resources - Leaders as role models I. Providing knowledge and training on energy for Better Community Environment - local knowledge/wisdom the community - Reduction of pollution Social Capital II. Taking study tours to observe energy projects in - Decrease in the use of chemicals - Commitments: building public other communities More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy kilns III. Educational support - Increase in the access to energy - Reciprocity IV. Producing multiplier experts and community - Reduction energy shortage - Collective action energy volunteers - Lowering the dependence on energy from outside - Participation 3) Dissemination of local wisdom of energy sources Community Organizations and I. Dissemination by experts
Related Organizations II. Dissemination through the learning center 400 - Direct support to the community in III. Dissemination among villagers the area of energy IV. Educating youth about energy - Support of the energy project along V. Dissemination of local wisdom from generation with other agencies to generation Technology 4) Utilizing community resources and community capital - Demonstration on how to use I. Utilizing natural capital technology II. Utilizing financial / economic capital - Support of technology for the III. Utilizing human capital community IV. Utilizing social capital - Sufficient amount of technology V. Utilizing community organizations VI. Utilizing energy technology 5) Cooperative Network Development within and outside the community I. Arranging cooperative activities within the community II. Cooperation between groups within the community III. Arranging energy-related activities in collaboration with other community IV. Establishing the learning center to accommodate the network from outside the community Figure 4.22 Model of Community Energy Management for energy security in the case of communities that did not receive any award under the Project 401
4.4.2.2 Models of Community Energy Management for Energy Security in Communities that Received Awards under the Project on “Community Energy Planning 80 by Individual Communities in Responce to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” In the case of communities that received awards under the project, there are additional important dimensions of each factor that cannot be found in communities that did not receive awards. With regard to natural capital, an important dimension is growing trees. It is necessary to grow trees to replace trees that are cut. Thus, it is necessary that there are campaigns on growing trees in the community in order to create awareness of natural rehabilitation. Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province has a campaign for growing trees, “One Tree, One Person” in order to conserve and rehabilitate the natural environment. Another dimension of natural capital that is important is the diversity of used biomass in the community which affects the use of biomass as fuel in the production of biomass energy. In Nachumhet Subdistrict, diversified biomass such as pig, cow and chicken droppings are used for biomass energy production. Financial/economic capital in communities that received awards, has different important dimensions from the communities that did not receive awards. That is, there is large investment of the households in the former communities. This assists the increase of community production. Not only does the production increase, but households can also share and sell biomass energy, resulting an increase of income from it. This conclusion comes from the data of Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province, where some households have invested in production and selling charcoal, this assists in increase of biomass energy in the community. Some important subdimensions of community organizations and other organizations concerned are 1) Number of supporting agencies. If many agencies support the community, it will have more resources for operation. Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province, have received support from many agencies in the implementation of projects. For instance, “One Rai, One Hundred Thousand Baht” has been supported by the Thai Chamber of Commerce of Phrae Province, Department of Skill Development, and the Department of Livestock Development, 402
Department of Agriculture and Cooperative of Phrae Province and other agencies. 2) Support form the private sector. In community development, the private sector can provide support and assistance to community projects. In Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province, Asia Honda Motors Company Limited has given a solar energy oven in the project, “Creative School Outstanding Environment to Honor the King” in 2007. Under the concept of following the Father’s steps. The oven is located at the Wat-Kuan Nimit Sila School. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province, the Cement Thai Foundation, SCG Group, and the Thai Industrial Caramic Company Limit have given biogas fermentation tank to Moo 6 at Kho Sai Subdistrict in the project, “Conservation of the Community Environment with Biogas Fermentation Tanks”. One important dimensions of technology is development which refers to the community developing its technology, so that it becomes more efficient, which may in turn increase production and quality. In Moo 4, Nachumhet Subdistrict, there is development of stove technology called Nachumhet firewood stoves by Khun Fuern Kaewpitak, Vice President of Alternative Energy Trang Province. He is also a subdistrict trainer and a former member of the Subdistrict trainer and a former member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization. In Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province, the 200-L drum kiln has been developed in a way that the smoke from it no longer disturbs people in the community and that, it produces more wood vinegar, nearly doubling the amount it usually produces. Lastly, the grilling stoves have been developed. Originally, there was no container for dripping oil and usually the oil will drip directly into the coal, crating smoke that will be mixed with the food on the grill which may be hazardous for the consumer in such a way that it can cause cancer. The new grilling stove has been designed so that the oil will not drip onto the charcoal. Another important dimension of technology is the diversity of technology within the community that creates learning opportunity for people within and outside the community. There is more opportunity for developing various technologies. In Nachumhet Subdistrict, many diversified technologies have been developed, such as the 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, large-sized baking ovens, earth mound pits, high efficiency bucket stoves, economic stoves, firewood stoves, biogas 403 stoves and biogas fermentation tanks, garbage furnaces, solar-cell drying shed, solar energy stoves, hydro-power electricity plant, and fan ventilation with wind energy. In Mailai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province, there are several types of technology such as 100-L drum kilns, 200-L drum kilns, earth kilns, high efficiency bucket stoves, firewood stoves, water pumping bicycles, and solar-cell electricity at the sports ground. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province, energy technologies are 200 liter horizontal kilns, earth kilns, earth mound pits, biogas stoves, economic stoves, high efficiency bucket stoves, and solar-cell overs. Moreover, in the case of community energy management models of the communities that received rewards, there are management of other things such as development of community products which cannot be found in the models of communities that did not receive any award. The development of community products that are derived from biomass create interest in the products. These products were already in place during the beginning stage of the project such as burning fruits in order to produce charcoal shaped fruits, which was used for absorbing odor. The field research reveals that only a few communities still develop community products. At the learning center in Mailai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province where there are products such as fruit charcoal and wood vinegar, etc. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province, community products developed are charcoal fruits in woven baskets. The basket comes from the weaving group in the community. The development of community products assists in increased use of biomass energy. With regard to community energy management in the production and utilization of biomass, the model of community energy management for energy security of the communities that received rewards, have an additional operations that cannot be formed in the models of the communities that did not receive awards that is, the former produce and use of biodiesel made from used vegetable oil. In Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province, some households produce biodiesel from used vegetable oil and have become a learning center for visitors who want to observe the production. This assists in further development of community energy.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Management Natural capital Community Energy Management: Production and Utilization 1. Biomass Fuel Outcome - Sufficiency of natural capital of Biomass Energy production Energy Security - Growing trees (Wangkhaem Subdistrict) 1) Producing and using charcoal as fuel for household cooking ( wood, charcoal, biogas) Better Community Economy - Using of diversity of natural capital (animal 2) Using wood as fuel for household cooking - Decrease in the energy cost of the dropping used in biogas production) in the 3) Production and utilization of biogas made from animal 2. Biomass Energy community community (Nachumhet Subdistrict) droppings as fuel for household cooking Utilization - Increase in employment Financial / economic capital 4) Production of bio-diesel from used vegetable oil - Increase in income - Energy budget planning (Wangkhaem Subdistrict) - Increase in community products - Fund and budget allocation for energy projects Promotion of Community Energy Management Better Social Life in the Community - Energy funds 1) Setting community energy plan - Increase in community participation in - Households funds I. Strategic plan and development the area of energy -Large scale investment (Suansom Subdistrict) II. Three year Plan - Increase in acceptance of energy views Human capital III. Action Plan - Increase in sharing/exchanging of - Knowledge of biomass energy IV. Community Energy Plan knowledge/community resources - Practical ability and dissemination of 2) Community Capacity Building Better Community Environment knowledge I. Providing knowledge and training about energy - Reduction of pollution - Practice in daily life in the community - Decrease in the use of chemicals - Leaders as role models II. Study tours to observe energy-related activities More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy - Local knowledge/wisdom in other communities - Increase in the access to energy Social Capital III. Educational support - Reduction energy shortage - Commitments: building public kilns IV. Producing multiplier experts and training - Lowering the dependence on energy - Reciprocity community energy volunteers from outside sources 404 - Collective action 3) Diseemination of local knowledge on energy - Participation I. Dissemination by experts Community organizations and other related II. Dissemination through learning center organizations III. Dissemination among villagers - Direct support to the community in the area of IV. Educating youth about energy energy V. Transferring of local wisdom from generation to - Support in the area of energy in collaboration generation with other agencies 4) Utilizing community resources and capital - Number of support agencies (Mailai I. Utilizing natural capital Subdistrict) II. Utilizing financial/ economy capital - Support from the Private Sector (Nachumhet III. Utilizing human capital Subdistrict, Kho Sai Subdistrict) IV. Utilizing social capital Technology V. Utilizing community organizations - Demonstration on how to use technology VI. Utilizing energy technology - Support of technology for the community 5) Cooperative Network Development within and outside - Sufficient amount of technology the community -Technological development (Nachumhet I. Cooperative activities within the community Subdistrict, Maelai Subdistrict) II. Cooperation between groups within the - Diversity of technology (Nachumhet community energy related Subdistrict, Maelai Subdistrict, Kho Sai III. Activities outside the community Subdistrict) IV. Learning center supporting the network outside the community Other additional management issues - Development of community product (Maelai Subdistrict, Kho Sai Subdistrict) Figure 4.23 Model in Community Energy Management for energy security in the case of communities that received an award under the Project 405
4.4.3 Problems and Obstacles in Community Energy Management In managing community energy in the community, each community has been faced with similar problems, although some are different. The problems and obstacles can be summarized as follows: 1. One a similar problem is that 200-L drum kilns broke down after being used for more than 5 years. One reason for this was the lack of ability to maintain the kilns. Another reason is the kilns were not keep under roof. 2. There is a problem of charcoal production in urban areas because it has negative impact on nearby households. In Moo 7 Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province, which is situated upwind, charcoal production there affected nearby areas and there were complaints about the smell and smoke by the villagers. Some communities are semi-urbanized and houses ine housing projects have been close to each other, so these households cannot produce charcoal, as a result there has been decrease in biomass energy use. 3. Lack of continuous support for community energy management is another problem. The community energy management cannot be expanded, especially after the project of the Ministry of Energy has ended. The Subdistrict Administration Organization do not set any energy plan or request for funding for further implementing the biomass energy projects. This being the case, the work that has been done before in the area of energy was not continued. 4. The problem of burning away the branches is identified as an obstacle to community energy management. The field research, reveals that some communities burned away branches on the side of the road. This shows the lack of awareness or understanding about the importance of tree twigs and branches. The Community Energy Planning project was aimed at raising people’s awareness of this problem. After the project ended, people resumed burning twigs and branches of trees which should be used to make charcoal. 5. Biogas stoves do not produce energy for a long time. The field research, reveals that communities that use biogas from animal dropping have encountered this problem. Biogas can be used for only 15 minutes if vertical biogas tanks are used. However, only a few households have encountered this problem. 406
6. The problem of deterioration of biogas fermentation tanks due to its long use (Kamphaeng Phet Province). Biogas fermentation tanks were broken and households cannot use them any more. This gives rise to decrease in community biomass energy use. 7. Wood used as raw material is limited. The interviews with community leaders of Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province, reveal that the wood in the community is scarce. This is the reason why households cannot use wood as fuel. 8. The problem of the feasibility of doing animal farming in order to produce biomass energy. In Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province, there is a problem of smoke from the area in a valley. The community leaders have have attempted to solve this problem along with supporting the use of various forms of energy. However, this problem still goes on and requires further research and solution. 9. The problem about the lack of leadership to implement the community energy project. At the beginning of implementing the Community Energy Planning project by the subdistricts, there were steps to be taken as specified by the Ministry of Energy. But after the project ended, some subdistricts did not continue community energy management, because of lack of leadership to manage community energy.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions and Discussion
The qualitative study entitled, “A Community Energy Management Model and Factors Contributing to Success in Energy Security of the Project on Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” has the following objectives: 1) To investigate community capital and resources used for community energy management; 2) To examine community energy management and promotion as well as related problems and obstacles; 3) To find out the output and outcome of success in community energy management for energy security; 4) To build a model of community energy management for energy security and make policy implications for promoting community energy management for energy security. Related literature, documents and research were review to collect the data along with the field research. Twelve communities under the study were divided into 2 main groups as follows: 1) Communities that won an award under the Community Energy Planning project by 80 individual communities (1) Nachumhet Subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang Province (2) Maelai Subdistrict in Muang District, Phrae Province (3) Kho Sai Subdistrict in Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province (4) Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict in Muang District, Trat Province (5) Wangkhaem Subdistrict in Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province (6) Suansom Subdistrict in Ban Paew District,
