Resaca De La Palma Master Plan: Linking History, Ecology and Community in Brownsville, TX

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Resaca de la Palma Master Plan: Linking History, Ecology and Community in Brownsville, TX

Masters Report submitted by Mike Mazza to the Faculty of the School of Landscape Architecture and Planning of the College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture in the Graduate College of the The University of Arizona in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Landscape Architecture PROJECT COLLABORATION

The project was a collaboration between the University of Arizona’s School of Landscape Architecture and Planning and the National Park Service, for which work began in the Fall, 2009 and was completed in May, 2011.

Margaret Livingston, PhD. Project PI Mike Mazza - Investigator School of Landscape Architecture and Planning The University of Arizona May 15, 2011

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completing this report involved the support and assistance of a number of people, without whom its completion would not have been possible.

I was fortunate to have three extremely supportive committee members who helped me along, namely Jennifer Patton, Dr. Randy Gimblett and Dr. Margaret Livingston. I would also like to thank Oscar Blazquez for being a tremendous teacher and friend, and Lauri MacMillan- Johnson for her continual support.

I would also like to thank the Staff at Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site in Brownsville, TX, especially Mark Spier, - Superintendent, Rolando Garza - Archeologist/Chief of Resource Management and Douglas Murphy - Historian/Chief of Operations, for their sincere kindness, limitless knowledge and thoughtful feedback. I hope this document serves them well. i ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES IV IMAGE CREDITS IV ABSTRACT VI

INTRODUCTION 9 - 13 General Site Information Project Goals and Objectives Investigative Method Location Maps

LITERATURE REVIEW 14 - 32 NPS History and Guidelines Park Design Regional Landscape Context Site History and Context

CASE REVIEWS 33 - 46 Parks NPS Parks Ecological Design Greenways

ANALYSIS 47 - 57 RDLP Context RDLP Access RDLP Natural Features Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail

DESIGN 58 - 89 Concepts Master Plan Phasing

CONCLUSION 90

APPENDICES 91 - 93

WORKS CITED 94 - 96 iii Memorial illumination held each November at Resaca de la Palma Battlefield. (1)

iv LIST OF FIGURES

1. Ecological Design Diagram by Sim Van der Ryn. From www.vanderryn.com. 2. Four Factors for a Restorative Space. Adapted from “Kaplan, Stephen. 1995. “The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward an Integrative Framework”. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 15 (3): 169. 3. The Rio Grande Valley’s Two Migratory Flyways. From www.worldbirdingcenter.org/index.html 4. Ecoregions of South Texas (IV) - From Griffith, Glenn E. 2004. Ecoregions of Texas. 5. Formation of the Rio Grande Delta. (reproduction of signage at Resaca de la Palma State Park by author) 6. Valley Bird Specialties. List adapted from “The Lower Rio Grande Valley Biological Profile”. fermatainc.com. 7. All Bird Illustrations Copyright (C) 2007 WhatBird.com 8. Map Historic Boundaries Of RDLP Compared To Today. Based on information provided by NPS Staff at Palo Alto. 9. Scaled Comparison Of 3,400 Acre Palo Alto Battlefield And 34.4 Acre Resaca De La Palma Battlefield. 10. Map of Historic Vegetation of RDLP compared to 2010. From PAAL Library, Drawing Files and Google Maps. 11. Image from “Imagine Brownsville”, page 190

IMAGE CREDITS

1. “Memorial Illumination”. Courtesy of Douglas Murphy, NPS. 2. http://www.nps.gov/yose/historyculture/muir.htm 3. http://www.nps.gov/features/yell/slidefile/history/1919_1945/peopleevents/page.htm 4. http://theworldbirdingcenter.com/greenkingfisher.html 5. http://www.window.state.tx.us 6. Courtesy Palo Alto Battlefield NHP Library, Drawing Files. 7. http://www.google.com/earth/index.html 8. http://www.pps.org/great_public_spaces//one?public_place_id=26 9. http://www.asla.org/awards/2005/05winners/556.html (all images on page) 10. http://www.mexican-architects.com/portal/pics/bdw_mex/tema_07_07_2.jpg 11. http://amigosdesiankaan.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/paisajismo (a,b,c) 12. http://amigosdesiankaan.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/paisajismo (all images on page) 13. Juan Arias © Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 14. Earl Nottingham © Texas Parks & Wildlife Department 15. Author - May, 2010 16. http://www.asla.org/awards/2008/08winners/117.html (all images on page) 17. http://www.asla.org/2009awards/418.html (all images on page) 18. Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. / http://www.mvvainc.com/project.php?id=60&c=parks (all images on page) 19. http://www.nps.gov/archive/manz/virtualtour/tour/map 20. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzanar.html (a,b) 21. http://www.nps.gov/whmi/index.htm (all images on page) 22. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/29315.pdf (all images on page) 23. http://www.wrtdesign.com (all images on page) 24. http://www.crja.com/parks/battleroad.html (all images on page) 25. http://tti.tamu.edu/publications/researcher/newsletter.htm?vol=43&issue=3&article=7&year=2007

*images without a numbered citation are by author

v ABSTRACT This project is largely focused on two main issues, the principle being a master plan for the Resaca de la Palma (RDLP) Battlefield. In 2009, the RDLP Battlefield site became one of the newest units of the National Park Service and one of only two focused on the U.S. - Mexico War. An isolated natural area at the time of the War, the RDLP site today lies within a suburban context. Most of the original battlefield has been overtaken by development. Nevertheless, a 34.4 acre portion of the battlefield has avoided development and retains a trace of the site’s historic character.

As the Park Service moves to open this site to the public, many question remain as to how this segment of the once water-abundant Rio Grande, turned Mexican territory, turned battleground, turned picnic area, turned citrus grove, turned polo grounds, turned private residence, can be best incorporated into its latest context. Coupled with this question is the difficulty of access to the site as well as a general unfamiliarity within the local community as to the goals and mission of the National Park Service.

The second issue relates to connectivity at a broader scale, as currently an incomplete connection exists between the three aforementioned historic sites. All three of these sites are located along a relatively straight 11-mile long stretch between downtown Brownsville and rural areas of the city. While the construction of a dedicated bike lane connecting Palo Alto to downtown Brownsville has been completed, a proposed route for a final segment connecting the existing trail to Fort Brown has to date not yet been explored. The thought is that, in addition to completing the connection of the three sites, addressing this issue might give impetus to the reconstruction of Fort Brown as a significant historic and tourist destination.

In sum, this project envisions a bright future for the RDLP Battlefield. The research and design efforts here focused on merging the NPS staff goals of cultivating the site’s history and ecology, while providing an opportunity for the creation of a beloved community and national space.

vi “...to promote and regulate the use of the...national parks...which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.” National Park Service Organic Act, 16 U.S.C.1. Aug. 25 1916 INTRODUCTION RESACA DE LA PALMA MASTER PLAN INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION The central focus of this report is a master plan for the Resaca de la Palma (RDLP) Battlefield in Brownsville, Texas. In 2009, the RDLP Battlefield site became one of the newest units of the National Park Service (NPS) and one of only two focused on the U.S. - Mexico War. The purpose of the phased master plan is to guide the park’s future development, including physical planning, visitor experiences, and interpretive needs. Although the main focus of the master plan is on the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site, the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park visitor center, Fort Brown, and the Brownsville Historic Battlefield Hike & Bike Trail are also addressed. As such, specific areas of focus relating to Palo Alto, Ft. Brown and the Hike and Bike Trail are included in the final project submission.

As such, this report addresses three levels of project planning: 1 – a phased master plan for the RDLP site with proposals for connections to the hike and bike greenway 2 – an general overview of the existing historic hike and bike greenway and suggestions for its improvement / expansion 3 – a conceptual plan for the entry garden at the Palo Alto National Historic Park Visitor Center

GENERAL SITE INFORMATION The Resaca de la Palma Battlefield (known as Resaca del Guerrero in Mexico) includes 34.4 acres associated with the second battle of the U.S. - Mexico War (1846 - 1848). The Resaca de la Palma site is located 3.5 miles north of downtown Brownsville, Texas, in Cameron County, near the heart of an expanding urban center along the United States-Mexico border. Brownsville is located at the semi-tropical, southern-most tip of Texas. The RDLP site is bounded on the west by Paredes Line Road and to the north, east, and south by the Resaca de la Guerrero, a former channel of the Rio Grande. The 3,400+ acre Palo Alto Battlefield site and associated visitors center are located approximately 6 miles to the north of the Resaca site, while the historic remains of Ft. Brown lie approximately 3 miles to the south. The Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail connects downtown Brownsville to the Palo Alto Battlefield site, and at one point passes closely by the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site.

USER GROUPS In highlighting the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield as both an important historic site in our nation’s history as well as a community asset, strategies will be explored to encourage visitation by traditional NPS visitors, residents of adjoining and nearby neighborhoods, those looking to partake in hike and bike activities, wildlife and nature enthusiast, as well as the greater Brownsville community, including new demographic groups perhaps unfamiliar with the NPS.

PROJECT GOALS Goals for the phased Master Plan include 1) meeting National Park Service priorities for the historical interpretation of the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield, 2) the configuration of the Resaca site as a community asset for active and passive use, 3) addressing logistical problems of vehicular, pedestrian and bicycle circulation to / from the RDLP site, 4) exploring ways to improve the ecological integrity of the site. Additionally, this project suggests ideas for 5) improvements and options for connecting the Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail with the historic location of Fort Brown and 6) a conceptual plan for the entry garden at the Palo Alto National Historic Park Visitor Center.

View of Resaca de la Palma Battlefield from Southeast corner of site. (May 2010) 9 INTRODUCTION PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1. Meeting NPS goals for historical interpretation at the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield • Arrangement and placement of National Park Service way-finding and interpretive signage • Maintaining or enhancing vegetative structure to evoke a sense of how site appeared during the time of the battle • Placement of NPS design elements, structures and buildings (kiosks, facilities, restrooms, flags) INTRODUCTION • Encourage the mission of the NPS through on-site bilingual informational materials and community engagement

2. The configuration of the RDLP site as a community asset for active and passive uses • Enhance areas designated for community gathering and events (i.e., picnics, concerts, living history presentations) • Upgrade trails with appropriate materials, vegetative cover, and opportunities for exercise and exploration • Enhance the aesthetic feel of the site, both from within and from outside of park boundaries • Highlight the unique riparian ecology and wildlife of the site through educational and interpretive events

3. Address logistical problems of vehicular, pedestrian and bicycle circulation to / from the RDLP site • Propose solutions to challenges of current vehicular and non-vehicular access to site • Recommend new traffic configurations that will enhance circulation for both park visitors and neighbors alike • Suggest connections to the Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail from the RDLP site • Propose ideas for parking lot configurations, visitor entry sequence, bicycle parking and site landmarks

4. Explore ways to improve the ecological integrity of the RDLP site • Compare current and historic records of site vegetative patterns • Suggest ways of enhancing visitor’s experience and wildlife habitat through revegetation

5. Propose connection of the Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail with historic location of Fort Brown • Proposed options for expanding the Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail to Fort Brown • Suggest design improvements to the Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail

6. Propose a conceptual planting plan for the Palo Alto Visitor Center entrance • Propose a planting plan which utilizes native, xeriscape planting palette • Suggest ways of on-site management of stormwater utilizing passive water harvesting techniques

Initial meeting at Resaca de la Palma Battlefield in January, 2010 between UA investigators and NPS Staff from Palo Harris’s Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)at Palo Alto Battlefield Alto Battlefield National Historic Site. near connection to Hike and Bike Trail. 10 INTRODUCTION SITE ELEMENTS

After conversations with NPS staff, at minimum a few specific elements were determined to be integral to the INTRODUCTION effectiveness of this project. These include a 20 - 25 car plus 2 bus parking lot, nine (9) wayside information panels and associated rest areas, scenic overlooks of the Resaca, improvements to the existing park trail, restrooms, open green space for public events and shaded gathering areas. Additionally, the possibility of a traffic / pedestrian crossing point at the intersection of Paredes Line Rd.. and Palo Verde Dr. seems essential to site access, especially in the context of expanded traffic volumes on Paredes Line Rd.. and the nearby Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail.

Existing trail at Resaca de la Palma Battlefield. (May 2010) Inspection of the adjacent Resaca de la Guerra. (January 2009)

INVESTIGATIVE METHOD The investigative method utilized for this project was as follows: on-site meetings with NPS staff, establishment of project goals and project program, site analysis, a second site visit, a literature review, case reviews, and committee meetings with a local design professional and faculty from the UA. A conceptual master plan (May, 2010) and preliminary master plan (October, 2010) were followed by NPS Staff feedback. A final master plan was submitted in May, 2011.

Case Committee Reviews Meetings Site Visit #2 - NPS Staff Lit Review - BCF

Project Site Visit #1 Site Analysis DESIGN Notification - NPS Staff

Program / Goals

Conceptual Master Plan Concepts

Preliminary Master Plan

Final Master Plan

Diagram of Investigative Method.

11 INTRODUCTION PROJECT LOCATION INTRODUCTION

Brownsville, Texas Matamoros, Mexico

The City of Brownsville

Project Location Maps.

12 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site

Resaca De La Palma Battlefield

Brownsville, TX

Historic Fort Brown

13 LITERATURE REVIEW INTRODUCTION LITERATURE REVIEW LITERATURE LITERATURE REVIEW

NPS History and Guidelines Park Design Regional Landscape Context Site History and Context

14 NPS History and Guidelines LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION In an effort to understand the history of the National Park Service (NPS), as well as the role of design and landscape architecture in the establishments of the parks, a survey of these topics was undertaken. The study of the history of the National Park Service was invaluable to the master planning of the Resaca de la Palma (RDLP)Battlefield, as well as in further developing an understanding the tremendous asset the parks are to our collective national cultural experience and the importance of their preservation.

The survey of design and the role of landscape architects helped this report in two ways; 1) it provided an understanding of how NPS aesthetics and environmental ethics have changed over time, and in what direction they NPS HISTORY are now heading, and 2) in the extent to which landscape architecture has influenced and continues to shape the design, planning and maintenance of the National Park System.

Furthermore, an examination of literature relating to 1) the National Park Service’s sustainable and ecological design initiatives, as well as 2) current trends within the landscape architecture and planning professions was also undertaken. These were helpful in generating a cogent appreciation of how the Park Service defines sustainability, current programs aimed at promoting sustainable principles, and the expectations that the Park Service, the broader design community and its constituents have for the future of the parks.

A RELEVANT AND ABRIDGED HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE On March 1, 1872, the first “national park” was established in the form of Yellowstone National Park, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant, who eighteen years earlier had fought as a Second Lieutenant in the U.S.-Mexico War (Bauer 35). All in all, sixty-four areas had been established as parks prior to the official establishment of the National Park Service (NPS) in 1916, many of which occurred during an especially challenging time in American history (O’Brien 19). The American Civil War (1861 – 1865) overlapped what historian Bob O’Brien calls, “the peak period of environmental exploitation…threatening to lay waste to half a continent” (1999, 20). It wasn’t until August 25, 1916, that President Woodrow Wilson approved the National Parks Act, legislation which established the National Park Service within the Interior Department (The National Park Service Organic Act 1916).

Through the 1920s, most of the units of the NPS were located in the Western United States, with only park east of the Mississippi being Acadia National Park in Maine. As Barry Mackintosh, in The National Park Service: A Brief History, explains, “the West was home to America’s most spectacular natural scenery, and most land there was federally owned and thus subject to park or monument reservation without purchase”(1999). The Eastern United States, however, held a tremendous potential for the NPS due to its bounty of historic sites, many of which were in the form of historic battlefields, forts, and memorials.

It was the U.S. War Department, however, that had been tasked with preserving most of these historic battlefields, forts, and memorials in the Eastern United States since the 1890s (Mackintosh 1999). After succeeding Steven Mather, the first director of the NPS, as director in 1929, Horace Albright was instrumental in initiating the transfer of sites of military significance to National Park Service jurisdiction, initially pushing Congress to establish three new historical parks in the East under Park Service administration (including what are today know as the Colonial National and Morristown National Historical Parks) (Mackintosh 1999).

The National Park Service has grown dramatically since the first national parks were established, now consisting of more than 380 units in every state except Delaware (Franklin 2001, 10). The Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site was established on November 10, 1978, and by act of Congress on June 23, 1993, the site was enlarged to include 3,400 acres (Mardoff 2010, 35). On March 30, 2009, the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site was redesignated as the Palo Alto National Historical Park and was expanded to include Resaca de la Palma Battlefield, which became a discontinuous unit within the park (Mardoff 2010, 4).

15 LITERATURE REVIEW A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARKS AND THEIR DESIGN The influence of landscape architecture in the design of national parks has figured in the history of the parks since the 19th century (Carr 1998, 1). This may seem counterintuitive, since for some there exists an instinctive rebuff towards the importance of human design in the context of the preservation of natural, unspoiled landscapes. Development within parks has often been represented as a necessary evil in otherwise idyllic settings. As landscape historian and professor Ethan Carr points out, this characterization obfuscates what Fredrick Law Olmsted Jr. firmly understood, “that it is the cultural value invested in natural places through their physical development as parks that best assures the preservation of those place in a relatively natural state” (1998, 9).

The significance of landscape architecture in our national parks, however, lies not in the creation of new features or attractions, but in how and where existing natural features are appreciated. As Carr states, “designed landscapes guide the experience of many park visitors and enhance their appreciation of the vast wilderness beyond. Roads and trails, for example, lead visitors to certain areas and through a considered sequence of views. Campgrounds, park villages,

NPS DESIGN scenic overlooks, parking areas...shape the overall pattern of public activities and frame the visual encounters with the awesome scenery of the larger park landscape” (1998, 1). Thus, the chief consequence of landscape architecture in the history of national parks can be most easily observed in the public’s use and appreciation of the park itself, which is largely felt in the choreography of the movement of visitors through space, as well as the sequence and pace at which they progress.

Early park design and development responded to the park service’s emerging programs of interpretation (natural history, forestry, engineering and recreation), while conforming to a design ethic based on landscape preservation and President Theodore Roosevelt, left, poses with John Muir for pictures on Overhanging Rock at the top of Glacier harmony with nature (McClelland 1998, 2). The initial designs for most national Point, near which the men camped in a hollow and awoke to five inches of snow in 1903. (2) parks reflected nineteenth-century English garden design tradition, a naturalistic- style popularized at the time in the writings of Andrew Jackson Downing and in both the rustic and urban park designs of Fredrick Law Olmsted (McClelland 1998, 2).

In the early twentieth century, advances in landscape theory and garden design began to influence national and state park design. The first major influence of this movement was found in the development of wild gardens and naturalistic effects using rockwork and native vegetation, seen principally in the works of British gardener William Robinson and Central Park superintendant (1895 - 1911) Samuel Parsons. The second was the comprehensive park planning and management techniques espoused by Charles Eliot and demonstrated in his work throughout metropolitan Boston (McClelland 1998, 3). Eliot’s techniques included vista clearing, vegetation studies, and general landscape forestry, each with allowed the park designer to better manipulated the character of vegetation to attain a scenic and healthy landscape (McClelland 1998, 3).

By 1917, when Stephen Mather became the first director of the National Park Service, the term “park development” had come to imply certain design features and aesthetic values (Carr 1998, 6). Policies and practices for the design of park improvements emerged, and official statements, such as the one issued by Secretary of the Interior Franklin Lane in 1918, established a policy for landscape preservation and harmonization to guide all park development and use (McClelland 1998, 4). Mather regularly consulted with landscape architects such as Fredrick Law Olmsted Jr., utilizing their expertise as professional designers and technical experts (Carr 1998, 6).

As the annual number of national park visitors (and their private vehicles) climbed from the thousands to the millions during the 1920s, the development plans drawn up by Park Service landscape architects increasingly expressed and reflected these social and technological transformations of the time. Roads, scenic overlooks, bridges and trails became increasingly important elements of design. By recognizing and adapting to these new demands on park services, while

16 LITERATURE REVIEW remaining rooted in an established American landscape park design, the marring of the landscapes visitors came to see was limited and park space was largely preserved (Carr 1998, 7).

At the same time as this expansion of infrastructure was occurring, principles of landscape preservation and harmonization were also being followed in the design of built structures (McClelland 1998, 5). The results of these designs were unique in character, as construction followed and blended with the natural setting and landform of the site, while “pioneering technologies of a region” were thoroughly employed (McClelland 1998, 5). Concurrently, plantings were used to erase lines between earth and built features, returned NPS DESIGN disturbed sites to their natural conditions, and enhanced the overall natural aesthetic of the parks. Furthermore, the conception for these design elements were increasingly formulated and coalesced into “comprehensive plans”, Superintendent Horace Albright with Herbert Hoover, which by 1931 were referred to as “master plans” (Carr 1998, 7). Secretary of Commerce (prior to presidency); Photographer unknown; circa 1928. (3)

Horace Albright defined the procedure for master planning, in which the historic role of landscape architectural theory and practice were further ingrained into the development of the National Park System (Carr 1998, 190). These documents made clear that “the extent of development in each park should have definite limits...and be planned in advance” (Carr 1998, 7). Throughout the 1930s, with the establishment of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Public Works Administration (PWA), the naturalistic landscape design of the parks matured and flourished, as master plans, project by project, became a reality (McClelland 1998, 7). Years later, Thomas Vint would become integral in the reassessment and improvement of master planning procedures. As Linda Flint McClelland points out in her book Building the National Parks: Historic Design and Construction, this work was carried out in large part under the direction of park landscape architects (1998, 7).

The Executive Order issued by President Roosevelt in 1933 to reorganize the national parks resulted in the largest expansion of Park Service jurisdiction in its history. As a result, the number of parks had increased from 33 in 1916, 51 in 1926, 132 in 1936, 173 in 1946, and 181 in 1956 (McClelland 1998, 463). Responsibility for dozens of historic sites, including battlefields and national monuments, shifted to Park Service control, including the Statue of Liberty, Gettysburg, the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial (Carr 1998, 256). Also modified in this process of reorganization was the notion of what a park could be, as many properties in the eastern portion of the U.S. were added to the Park Service roster (see Brief History of the Park Service section).

The diversification and expansion of the National Park Service continued in 1941 with the establishment ofnew management categories, including national parkways, recreation areas and seashores. This, of course, had an effect on the work performed by park landscape architects, whose expanded role included comprehensive park and regional planning.

According to Ethan Carr, the emergence of Modernist planning and architectural design in the United States after World War II was foreshadowed by fundamental changes taking place at the Harvard School of Landscape Architecture, which replaced their naturalistic design curricula with one emphasizing modern landscape design (1998, 306). A generation of Harvard graduates had responded to this change, as well as the notion that a new “modern” landscape architecture could find justification in aligning itself with Modernist architectural principles (Carr 1998, 307). The National Park Service, somewhat divorced from such transformations, remained a relatively stable “refuge for traditional, Fairsted School landscape planning and design” (Carr 1998, 307).

However, the Park Service’s Mission 66 initiative, begun in 1956, envisioned a “bold and forward-looking” approach to bringing visitors in contact with park assets while preserving their resources (McClelland 1998, 464). Modern methods of landscape and architectural design were advanced; rejected were the picturesque prototypes which characterized

17 LITERATURE REVIEW traditional park design (McClelland 1998, 464). The result was a period of experimentation with new forms, both structural and compositional. Modern materials such as glass, concrete and steel were incorporated into designs, as were machine-driven construction methods (McClelland 1998, 464). Modern visitor centers, amphitheaters, campfire sites, drinking fountains, trails, and comfort stations were all emphasized in the design or redesign of parks to allow for educational and interpretive events. Of course, roads were widened and reconfigured to meet modern highway standards (McClelland 1998, 470). In the end, modern architectural statements were made where once nature did most of the talking, much to the disappointment of conservationist.

Needless to say, criticism of Mission 66 was widespread amongst conservationist (McClelland 1998, 473). The frustration over the direction the National Parks were headed eventually propelled the emergence of the Wilderness Movement and subsequent Environmental Era, which by the 1960s had gathered considerable momentum. The 1963 ‘Leopold Report’, submitted by the Advisory Board on Wildlife Management, advocated a program of “habitat manipulation to maintain and restore natural communities of plants and animals” (Leopold 1963). The report had a considerable influence on the

NPS DESIGN Park Service’s decision to change policies in regard to ecological protection (McClelland 1998, 477). Changes in park design and construction were called for, and planning was to be centered around biological information and concerns.

By 1966, the National Park Service established the Wilderness Management Criteria, through which the Park Service resolved to maintain high standards of preservation throughout the system, and to devise a system of zoning parklands into categories depending on significance, natural character, and wilderness qualities (McClelland 1998, 476). Ecological concerns took center stage in the discussion of national park preservation, while scenery preservation seemingly decreased in importance.

Master plans began to reflect a shift towards a more ecological perspective by the early 1970s, with the proposed master plan for Yellowstone being one of the first to embody a comprehensive set of salient ecological concerns. Furthermore, the Linn Cover Viaduct on the Blue Ridge Parkway, completed in 1983, marked a new era of park road design. The viaduct, completed by an engineering firm, managed to merge ecological protection, naturalistic landscape design principles, and modern construction methods and materials (McClelland 1998, 481).

Changes in planning and the process of design have continued since the 1970s. The Denver Service Center was formed in 1971, which still today provides multidisciplinary expertise in planning and design to the Park Service (McClelland 1998, 483). The Thomas Vint-initiated systems of planning through comprehensive master plan were abandoned in the mid- 1970s, in favor of overall “general management plans” (McClelland 1998, 483). These plans are comprised of a series of planning documents, which are supplemented by “development concept plans” which study and scrutinize the design and environmental issues specific areas within a park. Thus, cultural and natural resource management has become the subject of specialized guidelines that are customized for the needs of each park.

As summed up by Ethan Carr, “The designed landscapes in national and state parks, as works of art, directly express the value of society invests in preserving and appreciating natural areas. Few other arts...more fully explore this leitmotif of American culture. Neither pure wilderness nor mere artifact, the national park is the purest manifestation of the peculiarly American genius which sought to reconcile a people obsessed with progress with the unmatched price paid for that advance: the near total loss of the North American wilderness” (1998, 9).

CURRENT TRENDS In terms of design, the National Park Service has been moving towards a more “sustainable” approach for some time now, as evidenced by the 1994 publication of “NPS Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design”, the 2002 “Climate Friendly Parks Program”, which provides parks with the tools and resources to address climate change, and the Centennial Initiative 2016, which will expand programs and complete projects at parks across the country to prepare the national parks for a second century of conservation, preservation, and enjoyment. The Centennial Initiative plans on using additional operational funding from Congress and by matching federal dollars with private donations (National Park Service).

18 LITERATURE REVIEW Furthermore, a 2001 study titled “Rethinking the National Park for the 20th Century” cited the promotion of education, encouragement of the study of our country’s history, the conservation of biodiversity, the promotion of sustainability (Franklin 2001). The study highlighted the shared history between native cultures and the parks, the collaboration among parks and recreation systems at every level, and the development of the workforce as key components for the future success of the Park Service.

General Design Periods in NPS History NPS DESIGN

Romanticism Fairsted School Naturalistic Conservation 19th - early 20th Century A.J. Downing C. Eliot

Roads Infrastructural Social Reflection Early 20th Century Preservation

Master Planning Planning Regional Planning Early - Mid 20th Century CCC / PWA Naturalistic Approach

Mission 66 Initiative Modernist Modern Materials Mid - 20th Century

“Leopold Report” Environmental Era Wilderness Management Mid - Late 20th Century Ecological Perspective

Centennial Initiative Current Trends Sustainable Design “Designing the Parks”

General Design Movements in NPS History.

19 LITERATURE REVIEW Park Design

GENERAL THEORY In the book of essays by leading landscape architects entitled Large Parks, landscape architect James Corner discusses the design of parks of substantial acreage, stating that, “the trick is to design a (large park) framework that is sufficiently robust to lend structure and identity while also having sufficient pliancy and ‘give’ to adapt to changing demands and ecologies over time” (Czerniak and Hargreaves 2007, 13). This suggests a need for a flexible composition of design and programming that still lends coherency to a vast quantity of evolving space.

In contrast, Ann Forsyth, Laura Musacchio and Frank Fitzgerald, in Designing Small Parks: A Manual for Addressing Social and Ecological Concerns, state, “small parks have many benefits, not least of which is the provision of nearby nature, green space, or habitat, often deep within an urban area...the contexts of small parks can also increase their ecological and social values...however, given their variations in size and shape, choices about design and management priorities

PARK DESIGN PARK are unavoidable” (Forsyth, Musacchio and Fitzgerald 2005).The comment here suggests that, although small parks can possess an array of positive attributes and important roles, the importance of making specific decisions as to which those might be is critical to the parks success. In other words, it appears there is less wiggle room, both spatially and programmatically, when designing small parks as compared to large.

The implication for the 34.4 acre Resaca de la Palma site (a small sized park by a definition offered in Large Parks, a medium to large sized park from Forsyth, Musacchio and Fitzgerald’s point of view) is to keep the notion of the flexible framework that Corner points out in mind, while remaining resolute and efficient in deciding which roles and functions the park may play. In determining which functions and values to highlight and which to abandon, it is important to weight all the options, attempt to understand user needs, and balance the needs of the site itself with the system in which it is located. The critical aspects of day-to-day use and event programming are also highlighted in both cases. As Linda Pollack points out, “parks become meaningful places as much by their physical qualities as the events that take place there” (Czerniak and Hargreaves 2007, 189).

ECOLOGICAL DESIGN Environmental psychologist Galen Cranz once posited that a park can be “a perfect world in miniature, one that provides norms for the larger world to live up to” (Czerniak and Hargreaves 2007 , 29). Ecological planner Nina-Marie Lister points out, however, that for a park to be perfect, it needs to be ecologically resilient, functionally connected through landscape linkages, self-organizing, economically viable, and culturally adored; the basis for sustainability. Lister defines sustainability as “the inherent balance between socio-cultural, economical, and ecological domains that is necessary for long-term survival and thriving on Earth by humans” (Czerniak and Hargreaves 2007, 3). Ecological design, an interdisciplinary field of study influenced by ecology, environmental planning and science, and landscape architecture, is an approach towards achieving this sustainability through “sustainable, humane and environmentally responsible development” (Czerniak and Hargreaves 2007, 39). Architect Sim Van der Ryn and Economist Stuart Cowan, who published the first works on the topic, suggest ecological design is a hinge that connects culture and nature, allowing humans to adapt and integrate nature’s processes with human creations (Van der Ryn and Cowan 1995, 201).

Lister also comments on small parks and the difference between what she calls “ecological design” and “designer ecology”. She describes “designer ecology”, or the design of small, fragmented parks with ecological design in mind, as essential for educational, aesthetic and cultural reasons, although, “from an operational ecological perspective... smaller parks cannot reasonably be self-sustaining, thus not resilient ecosystems, unless they are functionally connected through robust landscape linkages to other similar areas” (Lister 35). That notion is an important one in relation to the Resaca de la Palma

Fig 1. - Ecological Design Diagram by Sim Van der Ryn. site, as the rehabilitation of the park’s ecology, as I will later discuss, will be vital to

20 LITERATURE REVIEW effectively telling of the site’s history. Her comments also suggests the opportunity and necessity of establishing and expanding ecological corridors to larger, more ecologically sound areas, which happen to abound at a regional scale in Brownsville, TX.

RESTORATIVE EXPERIENCE A small park also poses a challenge in its ability to create a place away, or a “restorative environment” as Stephen Kaplan, environmental psychologist and professor at the University of Michigan, describes it (Kaplan 1995, 169). He explains, such space “must be of sufficient scope to engage the mind. It must provide enough to see, experience, and think about so that it takes up a substantial portion of the available room in one’s head” (Kaplan 1995, 173). Kaplan proposed four factors necessary for a space to be potentially restorative: Fascination, Being Away, Extent, and Compatibility. PARK DESIGN These four factors were kept in mind while working on the design of this project, as the RDLP site represents not only a historically and ecologically significant site, but also a unique natural space in a setting where the pressure of urbanization and population are ever-expanding.

FOUR FACTORS FOR A RESTORATIVE SPACE (Kaplan, 1995)

Fascination is the central component of restorative experience. The presence of fascination guarantees that directed attention can rest.

Being Away frees one from mental activity that requires directed attention support to keep going. It is a conceptual more than physical transformation, and while a new environment is helpful, a change in gaze, or an old environment viewed in a new way can provide the conceptual shift.

Extent implies that an environment must be rich and coherent enough so that it constitutes a whole other world. For example, an endless stream of stimuli would not qualify for two reasons: there is a lack of extent, as it is not an environment, merely an unrelated collection of impressions; an environment must be sufficient in scope to engage the mind.

Compatibility must exist between one’s environment and one’s purposes and inclinations. In other words, the space must fit what one is trying to do and what one would like to do.

Fig. 2 - Adapted from “Kaplan, Stephen. 1995. “The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward an Integrative Framework”. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 15 (3): 169. 21 LITERATURE REVIEW Regional Landscape Context

INTRODUCTION The strategic location and unique physiographic characteristics of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV) makes it one of the most biologically diverse region in the United States. The Valley serves as a confluence of temperate and tropical habitats along major migratory pathways inhabited or frequented by thousands of plant and wildlife species, many of which are unique to the area (Shackelford 2005, 23). More than 1,200 plant species have been recorded at the Valley, and about 40% of all the butterflies recorded in North America, north of Mexico, call this region home. Indeed, more species of butterflies have been recorded in the Valley than in all of North America combined.

The diversity of habitats and its closeness to the Gulf of Mexico puts the Valley at the convergence of two major migratory bird flyways - the Central and Mississippi (Campbell 1995, 14). With almost 500 bird species recorded in the area, the Lower Rio Grande Valley is indeed LANDSCAPE CONTEXT a birder’s paradise. This official count represents about 54% of all bird species recorded in North America, north of Mexico. Except for California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas as a whole, the four counties (Cameron, Hidalgo, Starr and Willacy) of the Valley have more birds than any state in the nation. Here, many tropical birds reach their northernmost range of distribution, while others make the Valley their final migratory destination and wintering grounds. In addition to this, the Valley also provides crucial stopover habitat for hundreds Fig. 3 - The Rio Grande Valley area is a major bird migration corridor, located at the convergence of two major flyways - the Central and of species of migrating shorebirds, hummingbirds, songbirds, hawks, Mississippi. waterfowl, etc (Shackelford 2005, 15).

Within this area lies some of the most imperiled habitat on Earth (Griffith 2004, 1). The dominant vegetation associated with the LRGV, the Tamaulipan thornscrub, has been grazed by introduced stock since the Spanish conquest in the latter part of the 16th century (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 3). That trend has continued, and as such, with the continuation of land clearing for ranching, agriculture and urbanization, more than 95% of the wildlife habitat in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas has been lost (Campbell 1995, 13). In riparian areas, that figures rises to 99% (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 3). The remaining habitat is critical to many species, as well as the economy and quality of life of much of South Texas.

ECOREGIONS Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components. By recognizing the spatial differences in the capacities and potentials of ecosystems, ecoregions stratify the environment by its probable response to disturbance (Environmental Protection Agency). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal agencies, state agencies, and non-government organizations that are responsible for different types of resources within the same geographical areas (Omernik 2004, 27).

Lower Rio Grande Valley Ecoregion (34e on page 25 map): Comprising the four southernmost counties of Texas—Starr, Hidalgo, Willacy and Cameron—the Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV) covers an area of 4,300 square miles within the Western Gulf Coast Plain ecoregion. The Lower Rio Grande Valley is not actually a valley, rather a delta, or fertile plain, which slopes away from the Rio Grande (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 1). Bordered to the west and south by the Rio Grande River and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico, this region is home to more than 1.1 million Texans and a vast wealth of plants and animal communities (The Nature Conservancy 2008).

The Lower Rio Grande Valley ecoregion once supported diverse grassland, shrub and low woodland communities.

22 LITERATURE REVIEW However, with the advent of ranching and disruption of the area’s native hydrology beginning in the 19th century, mesquite (Prosopis spp.), desert hackberry (granjeno in Texas - Celtis pallida), and a variety of other brush and shrub species have largely taken over the landscape. Today, the vast majority of the land is designated by cropland, pasture, and urban land cover (Griffith 2004, 79). Much of the Rio Grande’s water that is withdrawn for irrigation flows through this region within the Arroyo Colorado, North Floodway, and Raymondville Drain into the Laguna Madre. Along with the Lower Rio Grande Floodplain to the south, the LRGV contains important nesting grounds for the white-winged dove, a favored hunting species in southern Texas (Griffith 2004, 80).

Lower Rio Grande Alluial Floodplain (34f) (includes Brownsville) LANDSCAPE CONTEXT The Lower Rio Grande Alluvial Floodplain ecoregion includes the Holocene-age alluvial sands and clays of the Rio Grande floodplain that are now almost completely in cropland or urban land cover (Griffith 2004, 80). Crops include cotton, citrus, grain sorghum, sugar cane, vegetables, and melons. The soils, mostly Vertisols and Mollisols, are deep, loamy and clayey, and tend to be finer-textured than in the Lower Rio Grande Valley Ecoregion to the north (Griffith 2004, 81). Some Entisols and Inceptisols occur near the river. In the lower portions of the river, the floodplain ridges once had abundant palm trees (Sabal mexicana), and early Spanish explorers called it the “Rio de las Palmas.” Most large palm trees and floodplain forests had been cleared by the early 1900’s (The Nature Conservancy 2008).

In some areas, subtropical upland forests, broadleaved and mostly evergreen, occurred. These evergreen low forests formed landscape mosaics with related floodplain hardwood forests that were dominated by deciduous species (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 7). A few remnants of these unique forests remain, including Texas ebony (Pithecellobium flexicaule), Texas palmetto (Sabal mexicana), and sugar hackberry (Celtis laevigata) floodplain forests. These riparian woodlands are some of the rarest natural communities in Texas (Stein 2002, 14).

The hydrology and natural cycles of flooding have been highly altered in this ecoregion (Griffith 2004, 80). This has decreased the quality and number of wetlands, especially the oxbow lakes Fig. 4 - Ecoregions of South Texas (IV) known as resacas, an important wildlife habitat (The Nature 31d Rio Grande Floodplain and Terraces Conservancy 2008). The altered flood cycles in the Lower Rio 34d Coastal Sand Plain 34e Lower Rio Grande Valley Grande valley also contribute to the replacement of mesic 34f Lower Rio Grande Alluvial Floodplain riparian woodland trees with more xeric species such as mesquite 34i Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 3). The Rio Grande’s water is mostly From: Level IV Ecoregions of Texas poster - Front. http://www.epa.gov/wed/ diverted from its channel for irrigation and urban use, and little pages/ecoregions/tx_eco.htm or no flow reaches the Gulf of Mexico. Return irrigation water generally does not return to the main river, but instead passes through the drainage structures of the Arroyo Colorado and the North Floodway (Griffith 2004, 81).