Samut Sakohn Province 408
2) Communities that did not won any award under the Community Energy Planning project by 80 individual communities (1) Sri Phum Subdistrict in Krasung District, Buriram Province (2) Chumpol Subdistrict in Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province (3) Na Wieng Subdistrict in Sai Mun District, Yasothorn Province (4) Nongfag Subdistrict in Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province (5) Napho Subdistrict in Sawee District, Chumphon Province (6) Bang Si Thong Subdistrict in Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province The findings from the 12 communities can be summarized as follows: Six factors or community capital and resources of the 12 communities in the community energy management for energy security have basic subdimensions (found in both awarded and unawarded communities). The addition subdimensions however, are found only in awarded communities as follows: Natural Capital found in this study are wood, animal droppings and used vegetable oil. They were important raw materials for biomass production. The basic subdimension of the natural capital is adequacy of natural capital. The model of community energy management for energy security of unawarded communities need additional subdimensions such as the use of diversified biomass, a campaign for tree growing. In the models of community energy management for energy security of awarded communities, natural capital is an important factor. This corresponds with the potential and diffusion theory by Sanya Sanyawiwat. The researcher agrees that natural capital is the most important factor. The findings supports the community energy management of the Chinese community, which aimed to promote the use of biomass energy from natural capital, especially wood. The findings also correspond with the energy management scheme in the Indian community which aimed to promote the use of biomass energy from natural capital, and the use of stoves and biogas. Financial and Economic Capital is a major factor in buying material for production and use of biomass energy such as the purchase of the 200-L drum kilns or fermentation technology for biogas production, etc. Financial and economic capital has basic subdimensions such as energy budget planning, budget allocation, and energy capital of the household. The models of community energy management for 409 energy security of unawarded communities need additional subdimensions such as large scale investment. Human Capital is a key factor as producers and users of biomass energy. Human capital consists of administrators of local administrative organization, community leaders, trainers and stakeholders. The basic subdimensions of human capital are knowledge about biomass energy, the ability to put knowledge into practice in daily life, the role model of community leaders and local wisdom. All are found in the models of the community energy management for energy security in awarded and unawarded communities. Moreover, the fact that human capital is important corresponds with the potential and diffusion theory by Sanya Sanyawiwat (1983) and Kovit Pungngam (2010). Social Capital is a key factor that has caused the implementation and collaboration in the management of community energy. Social capital must have basic subdimensions such as commitment, reciprocity, collective action and participation in the models of the management for energy security in awarded and unawarded communities. The fact that social capital is key factor corresponds with the management of community energy in Scotland. Social capital in Thailand is based on collective action and participation on energy activities while social capital in Scotland focused on mutual trust of the members of the cooperative. Community Organizations and Other relevant Organizations are an important factor because they have a major role in promoting and supporting community energy management. Community Organizations and other relevant organizations must have basic dimensions, that is direct; energy support to energy management and energy support in cooperation with other agencies. The models of community energy management for energy security in unawarded communities must have additional subdimenstions, i.e. support from the private sector and the number of supporting agencies. The models of community energy management for energy security of awarded communities include community organizations and other related agencies as a key factor. This finding corresponds with the potential and diffusion theory by Sanya Sanyawiwat. The fact that natural capital is the most important factor corresponds with the energy management in Canada that focused on the importance of organizations both within and outside the community both government and private sectors in integrated management of community 410 energy to find solutions. The finding also corresponds with the energy management of communities in China and India that focus on the collaboration of internal organizations and with the Ministry of Energy which is outside the community. Biomass Energy Technology and Other types of Technology are an important factor that have been used for production and utilization of biomass energy. Biomass energy technology must have basic subdimensions, such as the demonstration of the technology, technological support of the community and adequate technology in the models of community energy management for energy security of unawarded communities that needs the additional subdimensions such as a variety of technology and technological development, which the latter is the indicators for the sustainability of community energy plan (according to the report of Community Energy Plan 2008) of the models of the management for energy security of awarded community. From six factors or community capital and resources, the researcher summarized the key factors that have caused the continuity in the energy management for the community. These factors can be grouped into internal and external factors. The internal factors are 1) natural capital which is an input for production and biomass energy use particularly wood; 2) human capital is the producer and user of biomass energy, the community resource management team, and local wisdom within and outside the community; 3) community organizations, particularly the Subdistrict Municipality or Subdistrict Administration Organization that play an important role in the overall management of community energy. It defines and manages energy projects under its plan and through the learning centers in the community. One important external factor is organizations outside community, particularly the agencies that directly promote the community energy project, i.e., the Provincial Energy Office and other organizations outside community that have supported the community energy projects. The findings about the unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project suggest that the important internal factors in the management of community energy within districts are 1) natural capital within the community which serves as input in the production process and use of biomass energy. 2) human capital which refers to the producers and users of biomass energy. 411
To conclude, the key factors in the management of community energy, especially community biomass, that distinguish award from unawarded communities, are the community organizations and other organizations within and outside the community that promote the management of community energy by providing the budget for carrying out the community energy plan. These organizations are the Subdistrict Municipality or Subdistrict Administration Organization (according to the annual report of Community Energy Planning project in 2008). The support by these organizations reflects the sustainability of the community energy plan. The management of the learning center for community energy and the management of community energy have continued (The Learning Center is one of the indicators of the sustainability of the community energy plan, according to the annual operational report of community energy plan year 2008). The promotion of community energy by other organizations may be a combination of the energy matter with other matters – agriculture and occupation, for example. The differences in these matters indicate the differences between awarded and unawarded ones.
Table 5.1 Summary of the Key Factors in the Management of Energy for Community
Unawarded Factors Awarded Communities Communities Internal factors Natural capital Natural capital Human capital Human capital Organizations within communities External factors Organizations outside communities Current Biomass energy production and utilization within Biomass energy situation households production and utilization within households* The community energy has been driven by the ** management of the community learning center, identification and management of energy projects through the plan of the municipality or district administrative organizations and the support of community energy from various agencies 412
Note: * The production and utilization of biomass energy in the households of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai, Nonthaburi has a low percentage.
** In some unawarded communities such as Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province, Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province, and Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province, planning of community energy projects in Subdistrict Municipalities or Subdistrict administration organizations are currently existing.
Results of the studies on the community energy management focusing on biomass energy within 12 communities found similarities and differences of community energy management. The summary of the studies on the community energy management in terms of production and utilization of biomass energy within 12 communities which is the overview of community energy management are as follow: Prior to 2007, the main energy management in most communities was electricity. Electricity was developed along with other public utilities to meet the basic needs of the residents. In 2007, the studied communities joined the project on “Community Energy Planning in Response to the Royal Initiatives of Sufficiency Economy” in order to commemorate His Majesty the King. The project consisted of 10 operational steps: (1) creation of a common understanding of the community (2) team building of community energy groups (3) data collection about energy production and utilization within the area (4) data processing to identify the status of energy (5) acceptance of the energy information by the community (6) field study of sustainable energy technologies. All communities are encouraged to use 200-L drum kilns. After taking study tours, local people have common awareness, interest and evaluation of innovation. If a 200-L drum kilns is better than old technologies, it will be put on trial to see if it should be adopted which corresponds to the theory of innovation diffusion by Roger. (7) holding a meeting to brainstorm ideas to draft the community energy plan (8) holding a public hearing about the draft to perfect the community energy plan (9) implementing the community energy plan (10) summarization of the lessens from collaboration. These 10 steps were implemented in the first year of joining the community energy planning project and subsequent projects were carried out for 3 more years. 413
In the second year, the community energy plan will be reviewed based on the collected data. The focus is on generating employment within the community and creating local learning programs by inculcating the knowledge of energy into the educational curriculum. Moreover, the community can exchange the knowledge of energy and can review the community energy work through seminars and meetings. In the third year, the focus is building experts in community energy planning and experts in renewable energy technology within the community. In the fourth year, all the management will be transferred to the community energy work group. After the end of implementation of the community energy planning project, some local people still use 200-L drum kilns to get tar-free charcoal. This finding confirms the innovative diffusion theory by Roger. Tar-free charcoal has a relative advantage. Its production is less complex so it is suitable for households to make charcoal themselves a little bit at a time (Triability) and easily understood and observed (Observability). However,when 200-L drum kilns broke down, people turned back to use the traditional method. Some communities have sustainable community energy management though the learning center. The awarded communities still encourage people to use community energy. One community is Nachumhet subdistrict in Yantakhao District, Trang Province which is now building learning centers for energy. Also, water sources in the community have been used to generate electricity. The management of community energy is now implemented in parallel with solving the other major problems of the community. For example, Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province has solve the problem of smog within the subdistrict and Moo 7 of Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province handles the problem of wind direction. Most households are turning to use firewood as a fuel instead of charcoal to avoid burning wood to get charcoal. Another important management of community energy is that households collect biomass such as wood from the orchards, animal dropping from livestock farms to produce biomass energy (charcoal from wood, biogas from animal dung). To sum up, the differences in community energy management between awarded and unawarded communities are: the awarded communities have continued 414 to produce and use biomass energy by organizations’ promotion within and outside the community. The learning center about community energy has helped to build the sustainability of the implementation of community energy plan. The promotion of community energy of other organizations may come with promotion in other matters such as agriculture and occupations. The local experts in community energy also disseminate the knowledge about community energy to visitors. On the other hand, most of the communities that did not win any award focus mainly on production and utilization of biomass energy at the household level. Based on the field study, the researcher concluded that the promotion of the community energy management as follow:
5.1.1 Energy Planning At present, Subdistrict Municipality or Subdistrict Administration Organization have the strategic plan, the three-year development Plan and the action plan. They allow community members to participate in setting these plans (the energy plan indicates the sustainability of community energy plan, according to the annual operational report of community energy plan in 2008). However, some unawarded communities under the Community Energy planning project do not set an energy project in the three-year development plan. In the past, the studied communities have implemented the energy plan in collaboration with the provincial energy office. The researcher found that the community energy plan of each nation differs in the focus on the type of energy to be promoted. For example, Brazil has promoted the use of solar energy, while China and India have promoted the use of biomass energy in the community.
5.1.2 Building of Community Energy Capacity Community energy capacity in both awarded and unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project has been built by educating the community members such as community energy volunteers (Or Sor Por Nor), community energy volunteers is an indicators of the sustainability of the community energy plan according to the annual operational report of community energy plan in 2008. Even village health volunteers (Aor Sor Mor) have a major role in the management of 415 community energy. People are encouraged to welcome visitors to the project, to undergo training. Scholarship are granted to employees or officials of government agencies related with energy development. People are to save energy and so on. Promotion of building community energy capacity aimed to develop human resources within the community. However, from the literature review of the community energy management in China in terms of building community capacity, it was found that China was successful in encouraging Chinese communities to produce and use biomass energy and the use of improved biomass producing kilns. In Brazil, Communities are encouraged to use solar energy technology including the GIS development to increase the capacity of community in community energy management.
5.1.3 Transfer of Local Wisdom in the Area of Energy Local wisdom about energy has been transferred through learning centers by the owners of the learning centers. Some subdistricts have set up learning centers at the houses of those who have knowledge about energy. The energy expert in the community or subdistrict also disseminate local wisdom. Moreover, there is transfer of local wisdom among villagers, especially how to make charcoal. The researcher found that transfer local wisdom in community energy management in Thailand was different from that in other countries.