Agricultural chemicals, along with municipal and industrial discharges are added to the Arroyo Colorado, often causing pollution-induced oxygen depletions (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 5). These contaminants then flow into the Laguna Madre in Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion (Edwards and Contreras-Balderas 1991, 202). Salinity is another water-quality issue in this ecoregion. Increasing salinity levels in the Rio Grande negatively affect native fishes, and encourage non-native invasions. As groundwater in this region tends to be saline and unusable, increasing surface water salinity also threatens the use of Rio Grande water for irrigation and for human consumption (Edwards and Contreras-Balderas 1991, 202). Human population in the region has increased rapidly in the past 30 years. Many unincorporated communities along the river lack adequate water supply and wastewater disposal systems, while larger cities such as Brownsville and Harlingen are close to exceeding their permitted rights to surface water.

23 LITERATURE REVIEW Tamaulipan Thornscrub Ecoregion The Tamaulipan Thornscrub ecoregion (also referred to as Tamaulipan biotic province) is the dominant biotic unit within the Lower Rio Grande Valley. Associated vegetation is characteristically dense and thorny, largely influenced by edaphic, or soil-based, factors whose distribution can be correlated with geologic formations, with an average height of shrubs and trees (mainly legumes) of 13 feet (Jahrsdoerfer et al. 1988, 1). The most important woody species is Texas honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) (Griffith 2004, 82). Where conditions are suitable, there is a dense understory of smaller trees and shrubs such as brasil (Condalia hookeri), colima (Zanthoxylum fagara), Texas persimmon (Diospyros texana), lotebush (Zizyphus obtusifolia), granjeno (Celtis ehrenbergiana), kidneywood (Eysenhardtia texana), coyotillo (Karwinskia humboldtiana), Texas paloverde (Parkinsonia texanum), anacahuita (Cordia boissieri), and various species of cacti (Archer et al. 1988, 112). The brush communities also tend to grade into desert scrub near the Rio Grande. Mid- and short grasses are common, including cane bluestem (Bothriochloa barbinodis), silver bluestem (Bothriochloa saccharoides), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), pink pappusgrass (Pappophorum bicolor), and bristlegrasses (Setaria macrostachya)(Archer et al. 1988, 112).

LANDSCAPE CONTEXT CLIMATE, SOILS, GEOLOGY, HYDROLOGY, FAUNA AND FLORA Climate Much of South Texas can be described as arid land, punctuated occasionally by floods caused by Gulf Coast moisture or hurricanes (Maywald 2004, 19). Although rainfall is sporadic, the climate of the Lower Rio Grande Valley is technically sub-tropical (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 3). The combination of western desert, northern, coastal and tropical plants found there make the region among the most unique in Texas (Jahrsdoerfer 3). The growing season can reach 365 days a year in the southern counties of the LRGV, while the average annual temperature exceeds 70 degrees F, which is comparable with southern Florida (Maywald 2004, 9). Annual rainfall ranges from 16 to 30 inches (Maywald 2004, 9), and develops as local shows or as high-intensity rains, occurring most frequently in May or June, followed again in September (Everitt and Drawe 1993, 5). Periodic droughts are fairly common, wherein no rainfall is recorded during some months of the year.

The region has the most subtropical climate of Texas, but hard freezes occasionally occur, affecting plants and animals that are at the northern limit of their range (Maywald 2004, 19). Subtropical, temperate, coastal, and desert influences converge here, allowing for great species diversity, and the oregion harbors many rare species of plants and animals.

Soil and Land Use Soils, which vary from very basic to slightly acidic, range in composition from acid sands, clay loams and saline clays along the region’s coastal areas, to clay, sand and loams in inland areas (Everitt and Drawe 1). Large tracts of land are today under cultivation, with rice, grain, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans the principal crops, although the majority of land holdings are large cattle ranches. White-tail deer are particularly abundant, and their economic value is an important consideration in any land management decision (Everitt and Drawe 1993, 6).

Hydrology and Resacas Needless to say, the Rio Grande flows through the Lower Rio Grande Valley. Brownsville itself lies within the natural alluvial plain of the Rio Grande, some 25 miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico (Environmental Protection Agency). The Rio Grande once formed a broad and meandering waterway that produced numerous resacas, also known as finger lakes or oxbow lakes, within its floodplain, and an extensive marshy environment at its mouth (Margo 2006, 23). Resacas are former channels of the Rio Grande found mostly in the southern portion of Cameron County, Texas (Whitko 2009, 2). Changes in river hydrology over the course of time have separated resacas from Rio Grande waters (Margo 2006, 26). The resulting resacas form arterial, snake-like patterns across the landscape. Before the advent of dams along the Rio Grande, resacas performed nature’s own flood control. As a result of anthropogenic influences and the re-engineering of the Rio Grande, the recharge of resacas today comes almost exclusively from runoff and rainfall (Whitko 2009, 2).

24 LITERATURE REVIEW Today, the Brownsville Public Utilities Board (PUB) maintains control of the flow and levels within the cities resacas. The Brownsville PUB pumps raw water into the area’s resaca system, such as Resaca de la Guerra, as needed and provided there is surplus water available (Environmental Protection Agency). As such, resacas aid in flood control, water storage, and add an aesthetic character to the city (Whitko 2009, 5).

Ecologically speaking, resacas and their associated vegetation act as important corridors for wildlife throughout the Lower Rio Grande Valley (Jahrsdoerfer et al. 1988, 5). According to the National Biological Service, resacas “may be the key to the high biodiversity” found in the region, providing habitat for such aquatic creatures as the

tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula), large mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Amazon LANDSCAPE CONTEXT molly (Poecilia formosa) and the Rio Grande siren (Siren intermedia) (Environmental Protection Agency). The EPA and partner agencies are currently in the feasibility stages of the “Brownsville Resaca Restoration Project”, which aims to restore or improve the entire resaca system in Brownsville, including the Resaca de la Guerra/Palma (the resaca bordering the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site). Restoration of the Resaca de la Guerra would ostensibly make Brownsville more resistant to drought-related disasters by providing a the city with a 7 to 8 day water storage capacity, along with improving habitats for numerous species of birds common to the area and provide “other ecological benefits” (EPA). The vision of the project is to see fisheries restored and hike and bike trails constructed, allowing for enhanced recreational and educational opportunities for area residents and visitors (EPA).

Modern Sea Level Laguna Madre Brownsville Modern Shoreline Early Padre Islands Padre Islands

Lower Sea Level

Rio Grande Delta Rio Grande Delta Rio Grande Delta Today 11,500 Years Ago 2,500 - 4,500 Years Ago

Fig. 5 - Formation of the Rio Grande Delta. (reproduction of signage at Resaca de la Palma State Park by author)

Flora and Habitat Tamaulipan Thornscrub, a subtropical, semi-arid vegetation type, occurs on either side of the Rio Grande. Spiny shrubs and trees dominate this thornscrub, but grasses, forbs, and succulents are also prominent (Richardson 1995, 32). The slightly higher, drier, and rockier sites originally had vegetation of chaparral and cacti, whereas the flat, deep soils supported mesquite, taller brush and drought-resistant trees, often rather openly spaced and savanna-like in a grassland matrix (Texas Parks and Wildlife). This region also includes elements of pastizal (a combination of grassland, savanna, and páramo-like communities). Leguminous shrubs and trees constitute one-third of the diverse woody flora, which the rural population uses for extensive grazing of livestock, fuelwood, and timber for fencing and construction (Texas Parks and Wildlife).

The two species that characterized Tamaulipan Thornscrub before alteration were mesquite and the curly mesquite grass (Hilaria belangeri) which grew under it. Literature suggests that the most common shrubs were chaparro (Zizyphus obtusifolia) and jazmincillo (Aloysia gratissima) (Lonard and Judd 2006, 273). Parts of this region consisted of open woods of mesquite, with a pronounced understory of grasses which often contained a layer of taller species such as hooded finger grass (Chloris cucullata), and a layer of shorter grasses such as grama (Bouteloua spp.). In some places, dense stands of prickly pear or nopal (Opuntia lindheimeri) would take the place of many of the shrubs and grasses (Everett and Drawe 1993, 35).

The only exceptions to the rather arid shrub-covered landscapes are the lines of riparian vegetation within the few river valleys (Lonard and Judd 2006, 274). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recognizes 11 biotic communities within the LRGV, wherein the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield, although highly disturbed by the urbanization over the past century,

25 LITERATURE REVIEW may be most closely associated with the “Mid-Valley Riparian Woodland” (Jahrsdoerfer et al. 1988, 7). Essentially a bottomland hardwood site, Mid-Valley Riparian Woodlands are composed of scattered stands of cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), Berlandier ash (Fraxinus berlandieriana) and sugar hackberry (Celtis larigata), and intermixed with the mid-delta thorn forest mesquite and granjeno thickets (Jahrsdoerfer et al 1988, 7). The result is a dense, tall, canopied forest and a more readily available water supply and wildlife food. Montezuma bald cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) was once common along the Rio Grande for 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The tree is now rare along the Rio Grande, though it is still the dominant tree along the Rio Corona to the south. Perhaps the most striking endemic along the lower Rio Grande is the palma de Micharos (Sabal texana), which was once common along resacas in the floodplain and held a dominant position over mesquite under certain conditions (Richardson 1995, 23).

The flora of the Tamaulipan differs dramatically from the nearest desert, the Chihuahua desert, largely because of the Chihuahua’s higher elevations and generally colder winters. The number of species in the Tamaulipan that are ostensibly desert plants, many showing affinities with the Sonoran Desert, has startled many investigators (The Nature Conservancy). The wide variety of habitats and vegetative zones which overlap the region, together with distinctive

LANDSCAPE CONTEXT meteorological variables, combine to provide a home to plant and animal species found nowhere else in the United States (Fermata, Inc.). Alfred Richardson (1995, 23) describes a number of tropical species from southern Mexico and Central America reach as far as North America as their northernmost point of distribution (Sabal texana being the most prominent). Land clearing for ranching, agriculture and urbanization has resulted in the loss of more than 95% of the wildlife habitat in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. The remaining habitat is crucial to countless species, as well as the economy and quality of life of much of South Texas (The Nature Conservancy).

Fauna The location and unique physiographic characteristics of the Lower Rio Grande Valley makes it arguably the most biologically diverse region in the United States (Richardson 1995, 3). The Valley serves as a confluence of temperate and tropical habitats along major migratory pathways inhabited or frequented by thousands of plant and wildlife species, many of which are unique to the area. Roughly 40% of all the butterflies recorded in North America, north of Mexico, call this region home (Fermata, Inc.). The Tamaulipan ecoregion is also very well known for its large ranches and deer (Texas Parks and Wildlife).

The diversity of habitats and its closeness to the Gulf of Mexico puts the Valley at the center of one of the busiest migratory flyways (Brush 2005). With almost 500 bird species recorded in the area, the Lower Green Kingfisher Chloroceryle( americana) (4) Rio Grande Valley is indeed a birder’s paradise (Shackelford 2005, 45). This official count represents about 54% of all bird species recorded in North America, north of Mexico. Except for California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas as a whole, the four counties (Cameron, Hidalgo, Starr and Willacy) of the Valley have more birds than any state in the nation. Here, many tropical birds reach their northernmost range of distribution, while others make the Valley their final migratory destination and wintering grounds (Brush 2005, 15). In addition, the Valley also provides crucial stopover habitat for hundreds of species of migrating shorebirds, hummingbirds, songbirds, hawks and waterfowl.

Based upon a review of existing data, the LRGV Butterfly list includes 294 species (including historic records) observed or collected in the four counties of the LRGV (Fermata, Inc.). The species listed approximately 40% of all butterflies recorded in North America north of Mexico. Of this total, 70 species, or nearly 10% of the North American Butterfly fauna, have not been recorded for the United States outside of the 4 counties comprising the Lower Rio Grande Valley (Fermata, Inc.).

Among the wildlife species present are a number of federally listed threatened and endangered species which include: mammals such as ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), jaguarondis (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), Mexican prairie

26 LITERATURE REVIEW dog (Cynomys mexicanus), southern plains woodrat (Neotoma micropus), and Mexican spiny pocket mouse (Liomys irroratus) (Texas Parks and Wildlife). Birds include the brown pelican, whooping crane, bald eagle, northern aplomado falcon, piping plover, least tern (Fermata, Inc.).

REGIONAL CONTEXT SUMMARY LANDSCAPE CONTEXT

Home to almost 1.1 million Texans Annual rainfall 16 to 30 inches 50% population growth since 1990 Periodic droughts common

Argueably most biologically diverse region in US 1,200+ Native plants < 95% of habitat in the LRGV lost associated with LRGV

27 LITERATURE REVIEW REGIONAL HABITAT AND “STEPPING STONES”

3 7

10 miles

3 miles

1 mile RDLP LANDSCAPE CONTEXT

A sample of general open space, wildlife reserves and other protected lands in and around Bronwsville, TX - locally (above) and regionally (below). A key to ten of such sites is provided. Distances in miles are approximates. DESCRIPTION 9 Abundant large- and medium-scale regional habitat areas surround the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield and demonstrate the potential role the it could one day play as a “stepping stone”, especially for migratory birds. Sites such as the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield could also provide an important habitat for local (non-migratory) species, habitats which are increasingly important GULF OF MEXICO as area land uses shifts to more urban 2 and suburban environments. 1 Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge 3 6 2 Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge TEXAS 3 Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge 1 7 4 Las Palomas Wildlife Management Area 8 4 5 Sabal Palm Audubon Sanctuary MEXICO 6 South Padre Island Birding & Nature Center 5 10 7 Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site

RDLP 8 Resaca de la Palma State Park 5 miles 9 Padre Island National Seashore 10 miles 25 miles 10 Laguna Madre y Delta de Río Bravo (Mexico)

28 LITERATURE REVIEW

Summer Tanager Black-bellied Whistling Duck “VALLEY SPECIALTIES”, OR TROPICAL BIRDS THAT REACH THEIR NORTHERNMOST LIMIT IN OR JUST LANDSCAPE CONTEXT NORTH OF THE LRGV (Fermata, Inc.) Least Grebe Muscovy Duck Hook-billed Kite Gray Hawk Least Grebe White-tailed Hawk Plain Chachalaca Aplomado Falcon Plain Chachalaca Red-billed Pigeon White-tipped Dove Green Parakeet Red-crowned Parrot Groove-billed Ani Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl Pauraque Hook-billed Kite Buff-bellied Hummingbird Ringed Kingfisher Groove-billed Ani Green Kingfisher Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet Brown-crested Flycatcher Great Kiskadee Tropical Kingbird Couch’s Kingbird Green Jay Brown Jay Tamaulipas Crow Grey Jay Chihuahuan Raven Olive Sparrow Cave Swallow Clay-colored Robin Long-billed Thrasher Tropical Parula White-collared Seedeater Olive Sparrow Botteri’s Sparrow Altamira Oriole Altamira Oriole Audubon’s Oriole Tropical Kingbird

29 LITERATURE REVIEW Site History and Context INTRODUCTION In an attempt to better understand the socio-cultural, economic and military history of the RDLP site, a study of the City of Brownsville and the site itself were undertaken. A brief survey of memorials associate with the Mexican American War is also included. The hope was to avoid any insensitive design decisions, while instead focusing in on highlighting important historical aspects.

BROWNSVILLE According to the authors of Portrait of a Border City : Brownsville, Texas William L. Adams and Anthony K. Knopp, the story of Brownsville began with Matamoros and the Spanish settlement of northeastern Mexico. The story of the discovery of the Lower Rio Grande Valley, however, has been clouded by controversy. Local historians and tourism officials proclaimed the Rio Grande to be the Rio de Las Palmas discover by Alonso Alvarez de Pineda in 1519 (Adams and Knopp 1997, 5). Recently, the connection between Brownsville and the era of Spanish exploration was challenged by SITE HISTORY historian Don Chipman, who researched and demonstrated the Rio de Las Palmas was actually located many miles south in Mexico (Chipman 1995, 369).

The Rio Grande region was bypassed by the Spanish, who crossed through the area to settle other portions of Texas first (Adams and Knopp 1997, 6). Not until 1746 did Spanish officials authorize the exploration and settlement of what became Nuevo Santander. In 1774, ten families began to purchase cattle ranches and agreed to establish a town at present-day Matamoros (Adams and Knopp 1997, 6). The new settlement prospered from ranching and the beginnings of illegal trade with New Orleans (Kearney 1986, 13).

Commerce provided the attraction for foreigners, including Americans, to settle in the area. Among the most prosperous of the foreign merchants was Charles Stillman, future founder of Brownsville. Mexican Independence in 1821 resulted in the renaming of Matamoros from San Juan de los Esteros Hermosas (St. John of the Beautiful Lakes) to Matamoros, in honor of independence hero Mariano Matamoros (Adams and Knopp 1997, 15). The early prosperity of Matamoros was threatened by the war for Texas Independence (1835 - 1836), the annexation of Texas into the United States (1845), and the Mexican American War of 1846. After the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Mexican forces abandoned Matamoros and occupied by US forces, who later entered Mexico as far as Mexico City (Adams and Knopp 1997, 23).

Despite several rival attempts to found a new town north of Matamoros, Charles Stillman procured a title to several thousand acres of adjacent to the site selected for the relocation of Fort Brown (near present day downtown Brownsville). Stillman and two partners established the Brownsville Town Company to subdivide and sell lots for houses (Adams and Knopp 1997, 27). Within two years, the population of Brownsville had reached 3,000, and served as an entrance way for trade of northeastern Mexico through the Brazos de Santiago port on the Gulf of Mexico (Kearney 1986, 15).

A new source of wealth resulted from the Mexican American War in the form of steamboat traffic, which continued into the 1850s. Stillman and partners quickly developed a monopoly of trade traffic on the Rio Grande. Stillman’s partners, Richard King and Mifflin Kenedy, eventually turned their attention to the acquisition of ranch lands, eventually forming the largest ranch in the United States - the King Ranch (Adams and Knopp 1997, 33).

Control of Fort Brown and Brownsville proved critical during the Civil War (1861-1865), as the Confederacy depended on trading cotton for industrial goods necessary to pursue independence. In an effort to seize control of Brownsville, Union forces advanced on and took control of the city in 1862 (Kearney 1986, 17). In 1864, Confederate troops reoccupied the area, under the control of Col. Rip Ford. Ford and his men fought in the last battle of the Civil War, Palmito Hill, which took place over a month after General Lee’s surrender at Appomattox (Adams and Knopp 1997, 36).

The end of the Civil War saw the beginning of a long economic decline for Brownsville. Stillman left town for NYC in 1866, and Kenedy and King sold their steamboats in 1874 to focus on ranching, which proved to be made more difficult by 30 LITERATURE REVIEW continual raids and extensive cattle rustling from Mexico. The single greatest blow, however, to Brownsville’s economic well-being came in the 1880s, with the US - Mexico railroad connection through Laredo, which bypassed Brownsville altogether (Adams and Knopp 1997, 42).

Economic resuscitation finally occurred in the early years of the 20th century due to the convergence of two main factors: extensive irrigation and the arrival of the railroad. Irrigation permitted the production of citrus and vegetables, and the railroad allowed the shipment of goods across the country. (Adams and Knopp 1997, 44). This combination attracted Midwesterners, who invested in the valley and its real estate. Brownsville was linked to Houston in 1905, and with Matamoros in 1910, via the first intercontinental bridge over the Rio Grande (Kearney 1986, 23). SITE HISTORY Post-World War I witnessed a land boom in the area, and with an influx of prospective home buyers, resulting in the doubling of Brownville’s population within a decade (Adams and Knopp 1997, 44). The Depression ended that growth, although agricultural production still continued. World War II saw another boom in home purchasing and development, and in the 1960s, the expansion of the maquiladora system, in which foreign-owned plants could take advantage of cheap labor in Matamoros. Factories and other businesses rapidly developed in Brownsville to supply and support the maquiladores. Accompanying the industrial-growth was the expansion of tourism focused on Mexico and South Padre Island (Kearney 1986, 26).

In the early 1980s, a massive peso devaluation brought an economic depression to the border. Downtown Brownsville’s retail trade, heavily dependent on Mexican customers, was largely devastated by the devaluation (Adams and Knopp 1997, 49).

CULTURE Recent trends show that the populations of Brownsville, TX and Matamoros, Mexico, are growing substantially. Between 2000 and 2009, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that the population of Brownsville increased 21.3% from 139,722 to 172,437 people (U.S. Census 2009). Similarly, Cameron County also experienced a 17.2% population increase over this same time period, having an estimated population of 392,736 in 2008 (U.S. Census 2009). Matamoros had an estimated population of 422,711 in 2005 with a growth rate of 15% annually, accelerated by immigration into Southern Texas. According Charros Days in Brownsville (5) to the 2000 U.S. Census, 91.3% of residents in the Brownsville area are of Hispanic descent (U.S. Census). Located on the Gulf Coast, the major economic base of the region is fishing, U.S.-Mexico trade, and oil exploration.

The September 2009 site visit taken by this project’s investigators noted the impacts of this regional population growth. Residential and commercial developments surrounded battlefield lands in all directions. The increasing population of the area will certainly continue to affect development within the region into the future.

UNITED STATES - MEXICO WAR The Mexican–American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution. The Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma were the only two major battles of the United States - Mexico War fought on what is today American soil (Mardorf 2010, 14). Considered the first U.S. win of the war, the Battle of Resaca de la Palma raised the confidence of American soldiers. During the battle, the U.S. Army proved “that it was a professional force capable of overcoming unexpected difficulties and of exploiting unforeseen opportunities.” (Bauer 1986, 78). The U.S. Army eventually went on to seize victories throughout Mexico, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848 (Mardorf 2010, 14). The conflict also served as a “training grounds” for officers who would later fight on opposing sides during the U.S. Civil War, including Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant (Bauer 1986, 395).

31 LITERATURE REVIEW Resaca de la Palma Battlefield The Resaca de la Palma Battlefield includes 34.4 acres associated with the second battle of the United States-Mexico War, located 3.5 miles north of downtown Brownsville, Texas, in Cameron County (Mardorf 2010, 3). The historic site is significant because it is the location of the second major battle of the war between Mexico and the United States, and is one of only two battlefields from the war on what is now American soil (Mardorf 2010, 4).

Resaca de la Palma Battlefield first became a National Historic Landmark in 1960, and was later placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 (National Park Service). The battlefield remained in private ownership until 2001 (Mardorf 2010, 3). Ownership of the property was passed to the City of Brownsville in 2001, at which point plans were made by the City to use the battlefield as a headquarters and visitor facility for Mexican War sites in the area, an approach that was to be a partnership with the National Park Service. In 2003, the land was sold to the Brownsville Community Foundation (Mardorf 2010, 4). The Brownsville Community Foundation retains ownership of the 34.4 acre parcel today, while the National Park Service manages the site, a management scenario known as a cooperative agreement. Efforts

SITE HISTORY to plan the headquarters and visitor facility were never finalized, although negotiations with the Brownsville Community Foundation are still underway, including an outright purchace of the land by the National Park Service (Mardorf 2010, 4; Spier 2011, personal communication). In 2008, by act of the U.S. Congress, the expansion of Palo Alto including the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield as a discontinuous unit was authorized (Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park Boundary Expansion and Redesignation Act of 2008).

Today, the site is part of the authorized boundary of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Park (Mardorf 2010, 4). Remnants of a previous residential dwelling and polo fields from the 1960s remain among dense areas of largely, non-native grasses and Texas honey mesquite and Texas olive trees canopies. While the bordering Resaca de la Palma (Guerrero)has been affected by dredging and vegetation removal over the years, it remains as an important reference point for battle events (Mardorf 2010, 4).

Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site On May 8, 1846, the first major battle of the U.S. - Mexico War took place on the plains of Palo Alto. The site was a natural battlefield, in that it was a low-lying, coastal prairie ringed by tree covered rises (National Park Service). Today, Palo Alto has escaped much of the development that has swept across the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas and, according to the National Park Service, retains much of the character of the field in 1846. A vast plain of gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), surrounded by dense thickets of mesquite, cactus and other thorny vegetation. At present, the National Park Service is proceeding with efforts to preserve the site, provide access, and stimulate public understanding of this historically important field. After an extensive planning period, Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park is rapidly moving forward with efforts to preserve, protect, and interpret this nationally significant site (National Park Service).

Fort Brown (formerly known as Fort Texas) Fort Brown has suffered as a result of natural and anthropogenic disturbances in the Lower Rio Grande Valley. The original star-shaped structure had sloped walls of 9 feet high, with additional parapets at the top of each wall, raising the wall’s profile to 15-feet in height (Kralovec 2008, 2). Fort Brown’s original earthworks were abandoned shortly after the war with Mexico, however it remained an active post until after World War II (National Park Service). After a century of steady erosion, much of what remained of Fort Brown was bulldozed to build a levee along the Rio Grande. As of 1997, approximately one-third of Fort Brown’s original earthen fortification remained (PAAL Draft Management Plan 1997, 69). Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park undertook a “Boundary Adjustment Feasibility Study for Fort Texas” in 2008, and is currently “involved in activities to stabilize the surviving earthworks, to protect the site, and to interpret this fort as a unit of the park” (National Park Service). According to Palo Alto’s Draft General Management Plan, “...the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) manages the land and water that forms the border between the United States and Mexico...the commission has jurisdiction over the 1846 Fort Brown National Historic Landmark. Any park plans to gain access to, preserve, or reclaim this site require cooperation with and consideration of other IBWC plans” (1997, 13).

32 LITERATURE REVIEW

Historic Boundaries Of RDLP Battlefield

Existing Boundaries Of RDLP Battlefield SITE HISTORY

Fig. 7 - Map Historic Boundaries Of RDLP Compared To Today. Fig. 8 - Scaled Comparison Of 3,400 Acre Palo Alto Battlefield And 34.4 Acre Resaca De La Palma Battlefield.

1846 2010 “Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 1846 showing solider positions and landscape Image of RDLP Battlefield in 2010. (7) features of the RDLP Battlefield. (6) Fig. 9 - Maps of Historic Vegetation of RDLP compared to 2010

33 LITERATURE REVIEW SITE HISTORY

Image of canon placed at the historic location of Fort Brown - January, 2009.

Texas honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae) and Seaside Oxeye (Borrichia frutescens) at Palo Alto Battlefield - May, 2010.

34 CASE REVIEWS

CASE REVIEWS CASE REVIEWS

PARKS NPS PARKS ECOLOGICAL DESIGN GREENWAYS

35 CASE REVIEWS Bryant Park Location: New York City, NY Size: 3 Acres Key Concepts: Park access, event programming, flexible space, impact to context

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: • Programmed space and events can contribute to an active year-round, dynamic, safe and economically stable space. • Open access and visibility into and within a park, improved lighting, and signage all contribute to making a park a safer place. • Public / private entities working together can become “financiers and guardians” of public space. • There exists a direct, positive Bryant Park Flexible Space (8) correlation between open space and urban planner and sociologist William round. How active, however, will be land value. H. Whyte was commissioned to an important question; the reverent • Positively charged, socially viable analyze why the park was a sanctuary nature of the park will be important open space lends significant value to for criminals and to recommend viable to some visitors, as will respecting the PARKS development in the urban realm. solutions. He concluded many of the peace and quiet of local resident. • A park space can have a positive social problems were a direct result effect on adjacent roads and of the park’s historic design. “Access is Economic sustainability is a hallmark pedestrian circulation patterns. • Parks are ideal places for people to the nub of the solution,” wrote Whyte. of Bryant Park. The restoration of the experience the restorative benefits of park marked the beginning of an era nature. Today, in a sense, the park is self- where public/private partnerships enforcing. Uniformed security guards became the financiers and guardians SUMMARY: According to Project and maintenance personnel not only of the public realm. As the future for Public Spaces, since its restoration provide upkeep, but also discourages of the RDLP site’s cooperative in the 1980s Bryant Park has become crime and vandalism by making it ownership and management one of the best “new” urban parks clear that the park is important and agreement are uncertain, this park in America. Its overall design and cared for. The increased access and suggests an idea of how Brownsville elements support a range of activities visibility of the park, improved lighting, Community Foundation, who and uses for people who visit, work, and signage have all contributed to currently owns RDLP land, and the shop, or live nearby. More than 1000 making the park safer. Bryant Park’s National Park Service, who manage lightweight chairs can be moved success has spread to the rest of the the land, can successfully coexist. throughout the park and visitors can neighborhood as well. Two years after After park restoration in the 1980s, rent pieces for chess and backgammon its renovation, rental activity around building leases and land values of tables. Other attractions include the park increased by 60 percent. properties near the park increased flower gardens, a fountain, and a dramatically. As a result, developers variety of vantage points from which RELEVANCE: The park is active year- and land planners now understand to just sit and watch the world go by. round with concerts, performances, that positively charged, socially movie screenings, and ice skating. viable open space lends significant The park is managed by the Bryant Revenue has assured superb value to development in the urban Park Restoration Corporation which maintenance and care for the park and realm. is responsible for a multitude of its continued sustainability. The RDLP park activities and events, security, site, especially considering its pleasant maintenance, and marketing. In 1979, climate, could also remain active year 36 CASE REVIEWS Hermann Park Location: Houston, TX Size:18.5 Acres Keywords: park restoration, activation of space, connectivity

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: • A park provides connectivity between other important park and civic institutions. • Simplicity comes from clarity of form, a refined materials palette, and by the distribution of activity throughout a space. • Scale of a space must respond to larger urban design framework while also relating to the human users. “Heart of the Park” Conceptual Plan (9) • Well designed public space can improve the quality of urban life.

• Materials should be chosen for PARKS lasting quality as well as beauty • Active and quiet spaces should be accommodated. • Restoration of a place can come from a re-activation of space. Overview of Park Kids Having Fun With Nature SUMMARY: Hermann Park is one poor condition, and therefore very RELEVANCE: A balance of user of Houston’s great civic resources underutilized. In 1992, with only 20% needs, activation of space and containing a significant urban forest of the parks original space remaining, environmental issues were of central and many public venues. It is the the City of Houston acted to reclaim importance in the design solution. To flagship of the Houston Park system, the original vision for the park and by maintain water clarity and quality serving the recreation needs of the doing so, to return a large usable open the reflection pool utilizes a bio- City’s diverse population of some space to the public. filtration system, avoiding the use of four million and welcoming over six The Olin / SWA and the client group, chemical treatments and excessive million visitors a year. Constructed as stakeholders, and the parks master power consumption. Walkways are part of the nationwide City Beautiful planning consultant established four lined by promenades, reinforced by Movement at the beginning of the core design principles: timelessness a double row of mature Live Oak 20th century, the park lies within of design, an enduring aesthetic, trees, one of which had been planted walking distance from the Texas a legacy that would last for future in the 1920s to honor veterans of Medical Center, Rice University, and generations, and a project that could WW I, and a second row that was the Museum District, and within a few be affordably maintained in the future. added as part of the project. Porous miles of the Third Ward, the historic Named “The Heart of the Park”, paving systems and decomposed Astrodome and Reliant Stadium. the space is designed to maximize granite also limit potential damage people’s enjoyment of every square from increased water run-off from A framework plan for the park in foot of its 18.5 acres. The restoration the site. The Project added pines, 1914 and 1936 were never been fully and completion of the “The Heart oaks, cypress and other native or realized. A significant component of of the Park” became the generative indigenous species to the Hermann the original park vision is the Hermann force behind the re-activation of a Park forest. Additional native plant Park Reflection Pool, which had been delightful, civic space. materials, such as Texas perennials, only partially conceived and was in were utilized in special places.

37 CASE REVIEWS Parque Tezozomoc Location: Mexico City, Mexico Size: 70 Acres Key Concepts: symbolic landscape, environmental justice, urban renewal

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Park space can be organized around both the symbolic and functional. •Balance historical reference, recreational oasis and working landscape. •Access to park space can help regenerate a neighborhood. •Park space in lower income areas encourages equal environmental

access. Overview of Lagoon at Parque Tezozomoc (10) Illustration of Plan (11a) •Innovative material reuse. •Even the most blighted space has potential for renewal.

SUMMARY: Parque Tezozomoc is located in a densely populated, working- PARKS class district of Mexico City. The park space is organized around a central lake,

which is both symbolic and functional - a Parque Tezozomoc Plazas (11b) Parque Tezozomoc Paths (11c) lagoon, surrounded by low hills echoing treated water for landscape irrigation the Mexican Army due to its topographic the topography of the region, recreates and maintenance of water bodies. and vegetative qualities, it is probably the contours of the now nonexistent Lake Additionally, this park has attracted over imperative that both are highlighted. They Texcoco that once filled the Valley of the last decade some species of migratory could ultimately complement each other Mexico. The park is a historical reference, birds, including migratory species such as quite eloquently. recreational oasis and working landscape. white heron, and some species of geese and invertebrates. The lake also has Brownsville’s per capita income and its Since the park opened, it has represented several aquatic species and some exotic growth rate are one of the lowest in a point of urban and cultural regeneration species introduced by city dwellers, as the the country, lower than even border as well as an improved quality of life for peer communities. As such, issues of neighborhood residents. Tezozomoc Park Japanese turtle. environmental justice and equally are at has a lake, an outdoor theater, children’s least partially addressed in both cases - playgrounds, a running track, plazas and RELEVANCE: The program for RDLP Parque Tezozomoc is located in densely trails that are open to the public for implies the design should embody, in populated, working-class district of Mexico free. Nearby residents now have local the same way Parque Tezozomoc does, City. The effect of RDLP site on its immediate access to facilities that were once only a historical reference, recreational surrounding neighborhoods would be found in other areas of the City. The true oasis and working landscape. Parque hard to estimate, although by connecting success of the park is that it embodies Tezozomoc does so in both with both a the park to other areas of Brownsville, its aesthetic, cultural, economic, functional symbolic and functional approach. Where impact could be substantial. With Hanna and environmental benefits to an area Parque Tezozomoc’s symbolism relates to High School within walking distance, RDLP where there was once just an industrial a natural feature devastated by human could also act as an educational outpost wasteland. mismanagement, the RDLP site probably relates more to the 1846 battle fought there for the ecology, history and various recreation clubs at the school. From the ecological point of view, more than to its natural history. However, Parque Tezozomoc is an example of it would not be unreasonable to conceive urban habitat and innovative material that both military and natural could be reuse. Soil excavated for construction of represented and celebrated at once. In the underground works and how to use fact, since the Resaca site was chosen by 38 CASE REVIEWS Parque Ecológico Xochimilco Location: Mexico City, Mexico Size: 660 Acres Key Concepts: site history, restoration DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Water represents a powerful basis for design. •Agriculture, horticulture and culture coalesce. •Environmental restoration on a vast scale. •Uses site history to create stirring places and cultural narratives. •Envisions landscape as both natural and social space. •Highlights potential for large- Park Plan (12) scale remediation and infrastructural enhancement. PARKS SUMMARY: Designed by Grupo de Diseño Urbano and built in the early 1990s, Parque Ecológico Xochimilco is a fragment of a pre-Conquest landscape of artificial garden and agriculture islands, called chinampas. Chinampas were constructed by piling soil on reed mats and anchoring Park Bridges Over Wetlands Chinampas or “floating gardens” their edges with willow trees. infrastructure approach to connecting liability associated with real or perceived the three sites, water (i.e. stormwater contamination (e.g. brownfields). The design approach was ultimately management, habitat, etc) will also play guided by hydraulic strategies: water was a dominant role. At RDLP, the existing In all, the park is a microcosm of the larger pumped back into the aquifer to stabilize Resaca gives form to the majority of the landscape, highlighting its ecological, the site; large reservoirs were created to site’s boundary. Expressing the Resaca (i.e. historic, agricultural, and recreational retain storm water; polluted water was allowing access to it) while maintaining attributes. In a sense, Xochimilco is more processed at treatment plants, and the its ecological integrity will take require a than something just to look at, this is a treated water was discharged back into thoughtful design approach, example of working landscape. the lake to regulate the water levels in which abound at Xochimilco. the canals. Eroded islands were recreated Parque Ecológico Xochimilco exhibits the using meshes of logs filled with dredge To enhance economic activity on the site, high ambition and conceptual complexity and stabilized by salix trees. Overall, the largest flower market in Mexico City of contemporary landscape architecture. more than 1 million trees were planted on was built adjacent to the main highway It uses the history of its site to create the site. approach. Its 1,800 stalls are fully leased stirring places and compelling cultural and very busy, especially on weekends. narratives, and envisions landscape as RELEVANCE: A portion of Xochimilco A similar approach, perhaps including both natural and social space embodying is divided into natural, recreational, and farmers markets, urban agriculture gardens, the potential of design to enhance interpretive zones. A similar conceptual and ornamental, reforestation and cultural and biophysical phenomena. The framework would work exceptionally remediation nurseries could work along park reveals the capacity of landscape well at RDLP (and Ft. Brown / Palo Alto the greenway, especially considering architecture to address the challenges of as well), owing to need to accommodate the areas favorable climate, increasing degraded landscapes and to achieve at various user groups, wildlife habitat, population, and potential demand for least some level of sustainability. It is also and historical importance. Additionally, appropriate species for remediation of a work of art, attaining a kind of iconic water provides the basis for design Texas’ many former industrial properties power in its revelation of the problems at Xochimilco. Throughout the green which lie dormant or underutilized due to and the possibilities of the contemporary landscape. 39 CASE REVIEWS Manzanar National Historic Site Location: Owens Valley, California Size: 814 Acres Key Concepts: historic wartime site, carbon neutral,Climate Friendly Parks

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Sustainable practices can couple reverence to history. •NPS sites should act as public showcases sustainable practices. •NPS design should highlight sustainable planning. •Design should focus on energy, transportation and waste management. •Design should undertake to reduce Cemetary Monument at Manzanar (19) GHGs. •Solar, biomass, wind are appropriate technological strategies in Brownsville.