5.1.4 Utilization of Community Capital and Resources 1) The awarded and unawarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project are similar in utilization of community capital and resources. Both awarded and unawarded communities have used natural capital such as charcoal (made from wood) and biogas (from biomass fermentation). Moreover, the researcher also found that some awarded communities such as Wangkhaem subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province have made biodiesel (for low capacity engines) from used vegetable oil. 2) The utilization of Financial/ economic capital can be seen from the budget or capital allocated by different agencies for purchase of additional kilns, construction of public charcoal kilns, and purchase and maintenance of energy technology at learning centers, etc. 416
3) The utilization of human capital can be seen from the households’ energy management, mutual benefits from doing community activities, and transfer of local wisdom to community members and visitors from outside the community. 4) The utilization of social capital consists of commitment, reciprocity, collective action and participation. The fact that subdistrict administration organization built public charcoal kilns for common use reflects its commitment to promote community energy management. The researcher perceived this was the commitment. Interdependence or reciprocity among the members of community can be seen from local people’s helping neighbors in the construction of earth kilns and give wood to others. They participate and work together in community energy activities. 5) The community has received a budget or things that the community can utilize from other community organizations and related organizations. Also, households get technology from related agencies for productivity within the households or the community.
5.1.5 Development of Cooperative Networks Within and Outside the Community There is development of cooperative networks inside and outside the community (both awarded and unawarded communities): Most communities that won an award have some guidelines for development. People in the community formed groups to do activities together. An example is the integrated meetings in Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province. There was a development of cooperative networks within communities that did not win an award, like the awarded communities. For example, there was collaboration among the subdistrict administration organization, schools, villagers and monks in Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province. Cooperation networks in the area of energy in most of the communities that won an award have been developed with other communities and related agencies. For example, there were integrated meetings of representatives from Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict Administration Organization and the Provincial Energy Office of Trat to find solutions to community problems and to serve community needs. The private sector such as the SCG group has also provided support for biogas production to Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province. 417
Like awarded communities, unawarded communities received cooperation from provincial agencies but in other areas, such as a network of youth and elderly of Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province. The development of collaborative networks for community energy management inside and outside the community in Thailand has similar characteristics to that of Canadian communities. The latter focuses on synergies. Integration Management requires the development of collaborative networks. It is also the case for community energy management in China and India which aims to produce and distribute energy technology to the communities. The researcher found that the awarded communities under the Community Energy Planning project have community energy management in other areas as well. For example, in Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province, community products have been developed, especially charcoal and wood vinegar. So this subdistrict has been visited by many outsiders. In Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province, local people use herbs in the process of charcoal burning to produce good smell. Charcoal is put in baskets to increase its value. (Product from community energy is one of the indicators of the sustainability of community energy plan according to the Annual Report of the results of the Community Energy Plan implementation in 2008). Output from Community Energy Management 1) Biomass fuel production: Biomass fuel production (both awarded and unawarded) have similar output from community energy management – firewood and charcoal. Some communities (both awarded and unawarded) have still produced and use biogas made from dung fermentation. Three awarded communities that have done so are Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province ; Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province ; Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province, have also produced biogas from dung fermentation. An unawarded community that has produced and used biogas is Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province. At present, some awarded communities such as Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province has produced biodiesel from used vegetable oil.
418
2) Utilization of Biomass Energy Many households in the studied communities use biomass, especially wood as firewood and for charcoal production except Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province, wherein a small number of households use biomass energy. Many households in some communities produce and use biogas from the fermentation of animal dungs. There is only one household in Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province, that use biodiesel made from used vegetable oil. Success in Community Energy Management Outcome: The outcome of community energy management is energy security such as a better community economy, social life, environment, and self- reliance in the area of community energy. The details were briefly stated as follows: 1) Better Community Economy Households that use biomass energy gain benefit from biomass energy management in terms of saving their energy cost because they use firewood, charcoal or biogas or biodiesel produced from biomass such as wood, animal dropping and used vegetable oil, respectively. Moreover, the overall economy of the community is better because there is more employment. (Employment is one of the indicators of the sustainability of community energy plan according to the annual report of the results of the community energy plan implementation in 2008). For example, the burning of charcoal can increase the revenue of the members within the community as well. 419
Table 5.2 Number of Households Among 12 Communities Which Main and Extra Job is Burning Charcoal
The number of households who has income
from charcoal burning
s
s s
s
-
hold s
s
-
-
Item Item
hold
-
munity name
hold
-
-
household household
house
ation ation
The The number of % from visited
charcoal charcoal
that that burn
Extra job Extra
% % house
Com
household that burn
household
house
Main occup
charcoal from visited
The The number of visited
hold hold that burn
% % house
% % from visited % from visited
1 Nachumhet 40 18 45 - - - 5 13 28 2 Maelai 34 12 35 - - - 4 12 33 3 Kho Sai 29 24 83 - - - 5 17 21 Hunag Nam 4 26 23 88 - - - 10 38 43 Khao 5 Wangkhaem 51 39 76 3 6 8 10 20 26 6 Suansom 22 7 32 1 5 14 1 5 14 7 Sri Phum 22 18 82 - - - 3 14 17 8 Chumpol 73 35 48 - - - 5 7 14 9 Na Wieng 40 34 85 - - - 11 28 32 10 Nongfag 33 9 27 - - - 3 9 33 11 Napho 48 19 40 1 2 5 2 4 11 12 Bang Si Thong 40 1 3 ------Total 458 239 52 5 1 2 59 13 25
Table 5.2 shows the total number of 458 visited households. The number of households that produce charcoal is 239 or 52% of the visited households. The households that produce charcoal as the primary occupation is 5 or 1% of visited households (or 2% of the total households that produce charcoal). There is a very low percentage of charcoal production. However, the number of households that take charcoal production as supplementary occupation is 59 or 13% of visited households (or 25% of households that produce charcoal). The researcher considers that this percentage is high. That is households can generate income from charcoal production for themselves, which contributes to better community economy 2) Better Social Life in the Community Another outcome of energy security is better social life. The majority of studied communities have shared their resources and energy. Many households have shared their charcoal or kilns with their neighbors. Some communities, such as Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Ban Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province, stated that 420 happened in the past. In Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province, there is sharing of electricity generated from water resources in the community. There is also energy knowledge sharing in the community, particularly the knowledge about the building of charcoal kilns or earth kilns. This sharing of knowledge and assisting each other help in the creation of social interdependence, hospitality and support of each other in the society. The improved social life also results from more participation. For example, in Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province, there is social improvement in terms of energy. The members of the community have worked closer, have learned more about energy, and have shared their efforts to construct learning centers. Local People accept new ideas more than before. When energy problems occur, there is cooperation among local people join together to solve the problems. They accept other people’s ideas. For example, Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province experienced a problem of smog due to waste burning. The subdistrict does not prohibit villagers from producing charcoal but ask them to do so in the orchard instead by using 200-L drum kilns. This is an example of acceptance of opinions among members within the community. 3) Better Environment of the Community A number of households have produced and used charcoal. Some have collected wood vinegar and produced biogas by animal dung fermentation. The details are as follows: 421
Table 5.3 Number of Households within 12 Studied Community that Used Charcoal Burning, Stored Wood Vinegar, and Produce Biogas from Droppings
Fermentation
s
s s s s
s
for for
name name
that burn burn that
s
No.
Biogas
droppings
charcoal
Production Production
community community
Community
visited household visited
used used
The number of visited visited of number The
that burn charcoal from from charcoal burn that % household
that stored wood vinegar vinegar wood that stored
The number of household household of number The
% from visited household visited % from household visited % from household of number The household visited % from The number of household of number The
1 Nachumhet 40 18 45 4 10 22 3 8
2 Maelai 34 12 35 1 3 8 - - 3 Kho Sai 29 24 83 4 14 17 5 17 Hunag Nam 4 26 23 88 5 19 22 - - Khao 5 Wangkhaem 51 39 76 8 16 21 4 8 6 Suansom 22 7 32 4 18 57 - - 7 Sri Phum 22 18 82 4 18 22 - - 8 Chumpol 73 35 48 5 7 14 - - 9 Na Wieng 40 34 85 4 10 12 - -
10 Nongfag 33 9 27 2 6 22 - -
11 Napho 48 19 40 3 6 16 3 6 Bang Si 12 40 1 3 - - - - - Thong Total 458 239 52 44 10 18 15 3
Of all 458 households, 12 in communities, the researcher visited 239 households or 52% produce charcoal. This is a high percentage. The subdistricts that have a higher percentage of households that produce charcoal (more than 75%) are Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing buri Province; Huang Nam Khao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province; Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province; Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buriram Province and Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province. The member of household that use wood vinegar as pesticide is 44 households (or 10% of visited households). This is still low.
422
The households that also collect wood vinegar from charcoal production is 18% of those that produce charcoal. The percentage is still relatively small. This reflects that they do not see the importance of the byproduct from charcoal production, or they may not realize the importance of environmental conservation or they may not know the benefit of wood vinegar. The households have produced charcoal by using other kinds of kilns than 200-L drum kilns, such as earth kilns, earth mound pits; that is why there is a low percentage of households that produce wood vinegar. The number of households that have used biogas is 15 out of 458 visited households, which accounts for 3%, representing a very small percentage. The benefit of reducing bad smell from animal dropping cannot be closely seen. 4) More Self-reliance in the Area of Energy Many communities are self-reliant because they use biomass, particularly wood, animal dropping and used vegetable oil. The households feel that using biomass energy helps them to easily access energy, reduce the energy shortage and reduce their dependence on LPG. 423
Table 5.4 Number of Households 12 Communities Classified by Type of Energy
Consumed
s s s s s
s
hold hold hold hold hold
hold
- - - - -
-
s s s
wood
-
hold hold hold
ted
i
- - -
s
s
of vis
ty ty name
hold
hold
-
-
biomass fuel
using only LPG
No,
sited house
using only charcoal
using only fire
using various kinds of
house
house
The The number of house The number of house The number of house The number of house The number of house
using biomass fuel and LPG
Communi
The The number
% % from number of visited
% % from vi % from visited house % from visited house
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) % % from number of visited house
1 Nachumhet 40 24 60 3 8 5 13 1 3 7 18
2 Maelai 34 30 88 0 0 0 0 1 3 3 9
3 Kho Sai 29 13 45 4 14 8 28 0 0 4 14
Hunag Nam 4 26 14 54 1 4 10 38 0 0 1 4 Khao
5 Wangkhaem 51 37 73 2 4 11 22 0 0 1 2
6 Suansom 22 12 55 0 0 2 9 0 0 8 36
7 Sri Phum 22 17 77 5 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Chumpol 73 41 56 9 12 13 18 0 0 10 14
9 Na Wieng 40 20 50 13 33 6 15 0 0 1 3
10 Nongfag 33 30 91 0 0 0 0 2 6 1 3
11 Napho 48 34 71 1 2 4 8 0 0 9 19
12 Bang Si Thong 40 13 33 0 0 1 3 0 0 26 65
Total 458 285 62 38 8 60 13 4 1 71 16
The researcher visited 458 households in 12 communities and found that 285 households or 62% use biomass fuel and LPG. This percentage is high. Some households use either biomass energy or LPG as the main fuel. Still, some use several types of fuels. It can be said that biomass fuels have a moderate role in the way of life of the people, especial for cooking. There are 38 households or 8% of the visited households that have used many kinds of biomass fuel. There are 60 households or 13% of the visited households that have used charcoal as biomass fuel. Four households or 1% of the visited households have used firewood as biomass fuel. 424
When added together (1) + (2) + (3) + (4) the number of households that use biomass fuels and LPG as the main or the supplementary fuel is 387 or 84% of visited households. The percentage is high. The households that use only biomass fuel, either one kind or many kinds of biomass fuel (2)+(3)+(4), is 102 households or 22% of visited households .The number of households using only LPG is 71 households or 16% of the visited households. It is concluded that the biomass fuels play a vital role as main and supplementary fuel of the households. Most biomass used in households is wood from orchards or rice fields that they could find. The researcher suggests that communities can be self-reliant if they themselves produce and use biomass fuel. The models of the community energy management for energy security in both awarded and unawarded communities include community capital and resources which have basic dimensions that need promotion in the implementation of energy management plan. Others are building the community capacity, dissemination of local wisdom, development of cooperative energy networks. Then the energy security will result in term of better economy, society and environment of the community’s standard of living. Moreover, the self-reliance in the area of energy within the communities will increase. In summary, for the community energy management for energy security under the Community Energy Planning project in Response to the Royal Initiatives of Sufficiency Economy to be successful requires community capital and resources from both inside and outside the community. Both basic and important dimensions and other factors can contribute to successful community energy management for better energy security in the future.