SUMMARY: Manzanar War NPS PARKS Relocation Center was one of ten camps where Japanese American citizens

and residents were interned during Watch tower at the Manzanar National Historic Site (20a) 1,100 people at 38th Annual Manzanar Pilgrimage, 2007 (20b) World War II. Today, as a participant in the Climate Friendly Parks program, Manzanar National Historic Site, as well and building improvements, as well as Manzanar National Historic Site belongs as the rest of Owens Valley and Southern exploring alternative energy sources such to a network of parks nationwide that California. The Action Plan identifies steps as solar, biomass and wind, all of which are putting climate friendly behavior at that Manzanar National Historic Site can are viable options in Brownsville. the forefront of sustainability planning. undertake to reduce GHG (green house Manzanar is involved in the first regional gas) emissions and mitigate its impact on Transportation is the next largest source effort in the National Park Service climate change. of emissions, which can be reduced with to become carbon neutral, which has changes in personal and government developed a vision of having all of RELEVANCE: Despite the injustices behavior and with improved vehicle its park operations becoming carbon that took place at this site, Manzanar NHS emissions technology. In connecting the neutral and becoming members of the now honors its past through reverence of three parks, biodiesel and electric options Climate Friendly Parks Program by 2010. nature and history. It demonstrates how for shuttle or light rail system could be NPS sites can reduce their contribution explored, as well as enhancing pedestrian At Manzanar National Historic Site, to climate change while setting an and bicycle infrastructure. increasing temperatures, and changing example for its visitors, including a unique precipitation patterns may alter opportunity to educate the public in a Reducing the amount of waste sent to park ecosystems, change vegetation setting free from many of the distractions landfills reduces CH4 (methane) emissions communities, habitats available for of daily life. Many of the efforts being caused by decomposition as well as the species, and the experience visitors implemented at Manzanar could also be GHGs emitted from the transportation have at the park. Manzanar is located utilized at the three Palo Alto sites. of waste. Waste management can be in the Owens Valley in California, where improved upon by implementing water water has been, and continues to be The Manzanar Action Plan highlights conservation strategies, investigating a critical resource. Climate change three main components: energy efficiency, local recycling options, and decreasing related impacts to Sierra snowpack transportation management, and waste waste at a system-wide scale. Composting and water resource availability have management. Energy issues can be facilities, including toilets, are an the potential to significantly impact improved by simple efforts such as lighting additional strategy for reducing waste.

40 CASE REVIEWS Whitman Mission NHS Location: Walla Walla, WA Size: 139 Acres Key Concepts: grassland revegetation, habitat restoration

SUMMARY: In 1985, the Whitman NPS PARKS Mission park staff began a revegetation project with the objective to control non-native weeds that had invaded the park. Some of these plants were on the state and county noxious weed lists as Trumpeter Swan on the park's pond Boyscouts and their troop leaders help with new plantings targeted weeds for control and are still serious threats to local agriculture. The the visitor center. In 1987 and 1988, the 28 removal (some sort of plowing or tilling if short term goal of the park staff was acre river oxbow and pasture area was the slopes/vegetation allow), would then to establish healthy stands of grass to planted with both native and non-native be followed up with repeated glyphosate successfully compete with these weeds. species to reproduce the historic scene. applications after each rainfall event throughout the growing season. The non-native grass species were Today, over 200 different species of chosen because the species had a birds can be found at Whitman Mission Since dense stands of seed producing good chance for success against the National Historic Site. A large proportion exotic grasses a buffer zone between the noxious weeds and the weed seeds still of these are migratory and wintering birds restoration area and the bermudagrass in the soil, and they would be similar in indicating the importance of the 139-acre with plowing, herbicides, or a physical appearance to grasses that may have parcel as a stop over for those species. barrier such as a wide trail. Local experts been growing there 150 years ago. Once and volunteers could assist in the project these grasses were established, the park RELEVANCE: After speaking with as well. staff then would be able to gradually Forrest Smith, the South Texas Natives replace the non-native grasses with Project Director at the Caesar Kleberg In addition to establishing a more accurate native species thought to be present Wildlife Research Institute, it seems likely portrayal of how the Resaca de la Palma during the Whitman’s’ time. This action is that a similar grassland and woodland site might have appeared in 1846, the in concurrence with the 1984 Landscape revegetation project as the one that habitat benefits associated with such a Study and Management Alternatives took place at Whitman Mission would be project would be outstanding, as the RDLP for Revegetation: Whitman Mission equally as feasible and beneficial at the sits at a ideal location to act as a “stepping National Historic Site which states that Resaca de la Palma site. To begin, NPS stone” to some of the larger nature the overall goal for revegetation is to Staff would need to spend a minimum reserves in the areas, a stopover point for maintain the visual aspect of the historic of a growing season trying to rid any migratory bird species, as well as a local, period. areas they wish to seed with native albeit fairly urbanized, habitat for local plants of the bermudagrass, or guinea residents. In 1989, the park staff established a grass, or whatever other exotics species native rye grass demonstration plot by are present. Starting by a mechanical

41 CASE REVIEWS Resaca de la Palma State Park Location: Brownsville, TX Size: 1,200 Acres Key Concepts: habitat restoration, birding, nature trails, bilingual signage

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Open space should be preserved. •Environmental ethic should be reflected in design. •Restoration / preservation allow for creation of future histories. •Restoration should attempt to include recreation / education. •Parks have major economic impact.

SUMMARY: Opened in 2008, Resaca Resaca Overlooks at RDLP State Park (13) de la Palma State Park, located about 9 miles from downtown Brownsville, maintains the largest tract of native resaca and thorn scrub habitat in the World Birding Center network. The park includes five types of habitat: Tamaulipan thornscrub, ebony-anacua forest, sugar

ECOLOGICAL DESIGN ECOLOGICAL hackberry woodlands, revegetated grasslands and the resaca wetlands. Bird Watchers (14) Bilingual Interpretive Signage (15) foresight to purchase the Rio Grande tricycles are available for rent, and the TPWD habitat restoration specialists Valley property for the future State Park visitor center hosts several educational are modifying the pre-existing water in the 1970s. Later in the 1980s, much of events each year, including morning bird delivery system already in place along the parkland was revegetated for dove and nature walks. The RDLP site might the resaca to recreate natural conditions. habitat. Whatever the reasons, both parks require a kiosk if rentals were to be With the cooperation of local, state and tell important stories about the past, and supplied, but the trail system, decks, picnic federal land management agencies, the are poised to create new connections to areas, garden and panels are all potential natural features of the park have been present and future generations. features of the park. Important to point preserved or are being restored. out is that the combined population of With its abutting resaca, succession of the sister cities of Brownsville, Texas and Through a series of irrigation pipelines, ownership, and battlefield status, RDLP has Matamoros, Mexico is about 500,000, and levees, open canals and water-control the opportunity to bring people closer 91% of Brownsville’s residents were listed structures, TPWD aims to restore contact to its natural, cultural and military as persons of Hispanic or Latino origin, four separate sections of the resaca, history, while setting the stage for new in the 2000 census. As a result, Spanish controlling and staggering the water community and ecological opportunities. and English are used on all interpretive depth of each section to achieve the The State Park has four observation signage in the State Park. broadest variation of resaca habitats in decks, a picnic area, visitor center, order to draw the greatest number of butterfly garden, interpretation hall, Lastly, a Texas A & M University research wetland birds. bilingual interpretive panels and numerous report in 2005 focused on 80 Texas state trails, some of which are handicapped parks. Statewide, these 80 parks generated RELEVANCE: Much like RDLP, accessible. an estimated total of $793 million in Resaca de la Palma State Park managed retail sales, had a $456 million impact to escape agricultural and urban There are more than 8 miles of dirt hiking on resident income and created roughly development. The reason for RDLP’s trails, including an ADA compliant half- 11,928 jobs. Perhaps, needless to say, the preservation has much to do with its mile trail, and a paved 3.5-mile loop economic impact on a cultural, historic historic significance, while the Texas traveled by an electric tram that makes and environmentally-friendly greenway Parks and Wildlife Department had the two stops. Binoculars, bicycles and might follow that trend as well. 42 CASE REVIEWS Lost Dog Wash Trailhead Location: Scottsdale, AZ Size: 7 Acres Key Concepts: regional / low-impact design, water harvesting

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Limits for disturbance were established. •Natural drainage is respected. •Design, technologies and materials are regionally appropriate. •A blend of traditional and new technologies (e.g. rammed earth and LED lights). •Amenities clustered to reduce disturbance. •Volunteers engaged at several Lost Dog Wash Trailhead Master Plan (16)

design and construction stages. ECOLOGICAL DESIGN

SUMMARY: The Lost Dog Wash Trailhead demonstrates the potential of regionally appropriate sustainable design. It highlights strategies for planning, preservation and construction, while balancing user needs and conservation methodologies. It aims to protect fragile Park’s Natural and (sub)Urban Context Design reduced the impact of construction on landscape desert ecology by minimizing site disturbance, reusing on site materials, RELEVANCE: The main trailhead especially for an overflow parking area solar power, composting toilets, and structure collects rain water with its that could also serve as an outdoor rainwater and gray-water harvesting. Lost sloped roof and storage cistern. A similar area when not in use. This method of Dog Wash Trailhead now serves as the conceptual approach to retrofitting Palo construction is used in lieu of traditional model for all future access areas within Alto’s visitor center and establishing any paving materials to increase percolation the McDowell Sonoran Preserve and structures at RDLP and Ft. Brown would and load-bearing strength, and minimize desert sensitive design in general. be entirely appropriate considering the surface runoff and heat gain. water issues the area is facing. Before work was begun, design The site is now home to various standards were completed to guide the All exterior walls of Trailhead structures educational programs that include guest design process. The vision for Lost Dog are rammed earth, whose soil source lectures, field-based classrooms, and Trailhead, as well as other McDowell came from site excavations and further guided interpretive hikes that introduce Sonoran Preserve access areas, are balanced the site in regard to import and participants to local area history and to be demonstration projects for export of site soil. The original Fort Brown instill appreciation for the varied flora Sustainable Desert Design practices. The was shaped from earthen materials found and fauna of the Sonoran desert, intention is to allow for the exploration along the banks of the Rio Grande River, programmatic activities which will be of new technologies and development and a similar approach could be taken if important for the success of RDLP and of new sustainable design practices ever reconstructed. Ft. Brown as destinations for community methodologies. outreach. Similarly, the approach taken with Lost The program for the Lost Dog Wash Dog’s parking lot areas and vehicular Trailhead project ultimately included new drives, which were placed in respect for trail facilities, outdoor classroom areas, natural site drainage and constructed and trail improvements for pedestrian and of stabilized decomposed granite (Soil equestrian uses, each served by separate Sement), would be a good option at RDLP, parking areas. 43 CASE REVIEWS Scout Island Strategic Plan Location: New Orleans, LA Size: 62 Acres Key Concepts: resilient infrastructures, bird watching, re-establishing ecosystems

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Green infrastructures can restore and proved resilience. •Ecological framework acts as a good basis for green infrastructure. •Volunteers can help sustain a project.

SUMMARY: Scout Island is located within City Park in the heart of New Orleans. The focus of the project focused on the establishment of a series of “resilient” infrastructures and highlights “EcoCorridors” Provide A Corridor For The Over 200+ Species Of Birds To Have Been Sighted On Scout Island (17) the need for re-establishing the ecological systems as well the educational, recreational and cultural systems of a site. The site has traditionally been a bird watching and wilderness preserve within City Park. ECOLOGICAL DESIGN ECOLOGICAL A central strategy was to establish a network of resilient infrastructures: Perspective of Signage Perspective of Pine Savannah ecological, physical, organizational, and park thrive. Informational infrastructure For example, through restoration of informational. The ecological framework came through the creation of educational the site’s ecology, the resiliency of the focused on the re-establishment of native materials, monitoring technologies (time- site to future disturbances is enhanced ecosystems while controlling the spread of lapse cameras) and “eco-feedback” to (restoration also enhances the site’s invasive species. Planting of native seeds measure and analyze project success ability to recall environmental conditions and plants, along with continued invasive and to engage the public and keep them present during the 1846 battle). The species management over the first 5-10 informed. physical infrastructure at RDLP would be years, will give the ecosystems a chance to represented in the trail and overlook re-establish while providing a rich habitat RELEVANCE: The approach taken systems, which also respond to the type for birds and wildlife. by Mossop + Michaels seems to be much of environment through which the trails more driven by the notion of resiliency pass, as well as allowing opportunities The physical infrastructure was addressed against natural disasters than, for for interpretation (both historical and through the establishment of trails to serve example, Don River Park, which perhaps ecological). as an interpretive device within the forest, because environmental disasters on the as well as a vehicle for exploring the scale of hurricane are less prevalent in Organizationally, inviting the community site. The new trail system responds to the Toronto, seems more about the resilience in to the RDLP as both visitors and variety of ecosystem types and signage of an ecosystem to hold back the tide of volunteers would go a long way to will be incorporated into the pathway. anthropogenic disturbances. establishing the park as an beloved cultural amenity, in addition to the The organizational infrastructure was The ecological, physical, organizational, historical and ecologic role it will play. based on utilizing various volunteer groups and informational infrastructural Informationally, educational materials and university research opportunities framework presented in the project (such as the NPS waysides in place), as to enhance the projects longevity and would be a solid point of departure well as living history demonstrations and reduce overall maintenance costs. for planning a resilient system. Each NPS Staff presentations will also help Ownership is conveyed to volunteers category is applicable to the RDLP site. engage and educated the public. in exchange for commitment to help the 44 CASE REVIEWS Port Lands Estuary at Don River Park Location: Toronto, ON Size: 280 Acres Key Concepts: activated space, infrastructure linking spaces in an urban area

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •An approach rooted in ecological principles can link neighborhoods, identity and quality of life. •Innovative design can emerge when user needs and a strong program are balanced. •Social programs were recognized as important as the ecological. •A park landscape should teem with Transforming Regional Ecology Through Restoration (18) Site Is A Critical Link Between City And Harbour

activity. ECOLOGICAL DESIGN •A single site can become a critical link between city and nature. •Provide multiple connections to surrounding neighborhoods, existing and proposed.

SUMMARY: The Don River Park site is located on a former wetland (the largest on the Great Lakes) created by Site and Context Map Programmed Space at Central Lawn the Lower Don River as it emptied into RELEVANCE: Similarly to a vision for activities into a clustered space, if done Lake Ontario but filled in the early 20th Brownsville’s greenway, the aim of this appropriately, the space takes on a similar century. Existing conditions include an project is to fuse major programmatic role as the one proposed for multi-use abundance of impermeable surface, initiatives into a single “ecological” buildings by New Urbanists. a river diverted into a canal, rail lines framework. The cleaver aspect of MVVB’s and an elevated highway that create a Don River Project is that it will at once make While the RDLP site is 1/8th the size of this barrier between the Port Lands and the the site more natural (with the potential park, the unified restoration and urban remainder of the city. for new site ecologies based on the size design goals are directly applicable. and complexity of the river landscape) Strategies to make the park more natural Devoid of natural features, public and more urban (with the development (with the potential for new site ecologies infrastructure, and neighborhood of a green mixed-use district and its based on the size and complexity of the amenities, the site is fundamentally integration into an evolving network of river mouth landscape) as well as more incapable of supporting new urban infrastructure and re-connection). urban (with the development of a green growth. Building on initiatives that were mixed-use district and its integration into being undertaken elsewhere along At a site level, the detail to programming an evolving network of infrastructure and the waterfront, the client, a public every inch of the Central Lawn with at re-connection) are similar to the goals of redevelopment agency formed by time overlapping activities is an approach the RDLP site. the federal, provincial, and municipal that could be used at RDLP, especially if governments, sought to transform the a consolidation of spaces and limit of site into new mixed-use neighborhoods disturbance approach is taken. Active that would meet strategic development sports, informal pickup games, kite-flying, goals while demonstrating a new attitude jogging and in-line skating, and bird- toward the river and the harbor through watching, strolling, and contemplation can the creation of a naturalized mouth to all occur at once over a spatial gradient. the currently channelized and abused By combining several programmatic Don River. Project Relation to Atlantic Migratory Flyway 45 CASE REVIEWS Zion National Park Location: Springdale, UT Size: 150,000 Acres Key Concepts: transportation, collaboration, green visitor center DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •Collaborate for common solutions. for park and community traffic issues. •Transportation system promotes national park values. •Transportation can be the backbone of an sustainable system. •Attention to scale, detailing, and integration of historic and sustainable design. •Bookend transportation system with positive destinations. Zion Canyon Transportation System (22) Visitor Center •Integrate “green” park concessions This project has set precedence and is a system that connected the Brownsville/ within visitor facilities. benchmark for other NPs transportation South Padre airport, a restored Ft. and visitor facility initiatives. Special Brown, downtown Brownsville, Resaca SUMMARY: In 2001, Zion National factors included using a transportation de la Palma Battlefield, and Palo Alto Park worked with staff from the National system to promote national park values to Battlefield before heading east to the visitors, a gateway community, and others; beaches and nature preserves along the

GREENWAYS Park Service’s Denver Service Center and U.S. Department of Energy’s National expanding the shuttle bus system into the coast. Renewable Energy Laboratory to come up gateway town of Springdale to resolve with a plan to preserve and restore natural both park and community challenges The low-energy, sustainable visitor and cultural resources and enhance the and promote common solutions to traffic facility at Zion is the entry to a transit- visitor experience through the planning, congestion; reducing development and pedestrian-centered visitor design, and implementation of a visitor through use of existing town parking experience, providing park information, transportation system for Zion National areas, thereby reducing visitor center interpretation and trip-planning Park. The project scope expanded from parking by 50%; reducing the visitor assistance within a resource environment. a national park transportation system to center building development by moving It is a sustainable building that a partnership between the park, adjacent program elements, such as interpretive incorporates the area’s natural features community, private business, and several exhibits and the amphitheater outside; and and energy-efficient building concepts public agencies. The completed project integrating and interpreting sustainable into an attractive design that saves included a visitor center transportation concepts throughout the project. energy and operating expenses while complex, seven town and eight park protecting the environment. Currently, shuttle stops, a bus maintenance facility, RELEVANCE: Although Zion is the Palo Alto Visitor Center functions and a 3-mile bike path. located within a rather pristine natural as a wonderful facility for the display of setting, the concept of using an efficient educational and interpretive information Furthermore, Zion National Park transit / pedestrian-centered system as related to the Mexican - American War. partnered with Xanterra, one of the the basis for visitor experience would An emphasis similar to the one taken at “greenest” of park concessionaires, to be applicable in along the urban-rural Zion could be implemented at Palo Alto operate the Zion Lodge. Everything from gradient in Brownsville. Wherein the and potentially Ft. Brown, leaving RDLP organic food, composting food scraps, Zion transportation system runs through as a strictly park setting (no building). nontoxic cleaning agents, and retrofitting the park, a similar system in Brownsville The two facilities could bookend cabins for energy efficiency, can be could link the three historic sites and other a greenway that highlights cultural found at Zion Lodge. The project and important local and regional destinations. amenities, historical interpretation and associated facilities became a metaphor This could come in the form of perhaps a environmental stewardship. for a resource-centered pedestrian rail systems for use by local residents as experience for visitors and residents that well as visitors to the area. A hypothetical promoted and interpreted sustainable example might be a transportation design principles. 46 CASE REVIEWS Cedar Creek / Belle Grove NHP Location: Middletown, VA Size: 3,700 Acres Key Concepts: conceptual zones, greenway, public partnerships

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: •NPS uses conceptual zones to designate resource and planning priorities. •Partnerships require a lengthy public process. •Greenway used connect community and historic sites. •Provide multiple opportunities for visitors to experience. •Partnerships allow NPS to expand Proposed Management Plan (left) and “preferred concept” (right) from Draft Management Plan (23) park’s role and acreage. GREENWAYS SUMMARY: Cedar Creek and Belle Grove National Historical Park— encompassing 3,700 acres in the Shenandoah Valley—preserves and interprets key historical sites and the rich cultural heritage of the Shenandoah

Valley. Two major sites, Cedar Creek Battle Reenactments Cedar Creek and Belle Creek NHP Battlefield Visitor Center and Belle Grove Plantation House, are open to prepared the plan document. Much of agreement at Resaca de la Palma), the public. Almost all park lands and the park remains under private ownership the transparent public process being buildings are owned and administered and for this reason, most of the park is implemented before master planning takes by the park’s partners: local landowners, still closed to visitors. A visitor center place, the use of conceptual management county governments, and nonprofit operated by the Cedar Creek Battlefield zones to designate resource priorities, and organizations. As such, it is one of a Foundation is open to the public at the the use of a greenway to connect historic few new “partnership” parks in the battlefield site. sites. In all four concepts, the NPS and key national park system. Although there partners would collaborate in providing are over 3,700 acres within the park’s RELEVANCE: A Draft General multiple opportunities for visitors to authorized boundary, over half of this is Management Plan was recently published experience all of the park’s interpretive still privately owned. Currently, the NPS for public comment. Within, four themes and stories, as well as responding owns 7.5 acres within the park. conceptual (a, b, c, d) options were to all opportunities to protect the park’s proposed to the general public and park resources and values and would acquire Wallace Roberts & Todd (WRT) assisted partners. The “preferred” option divides land and interests in land as opportunities the NPS with developing the park’s the space into six Proposed Management arise. first general management plan, which Zones: Large Events, Cultural Landscape, guides decision—making as to how the Natural Resource, Contemporary new park’s resources will be managed, Settlement, Town & Countryside, and the experiences that visitors will have, Visitor Service. The NPS uses management and the facilities that will be provided. zones to describe the resource conditions Working with the NPS planning team and and desired visitor experiences to be the park’s key partners, WRT facilitated achieved in various areas of a park. development and evaluation of alternatives, hosted public involvement The most relevant points learned from activities, completed portions of the this project are that the partnership status of the park (similar to the cooperative environmental impact statement, and Cedar Creek 145th Anniversary Encampment 47 CASE REVIEWS Battle Road Trail (Minute Man NHP) Location: Concord, MA Size: 280 Acres Status: Under Construction Key Concepts: accessible trails, connectivity, sustainable materials and construction DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: • Diverse and universally accessible trails. •Wetlands crossed with boardwalks. •Archaeologists aided design team to recreate the historic trail. •Parking lots were created at strategic points along trail. •Material choices historically appropriate and environmentally- Distinct Trail Types along Battle Road Trail (24) friendly. users. An additional segment connecting walking experience is designed to help •Project divided into 6 phases. where the present trail ends and the cue visitors in to the fact that they have left historic location of Ft. Brown could utilize the historic trail, while maintaining enough some of the thinking used in the Battle similarity to create a smooth transition. SUMMARY: This multi-phased 5.5 mile interpretive project created a Road Trail project. The solution to crossing the seven wetlands spanning the trail was the use of more than GREENWAYS path where the cultural and historical resources of the area, focused around Additionally, at the RDLP site, the same 900 feet of boardwalk. Environmentally the events of the April 18, 1775 battle, could be said about the walking trail, which friendly materials were used in the wetland could be interpreted by visitors. The trail is currently in an unacceptable condition. construction, as boardwalk posts were spans three towns linking historic houses, The Battle Road Trail is universally constructed of plastic lumber, which does farms, forests and wetlands and interprets accessible for both pedestrian and not leach chemicals into the wetlands and aspects of life in Colonial times, including bicycles despite seven wetland crossings, has a longer lifespan than natural wood agriculture, architecture, historical crafts one hundred ten feet of grade change, without wood’s tendency to rot. The and skills and cultural issues. Automobiles and the crossing of a state highway. Part approach included boardwalk designs were removed from the trail, opening it of the strategy for universal accessibility that specified the minimum width for two up for pedestrians and bicyclists. was the use of a binder, a powder made way accessible travel (five feet), kept the from a desert plant called plantago finished deck elevations low enough as Prior to this project the landscape was (Plantago major), to “glue” together the to not require handrails, used recycled comprised of 5 miles of state highway crushed stone and sand used for the trail plastic posts to avoid chemical leaching in and local roads accessing 17 historic surfacing. This material allowed the trail the groundwater, and provided clearance sites. Twenty thousand cars per day to be constructed of native materials, below the boardwalks for wildlife access. traveled past and through these sites and compatible with historic materials, all the Similar technique would work for the therefore hindered pedestrian visitation. while providing universal accessibility. resaca overlooks and potential boardwalk In addition, much of the historic scene connection to the RDLP site. or cultural landscape that would help Where the trail follows the original the visitor understand the 18th century Battle Road alignment a historically appearance of the landscape was accurate mixture of clay and sand was obscured by 20th century context, i.e. used for the trail surfacing; however, all successional forest cover, modem ranch- new trails were deliberately constructed style houses or asphalt. differently, out of sand and crushed stone, so visitors could distinguish the two. The new historic trail was design to be only RELEVANCE: Brownsville’s “Historic Hike and Bike Trail” is currently seven feet wide, five feet narrower than almost complete. It is constructed of the average bike path, to make the width asphalt, and provides very little shade for of the historic trail that much more striking. The combination of different texture and Battle Trail Road Signage 48 ANALYSIS

SITE ANALYSIS

Context Access Natural Features

Hike and Bike Extension Options ANALYSIS

49 ANALYSIS Resaca de la Palma Battlefield SITE CONTEXT KEY RDLP Site Boundary

Access to Battlefield

Historic Hike and Bike Trail

Existing 0.5 Mile Loop Trail

Open Space

Residential Neighborhoods

Commercial Areas

High Schools

Existing Gazebo

Existing Resaca Overlook

Existing Benches

Existing Wayside Displays

Existing Historical Marker

Existing Wood Rail Fence Line ANALYSIS

0’ 600’ 1200’ The Resaca de la Palma Historic Battlefield site is bounded on the west by the five lane (four plus turning lane)Paredes Line Road and to the north, east, and south by the Resaca de la Palma, a former channel of the Rio Grande. Existing site amenities include nine benches, eight wayside displays related to the 1846 battle, a wooden gazebo, a wooden resaca overlook deck, a caliche-based walking trail and an existing historical marker. • The west side of the site boarders Paredes Line Rd. and is the most visually open edge of the site. Palm trees and a white, wooden rail fence run along the western edge, and a single entry point opens up to the site just south of the Paredes Line Rd. / Palo Verde Dr. intersection (red arrow). • The surrounding context is largely residential to the north, east and west, and commercial to the south. Two high schools (both public, although Eagle Academy is a charter school) are within 0.25 miles of the RDLP entrance. 50 ANALYSIS

SITE ACCESS KEY RDLP Site Boundary

Access to Battlefield

Historic Hike and Bike Trail

North Route from Bike Trail

South Route from Bike Trail

Route from Palo Verde Subdivision

Route from East Along Price Rd.

Important Existing Connection Points

BARRIERS TO ACCESS ANALYSIS

Although the Resaca de la Palma (the watercouse) represents an invaluable natural, cultural and historical feature, it also limits entry to the RDLP Battlefield. Paredes Line Rd., a Texas Department of Transportation maintained road, represents the most formidable barrier to park access from the west. 0’ 600’ 1200’ As previously mentioned, currently one entry point to the site exists (red arrow), which is located along Paredes Line Rd. Access to the site is fairly constrained due to the presence of the Resaca de la Palma (the watercourse) on three sides of the site, as well as Paredes Line Rd. along the west side. While bridging across Brownsville’s resacas occurs at several locations throughout the city (for example, the bridges over the Forth Brown Resaca near UT - Brownsville), the option was discouraged by NPS Staff. • As the ~60’ wide Paredes Line Rd. is a relatively high volume North/South arterial road through the city (as well as a Texas Department of Transportation maintained road), interference with the existing traffic flow would need to be minimal if crossing points or bike lanes were implemented. • Other access options discussed with NPS Staff included routes along the Resaca de la Palma from the Hike and Bike Trail itself, as well as from an existing open space area located near the southwest corner of the site. 51 ANALYSIS TRAIL CONNECTION OPTIONS - Access To Site from North

An analysis of potential routes was explored from several perspectives (i.e. safety, scenery and sequence). A conservative approach for visitor access would be to install bike lanes along Paredes Line Rd., allowing visitors to enter near the existing site entrance (orange and red). Although potentially challenging from an engineering point of view, bridging or skirting along the edge of the Resaca would allow favorable opportunities for safe passage, high scenic quality and a compelling sequence of events (blue and purple). Crossing at Paredes Line Rd would be best accomplished via a controlled intersection, such as a HAWK Pedestrian Flasher system. TRAIL CONNECTION OPTIONS - Access To Site from South ANALYSIS

Site access options for pedestrians and bicyclist are currently limited to bike lane or sidewalk routes from the intersection of the Hike and Bike Trail and Price Rd., to the south of the site. Two of the three options would have visitors enter via a new site entrance located at the southwest corner of the site, while a third proposes a connection to the existing entrance. The new entrance options would allow easier access for visitors entering from the south, however it could potentially disturb existing vegetation and would open the site up to a second entrance needing to be controlled. 52 ANALYSIS TRAIL CONNECTION FROM NORTH - DETAILED OPTIONS PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE ACCESS Option 1 - Crossing at Park Entrance Option 2 - Crossing at Galveston Rd. Option 3 - Bridge Along Resaca

Option 1 - A bike lane is created along Option 2 - Visitors cross at High Intensity Option 3 - Visitors cross at Galveston Rd., Paredes Line Rd. and a crosswalk installed Activated Cross Walk (HAWK) created at then continue along a pontoon-style bridge across from existing park entrance. Galveston Rd. and Paredes Line Rd., and moored to the Resaca and enter the site via continue down a bike land created along the Palo Verde Dr. sidewalk running adjacent to Paredes Line Rd.

TRAIL CONNECTION FROM SOUTH - DETAILED OPTIONS

PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE ACCESS ANALYSIS Option 1 - Enter at Existing Entrance Option 2 - New Southern Entrance Option 3 - Boardwalk Along Resaca

Option 1 - Visitors follow a bike lane created Option 2 - Visitors follow a bike lane created Option 3 - Visitors approach the site from along Price Rd., cross at intersection of along Price Rd., cross at the intersection of a newly constructed boardwalk along the Paredes Line Rd. and Price Rd, then continue Paredes Line Rd. and Price Rd, and finally Resaca, cross Paredes Line Rd. at a controlled north along Paredes Line Rd., where they enter via a new entry point at southwestern intersection and access the site via a new enter at the existing park entrance. corner of site. entrance at the southeast corner.

53 ANALYSIS PAREDES LINE ROAD INTERSECTION ENHANCEMENT OPTIONS EXISTING CONFIGURATION 1- CONTROLLED INTERSECTION 2 - NEW INTERSECTION 3 - HYBRID CONFIGURATION

Resaca de la Palma Dr.

Palo Verde Dr. Paredes Line Rd. Line Paredes

The implementation of traffic signals This scenario envisions the closure This scenario combines the two and pedestrian crosswalks could of a segment of Palo Verde Dr., with previous options, but retains the The existing configuration alleviate some of the issues associated traffic re-routed along a new road southern section of Palo Verde of the intersection at with this intersection. Increasing the and controlled intersection, which Dr. The new entry road (Resaca Paredes Line Rd. and Palo curb radius along the northern edge would meet Paredes Line Rd. at a near de la Palma Dr.) to the park would Verde Dr. makes for a where Paredes Rd. meets Palo Verde 90 ° angle (Resaca de la Palma Dr. remain an option. Entering and challenging intersection Dr. would also help drivers making this would act as an entrance road to the exiting the area would be made for local residents, and is turn. Pedestrians and bicyclists would park). This road would cut through easier, as more traffic is diverted poorly suited for future benefit from the crosswalks, as currently an unoccupied section of private though different intersections. A vehicular, bicycle and no such opportunity exists until further property, an issue which would need simple stop sign could work at the pedestrian access arriving south at the intersection of Paredes to be resolved. The benefit to local new intersection, while the existing to the site via this route. Line Rd. and Price Rd. residents who use this route daily, intersection would benefit from as well as helping to accommodate traffic control measures. new park visitors, might justify such an effort. PARKING LOT LOCATION OPTIONS ANALYSIS 1 - PARKING ALONG PALO VERDE RD. 2 - PARKING ALONG PAREDES LINE RD. This option situates a A scenario in which parking lot as well as visitors enter a parking an overflow parking lot off of Paredes Line area into the northern Rd., thus avoiding the section of the site. awkward intersection The most feasible at Palo Verde Dr., also option would be for has advantages. Such two entry points to be a parking lot would run designated, allowing north to south along the vehicles to pull in, park, western edge of the and leave via a one site, where presently a way looped road. Such post and stone fence a parking lot would fit occupies. A parcel to the into an approximately south of the site, which 200’ long x 65’ wide is currently unoccupied, area, which would could become an include 4 accessible area for overflow parking spaces, parking, in which 20 regular spaces and room to park two buses. A single case a second entry point to the site might be an option. access road into the parking lot would be feasible, but It is unclear who the owner of this parcel is, or whether or would increase the width (east to west measurement) of the not the NPS purchasing such a parcel is even an option. parking lot, since an internal loop would occupy more space.

54 ANALYSIS LOCAL OPEN SPACE KEY Open Space and Distances

Local Parks and Open Space

Resaca de la Palma Site

1/8 Mile Buffer

1/4 Mile Buffer

1/2 Mile Buffer

1 Mile Buffer

Area Water

Hike and Bike Trail

0’ 4000’ 8000’

Map shows the proximity of parks/open spaces to the RDLP Battlefield in 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 and 1 mile buffered increments. The Historic Hike and Bike Trail is also highlighted.

LOCAL HOUSEHOLD INCOMES KEY 2010 Median Household Incomes

$84,001 to $375,000

$70,001 to $84,000 ANALYSIS

$41,001 to $70,000

$27,001 to $41,000

$0 to 27,000

1 Mile Buffer

Resaca de la Palma Battlefield

0’ 10,000’ 20,000’

Thematic map illustrates the area median household income according to 2010 U.S. Census.

The Congress for the New Urbanism relates walkablity in terms of 5 minute (1/4 mile) and 10 minute (1/2 mile) walkable catchments, sometimes referred to as “ped sheds”. Measuring walkable catchment is a technique for evaluating how easy it is to move through an urban area and access neighborhood centers or transit facilities. • As the images above demonstrate, the RDLP site lies within a 1 mile walking distance of an economically diverse and predominantly residential area of Brownsville. And while three “parks” are within a mile of RDLP, two are associated with public schools, and the other is a playground, highlighting the importance of retaining the natural open space found at Resaca de la Plama. • Potential site users include daily users (local community members), occasional users (event attendees) and single- time users (non-resident visitors). Establishing safe, pleasing and convenient the connection to the site from these neighborhoods would aid in allowing abundant resident use of the park and enhance the overall quality of life of local residents. 55 ANALYSIS Resaca de la Palma Battlefield NATURAL FEATURE CHARACTER IMAGES

TURF GRASS RESACA DE LA PALMA DENSE WOODLANDS

BLUE PANICUM TEXAS PALMETTOS TEXAS HONEY MESQUITE TURF, WOODLANDS AND RESACA ANALYSIS

~90’ Wide 18.7 Acres Turf 15.7 Acres 5’ - 10’ Deep Woodlands

Open Turf Space Woodland Areas Approximate Resaca Dimensions Largely exotic, invasive grasses such as blue panicum (Panicum antidotale) and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) dominate the interior of the site, which requires frequent maintenance. • Dense woodland vegetation covers the southern and northern most edges of the site, where large number of birds and other wildlife are known to congregate. An open grassy area exists in the northwest corner of the site. Along the fragmented eastern edge of the site, remnant native woody species is being overtaken by Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), an invasive native to Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. • Water in the Resaca de la Palma is replenished almost exclusively from rainfall and runoff (Mora et al. 2001), and according to the National Biological Service, “may be the key to the high biodiversity” found in the region (NatureServe 2002). The EPA, which has described Brownsville’s resacas as in “dire need of restoration” announced plans in 2002 for the “Brownsville Resaca Restoration Project”, which includes the Resaca de la Palma (also known as the Resaca de la Guerra). 56s ANALYSIS

VIEWSHEDS, TOPOGRAPHY AND CIRCULATION

Hp Lp

Limited Visual Access to Resaca High and Low Points Site Circulation The east side of the site, dominated by fragmented patches of woodland vegetation (including the invasive Brazilian pepper), provides an inconsistent visual and vegetation buffer between the site and neighboring households and high school. • That same area is the most sloped and uneven on the site (blue area), and reportedly difficult to mow. It is also the site of periodic flooding during periods of high rain. While views into the site from Paredes Line Rd. should remain open to allow visitors to see into the site, neighboring residents to the east of the site would probably prefer to limit the visual assess from the site into their homes. • Currently, interior site circulation is limited to a 0.5 mile circular trail, which is in need of structural improvements. CLIMATE, SOIL AND FLOODING ANALYSIS

16 - 30 in. Annual Rainfall Laredo-Urban FEMA ZONE 73° Average Annual Complex Soil “C” Temperature Type

Climate Well-Drained Soil Minimal Flood Risk Brownsville’s annual rainfall ranges from 16 to 30 inches, developing as local shows or as high-intensity rains most frequently in May or June, followed again in September. The average annual temperature exceeds 70 degrees F, which is comparable with southern Florida. • According to the Natural Resources Conservation Service, a Laredo soil series consists of very deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils that formed in calcareous, silty alluvium derived from mixed sources. Additionally, according to the South Texas Natives Project Coordinator , soils associated with resacas often have high soil salinities (F. Smith, March 25, 2011, e-mail message to author). • Areas zoned “C” by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are of minimal flood hazard, usually depicted on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) as above the 500-year flood level (United States 2010).

57 ANALYSIS HIKE AND BIKE TRAIL CONTEXT MAP ANALYSIS

PHOTO ESSAY These images provide a context to the Resaca de la Palma site. Located 4 miles north of the U.S. / Mexico Boarder and 5 miles south of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Park, the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield has a strong potential to become a welcomed green space, cultural amenity and ecological preserve for the area. Connected to Palo Alto and downtown Brownsville by the recently constructed Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail, access to and from the site stands as a major issue to be resolved before the potential of the site can begin to be revealed.

58 ANALYSIS HIKE AND BIKE TRAIL EXTENSION

5.8 miles

3.3 miles

1.5 miles

The 9.1 mile long Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail begins at the footsteps of the Federal Courthouse between 6th & 7th St in downtown Brownsville. Heading north, it passes through a linear park and near to Existing Hike and Bike Trail (yellow) and the Brownsville Museum of Fine Art and the Gladys Porter Zoo. From here, the trail continues east along extension (red) needed to connect Trail to former Southern Pacific railroad tracks (now removed) under the 77/83 Expressway, turning left along Fort Brown. the city Buena Vida Cemetery. The trail continues due north paralleling the Paredes Line Rd. along the old tracks crossing several major roads and boulevards until it reaches Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site. ANALYSIS

Downtown

Route Options Map.

ROUTE OPTIONS

Rio Grande Route - (1.7 miles) Univ. of Texas 6th St. to St. Charles Ave. to 13th St. to Levee St. at Brownsville

Ft. Brown Resaca Route - (2.1 miles) 6th St. to Elizabeth Ave. to Ringgold Rd. to Levee St. Ft. Brown UT Campus Route - (2.3 miles) 6th St. to 9th Ave. to Jefferson St. to May St. to Gorgas Dr. to Ringgold Dr. to Levee St. Matamoros Cultural Route - (1.7 miles) Tyler St. to 10th St. to St. Charles St. to Levee Rd. The image above shows where the Hike and Bike Trail begins (or ends) at the Federal Courthouse in downtown Brownsville. Forth Brown (its historic location) is located miles from this point. Several options exist for connecting the existing trail to the historical location Fort Brown, many of which would could run along low car volume residential street and close to important historic and cultural sites.