Community Capital and Resources Community Energy Management Output Success in Community Energy Natural capital Community Energy Management: Production 1. Biomass Fuel production Management - Sufficiency of natural capital and Utilization of Biomass Energy ( wood, charcoal, biogas) Outcome Energy Security - Growing trees 1) Producing and using charcoal as fuel for household cooking Better Community Economy - Using of diversity of natural capital 2. Biomass Energy Utilization (animal dropping used in biogas 2) Using wood as fuel for household cooking - Decrease in the energy cost of the
production) in the community 3) Production and utilization of biogas made community Financial / economic capital from animal droppings as fuel for household - Increase in employment - Energy budget planning cooking - Increase in income - Fund and budget allocation for energy 4) Production of bio-diesel from used vegetable - Increase in community products projects oil Better Social Life in the Community - Energy funds Promotion of Community Energy Management - Increase in community participation - Households funds 1) Setting community energy plan in the area of energy
-Large scale investment I. Strategic plan and development - Increase in acceptance of energy 425 views Human capital II. Three year Plan - Knowledge of biomass energy III. Action Plan - Increase in sharing/exchanging of - Practical ability and dissemination of IV. Community Energy Plan knowledge/community resources knowledge 2) Community Capacity Building Better Community Environment - Practice in daily life I. Providing knowledge and training about - Reduction of pollution - Leaders as role models energy in the community - Decrease in the use of chemicals - Local knowledge/wisdom II. Study tours to observe energy-related More Self-Reliance in the Area of Energy Social Capital activities in other communities - Increase in the access to energy - Commitments: building public kilns III. Educational support - Reduction energy shortage - Reciprocity IV. Producing multiplier experts and - Lowering the dependence on energy - Collective action training community energy volunteers from outside sources - Participation
Figure 5.1 Model in Community Energy Management for Energy Security
Community organizations and other 3) Diseemination of local knowledge on related organizations energy - Direct support to the community in the I. Dissemination by experts area of energy II. Dissemination through learning center - Support in the area of energy in III. Dissemination among villagers collaboration with other agencies IV. Educating youth about energy - Number of support agencies V. Transferring of local wisdom from - Support from the Private Sector generation to generation Technology 4) Utilization of community resources and - Demonstration on how to use capital technology I. Utilizing natural capital - Support of technology for the II. Utilizing financial/ economy capital community III. Utilizing human capital - Sufficient amount of technology IV. Utilizing social capital -Technological development V. Utilizing community organizations
426 - Diversity of technology VI. Utilizing energy technology
5) Cooperative Network Development within and outside the community I. Cooperative activities within the community II. Cooperation between groups within the community energy related 5) Cooperative Network Development within and outside the community I. Activities outside the community II. Learning center supporting the network outside the community Additional management issues Development of community product
Figure 5.1 (Continued)
427
5.2 Approaches to Handling Major Problems and Obstacles in Community Energy Management
Based on the findings about the problems and obstacles of community energy management, the researcher has made the following recommendations on the approach to solve them. 5.2.1 To the problem of the decayed 200-L drum kilns, related government agencies in the area should provide initial instructions of how to maintain them when they first give out the kilns. In some instances where charcoal kilns are for public use, the personnel looking after the kiln needs to be properly trained on the knowledge of maintenance. Whenever a household or someone borrows a kiln, the responsible personnel must give him/her instructions of how to use and to maintain it. 5.2.2 In case that households situated in urban communities cannot produce charcoal because this will have an impact on the surrounding area, the researcher recommends that the related government agencies should develop technology like a smokeless charcoal kiln or smokeless charcoal. Furthermore, charcoal should be developed so that it can be easily lit, and utilized by households that are close to each other. This will for households increase the demand for biomass energy. 5.2.3 There should be continuity of Community Development Planning, especially an energy plan. The Three-Year Development Plan of the Subdistrict Municipalities or the Subdistrict Administration Organizations should include energy projects, too. After the Ministry of Energy launched the project of community energy planning in 80 communities in Thailand, the Subdistrict Municipalities or the Subdistrict Administration Organizations that joined more energy projects should be set for continuity and cost-effectiveness. 5.2.4 The problems of government agencies concerned should give importance to the problem of burning waste. They should provide a common ground or an area where villagers can dispose unwanted wood, branches and trees. Households that follow the measures should be given a reward. There should be a campaign to raise awareness of the importance and the benefits of disposing waste properly. 428
5.2.5 Biogas stoves giving out minimum energy. This problem may be a technical problem such as the inadequate amount of animal droppings in the biogas fermentation tank. Besides, the air in the fermented tanks may not be enough to produce biogas. The pipes from the homemade tanks may have cracks or the head plug of the biogas stove may have been clogged or dirty, etc. Therefore, studies should be done to minimize the problems. The community people should be informed about the proper home-use, maintenance and basic repair of the biogas stoves. 5.2.6 The field research reveals that biogas fermentation bags may not work or deteriorate because they are used for a long time. The state agencies concerned should study the problem and its cause in order to identify technical problems. If technological problems exist, then development of the technology is a remedy. But if the problem is due to its natural deterioration, then related agencies should find some way to improve the stoves. This will help achieve the sustainability of planning and implementation of the energy project. 5.2.7 Some countries have a limited amount of wood to be used as raw materials for biomass energy production. Related state agencies should conduct a study to understand the capacity of the community habitat in order to determine which type of trees should be cultivated in the area. Also, effective management of community area is necessary, along with campaigns on growing trees. This is because trees require time to grow before being cut for use. 5.2.8 There is hardly animal raising in some areas and domesticated animals and charcoal production should not be done due to the problem of smog in the atmosphere, community leaders should take action on examining the possibility of raising animal like pigs, cows, chicken, etc. within the community since the animal droppings used to produce biogas. Therefore state agencies concerned need to conduct a feasibility study of the area and others such as zoning the area for farming, management animal droppings, arranging transportation, etc. 5.2.9 The problem of the lack of clear leadership to strengthen the community may come from the lack of continuity in the project implementation and activities related to energy which results in community leaders and villagers lacking the collective consciousness or not seeing the benefits of biomass energy. Therefore, state agencies concerned should appoint community leaders form these who are 429 knowledgeable and have high capacity in terms of energy. They should build facilities for energy management and educating people to see the importance of energy sustainability
5.3 Policy Recommendations
5.3.1 Policy Implications 1) The project on the “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities in Response to the Royal Initiative of Sufficiency Economy” is a large- scale project of the Ministry of Energy which was implemented through regional, provincial and local state agencies throughout Thailand. To implement the project of such magnitude, the Ministry of Energy should integrate the project with the subdistrict’s development plan in order to achieve the highest benefit and efficiency. This will build the continuity of the policy and plans of related agencies at various levels. 2) In implementing the project of the Ministry of Energy and subdistricts (tambols) throughout the country, the Ministry should survey the readiness of subdistricts for implementing its project in order to achieve true benefit and sustainability, especially the personnel that will assist in carrying out the project. As project implementation should be continuous and sustainable and not just limited to a particular duration of time. 3) The ministry, state agencies concerned, and local administrative organizations, should utilize the results of studies conducted by each agency to use as a guideline to set and energy policy. 4) Since this project of the Ministry of Energy was studied, the data should be shared to other organizations to lessen duplicated studies and to save costs. 5) There should be an agreement between various levels of implementing organization from the ministry to the local administrative organizations in order to achieve project sustainability, and effective policies
430
5.3.2 Practical Implications
1) In community energy management for energy security in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy, especially biomass energy management, households use wood available in the community; therefore it is necessary to grow trees to replaced cut trees, to improve production technology and to utilize energy to achieve the highest benefit out of the given coat and community resources, including developing energy output. 2) Although community energy management has been successful because households in many communities produce and utilize biomass energy following the traditional way of life there, the number of households that do so is still small. Therefore, these communities need to receive additional support for community energy management in order for the households to realize the importance of community energy that can replace renewable energy that the country have in a limited quantity. 3) Communities need support and participation from the government, the private and the civil society sectors in and outside the community to enable community energy management for energy security to be sustainable and to continue after the community energy planning project of the Ministry of Energy ended.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Details of Concepts of Components of Energy Security
Appendix A Details of Concepts of Components of Energy Security
Asia Pacific Energy Research Center: APERC (2007) states that energy security consists of 4 components which are availability, accessibility, affordability and acceptability. This approach corresponds with approaches proposed by Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg (Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg,2009). Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg define “energy security” as consist of 4 components related to energy supply (Kruyt, vuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009) which are: 1) Availability refers to what exists in geology. It is the physical resource that can be used and the existence of energy sources. It is an important indicator directly related to security of energy supply. Various types of information are utilized in order to determine its capacity, estimation of reserves, production data, and R/P rations, and expected reserves. 2) Accessibility refers to the component related to political geography. The differences between consumption and production of resources require access to energy geography which is related to political geography. Accessibility to energy sources may be restricted due to technicalities, geography, politics and infrastructure. 3) Affordability refers to economic components or the ability to utilize energy economically. There are economic factors of energy security that include the energy cost, price fluctuation, and the amount of money a country or community spends on energy resources. 4) Acceptability refers to socio-environmental component. Acceptability usually is geared toward concerns about the environment, including limitations on energy supply placed by politics, culture or society, due to the lack of knowledge or negative perceptions of the population. Specific factors to be 448
5) considered are release of greenhouse gas and pollution as a result of energy consumption, deforestation, soil degradation, rubbish and waste from production, productivity, etc. The 4 components of the concept and definition of energy security by Kruyt, Vuuren and Groenenberg (2009) can be shown in the figure below:
Figure 1 Energy Security Spectrum Source: Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between 4A’s and worldview when indices are considered together.
Figure 2 Concepts Related to Energy Security and Indices Source: Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009. 449
Table 1 Some Indices in the Energy Security Spectrum
Index Data Required
Resource estimates Quantity and likelihood of occurrence of fossil resources Reserve to production ratios Resource estimates and production figures (at country or global level) Market concentration Shares of producers in the market Import dependence Import quotas of energy carriers Net energy import dependency Import quotas and shares of fuel
Political stability various political risk ratings
Oil price Oil price Non carbon power Non carbon Share of fuel ; carbon emission
Market liquidity Available fuel on the market/production, consumption/import needs
Energy or oil intensity PES (total or per fuel), GDP Oil/energy expenditures Energy cost Energy or oil use per capita TPES, population
Share of oil in transport sector Sector energy use, total oil use
Share of transport sector in total oil use Sector energy use, total oil use Shares of energy carrier in TPES; import quotas, shares of suppliers in Jansen et al. (2004) imports; HDI and RPR per country/region Share of producer in market (based on net exports), political risk rating per IEA's ESI price producers, shares of prim. Energy carrier in TPES. Additionally supply available on the market; global RPRs for fossil fuels. Fuel shares in TPES, import shares, supplier shares in imports, long- or short- S/D Index term contracts, energy intensity, detailed information on conversion and transport not further specified here
OVI (Gupta 2008) Import quotas, GDP, oil price, TPES, shares of oil suppliers, ICRG
Source: Kruyt, Vuuren, Vries and Groenenberg, 2009.
The Ministry of Defense of the United States of America state that the security of energy refers to the fuel situation, system of production and distribution of energy and users. It has 5 characteristics: Surety, Survivability, Supply, Sufficiency and Sustainability (Kleber, 2009). This is shown in Figure 3 below: 450
Figure 3 The 5 Characteristics of Energy Security Source: Kleber, 2009.