59 DESIGN

DESIGN

RDLP CONCEPTS MASTER PLAN SECTIONS DETAILS PERSPECTIVES PHASING HIKE AND BIKE TRAIL EXTENSION DESIGN

60 DESIGN MASTER PLAN CONCEPTS This chapter contains the final master plan for the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield, as well as suggestions related to the extension of the Hike and Bike Trail to Fort Brown. The planting plan for the Palo Alto Visitor Center entry way can be found in Appendix A. Graphic representations of conceptual and specific design ideas are presented for the RDLP Battlefield and Palo Alto Visitor Center planting plan, while the Hike and Bike extension is presented from a general planning perspective.

Ultimately, two concepts are proposed for the configuration of the RDLP site. The first, a relatively conservative approach, differs from the second more aggressive approach mainly in the extent of restoration work suggested. As such, I will go in to more detail for the second concept, while still providing a visual representation of the first concept. In both cases, however, each of the program goals and objectives put forth by the National Park Service Staff at Palo Alto are represented.

REITERATION OF PROJECT GOALS Goals for the phased RDLP Master Plan include 1) meeting National Park Service priorities for the historical interpretation of the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield, 2) the configuration of the Resaca site as a community asset for activeand passive use, 3) addressing logistical problems of vehicular, pedestrian and bicycle circulation to / from the RDLP site, and 4) exploring ways to improve the ecological integrity of the site. Additionally, this project suggests ideas for 5) improvements and options for connecting the Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail with the historical location of Fort Brown and 6) a conceptual planting plan for the Palo Alto Visitor Center entrance.

PROGRAM ELEMENTS To facilitate the representation of the specific programmatic elements for the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield master plan, symbols were created to facilitate the visual identification of each element in the different conceptual plans.

SYMBOLS

PARKING BICYCLE FACILITIES WALKING TRAILS PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION

RESACA OVERLOOKS WAYSIDE AREAS COMFORT STATION WAYFINDING DESIGN

PRESENTATION SPACE PICNIC AREA MEMORIAL SPACE MAINTENANCE

REVEGETATION FUTURE BUILDING PARK ENTRANCE FOOTPRINT

61 DESIGN

CONCEPT 1 DESIGN

62 DESIGN CONCEPT 1

PROGRAM ELEMENTS

OVERFLOW PARKING MAINTENANCE AREA PICNIC AREA 25 CAR+ 4 ACCESSIBLE + 2 BUS PARKING LOT WAYFINDING AND INFORMATION KIOSK BICYCLE PARKING AREA RESTROOMS CONTROLLED INTERSECTION (PAREDES LINE RD @ PALO VERDE RD.) OUTDOOR PRESENTATION AREA BUS STOP FUTURE BUILDING FOOTPRINT

WALKING TRAILS

MEMORIAL / FLAG PLACEMENT

RIPARIAN WOODLAND RESTORATION

(9) INTERPRETIVE WAYSIDES AND BENCHES

RESACA OVERLOOK

N.T.S. DESIGN

DESCRIPTION This concept clusters new visitor and staff amenities within a limited area of disturbance, retains the site’s existing open space and utilizes the perimeter to enhance habitat quality through ecological restoration. • The northwest corner of the site houses an new park entrance along Palo Verde Rd., a parking and overflow parking areas, a maintenance shed, a comfort station, a secure bike parking area, a wayfinding kiosk, picnic areas and a shaded seating area. • The wayfinding kiosk orients visitors to the site’s layout, and introduces circulation options. • Visitors can begin their visit by choosing between exploring the site’s vast open space, or entering its more secluded areas by ways of the existing gazebo. • The presentation area is physically defined but flexible and non-disruptive, and could be used for NPS presentations or impromptu gathering space. • Picnic areas can be used for small or large group gatherings. Nine wayfinding areas house historical information as well as seating for visitors who need a rest or just a place to relax. • A memorial or flags define the center of the open space.

63 DESIGN CONCEPTUAL ZONES - CONCEPT 1

Visitor / Staff Services

Main Lawn

Riparian Woodlands DESIGN

DESCRIPTION The proposed plan envisions the site portioned into three “zones”: a visitor / staff service zone, a main lawn zone comprised of existing turf grass, and a woodland zone, which also includes a moderate riparian revegetation component. 64 DESIGN MASTER PLAN PLAN - CONCEPT 1 DESIGN

DESCRIPTION Here, the interaction of the walking trails, new point of entry, parking facilities and visitor / staff amenities with the three “zones” are depicted. 0’ 75’ 150’ 225’ 300’

65 DESIGN

CONCEPT 2 DESIGN

66 DESIGN CONCEPT 2

PROGRAM ELEMENTS

OVERFLOW PARKING MAINTENANCE AREA FUTURE BUILDING FOOTPRINT 20 CAR+ 4 ACCESSIBLE + 2 BUS PARKING LOT MEMORIAL / FLAG PLACEMENT BICYCLE PARKING AREA RESTROOMS WAYFINDING AND INFORMATION KIOSK CONTROLLED INTERSECTION (PAREDES LINE RD @ PALO VERDE RD.) OUTDOOR PRESENTATION AREA PICNIC AREA

WALKING TRAILS

GRASSLAND RESTORATION

RIPARIAN WOODLAND RESTORATION

(9) INTERPRETIVE WAYSIDES AND BENCHES

RESACA OVERLOOKS

N.T.S. DESIGN DESCRIPTION This concept expands upon the first, wherein the revegetated area is enlarged to include a grassland revegetation area and a second resaca overlook. • While it is hard to say what is historically accurate, the ecotone of the grassland/ woodland revegetation areas are reminiscent of the nearby RDLP State Park, which was used as a reference landscape throughout this project. The intent of the restoration projects are to enhance the ability of the site to convey its 1846 setting, while the form of the revegetated areas also evokes the outlaying Resaca. • The shape of the trail system changes to reflect the newly introduced grassland area, and acts as a natural buffer between the exotic turf grass located in the open space and the new native grasses. Two trail segments connect the main trail to the two resaca overlooks, and allow visitors an opportunity to experience distinct trail experiences. • Nearly all of the visitor and staff services are contained within a relatively small pocket of the park, including the memorial/flag area. • The suggested placement of a possible future building footprint is moved to the back of the site, limiting both its impact visually and to the existing vegetation. Because of efficient configuration of visitor amenities and improvements site ecology and historic setting, this concept was selected for further study, details of which can be found on subsequent pages. 67 DESIGN PROPOSED ZONES - CONCEPT 2 (PREFERRED)

Visitor / Staff Services

Main Lawn

Grassland / Savannah DESIGN

Riparian Woodlands

DESCRIPTION This concept, the preferred of the two, envisions the site portioned into four “zones”: a visitor / staff service zone, a main lawn zone comprised of existing turf grass, and an ambitious revegetated grassland zone and a riparian woodland zone. 68 DESIGN PROPOSED PLAN - CONCEPT 2 DESIGN

DESCRIPTION Here, the interaction of the walking trails, new points of entry, parking facilities and visitor / staff amenities with the four “zones” are depicted. A explanation of this preferred plan is 0’ 75’ 150’ 225’ 300’ detailed in the pages that follow. 69 DESIGN MASTER PLAN ENTRY 1 parking 2 overflow area and bioswales

VISITOR / STAFF SERVICES 3 comfort station

4 bike parking

5 information kiosk and flags

6 picnic areas

7 presentation space

8 gazebo

TRAILS AND OVERLOOKS 9 decomposed granite paths 10 waysides and seating 11 SW overlook 12 SE overlook

VEGETATION 13 main lawn 14 grassland / savannah 15 woodlands AXANOMETRIC VIEW DESIGN DESCRIPTION An “exploded axanometric” view of the site shows where the entry, visitor amenity, and trails / overlooks components have been placed in relation to the vegetative framework of the site. • The entry area contains the main parking (20 stalls plus room for 2 buses) and overflow parking facilities, from which stormwater is directed to adjacent bioswales. Two points of entry allow easier access to the site for bicyclists, pedestrians and vehicles. • The northwest corner of the site houses visitor / staff amenities, including a comfort station, a shaded bike lockup area, an information kiosk, three flag poles (with the Mexican, U.S., and the State of Texas flags), three covered picnic areas, a shaded space with seating for NPS presentations and the existing wooden gazebo. • A looped trail systems also includes two branches which lead to two distinct resaca overlooks. Finally, a robust revegetated grassland area and enhanced riparian woodland mimic the outlying curves of the Resaca de la Palma (also known as the Resaca de Guerrero) and recall the site’s historic, predisturbance ecology. • Numbers next to each program element correspond to the plans on pages 71 - 73. 70 DESIGN INTRODUCTION

3 7

4 5

13 9

14 DESIGN

71 DESIGN

2 B

3 8 5 4

0’ 100’ 200’ 300’ 400’

DESCRIPTION NORTH END A closer look at the north half of the site reveals two different entry entry sequences visitors may follow up entering the site from either A) Paredes Line Rd. or B) Palo Verde Rd. • Visitors entering from A) park entrances Paredes Line Rd. would enter from the existing site entrance and pass 1 parking under a dense canopy of Texas honey mesquite and Texas olive trees 2 overflow parking before arriving at the park information kiosk (5). Bicyclists would

DESIGN dismount and park their bikes at a covered bike rack (4), while also visitor services having easy access to adjacent restroom facilities (3). • Visitors entering from B) Palo Verde Dr. by vehicle would park in either the 3 comfort station main (1) or overflow parking (2) areas. Bicyclist and pedestrians 4 bike racks would pass by the parking bioswales and restrooms before coming information kiosk to an information kiosk, which could provide an overview map of 5 and flag poles the site as well as display information about upcoming NPS and 6 picnic areas community events. • The presentation space (7) could be used as a 7 presentation space informal area for NPS Staff presentation about the site, as well as a meeting point for visitors. Small and large groups might meet at one 8 gazebo of the three covered picnic areas (6) or the gazebo (8)for lunch or family gatherings. 72 DESIGN

10 15

0’ 75’ 150’ 225’ 300’ SOUTH END DESCRIPTION A closer view of the south half of the site demonstrates two important trails and aspects of the master plan: the gradient of different vegetative types overlooks found on site, and the trail system that allows visitors to explore them. • • The main lawn area (13), composed largely of non-native turf grasses, 9 d.g. paths could be used for daytime activities (i.e. living history presentations), as DESIGN wayside and 10 well as occasional evening community events (i.e. music performances). seating • Decomposed granite paths (9) would vary in width depending on path 11 SW overlook location (5’ or 7’ - explained in more detail on page 71), while also 12 SE overlook providing a necessary buffer between the mix of invasive, non-native turf grasses (13) and the revegetated grassland / savannah area (14). • vegetation Visitors could follow one of two trail extensions of the main loop through the grassland and woodland (15) areas (explained in more detail on 13 main lawn page 73) to two distinct resaca overlooks (11 and 12, explained on page 14 grasslands 72), or continue around the main looped trail. • Benches and waysides (10, which marks the spot of one of the 9 different wayside areas) with 15 woodlands information about the May 9th, 1846 Battle at Resaca de la Palma would be located periodically along the main trail.

73 DESIGN SECTIONS

Existing

road entrance turf woodlands resaca

Proposed

road entrance services turf grasslands woodlands resaca parking DESCRIPTION A cross-section through the site as it exists today reveals the extent to which human and natural disturbances have altered the site from its pre-development state. Dominated by a vast expanse of non-native turf grass (mostly blue panicum and bermudagrass), the site largely reflects the different uses humans have had for the site over the years since 1846, and very little of the site’s natural character. • Although an accurate image of how the site appeared to soldiers in 1846 does not exist, we can ascertain an idea of how a native riparian woodland and adjacent DESIGN grassland savannah located in the Lower Rio Grande Valley might feel and function from local reference landscapes, such as the restored grassland savannahs and riparian woodlands found at the Resaca de la Palma State Park. • A rehabilitation of the grassland and portions of the woodlands on site could provide substantial benfits for local biodiversity, community structure and resiliency, and ecological processes within the park. • If successful, the rehabilitated grassland’s ecological trajectory, which describes the developmental pathway of an ecosystem through time, might ultimately lead to a subtropic savannah landscape interspersed with discrete shrub clusters, including Texas honey mesquites, which have been shown to be the most common woody invader of revegetated grassland areas (Archer et al. 123). • Such a trajectory would imply management decisions and actions by the NPS, depending on the long-term goals and objectives of such a project. 74 DESIGN TRAIL TYPES

7’ turf lawn 7’ lawn / grassland

mature grassland woodlands 5’ 5’

DESCRIPTION In addition to providing new habitat and enhancing ecological functions, the existing turf grass, rehabilitated grassland and expanded riparian woodlands would also allow for the creation of four distinct visitor experiences along the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield trail system. All told, the entrance trails, the looped trail and two divergent branches of the new trail system would measure roughly 0.75

miles. The first trail experience, turf - turf, is virtually the only experience offered to visitors as the site DESIGN exists today. Under the proposed scenario, this trail segment would be limited to a short run along the far west side of the system, close to the park entrance. The second trail experience would be a turf- grassland scenario, in which one side of the trail would border the mowed turf grass, which the other would run along side the revegetated grassland. This configuration would allow people to experience the grassland and the new wildlife it supports from a comfortable position, without feeling too confined. Both the turf-turf and turf-grassland paths would be 7 feet in width to allow for ample walking space. The third experience, grassland - grassland, would initiate at either of the trail system branches. Here, curious visitors would begin to get a closer sense of what the brush covered banks of Resaca de la Palma (Guerrero) looked like to General Arista’s and Taylor’s troops in 1846. Finally, two woodland - woodland segments would allow visitors to pass through similarly dense thornscrub / ebony forests which the U.S. and Mexican troops experienced. At the end of these branches, visitors are rewarded with unique views of the Resaca. These last two trail types narrow to 5 feet, which still allows ADA access while minimizing further disturbance to the more delicate areas of the park’ ecology. 75 DESIGN OVERLOOKS

Elevated Overlook 1” = 40’

Resaca Overlook 1” = 35’

DESCRIPTION Two distinct resaca overlooks conclude the two trail off-shoots. The elevated overlook located to the southeast of the site (blue dot), where an existing overlook currently exists, has been reconfigured and elevated. A deck-like overlook platform 8 feet above grade would be high enough to provide visitors with an interesting view of the Resaca below, the tree canopy at eye level and a panoramic view of the park in the distance, but low enough to not allow views in to neighboring homes to the east and northeast of the site. • An ADA accessible ramp would connect DESIGN the at-grade woodland trail with the elevated overlook. The ramp, 125 feet in length and sloped at 16:1, would be divided into 30’ segments, between which 8’ intermediate landings would be provided. Once to the top, visitors would have an exceptional vantage point to take in views of the park and its unique features. • The resaca overlook located to the southwest (red dot) would contrast the one to the southeast, in that the visitor experience would be almost entirely at ground-level. A low-profile ramp would ultimately connect the woodland tail to the overlook platform to ensure minimal disturbance to the woodland soil, wildlife habitat, and the delicate banks of the Resaca. • The platform would cantilever slightly over the Resaca, allowing visitors an up close experience with the waterway as well as an opportunity to fish, observe wildlife or reach out and touch the Resaca’s water. • Additionally, this overlook would be partially visible from Paredes Line Rd., which would intrigue passers-by to enter and explore the park. 76 DESIGN REHABILITATION Sugar Hackberry Guayacan Goliad orange zexmenia Anacahuita bermudagrass Catarina bristlegrass Tenaza Texas honey mesquite honey Texas Dilley slender grama Dilley

A full site cross-section and a small sample of some of the existing vegetation (native Texas honey mesquite, anacahuita and exotic species such as bermudagrass), recommended native grassland revegetation species (dilley slender grama, catarina Bristlegrass and goliad orange zexmenia) and suggested woodland revegetation species (guayacan, tenanza, sugar hackberry).

DESCRIPTION According to the SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration, ecological restoration “is an intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability (2004, 1).” As ecological restoration attempts to return an ecosystem to its historic trajectory, knowledge of a site’s historic conditions are the ideal starting point for restoration design. • The goals of ecological restoration include the reestablishment of the pre-existing biotic integrity in terms of species composition and community structure. However, because of the numerous changes to the RDLP Battlefield and its context over the years, (i.e. flood control measures, increased drought frequency, anthropomorphic site disturbances), a restoration approach might prove unrealistic. • A rehabilitation approach, however, would be most appropriate if the goal to rediscover the site’s pre-disturbance state is taken seriously. Rehabilitation shares with restoration a fundamental focus on historical or pre-existing ecosystems as models or references, but the two activities differ in their goals and strategies, as rehabilitation emphasizes the DESIGN reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity and services (i.e. vegetative structure and composition). • Admittedly, working to rehabilitate portions of the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site to their pre-disturbance state would require a good deal of effort on the part of the NPS. Nevertheless, local specialists with experience in grassland and woodland revegetation, such as staff from the Resaca de la Palma State Park and South Texas Natives (of the Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute at Texas A&M University-Kingsville) could provide a bounty of expert advice and support. • The benefits of such an approach would abound, as the new grassland and expanded woodland areas would 1) allow visitors an unique opportunity to experience a representation of the site conditions faced by the Mexican and U.S. forces on May 9th, 1846, 2) offer a new and more robust habitat for local and migratory birds and other wildlife species, 3) establish a landscape more resilient to natural (hurricanes, severe storms) and man-made disturbances (global warming, development), 3) provide a more porous landscape to capture stormwater runoff, and 4) create a safe place for local residents and visitors alike to partake in an up close experience with history and nature. • A recommended species lists for the grassland and woodland rehabilitation projects can be found in Appendices B and C of this document. • For a precedent of a grassland rehabilitation project undertaken by the NPS, see the Whitman Mission NHS (page 45). 77 DESIGN HABITAT AND WILDLIFE White-tailed Kite Ringed Kingfisher Tropical Kingbird Tropical

open field grassland woodland resaca

DESCRIPTION The ecological rehabilitation of portions of the Resaca de la Palma site, in addition to providing a setting more closely related to historical conditions, would create or enhance four distinct habitats: open field, grassland/savannah, woodland and riparian (the resaca). Each which would aid in the attraction of local and migratory bird species, as well DESIGN as other trophic level organisms that make up a normal, healthy environment. • However, even with enhancements to the different habitats, expectations should be realistic about actually ecological quality of these areas, as it is more likely that generalist and local species adapted to a more urban environment would take advantage of these habitats. However, because of the abundance of wildlife (especially avifauna) that pass through or reside in the area, the diversity and abundance of such species could be relatively high. • Furthermore, the Resaca de la Palma site could act as a quality stopover habitat or “stepping stone” for migratory birds, habitats which have been proven essential to successful bird migrations (Erni et al. 479). The plethora of regional preserves and parkland within several miles of Brownsville (e.g. Sabal Palm Audubon Sancuary, Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge, Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, the nine World Birding Center sites, etc.) highlight the importance of smaller stepping stones such as the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site. • A species lists of wildlife that would potentially make use of a rehabilitated Resaca de la Palma Battlefield can be found in the Appendix D of this document. 78 DESIGN

ILLUSTRATIONS and PHASING DESIGN

79 DESIGN ENTRY SEQUENCE

Galveston Rd. 1 Resaca de la Palma (Guerrero) 2

Palo Verde Dr.

Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail 5

Paredes Line Rd. DESIGN

= illustration vantage point SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION This section describes with illustrations and text a hypothetical progression of a bicyclist moving from Brownsville’s Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail, turning east at Galveston Rd., crossing at Paredes Line Rd. (1), accessing the Resaca Boardwalk (2), entering the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield National Historic Site (3), pausing to observe a daytime living history event (4a) and a evening community gathering (4b), walking along the RDLP trail (5), and finally enjoying the view from the elevated Resaca overlook near the southeast corner of the site (6). A brief description follows each illustration.

80 DESIGN 1 - PAREDES LINE ROAD CROSSING Existing

Proposed

Example of a HAWK crossing in Arizona. (25) DESIGN

ROAD CROSSING DESCRIPTION Current conditions for accessing the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield from the Hike and Bike trail are perilous at best. Here, a scenario is proposed where pedestrians and bicyclist can safely cross Paredes Line Rd. at Galveston Rd. via a HAWK beacon (High-Intensity Activated crossWalK), which is a traffic signal used to stop road traffic and allow pedestrians to cross safely. It is officially known as a “pedestrian hybrid beacon.” The purpose of a HAWK beacon is to allow protected pedestrian crossings while stopping road traffic only as needed. Also, research has shown that motorists’ compliance with the HAWK beacon is higher than with conventional traffic signals. Unlike an ordinary traffic signal, the HAWK beacon only lights up when activated by a pedestrian who wishes to cross. Generally, activation is by a push-button. The HAWK beacon first flashes yellow, then displays steady yellow, and finally steady red over a period of several seconds. Pedestrian signal heads (displays) at either end of the crosswalk display the upraised hand (don’t walk) signal until the HAWK beacon displays the steady red signal. At this time, the pedestrian heads display the walking person (walk) indication. 81 DESIGN 2- BRIDGE ALONG RESACA

BRIDGE CROSSING DESRIPTION Creating an interesting and accessible entry sequence for a site as important historically, ecologically and culturally as the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield requires a bold vision. Allowing visitors to enter the site from the north via a pontoon-type bridge would help reveal such a vision. • The bridge, by virtue of being moored along the banks of the Resaca de la Palma (versus being anchored into the banks), would be beneficial in that it would limit possible disturbance to the Resaca’s banks and allow for future work to able to take place (for example, future dredging or EPA restoration projects). After crossing the bridge, visitors would find themselves on Palo Alto Rd., within a few feet of the RDLP entrance. • While

DESIGN the concept of such a bridge might seem out of place, historian Richard Stewart in his book, American Military History reveals that General Taylor utilized pontoon bridges during the U.S. - Mexico War, including to cross the Rio Grande into Matamoros on March 18, 1846 (178). • As the bridge idea could be a relatively expensive option and would require an agreement with private and city land owners, other options for allowing the safe passage of pedestrians / bicyclists from the Hike and Bike Trail are discussed on page 52 - 53.

82 DESIGN 3 - RDLP BATTLEFIELD ENTRANCE

ENTRANCE DESCRIPTION Either by foot, bicycle or car, visitors arriving through the new park entrance on Palo Verde Rd. will be welcomed with an immediate view of the new visitor / staff facilities, which largely represent the limits of disturbance to the site’s existing layout. In the distance, visitors get their first glimpse of the revegetated grasslands and woodlands, as well as the ample open space in between. • The compact entrance area includes a comfort station, a covered bike parking area, ramadas designed for picnics or social DESIGN gatherings, ample seating areas, a small ampitheater-like area for NPS or other community Entrance Overview presentations, decomposed granite paths, and the state flag of Texas, and the Mexican and U.S. national flags (in lieu of flags, this area could also contain a statue or other memorial element). The 20-car low-impact designed parking lot, plus an adjacent overflow parking area, both direct stormwater to vegetated swales, designed to remove silt and pollution from surface runoff water. • The parking lot areas and vehicular drives are constructed of stabilized decomposed granite, as opposed to traditional paving materials, to increase percolation and minimize surface runoff and heat gain. • Stabilized granite parking areas and trail surfaces should utilize screened site soils to match the local colors and textures of the Rio Grande delta. • All exterior walls of the comfort station (and perhaps a future NPS contact station) should be constructed of rammed earth, which would pay homage to the 19th-century construction techniques utilized at military sites such as the star-shaped, or trace italienne, Fort Brown and other sites throughout Mexico. • The soil source for this structure could come from site excavations during the construction of the parking lot and bioswales, which help balance the site in regard to import and export of site soil. 83 DESIGN 4A - MAIN LAWN - DAYTIME

OPEN SPACE DESCRIPTION Visitors would have access to over 0.75 miles of trail at the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site (versus 0.50 miles as the site currently exists). During daytime hours from September through May, visitors could potentially walk past a Living History encampment, where the sights and sounds of the U.S.-Mexican War come alive as soldiers march and maneuver, and visitors have the opportunity to tour U.S. and Mexican camps, watch demonstrations of period weapons and military tactics, and interact with soldiers of the 1846 era. • The existing open space area is an ideal place for such an encampment to take place, while the newly revegetated grasslands and woodlands add authenticity to the setting and allow a

place for visitors to experience the vastly different environmental conditions both armies Open Space Path DESIGN faced at the densely vegetated Resaca de la Palma as compared to the open plains of Palo Overview Alto Battlefield. • During regular daytime hours, this space could be used for community or family gatherings, bird watching or just relaxing in a green space.

84 DESIGN 4B - MAIN LAWN - EVENING

EVENING EVENTS DESCRIPTION Evening activities could include community gatherings and events such as concerts, NPS presentations, star gazing, or memorial illuminations. • Electricity sources for lighting and event utilities could come from stored energy from solar panels located on top of visitor / staff service structures as well as from solar panels attached to parking lot light poles, as is the case at the Resaca de la Palma State Park. • Additional energy options could include the installation of subsurface electrical supply conduits and distribution boxes along park trails, which could also supply electricity to optional LED path lighting along the trail system

as well as to waysides and seating areas throughout the park. DESIGN

Open Space Path Overview

85 DESIGN 5 - TRAIL INTERSECTION

TRAIL DESCRIPTION The trail system at Resaca de la Palma Battlefield allows users to explore the park at their own pace and within their own level of comfort. The main trail loop allows visitors a place for exercise and a simple route by which to explore the park. • Benches and informational waysides are located along the trail, while an occasional bump out provides a quiet place off the main trail for people to sit. • As mentioned before, two trail branches lead to distinct resaca Trail Overview overlooks as well as unique experiences with nature. In the illustration above, the southwest resaca overlook trail is immediately to the right (where the gentleman in the blue jacket and white hat is walking), while a trail bump out leads visitors to a seating area.

In addition to acting as a pathway for exploration of the site, the 7-foot wide looped trail would act as a buffer DESIGN between the exotic turf grasses in the open space and the grassland revegetation project, limiting the ability of the exotic grasses to become invasive within the grassland area (a regular mowing regime of the area will also hinder the grasses ability to go to seed). • Similarly to the restoration projects undertaken at Whitmann Mission National Historic Site, which have worked to reestablish the native grasses and forbs that were displaced by exotic varieties which invaded during the site’s previous agricultural use, the reestablishment of the Resaca de la Palma’s native vegetation would require an active long term management, one that could utilize area natural resource agencies, local neighborhood groups and individuals (including nearby high school students) as volunteers for such projects.

86 DESIGN 6 - ELEVATED RESACA OVERLOOK

OVERLOOK DESCRIPTION A panoramic view of the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield site from the ADA accessible, elevated resaca overlook would be a reward for adventurous visitors. From the overlook’s platform, the waters of the Resaca de la Palma, an eye level view into the woodland canopy, and the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield itself would be visible. • This vantage point would make an excellent place for NPS Staff presentations on the site’s military history and its relationship with the surrounding ecology.

Up close encounters with woodland birds and waterfowl would provide Elevated Overlook Overview an interesting place for bird watchers to sit and observe or just relax and DESIGN take in the view.

87 DESIGN PHASING STRATEGY EXISTING SITE The site as it exists today. (2011) INTRODUCTION

YEARS 1 - 2 One potential scenario for project phasing would begin with the placement of parking and visitor/staff services over the first two years, as well as the walking trail and additional utility corridors.

YEARS 2 - 4 Following the establishment of the site as an amenity within the Brownsville community, as

DESIGN well as the necessary park infrastructure, the grassland and woodland vegetation project could begin.

88 DESIGN PHASING STRATEGY YEARS 4 - 10 By following an active management plan for the rehabilitated areas, subsequent years would see increased biomass, the improvement of site ecological functions, as well as improvements to wildlife habitat quality.

YEARS 10 - 20 Woody species, such as Texas honey mesquites, might begin to colonize portions of the grassland area, introducing a savannah-like feel to the park as well as needed shade along the trail.

YEARS 20+ As Brownsville’s population

continues to grow, the Resaca DESIGN de la Palma Battlefield would be a uniquely natural space within an increasingly urbanized environment. While the increase in development, coupled with the effects of global warming, would certainly have negative consequences for the entire region, the ecological structure of the site could provide resiliency and 6 adaptability from such changes.

89 DESIGN TRAIL EXTENSION

DESCRIPTION The historical significance and proximity of Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Park, Resaca de la Palma Battlefield and historic Fort Brown presents the opportunity to create a significant historical corridor in Brownsville, TX. Connecting these three historic sites could have significant economic, environmental, cultural and aesthetic influences on the nine mile stretch between downtown Brownsville, where Fort 5.2 miles Brown is located, and the pastoral 3,400 acre Palo Alto Battlefield to the north. Furthermore, each park would stand on its own as an invaluable and necessary amenity to its actual and adjacent neighborhoods. Ultimately, these three sites hold the potential to strengthen the connection of Brownsville as a whole 2.1 miles to its present, past and future.

The existing Battlefield DESIGN Hike and Bike Trail is poised to do so, although a segment (roughly 1.5 miles as the crow flies) 1.5 miles needed to make this connection is still lacking. This final connection could spur the future restoration of Fort Brown.

90 DESIGN HIKE AND BIKE TRAIL IMPROVEMENTS

Existing trail

anuacua trees anacahuita trees

reduced mowing signage

people seating DESIGN

Proprosed imporvements

DESCRIPTION Simple improvements to the Historic Battlefield Hike and Bike Trail could help make it more enjoyable to travel along, including the addition of shade trees (native, non-thorn producing species with low water requirements like Anacua and Anacahuita might be ideal), trail signage (including maps), shaded seating areas, and drinking fountains would be an appropriate place to start. • Additionally, efforts could be made to limit the yearly number of mowings adjacent grasses receive, as the potential for the 9+ mile trail to take on improved habitat qualities could be improved this way. • These improvements might make the trail more appealing as a community corridor to local and visiting users alike, especially if additional east/west connections along the Trail were highlighted (e.g. the connection to Resaca de la Palma, Galdys Porter Zoo, or even more distance connections to places like the Resaca de la Palma State Park).

91 DESIGN PROPOSED ROUTE TO FT. BROWN

Federal Courthouse

Ft. Brown

Cultural Route - (1.7 miles) Tyler St. to 10th St. to St. Charles St. to Levee Rd..

DESCRIPTION The Texas chapter of the American Planning Association honored a comprehensive plan for Brownsville (titled “Imagine Brownsville”) with the chapter’s 2009 Comprehensive Planning Award. The plan envisions an improved downtown Brownsville, including transit and vehicular corridors. Keeping the future plans suggested in “Imagine Brownsville” in mind, the 1.7 mile route suggested here for connecting the existing DESIGN trail to the historic location of Fort Brown (while certainly not the only option) has several advantages, including:

• route falls in line with the proposed transit and vehicular corridors vehicular corridors transit corridors • passes mainly through low traffic volume, expressway residential areas suggested route Courthouse

• runs through designated historic districts and Ft. Brown important civic and cultural locations Fig. 11 - Route in relation to Downtown Corridors from “Imagine Brownsville” • scenic portions run along the Rio Grande planning document.

92 DESIGN

DOWNTOWN SEGMENT City Hall Stillman House Museum Existing Trail Washington Park History Museum New Trail

Context Map

DESCRIPTION The downtown segment of the proposed route takes visitors along low-volume residential streets and past features such as the Brownsville City Hall, Stillman House Museum before merging onto Levee Rd. and along the Rio Grande.

Rio Grande

RIO GRANDE SEGMENT Matamoros Rio Grande New Trail Ft. Brown UTB/TSC Ft. Brown Resaca DESIGN

Context Map

DESCRIPTION The final segment, which runs between the Rio Grande and facilities operated by the University of Texas at Brownsville/ Texas Southmost College (and in close proximity to Matamoros, Mexico) would allow visitors a captivating view of the restored Fort Brown before entering the Fort’s grounds.

93 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION This project envisions a bright future for the Resaca de la Palma Battlefield. While the design suggestions made here represent a mindful effort to offer a vision for the RDLP Battlefield that is attainable by the National Park Service, my hope is that it is also robust enough to inspire further thought, while being flexible enough to adapt to future changes in park management priorities and site ownership. The research and design efforts here focused on merging the NPS Staff goals of cultivating the site’s history and ecology, while providing an opportunity for the creation of a beloved community space. CONCLUSION

94 APPENDICES

APPENDICES

PALO ALTO VISITOR CENTER WOODLAND REFORESTATION PLANT LIST GRASSLAND REHABILITATION PLANT LIST BIRD SPECIES LIST APPENDICES

95 APPENDICES APPENDIX A Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Park Visitor Center Planting Plan

gulf cordgrass

butterfly milkweed

An illustration of the Visitor Center entryway.

An estimated 1,200 native flowering plant species grow in the Lower Rio Grande Valley (The Native Plant Project 20). Plants native to the Lower Rio Grande Valley have advantages over plants brought in from elsewhere. Plants from this region have the genetic factors which ensure greater probability of survival. They are adapted to tolerate local pigeonberry climatic extremes, local soils, and local diseases and pests. Native plants have evolved with temperature and rainfall extremes and will require less water than exotic plants.

The plants selected here represent native species. A limited number of plants were chosen with ease of maintenance in mind. The soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa), pigeonberry (Rivina humilis) and Texas palo verde (Parkinsonia texana) are all low-water users, provide interesting and colorful blooms, are native to the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and possess flower nectar that soapwood yucca attracts myriads of bees, butterflies & other insects.

Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), the plant with the highest water requirement (medium) of the five, is located closest to the two downspouts on the Visitor Center's west side and planted within microbasins, or shallow depressions created to passively collect water. Passive water harvesting involves altering the topography and surface of a site to direct limited rains to plants. It is used in many arid and semi-arid regions of the world for both economic and environmental reasons.

The illustration to the right shows a plant plan and suggestions for water harvesting at the Visitor Center. A new sidewalk connects the north side Texas paloverde of the building to an existing entryway to the park, while a reduction in turf space reduces the water demand of the planing area and allows for

APPENDICES the showcase of native vegetation. Shadows casts are simulated from December 15th at noon sun patterns.

96 APPENDICES

New Sidewalk Segment

Flag Pole and Bike Rack

Texas paloverde Palm Tree Removal pigeonberry gulf cordgrass butterfly milkweed

Harvesting Water from Downspout

Cannon

Water Harvesting Basins Palo Alto Battlefield Visitor Center

Reduced Turf Area

Entrance

soapwood yucca APPENDICES

97 APPENDICES APPENDIX B WOODLAND REFORESTATION PLANT LIST (courtesy of Rolando L. Garza) (from page 77)

Type Common Name Botanical Name

Shrub Texas Torchwood Amyris texana Shrub Vasey Adelia Adelia vaseyi Shrub Berlandier Wolfberry Lycium berlandieri Shrub Granjeno, Spiny Hackberry Celtis pallida Shrub Coyotillo Karwinskia humboldtiana Shrub Lotebush, Gumdrop Tree Ziziphus obtusifolia Shrub Blue Eupatorium Tamaulipa azurea Shrub Elbow Bush, Desert Olive Forestiera angustifolia Shrub Wild Turk’s Cap, Texas Mallow Malvaviscus drummondii Shrub Mexican Myrtle, Manzanita Malpighia glabra Shrub Snake-Eyes, Ojo de Vibora Phaulothamnus spinescens Shrub Texas Randia, Crucillo Randia rhagocarpa Tree Texas Honey Mesquite Prosopis glandulosa Tree Texas Ebony, Tenaza Havardia pallens Tree Sugar Hackberry, Palo Blanco Celtis laevigata Tree Mexican Olive, Anacahuita Cordia boissieri Tree Retama Parkinsonia aculeata Tree Anuacua, Sugarberry Ehretia anacua Tree Texas paloverde Parkinsonia texana Tree Tepeguaje, Lead Tree Leucaena pulverulenta Tree/Shrub Guayacan, Soap-Bush Guaiacum angustifolium Tree/Shrub Berlandier Fiddlewood Citharexylum berlandieri Tree/Shrub La Coma Sideroxylon celastrina Tree/Shrub Brasil, Bluewood Condalia Condalia hookeri Undershrub Chilipiquin, Bird Pepper Capsicum annuum Undershrub Pigeonberry Rivina humilis

APPENDIX C - GRASSLAND REHABILITATION PLANT LIST (from page 77) (courtesy of Forrest S. Smith / South Texas Natives Project Director / Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute)

Common Name Catarina Blend Bristlegrass (Setaria leucopila) LaSalle Germplasm Arizona cottontop (Digitaria californica) Maverick Germplasm pink pappusgrass (Pappophorum bicolor) Webb Germplasm whiplash pappusgrass (Pappophorum vaginatum) Mariah Germplasm Hooded windmillgrass (Chloris cucullata) Welder Germplasm shortspike windmillgrass (Chloris x subdolichostachya) Dilley Germplasm slender grama (Bouteloua repens) Chaparral Germplasm hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta Lag. var. hirsuta) Atascosa Germplasm Texas grama (Bouteloua rigidiseta) Kinney Germplasm false rhodesgrass (Chloris crinita) Falfurrias Germplasm big sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii) Lavaca Germplasm Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis) APPENDICES Alamo switchgrass (Panicum virgatumis) Goliad orange zexmenia (Wedelia texana 98 APPENDICES APPENDIX D - BIRD SPECIES BY HABITAT TYPE (from page 78) common name in Spanish included where known (information compiled from online resources: www.whatbird.com AND www.allaboutbirds.org)

OPEN AREAS Tropical Kingbird / tirano tropical (Tyrannus melancholicus)

GRASSLAND White-tailed Kite (Milano coliblanco) Mississippi Kite / gavilan de Mississippi (Ictinia mississippiensis) Hook-billed Kite /gavilán pico-gancho (Chondrohierax uncinatus) Northern Bobwhite (Codorniz cotuf)

FOREST (Hackberry, Thornscrub, Ebony) Green Jay / chara verde (Cyanocorax yncas) Altamira Oriole / bolsero de Altamira (Icturus gularis) Groove-billed Ani / garrapatero pijuy (Crotophaga sulcirostris) White-eyed Vireo / vireo ojiblanco (Vireo griseus) Long-billed Thrasher / cuitlacoche pico largo (Toxostoma longirostre) Summer Tanager / cardenal veranero (Piranga rubra) Yellow-breasted Chat / griton pechiamarillo (Icteria virens) Olive Sparrow / rascador oliváceo (Arremonops rufivirgatus) Great Kiskadee / luis bienteveo (Pitangus sulphuratus) Plain Chachalaca / chachalaca vetula (Ortalis vetula)

RIPARIAN FOREST Ringed Kingfisher /martín pescador de collar (Ceryle torquata)

WETLAND Least Grebe / zambullidor menor (Tachybaptus dominicus) Black-bellied Whistling Duck / pato chiflador (Dendrocygna autumnalis) Purple Gallinule / gallineta morada (Porphyrio martinica) APPENDICES

99 99 LIST OF REFERENCES

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102