Surety refers to access to fuel and energy Survivability is fuel sources and flexible and durable energy that endure damages that may arise. Supply is energy sources that can be used and identified, whether it is fossil fuels, alternative energy, or renewable energy (nuclear, coal, biomass, natural gas, waste, hydrogen), (ecological system such as water power, pressure, wind, and sunlight). Sufficiency refers to an adequate amount of fuel and energy from different sources Sustainability concerns the practice of permanent restriction of energy demand, use of alternative energy and renewable energy efficiently in order to achieve sustainability. Hughes (2009) explains that energy security consists of the 4R’s : 1) Review: referring reviewing to understand the problems of energy sources, traders and facilities, including demand for energy. In other words, it means reviewing existing energy sources, distributors and facilities, including prioritizing energy sources based on their security. Energy management should be reviewed in order to find secure sources of energy supply to compensate the decreasing current supply. 2) Reduce: referring to lowering the use of energy by means of the energy conservation or efficiency in using energy. Using less energy is good for energy security if can be achieved (especially if lowering energy to meet the set 451 target). Increasing the energy cost is one way to lower energy usage consumption. Also, the government should have a policy for energy conservation. 3) Replace: referring to changing to energy sources that are abundant. Consideration needs to be taken on building diversity of types of energy including alternative energy. Increase of secured energy sources can replace sources that are becoming scarce. This can be done by building diversity in energy supply or making changes to alternative energy. 4) Restrict: refers to restricting the increasing energy demand. However, restricting the demand may give rise to the problem of secure energy sources, and lack of facilities to meet the demands. 5) The 4 R’s can be applied to individuals, and organizations, energy policy development and energy security (Hughes, 2009).
Differences in Energy Security Policy Although many countries may have a similar approach toward energy security, some countries are different in setting an energy security policy (Hughes, 2009). What are the differences? And why do different countries differ in selling an energy security policy? Energy security can be defined in many ways. Muller-Kraenner (2007) perceives that energy security has different meanings for different countries. One important factor is the geography and natural resources of the country. For example, one country may be enriched with natural resources while another may not have enough natural resources. Some countries are in close proximity to energy- generating countries, whereas some are faraway and transportation over a long distance is necessary. These factors lead to different views on energy security. The main characteristics that indicate different concerns of energy security among countries are (1) how rich the country’s energy resources are (2) the level of influence of market in comparison with state intervention in pricing (3) the level of short-term and long term planning.
Paradigms on Comprehensive Energy Security Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes (2011) state that national energy policies in the new millennium are facing many challenges. It is necessary that 452 these challenges are considered when thinking about energy security in a new way. Many country’s energy security policies portray the trend of convergence more than divergence. Even though there are differences in the fundamental concept among these countries but this convergence is seen as a positive support to lowering conflict that may arise from differences in the way of thinking about energy security.
Components in Contemporary Concept of Energy Security Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Save and Hayes (2011) suggest that apart from the original concept of energy security which considered energy security in terms of energy supply only, there should be more considerations on the challenges facing energy security. These challenges consist of the followings: 1) The Demand-side Management Zobaa (2005) states that the demand-side management for energy or managing energy efficiently is in a broad sense, an approach that has arisen and been disseminated to many countries. When the world faces the problem of energy crisis, energy production to meet the demand for energy can cause many problems such as depletion of energy resources and environmental problems caused by pollution and so forth. An approach to efficient use of energy has become more widely accepted along with new research to have concrete practice to energy security. Zobaa (2005) suggests that managing energy demands means altering or changing the level of consumption or the characteristics of energy users. In general, there are 2 main objectives: adjusting energy consumption to balance with energy production through efficient technology, or alter and change the plan of energy consumption by managing the demand for energy. The other objective is to promote energy conservation. These two main objectives are aimed at energy security. Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes (2011) indicate that the old school of thought on energy policies considers energy security in terms of static demands. This way of thinking has changed since the late 1980’s when management of energy demand has received equal importance and has been accepted as an important tool for the success in lowering changes in ecology and other environmental issues. Vivoda (2010) perceives that formulating an energy policy like what has been done in the past gives little importance to demand risks. These risks may 453 stem from the increase in energy demand. Managing energy demand is not an easy task, especially in the areas of consumer behavior. Because the energy depletion in the long term becomes a grave concern for energy managers, economic recession will result in surplus of supply over demand. The uncertainties and risks in demands is hence an important factor in the new school of thought on energy security. 2) Technology Wang, Yang, Chen and Yu (2009) discuss the relationship between technology and energy security, saying that risks related to the development of technology challenge present-day policy making in energy management for the future. The old approach underestimates risk and will consider risks only in a short-term. These risks include accidental hazards from nuclear reactors and errors that occur in research and development. Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Save and Hayes (2011) point out that the relationship between technology and energy security, saying that technological risks may be an international problem. Therefore, while the world is changing towards a society which focuses on energy technology, the new school of thought on energy security must give importance to internal and international risks related to advanced technology. Energy security in the dimension of technology is energy security that is related to various types of technology and should considered the diversity of technology related to energy, dependence on raw materials related to technology and the potentiality in technological research and development in energy, for instance. 3) Environment Vivoda (2010) sees that the important challenge to awareness in energy security is the desire for environmental protection. Two major international environmental concerns are the use of fossil fuels, which causes the problem of acid rain and change in climate. Air pollution that carries across borders has become an important concern in Europe and North America and now is becoming an issue in North East Asia. Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes (2011) identify the relationship between the environment and energy security. Due to global atmospheric changes which becomes challenging to energy security, the solution of the greenhouse 454 effect is necessary. Energy security in the context of the environment refers to energy security that does not impact the environment and can be considered in terms of the amount of acidity in the air, and risks on the environment, etc. 4) Social Factors Vivoda (2010) states that the population want to consume luxuries, but at the same time building factories has been opposed in many areas. Local politics also play a role in energy policy planning. The questions that arise are: (1) Who has the right to make a decision on where the factory is to be situated? (2) Who has the right to reject it? (3) Is it possible that the policy planning process will satisfy all state-holders? These questions do not only challenge policy makes on energy security but it challenges the whole institution of democracy. Therefore, many social factors are challenges to present-day energy security. Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes (2011) describe how public confidence is a social factor that influences energy security. Public confidence should be separated from public acceptance. Building public acceptance is usually about raising awareness toward building public relations, whereas, building public confidence requires more effort such as trying to build public confidence by disclosing more information and transparency. Therefore, social factors and building public confidence are important factors in the new approaches towards energy security. A social outlook on energy security in the context where energy security does not have a negative impact on society can be considered through various characteristics such as risks and social conflicts on energy. 5) Military Security Vivoda (2010) states that the new context on the relationship between the international community and the risk of military security challenges the old way of setting policies on energy. The end of the cold war has led to uncertainties at a new level in international relations, even if the risk of war has decreased. Therefore, the issue of international relations is included in an approach toward energy security. Energy security in the context of military security can be considered by taking various characteristics such as the risk of energy towards military security into account.
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Comprehensive Concept of Energy Security The five main factors that have been discussed are: environment, technology, management of demands, social factors and international relations. There are additional factors to the management of demand based on the old schools of thought on energy security (Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes 2011). Energy security must be at the level of (1) sustainability of a country (2) protection of national welfare (3) lowering of the risks related to energy demand. Energy policy needs to address both internal and external national problems within the 5 dimensions of energy security. Therefore, all the factors in the concept of energy security include energy demand, environment, technology and management of demands, social factors, and international relations (Von Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes, 2011).
Evaluating and Measuring Energy Security From the approach to overall energy security that has been discussed, the conceptual framework for energy security is formulated as follows:
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Table 2 Approaches to Energy Security
Strategy for Energy Security Dimensions of Some Issues in Risk Management Energy Security Energy Security and Mitigation
1. Energy Supply Demand within the country, Increase alternative energy importing Alternative technology Scarcity Efficiency in production 2. Demand Management decrease use of fossil fuels Alternative energy using increase alternative energy supports using 3. Technology Diversity in technology Investment in alternative Raw material dependency on energy technology consistency technology Technology transmission Error in R&D 4. Environment External impact on locality Risk-benefit analysis and Regional impact local pollution control Global impact Mitigation 5. Social–cultural Consensus/conflict in Mutual acceptance domestic or foreign policy /transparency, participation, making coalitions reliability Perceptions and historical Compensation/sharing lessons 6. Military–security International management of Security cooperation
From the above views on energy security evaluation, the dimensions, indicators, and interpretation of energy security are as follows: 457
Table 3 Dimensions in Energy Security
Dimensions in Energy Security Measurement Interpretation 1. Energy supply - all existing energy the higher the better - proportion of imported energy the lower the better - proportion of energy diversity the higher the better - categorized according to type - proportion of reserve energy imported the higher the better 2. Managing demands - proportion of fossil fuels used the higher the better in overall energy - proportion of alternative energy the higher the better in overall energy use 3. Technology - index of diversity in using the more diverse the energy for industrial use better 4. Environment - amount of pollution in air lower is better - environmental risks low risk the better 5. Social factors - risk from cultural/social low risk the better conflict in energy 6. Military security - risk in energy on military low risk the better security
In addition, Vivoda (2010) mentions that there are five more challenges that should be included in the new school of thought on energy security, in addition to what proposed by Hipple’s (2009). The five issues are
1) Energy Efficiency Vivoda (2010) indicates the relationship between efficient use of energy and energy security means energy efficiency, i.e., decrease in energy inputs while getting the same or greater output. The public can use energy efficiently by using many new technologies. In addition to behavior change in an individual’s energy efficiency consumption, Vivoda states that most people lack awareness and effort in changing their own behavior in energy use to achieve efficiency in energy security. James Hansen, scientist and director of Goddard Institute of NASA (cited in Vivoda, 2010) suggests that the important key to lessen the problem of atmospheric change is using energy efficiently. Vivoda (2010) states that the security of energy in 458 terms of efficiency means energy efficiently such as efficient use of energy against GDP, etc. 2) Economy Zobaa (2005) says that when economic and energy security are considered, the overall picture of Asia-Pacific region in terms of energy security is a great concern due to the increase in consumption and a dependence on importing energy primarily from the Middle East. Due to the lack of infrastructure and facilities, many countries find themselves having to increase the cost of energy consumption while the production of these countries have lower returns. Vivoda (2010) perceives that energy security does not result in economic losses. Various aspects that should be considered are the overall energy cost against GDP, cost of importing energy against GDP or revenue from exporting energy against GDP, etc. 3) Human Security The concept of human security is fairly new. It has been proposed as a global agenda in the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Report, “Human development 1994”. This report presents a new concept of development that are geared towards (or people-centered approach) which includes energy. Vivoda (2010) points out that energy security in terms of human security is security of energy that brings about security for people. The preparation of basic energy service for the population must take into consideration as access to energy by all peoples, for instance. 4) International Relationship-Energy Hippel, Suzuki, Williams, Savage and Hayes (2011) explain how energy security is an important issue that requires international cooperation. Energy security focuses on the ability to protect people, society, states and economies from energy scarcity. International relationships on energy play a major part in providing this security. Vivoda (2010) perceives that energy security can result from international relationship in the area of energy. Policies on energy security must identify the process related to energy security at the national, regional and global levels. It is important to consider international cooperation in order to examine its different 459 characteristics such as international agreements and treaties, or regional cooperation agreements, etc. 5) Policy Andrew and Danreuther (2002) state that while the world has not yet faced a shortage of petroleum energy, the concentration on energy production results in concerns regarding policies on energy security. Vivoda (2010) identifies that in setting policies on energy security, various dimensions must be considered to strengthen energy security. From the above ideas on energy security, five dimensions of energy security which must be considered are as follows:
Table 4 Dimensions of Energy Security (additional)
Dimensions of Energy security Measurement Interpretation 1. Efficiency in energy use - Growth unit for usage the lower the better of energy against economic growth 2. Economy - Capital of various energy the lower the better - Benefits from various energy the higher the better - Capital of various energy the higher the better projects - Benefits from energy projects the higher the better 3. Human energy security - Proportion of population that the higher the better can access electrical use against overall population 4. International relation-energy - International/regional the higher the better Cooperation on energy 5. Policy - Various dimensions more diversity the better of energy security determined in policy
Therefore, the concept of energy security by Von Hippel and Vivoda include the following dimensions or components of energy security. 460
1. Energy supply is energy security that results from energy supply that is adequate, reliable, sustainable and available for supporting social and economic development. 2. Demand-side management is energy security related to management of demands, such as the lowering of fossil fuel use and increase in alternative energy use. 3. Technology is energy security that related to technologies that takes into consideration in various characteristics such as the diversity of energy technology, the dependence on raw materials related to technology, and errors in research and development in energy-related technology, etc. 4. Environment is energy security that minimizes the negative impact on the environment such as the amount of air pollution and risks on environment, etc. 5. Social factors are energy security that does not have a negative impact on society such as risks of social conflicts on energy, etc. 6. Military is energy security related to military energy security such as impact of energy risks on military security, etc. 7. Energy efficiency is energy security that arises from using energy efficiently such as the efficiency of energy use against GDP, etc. 8. Economy is energy security that shows the economic efficiency in energy use, such as the energy cost versus GDP. The energy cost for importing energy versus GDP or returns from energy export against GDP, etc. 9. Human security is energy security contributing to human security in terms of energy, such as access to electricity by all peoples, etc. 10.. International relationship-energy is energy security that comes from building relationship between countries in the area of energy, signing international agreements and treaties, or regional agreements, etc. 11. Policy is energy security related to setting policies on energy in various related dimensions. Furthermore, Vlado Vivoda studied energy security in Asia-Pacific 2010 and Sovacool (2010) conducted a further study using Vivoda’s framework and adding more dimensions and matrixes to it to cover a broader scope. This study was under a large research project that Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy implemented. Sovacool also consulted experts in Asia in institutions such as the U.S. Department of 461
Energy, World Bank and the International Energy Agency (IEA). Apart from 20 dimensions of energy security proposed by Vivoda, Socacooll (2010) added more dimensions after interviewing ASEAN experts as follows: The interviews define energy security as follows: 1. Availability refers to having adequate supply of energy. Lack of energy security comes from unexpected climate, political decisions, military conflict or strategic reasons, including sufficient facilities for transportation, transformation, conveyance and energy use. 2. Dependency refers to freedom, self-sufficiency or no importation 3. Diversification refers to supporting a diversity of energy technology or ensuring that there is diversity, balance and difference in energy and fuel sources. 4. Decentralization refers to dependence on small sources of energy supply near consumption points. Small-scale energy projects are easier to manage and quicker to construct and can produce energy for the end-users more efficiently, thus reducing the loss from transportation of energy. 5. Innovation is the research and development of new energy technology and the distribution of the innovative energy system. 6 Investment refers to appropriate investment in facilities, enough labor, direct employment that arise from production and selling of energy equipment and infrastructure. Indirect employment comes from various activities that support industries while induced employment is the result of more expenditures and investment from returns and related consumption. 7. Trade refers to supporting of the movement of the energy or fuel system, increase in the volume of import and export, and cooperative networks of countries, including geographical cooperation in the development of energy resources internationally and reducing trade restrictions. 8. Production refers to producing fuels or energy domestically. This is to ensure that there is reserve non-renewable energy for sustainable consumption. 9. Price stability refers to ability to predict fuel prices or price of stable energy service. Unstable or fluctuating prices will make it difficult for consumers to decide the option for energy consumption. 462
10. Affordability refers to ensuring that the service of energy will be at the lowest price possible and will enable certain consumer groups to pay at a low price for energy service. 11. Governance (this dimension includes the Vivoda’s policy) refers to setting policies with participation from stakeholders, to ensure that there is high quality information for energy policy planning and pricing, including disclosing information through channels easy for public access. Participation refers to participation of stakeholders in setting the energy policy and defining clear roles and responsibilities of each group. 12. Access refers to equality and fairness in receiving energy services. Service should have quality as well as quantity. Households should not only physically access the energy system but energy should be a reasonable price, as well. 13. Reliability refers to delivering energy service of high quality, with safety. Damages from lack of electricity, satisfaction to pay when there is no electricity or the frequency of blackouts, energy accidents or losses of assets should be included in the reliability. 14. Energy literacy refers to the knowledge of community or society about energy. Consumers should be educated to make good decisions related to energy, they should receive high quality information awareness among children about energy sustainability should be raised. 15. Resilience refers to ability of the community member to adapt themselves to natural hazards that arise from climate change. Resilience includes not only the quantity of the eco-system such as abundance of flowers and types of animal breeds, but also in the quality such as stability and adaptability to absorb different changes in the ecosystem. 16. Land refers to the change of the use of land related to energy such as deforestation, which causes the problem of green-house effect. 17. Water refers to connecting energy with water, as a result of climate change. For example, Bhutan and Nepal have been faced with the melting of ice creeks, and flooding and China and India experience water shortage due to pollution from coal production and oil leakage. 463
18. Pollution refers to level of contaminated air within and outside buildings. It relates energy security with public health, including various damages to the environment that is related to energy. 19. Energy Efficiency refers to the production of energy with highest efficiency and minimization of the loss: Minimizing the dependence on insecure energy sources slowing down depletion of fuel sources, and decreasing errors and accidents related to energy. 20. Greenhouse Gas Emissions refers to the contamination of the atmosphere as a result of burning of energy. This is important to energy security for Asia. It is expected that greenhouse gas emissions in the future may come from ASEAN countries because most of the world’s coal are used here in Asia. Benjamin K. Sovacool and Ishani Mukherjee (2011) have formulated a framework for policy analysis of national energy security. The data were collected by conducting a survey and focus group discussion and review of related literature. It is proposed that energy security consists of 5 fundamental dimensions which are: (1) Availability (2) Affordability (3) Technology development and efficiency (4) Environmental and social sustainability (5) Regulation and governance. The 5 dimensions of energy security consist of 20 elements are shown in Table 5 464
Table 5 Energy Security in 5 Factors and 20 Aspects
Dimensions Factors 1.Availability 1. Security of supply and production 2. Dependency 3. Diversification 2. Affordability 4. Price Stability 5. Access 6. Decentralization 7. Affordability 3. Technology Development and Efficiency 8. Innovation and Research 9. Safety and reliability 10. Resilience and adaptive capacity 11. Efficiency and energy intensity 12. Investment and employment 4. Environment and social sustainability 13. Land use 14. Water 15. Climate change 16. Pollution 5. Regulation and governance 17. Governance 18. Trade and regional interconnectivity 19. Competition and markets 20. Knowledge and access to information
Source: Sovacool and Mukiherjee, 2011.
Energy security is the phenomenon that includes five dimensions and 20 factors with 320 simple indicators and 52 complex indicators of 42 indexes. These indicators are enough to measure the differences between developed and developing economies, between energy – importing and energy – exporting countries, between small and large countries, and between rich and poor countries. It is a difficult task to gather the data to be measured by these indicators. The researcher alone cannot collect the data for all indicators, but only data for one or two sets of simple and complex indicators of each dimension, depending on the data and the country. However, the overall energy security situation between countries within a country can be considered systematically (Sovacool and Mukherjee, 2011). 465
In addition, Allen (2009) perceives that the complexities of energy security makes it necessary to consider other aspects such as political risks, market, and economic risks, technology and environmental risks.
Risk Factors Due to the complexities of energy security, risk factors that must be considered are (1) political risks which are domestic and international risks that may impact demand and energy security at present and in the future. (2) economic and market risks refer to fluctuation of economic factors that may impact international markets and energy prices (3) technology risks refer to the diversity of technology that may increase the nation’s energy security 4) environmental risks refer to climate changes resulting in adjusting the policy and technology in order to respond to this change (5) changes in timeline refers to the difference of short-term and long-term risks of energy security. Short-term risks may involve control of energy reserves, where as long-term risks may involve investment related to economic development and environmental needs ( John Oakley Allen, 2009).
Quantitative Measurement of Energy Security David Karlsson (2010) studied energy diversity measured by using the Shannon-Wiener index and the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (Bazilian & Roques: 2008):
Where pi is the proportion of fuel, i is the energy mix, or the proportion of the distributor market i The Shannon-Wiener index has been developed by considering the proportion of imported resources as follows:
Where m is the amount of primary energy sources
Mi is the proportion of the net imported energy i 466
Sim is the Shannon index of imported resources i
Mij is the proportion of regional imports j in the overall import of sources i
APERC (2007) developed measurement indexes called Diversification of primary demand (DoPED) as follow:
Where D is the result of Shannon index and T is the number of utilized energy source. In instances where the value is high, it means that there is a diversified energy mix, where the highest value equals 1 (Karlsson, 2010). The Shannon Index is applied in measuring the economy’s net energy import dependency (NEID), which reflects the impact of diversity and import of energy on security of energy supply. NEID of economies is calculated by weighing consumption from basic energy sources i. Each type and formula mentioned above is shown below (Karlsson, 2010):
When C (=1-m) displays a correction factor for pi and mi is the proportion of basic import of basic energy supply of source i. If the outcome is close to 1, it means that the economy is highly dependent on import of energy to meet the basic energy need of an economy. Another index adopted by APERC is used to measure the effort to change energy with high carbon by calculating its proportions to water power, nuclear energy and renewable energy (Karlsson, 2010):
The research used the details of the components of energy security, as the starting point for studying energy security at the community and the national levels. The summary, of the opinions of agencies and scholars is shown in the table below.
APPENDIX B Key Informant Questionnaire
Appendix B Key Informant Questionnaire
This questionnaire is a part of the study for the Doctorate Dissertation of Mr. Werawut Boonyanusart, a student at the School of Public Administration, National Institute of Development Administration. Information gathered here will be used for the study only.
Community………………………………………………………………………… Question: Who in the community do you think has knowledge of energy and can provide substantial information? (Please provide the name and knowledge related to the community energy management) 1. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 2. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 3. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 4. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 5. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 6. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 7. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 8. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 9. Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 10.Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 11.Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 12.Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 13.Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 14.Name……………………………Knowledge……………………….. 15.Name……………………………Knowledge………………………..
APPENDIX C Interview Guide # 1 for Community Leaders, Administrators and Officers of the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization
Appendix C Interview Guide # 1 for Community Leaders, Administrators and Officers of the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization
Day of Interview…….………...….Time…………..…Location………………………. Respondent’s Personal Information 1.1 Name-Surname…………………………………….……………………………… 1.2 Work Position………………………………..…………………………………… 1.3 Agency……………………………………………………………………………. 1. What kind of renewable energy or alternative energy does your community use? What are benefits to the community? How is biomass energy used in households, e.g., using wood as firewood or for charcoal production or biogas made from animal droppings? 2. How does your community manage renewable energy, especially biomass energy? 3. What are the reasons why your community uses renewable energy? 4. In your opinion, what is energy security? What are its components? 5. Does your community at present have energy security? Why? How? 6. Does your community have any problems and obstacles in managing community energy? If so, what are they? 7. What do you think are the factors contributing to success of community energy management for energy security? 8. In your opinion, can community factors lead to energy security? Why? 9. Do you have any suggestions on how to promote community energy management for energy security? 471
Promotion of Community Energy Management Support (promoting the production and utilization of biomass energy in households)
1. Energy planning 1.1 Does your community have any energy plans? What does it consist of? What agencies are involved? 1.2 How is the process or steps in setting these plans? 1.3 Which plan do you think is important or plays an important role in community development, especially in the area of energy? 1.4 Have there been any plans that promote or are related to households’ biomass energy production and utilization? How? Why? 1.5 At present, is community energy planning still going on? Which areas does the plan address? If not, why is there no plan? 1.6 Have the energy plans promoted the production and utilization of biomass energy of the households? How? To what degree? 1.7 How the energy plans that promote the production and use of biomass led to energy security of the community? How? And to what extent?
2. Capacity Building in the Area of Energy 2.1 Are your community members aware of various community problems? How? 2.2 Is there any building of community capacity in the area of energy? How? 2.3 Does your community receive benefits from capacity building in the area of energy? How? 2.4 Do you have any idea in building community capacity in the area of energy? What is your idea? 2.5 In your community, has there been any building of community organization officials to enable them to building the community capacity in the area of energy? How? And does their upgraded ability support the production and use of biomass energy of the households? How? To what degree? 472
2.6 In your community, has there been any building of the capacity of community members that can help increase the capacity of the community? How? And does it support the production and use of biomass? How? To what degree? 2.7 In your community, has there community relations helped to building capacity of the community in the area of energy? How? And does it support production and use of biomass energy? How? To what degree? 2.8 In your community, is there any participation of community members in energy-related activities? How? 2.9 Does community participation in energy-related activities help to build community capacity in the area of energy? How? And does it support the production and use of biomass energy? How? To what degree? 2.10 In your community, does community organizations such as the Subdistrict Administration Organization have the capacity to promote the production and biomass energy use of households? How? And to what degree? 2.11 How is your community capacity in implementing various projects? To what degree? 2.12 How successful have the community projects been? 2.13 Is there any building of community capacity to implement the project that promotes community capacity in the area of energy? And does it promote the production and use of biomass energy? To what degree? 2.14 Does the community build its capacity to support the production and use of biomass energy in households? To what degree? 2.15 Does building of community capacity support the production and biomass use in order to lead to energy security of the community? To what degree?
3. Transfer of Local Wisdom in the area of Energy 3.1 What local wisdom in the area of energy does the community have? 3.2 What was the origin of local wisdom? 3.3 Is local wisdom or local knowledge stored? If so, where and how? 3.4 How does this local wisdom or local knowledge benefit your community? 473
3.5 Is this local wisdom or local knowledge transferred to other persons? If so, how? 3.6 Has local wisdom or local knowledge been applied? How? 3.7 To what degree is transfer of local knowledge of energy support the production and biomass use in households? 3.8 Does transfer of local knowledge of energy that supports the production and biomass use in households lead to energy security? How? To what degree?
4. Benefits from Capital/Community Resources 4.1 What are important community capital and resources that have an impact on community energy management? 4.2 Does natural capital such as trees, affect the success of energy management of the community for energy security? To what degree? Has natural capital been used to promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.3 Does financial/ economic capital affect the success of energy management of the community for energy security? To what degree? Has this capital been used to promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.4 Does human capital affect the success of energy management in the community for energy security? How? To what degree? Has human capital been used to promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.5 Does social capital affect the success of energy management in the community for energy security? How? To what degree? Has social capital been used to promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.6 Does your community have commitment related to energy that support the production and use of biomass energy in households? How? Has there been any use of such benefit in the production and use of biomass energy in households or not? How?
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4.7 Does your community assist each other in the area of energy, which promotes production and use of biomass energy in households? How? And how does their assisting each other support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.8 Does your community work together in energy-related activities that support for production and use of biomass energy in households? How? And how does this benefit the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.9 How does your community participate in supporting production and use of biomass energy in households? And how does this benefit the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.10 Is the subdistrict municipality or subdistrict administration organization an important factor that affects the success of community energy management for energy security? How and to what degree? Does the utilization of the local administrative organization support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.11 Is energy technology an important factor that affects the success of community energy management for energy security? How? To what degree? And does it support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.12 Does your community have other capital or resources that affect the success of community energy management for energy security? Do they support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.13 How do community capital and resources affect the lifestyle or employment of community members especially in the area of energy? 4.14 How do community capital and resources affect the overall community energy management? To what degree? 4.15 Do community capital and resources affect energy security of the community or not? How? 4.16 Are there any other community capital and resources that you think is an important factor in community energy management? Do they support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 475
4.17 Overall, do community capital and resources affect the success of community energy management for energy security? To what degree? Has community capital been used to support the production and use of biomass energy in households?
5. Network Cooperation Development 5.1 In your community, is there any cooperation in energy management? How? To what degree? 5.2 Does your community have a cooperative network in the area of energy within or outside the community? To what degree? 5.3 Has your community developed cooperative networks within and/or outside the community? To what degree? 5.4 Has the network development in your community supported the production and use of biomass energy in households? To what degree? 5.5 Has network development within outside your community supported the production and use of biomass energy in households? To what degree? 5.6 Has cooperation of people within the community and outside the community promoted the production and use of biomass energy in households? To what degree? 5.7 Has the cooperation network of people in the community affected the lifestyle and employment in the areas of energy? How? 5.8 Has cooperation network development within and outside the community affected the lifestyle and employment of community members, especially in the area of energy? How? 5.9 Has developing cooperation network in energy within and outside the community promoted the production and use of biomass energy in households? How? To what degree? At present, do you think the following have improved after the production and use of biomass in households, along with support for the production and use of biomass energy in households?
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6. Energy Security Better community economy 6.1 Lowering of the community energy cost 6.2 Increase in jobs and employment 6.3 Increase in community outcome/ income 6.4 Increase income 6.5 Better community economy Better social life in the Community 6.6 Increase in community participation in the area of energy 6.7 Increase in collective acceptance of views on energy 6.8 Increase in sharing and exchange of knowledge, community resource and energy 6.9 Better social life in the community Better community environment 6.10 Decrease in pollution 6.11 Decrease in chemical use 6.12 Better community environment More Self-reliance in the area of energy 6.13 Better access to energy 6.14 Reduction of energy shortage 6.15 Reduction of dependence on energy sources from outside the community 6.16 More self-reliance in the area of energy Others 6.17 Efficiency in community energy utilization 6.18 Stability of community energy prices 6.19 What would you like to add? Or suggest that leads to the success of community energy for energy security?
APPENDIX D Interview Guide # 2 - Households
Appendix D Interview Guide # 2 - Households
Day of Interview…….………...….Time…………..…Location………………………. Key Informant’s Personal Information o Name-Surname………………………………………………………. o Age………………………………………………….………………… o Employment/Occupation…………………………………………….. o Education………………………………………………….………….. o Monthly income ………………………………………………..……. 1. Do you use firewood, charcoal, or biogas, biodiesel or any other biomass energy in your household? How? 2. What are the reasons for using that energy source? If you can to produce your own energy or manage a certain type of energy, how far would go about doing it? 3. Are there any problems or obstacles to using that type of energy? 4. In your opinion, what is “energy security” and what is it composed of? 5. Do you think your community has energy security? Why? 6. What do you think are the factors affecting the success in promoting production and use of biomass energy in the household? 7. What other things and factors within the community at present can lead to energy security? Why? 8. Do you have any suggestions on promoting production and biomass use in households for energy security?
479
Community Energy Management Support to Households (support in the production and usage of biomass)
1. Energy Planning 1.1 Does your community have any energy plan? What does it consist of? Which agencies are involved in energy planning? 1.2 Are you involved in the planning process? How? 1.3 In the past, did you receive support from the energy plan in the production and use of biomass energy in your household? How? From what agency? 1.4 Currently, do you receive support from any energy plan in the production and use of biomass energy in household? How? From whom? 1.5 How does the support you have received from the energy plan help you in the production and use of biomass energy in your household? To what degree? 1.6 How does the support you have received contribute to energy security in the community? What are some challenges that you are faced with? 1.7 Do you have any suggestions to various agencies in setting energy plans that support production and use of biomass in households?
2. Capacity Building for Community in Energy 2.1 Has your household received support in capacity building in energy? How? 2.2 Has the capacity building been in the area of beneficial? How does it benefit the production and use of biomass energy in your household? 2.3 Does the capacity of the personnel in local organizations, such as the Subdistrict Administration Organization, affect the production and use of biomass in your household? To what degree? 2.4 Does the capacity that comes from the relation between households or between households and the Subdistrict Administration Organization, affect the production and use of biomass energy in your household? To what degree? 480
2.5 Does the capacity of the community organizations, such as the Subdistrict Administration Organization, affect the production and use of biomass energy in the household? To what degree? 2.6 How successful are the other projects in your community? 2.7 Has building of the community capacity promoted the production and use of biomass energy in your households? How? 2.8 Do you have any suggestions to various agencies about building of the community capacity in the area of energy that will support the production and use of biomass energy in your households?
3. Transfer of Local Wisdom 3.1 What traditional knowledge of energy or local wisdom related to energy does your community have? 3.2 What was the origin of this traditional knowledge or local wisdom? 3.3 Where is this traditional knowledge or local wisdom stored? 3.4 How does this traditional knowledge or local wisdom benefit the community? 3.5 Has this traditional knowledge or local wisdom been transferred to other persons? 3.6 Can this traditional knowledge or local wisdom applicable to other areas? How? 3.7 To what degree does local knowledge of energy promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 3.8 Does transfer of local knowledge of energy which supports the production and use of biomass energy in households leads to the community’s energy security? How? To what degree?
481
4. Benefits from Community Capital and Resources 4.1 Do you have enough wood branches or animal droppings to use for energy production? Do they support the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.2 Do you receive any financial support for the production and use of biomass energy or any other renewable energy? How? How does the fund promote the production and use of biomass energy in households? 4.3 In the production and use of biomass energy, what knowledge or skills do we need? Are your household members involved in the production and use of biomass energy? 4.4 Are you willing to produce and use biomass energy in your household? 4.5 Have you invested in or been a partner in activities related to community energy such as cooperatives? And does your involvement support the production and use of biomass energy? 4.6 Has the assistance among community members promoted production and use of biomass energy in your household? How? 4.7 Has the collective action helped promote the production and use of biomass energy in your households? How? 4.8 Has the community people’s participation in community activities promoted production and use of biomass energy? 4.9 Has the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization supported the production and biomass energy in households? How? And how has this support benefited you in the production and use of biomass energy in your own household? 4.10 Has the Subdistrict Municipality or the Subdistrict Administration Organization or other organizations supported you in the production and use of biomass energy or in building energy security in your household? 4.11 Do you use charcoal kilns or biomass stoves or other energy technology? How did you acquire such technology? 4.12 Do you think you benefit more from charcoal stoves or biogas stoves than LPG stoves? How? 482
4.13 In your opinion, does the use of charcoal stoves or biogas stoves or other energy technology in the production and use of biomass energy lead to energy security?
5. Cooperative Network Development 5.1 Is there any cooperation in the areas of energy in your community? To what degree? 5.2 Has there been cooperation within and outside the community that promotes in the production and use of biomass energy in households? To what degree? 5.3 Does your community have cooperative networks in the area of energy within and outside the community? To what degree? 5.4 Has the development of the cooperative network of community members promoted the production and use of biomass energy in households? How? To what degree? 5.5 Has the development of the cooperative network outside the community promoted the production and use of biomass energy in households? How? To what degree? 5.6 Has the cooperative in the area of energy affected the lifestyle or employment of the community? 5.7 How has the development of cooperative networks in the area of energy within and outside the community affected the lifestyle and employment? 5.8 How and to what degree has the development of cooperative networks within and outside the community affected or supported the production and use of biomass energy in households? At present, do you think the following have improved after the production and use of biomass energy in households?
483
6. Energy Security Better Community Economy 6.1 Lowering of the energy cost of community households 6.2 Increase in jobs and employment opportunities in the community 6.3 Increase in community products 6.4 Increase in household income 6.5 Better community economy Better Social Life in the Community 6.6 Increase in community participation in energy 6.7 Increase in accepting views and opinions on energy 6.8 Increase in sharing knowledge and exchange of community resource 6.9 Better social life in the community Better Community Environment 6.10 Decrease in pollution 6.11 Decrease in chemical use 6.12 Better community environment More Self- reliance in the Area of Energy 6.13 Increase in access to energy 6.14 Decrease in energy shortage 6.15 Decrease in dependence on outside energy sources 6.16 More self- reliance in the area of energy Others 6.17 Efficiency of energy use in the community 6.18 Stability of energy price in the community 6.19 Do you have any additional points or suggestions about the factors contributing to success of community energy management for energy security?
APPENDIX E Observation form # 1 – Topics
Appendix E Observation form # 1 – Topics
1. Conditions of community energy management 2. Community energy management (production and use of biomass energy in households) and process of production and use of biomass energy 3. Problems and obstacles in community energy management 4. Factors affecting success of community energy management toward energy security. 5. Overall management of community energy and household energy management (production and use of biomass energy in households) 6. Support for the production and use of biomass energy in the community 6.1 Formulation of an energy plan 6.2 Building of community Capacity in the area of energy 6.3 Transfer of local wisdom in the area of energy 6.4 Utilization of community capital and resources 6.5 Cooperative network development in the area of energy 6.5.1 Cooperative network within the community 6.5.2 Cooperative network outside the community 7. Output 7.1 Fuels produced from biomass energy by households 7.2 Use of biomass energy in community households 8. Energy security
Better Community Economy 8.1 Decrease in the energy cost in the community 8.2 Increase in jobs and employment opportunities 8.3 Increase in community output 486
8.4 Increase in income 8.5 Better community economy Better Social Life in the Community 8.6 More participation in energy – related activities 8.7 Community’s acceptance of views on energy 8.8 Increase in the sharing of ideas /knowledge/community resources Better Community Environment 8.10 Decrease in pollution 8.11 Decrease in chemical use 8.12 Better community environment More Self-reliance in the Area of Energy 8.13 Increase in access to energy 8.14 Decrease in energy shortage 8.15 Decrease in dependence on external energy sources 8.16 More self-reliance in the area of energy
APPENDIX F Key Informants
Appendix F Key Informants
Nachumhet Subdistrict, Yantakhao District, Trang Province Key Informants 1. Khun Suhirak Payakpan – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Narong Kongban – Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 3. Khun Pisisdapongse Punyasiripun – Deputy permanent secretary of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 4. Khun Somjit Rodpan –Chairman, “Bicycling for Community Health” team 5. Khun Kreeta Thepsuvan – Village Headman, Moo 5 6. Khn Nu-im Pannin – Village Headman, Moo 8 7. Khun Vin Anuraks – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 8 8. Khun Fuen Kaewpitaks -Deputy Chairman of the Office of Alternative Energy in Trang Province / Former Member and trainer for Nachumhet Subdistrict Administration Organization. 9. Khun Jai Sangsri – President of the Coal Production Group, a village committee of Moo 7, and former president of the community energy volunteer group 10. Sample households
Maelai Subdistrict, Muang District, Phrae Province Key Informants 1. Khun Pongsri Choompuwang – Deputy Mayor of the Subdistrict Municipality 2. Khun Suthep Sumantakul – Deputy Mayor of the Subdistrict Municipality 3. Khun Chavivan Janka – Senior Municipal Clerk of the Subdistrict Municipality 489
4. Khun Kanya Senakam – Village Headman, Moo 1 5. Khun Kamol Sangkaing – Village Headman, Moo 7, 6. Khun Udorn Kampil – Village Headman, Moo 8 7. Khun Kanavut Vongsthai – Manager of the Rubbish Bank Learning Center 8. Sample households
Kho Sai Subdistrict, Khai Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province Key Informants 1. Khun Jintrana Iemsumrany– Former Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Sanamchai Promma – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 3. Khun Meta Yade – Committee Member of the Community Energy Planning Project in Response to His Majesty’s Initiative of Economy Sufficiency/ Former Officer of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 4. Head of Public Healthcare Center (Playing a major role in using community resources) 5. Khun Namthip Muenmuang – Village Headman, Moo 1 6. Khun Suparb Kachsarn – Village Headman, Moo 3 7. Assistant Village Headman, Moo 6 8. Sample households
Huang Nam Kao Subdistrict, Muang District, Trat Province Key Informants 1. Khun Chuvit Sukhsawat – Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Marnsri Poolkasem – Manager of the Community Bank/ Former President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 3. Khun Pricha Sawaengsrap – President of the Department of Resources and Environment in Trat Province and Regional Inspector, Trat Province 4. Khun Sansanee Jangsang – Officer of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 490
5. Khun Sutat Pajjakul – Village Committee Member, member of the Resource and Environment Committee , Chairman of the community organization council, Chairman of the volunteer groups. 6. Khun Vilai Suerbson – Village Headman, Moo 1, 7.Khun Vorrak Hongbin – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 1 8. Khun Anurak Suntaravipart – Member of the Village Fishery Group, Voluntary Coordinator in community activities 9. Sample households
Wangkhaem Subdistrict, Khlongkhlung District, Kamphaeng Phet Province Key Informants 1. Khun Foong Pansuk – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Chaiwat Panvitayakul – Former President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 3. Khun Tavan Vijaranajareon – Environmental office of the Public Health and Environment section of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 4. Khun Jaran Buakao – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 5. Khun Somsak Sansong – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 2 6. Khun Panuwat Chingwongtan – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 2 7. Khun Savaeng Sriboonpang – Village Committee Member and community energy volunteer 8. Khun Somboon Buapang – Minister of the Community Leader Council 9. Sample households
Suansom Subdistrict, Ban Paew District, Samut Sakhon Province Key Informants 1. Khun Prayong Norbnom – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Somsak Nguasomboon – Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 491
3. Khun Vanna Jantapuk – Senate Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 4. Khun Somchart Tongkampra – Senate Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 5. Khun Yupa Sianmun – Village Committee Member of Moo 4, Committee Member of the Million Baht Fund Project, Chairman of the Village Volunteers Moo 4, Chairman of the Housewife Group/ Member of the Committee on the Energy Conservation and Environment Network 6. Khun Karitidet Kerdjareon – Public Health Volunteer, Subdistrict doctor, Member of the Committee on the Energy Conservation and Environment Network 7. Khun Prajuab Voravattana – Village Headman, Mu.1 8. Khun Somkit Keawbhodi – Assistant Village Headman, Mu.1 9. Khun Charitnot Chaibangyang – Village Committee Member, Moo 1 10. Khun Siripongse Teoysanguan – President of the Children and Youth Council 11. Khun Suthin Tinop – Vice President of the Million Baht Fund Project, Village Committee Member of Moo 4 12. Sample households
Sri Phum Subdistrict, Krasang District, Buri Ram Province Key Informants 1. Khun Niyom Amornrum – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Rerg Kingkaew – Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 3. Khun Somjit Pantvichart – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, Subdistrict soil doctor, President of the Subdistrict Agricultural Volunteer, Chairman of the Community Development Volunteers 4. Khun Attaya Pirirum – Secretary of the Community Energy Plan, Committee member of Project on “Community Energy Planning by 80 Individual Communities” , Chairperson of the silk group, Chairperson of the Sericulture group, Leader of the Community Development Volunteer Group 492
5. Khun Pol Pispeng – Former Village Headman, Moo 5 6. Khun Samreon Yamram – Village Headman, Moo 8 7. Khun Boonruay Vimanram – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 9 8. Khun Chorb Poljareon – Village Headman, Moo 9 9.Sample households
Chumpol Subdistrict, Phon Phisai District, Nong Khai Province Key Informants 1. Khun Songkran Sritabut – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Baworn Madam – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization, Former Village Headman, Moo 7, 3. Khun Boonhome Bhuti-at – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 4. Khun Sunan Boonprom – Village Headman, Moo 6 5. Khun Prasert Ruengtawee –Former Subdistrict Headman, Moo 15 6. Khun Taweesak Sangpim – Village Headman, Moo 19 7. Khun Tongwan Sangprasit – Village Headman, Moo 23 8. Khun Chanon Worabut – Village Headman, Moo 25 9. Khun Vichien Klangnok – Former Assistant Village Headman, Moo 25 10. Khun Likit Singhasiri – Village Committee Member, Moo 25 11. Khun Wanchai Sukhchaisri – Village Committee Member, Moo 25, 12. Sample households
Na Wieng Subdistrict, Sai Mun District, Yasothon Province Key Informants 1. Khun Pikul tongfueng – Vice President of the Subdistrict Municipality 2. Khun Nainat Kamsan – Supervisor, Deputy Office of the Subdistrict Municipality 3. Khun Krasaa Tongbai – Municipal Member of the Subdistrict Municipality 4. Khun Sunthon Kongtwee – Municipal Member of the Subdistrict Municipality 493
5. Khun Nivat Srisuk – Municipal Member of the Subdistrict Municipality 6. Khun Boonjan Tongfueng – Subdistrict Headman 7. Khun Prapas Kamnamtiang – Subdistrict Inspector 8. Khun Nonglucks Kajorsombat – Village Headman Assistant, Moo 5 9. Khun Aree Srisuk – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 6 10. Khun Suurasak Tongfueng – Village Headman, Moo 7 11. Khun Nguen Tongfueng – Village health volunteer and Civil defence volunteer 12. Sample Households
Nongfag Subdistrict, Saraphi District, Chiang Mai Province Key Informants 1. Khun Anucha Sangsawang – President of the Subdistrict Municipality 2. Khun Sayan Namwongse – Municipal Member of the Subdistrict Municipality 3. Khun Boonma Somjai – Subdistrict Headman 4. Khun Sa-ard Tonman –Village Headman, Moo1 5. Khun Jarun Jareonsuk – Village Headman, Moo 4 6. Khun Virat Ngaowtam – Village Headman, Moo 5 7. Khun Vitaya Kantawongse – Village Headman, Moo 6 8. Khun Prasit Boonsoong – Village headman, Moo 7 9. Khun Sagat Ngaowtong – Village Headman, Moo 8 10. Sample households
Napho Subdistrict, Sawee District, Chumphon Province Key Informants 1. Khun Tiwa Boonyok – President of the Subdistrict Municipality 2. Khun Somkid Pratabkaew – Vice President of the Subdistrict Municipality 3. Khun Narin Piman – Former Vice President of the Subdistrict Municipality and Chairman of the community energy volunteer group 4. Khun Thipawan Musiko – Policy and Planning Analysis Officer of the Subdistrict Municipality 5. Khun Wiboon Utai – Subdistrict Headman 494
6. Khun Panom Arjharn – Village Headman, Moo 2 7. Khun Vimol Chana – Assistant Village Headman, Moo 2 8. Khun Vitaya Mueysuk – Member of Committee on community energy volunteer 9. Khun Virat Promhan – Community energy volunteer, Former Member of the Subdistrict Municipality 10. Khun Somvian Kongsangkaew –Leader of the housewife group 11. Sample households
Bang Si Thong Subdistrict, Bang Kruai District, Nonthaburi Province Key Informants 1. Khun Yodsak Sukrojani – Vice President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization 2. Khun Jareon Pattanakulponse – President of the Subdistrict Administration Organization Council 3. Khun Nattapat – Wongsuwan – Member of the Subdistrict Administration Organization Council 4. Khun Sunee Pattanakulpongse – Village Headman, Moo 3 5. Khun Chotimanee Tadprem –Vice President of village volunteer group, Assistant Village Headman, Moo 4, Member of Wat Ruag School Committee, Member of the Wat Ban Ruag Village Committee 6. Khun Yaowaniti Detipeng –Assistant officer of Community Development in Energy, Agriculture and Environment 7. Khun Pichit Ruegdee – Chairman of the “Community Energy for Sustainability” group 8. Sumol Naksuk – Chairman of the village volunteer group, Moo 2 9. Khun Lampeoy Namsapak – Village Committee Member, President of the public health volunteer group, Moo 4, Wat Jage School Committee Member, Moo 4 10. Khun Tongplaew Klomsang – Community Volunteer 11. Khun Boonsom Sermsukmaitri – Community Volunteer 12. Khun Prani Suetrongtrakul – Community Volunteer 13. Sample households BIOGRAPHY
NAME Werawut Boonyanusart
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND Bachelor’s Degree with a major in Accounting (Second Honor and three year Scholarships) from Bangkok University, Bangkok, Thailand in 1993, Bachelor’s Degree with a major in Economics from Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok, Thailand in 2001, Bachelor’s Degree with a major in Information Technology in Business from Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Bangkok, Thailand in 2002, Master’s Degree in Economics from Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand in 1996, Master’s Degree with a major in Accounting Information System from Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand in 2005 and Master’s Degree with a major in Financial Management (International Program) from Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand in 2008
PRESENT POSITION Financial Officer, PTT Public Company Limited