'"^ SivO. UTAH
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'
GRAMMATOGRAPHY
MANUAL OF REFERENCE
TO THE
ALPHABETS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES
133922
BASED ON THE GERMAN COMPILATION
r. BALLHOEK
0Zt
LONDON
TRUBNER AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1861.
I •. •• : : • . :.. ;^ -; >:
* ' . • ' ^
•• '*, • / • •,• : » * » •
': PREFACE.
-
The Geamma^iography is offered to the Public as a compendious introduction to
the reading of the most important ancient and modern languages. Simple in
its design, it will be consulted with advantage by the Philological Student, the
Amateur Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent
Compositor.
Although substantially based on " Ballhorn's Alphabete," a German com-
pilation, which, in the space of a few years, passed through nine editions, the
present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and enlarged. Of the new observations which have been inserted, some may prove useful even when this work shall be consulted by the side of the respective
Grammars. With regard to the Asiatic Alphabets, it may be stated, that the continued efforts to obtain trustworthy specimens have, in some instances, led to highly satisfactory results. In preparing the type of the Chinese characters, the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 214 symbols of pronunciation.
These additions will enable the student, instructed by native teachers, to re- member with greater facility the varying articulation of vowel-sounds.
The publishers entertain the hope, that the present work, an humble attempt to assist in the furtherance of philological pursuits, will obtain the encouraging consideration of competent scholars, whose suggestions, available for future editions, are respectfully solicited. ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Page Page Afghan (or Pushto) .... 28 Hebrew (Judaeo- German) 13 Amliaric 23, 24, 25 Hebrew (Current ...... hand) , 14 Anglo-Saxon ..... 73 Hungarian ... 68 Arabic Illyrian 20, 21 .... . 63 Arabic Ligatures .... 21, 22 Irish .... 73
Aramseic . . . . . Italian (Old-) . .9 . . 9
...... Archaic Characters . 8, 9 Japanese , 34 Armenian ...... 53 Javanese 46, 47, 48 Assyrian Cuneiform .... 7 Lettish 69 Bengali ...... 45 Mantshu . . 50, 51
Bohemian (Czechian) . . . . 67, 68 Median Cuneiform 6
Bugis 45 Modern Greek (or Romaic) . 57
Burmese ...... 41 Mongolian . 52
Canarese (or Carnataca) . . . .42 Numidian . 8 Chinese .... 30, 31, 32, 33 Old- Slavonic (or Cyrillic) 58
Coptic 29 Palmyrenian . . 9 Croato-Glagolitic 60 Persian 27
...... Persian . Cufic .9 Cuneiform . 5
Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic) ... 58 Phoenician . 8
Czecliian (or Bohemian) . . 67, 68 Polish . . . . 65
. . (or Danish . . . .71 Pushto Afghan) 28
Demotic ...... 8 Romaic (or Modern Greek) . 57
. . . . Russian . Estrangelo . . 9 ... 61, 62 Ethiopic .... 23, 24, 25 Runes .... 75,76 Etruscan ...... 9 Samaritan . 15 Georgian ...... 54 Sanscrit 35, 36, 37, 38
German ...... 70 Servian . . . , 63
Glagolitic ...... 59 Slavonic (Old-) . 58 Gothic 74 Serbian (or Wendish) 66
Greek 55 Swedish . .72
Greek Ligatures ..... 56 Syriac . . . . 16, 17, 18, 19
Greek (Archaic) 9 Tamil . 39, 40
Gujerati (or Guzerattee) . . . 43 Telugu . . . , 44 Hieratic ...... 8 Tibetan .... . 49 Hieroglyphics ..... 8 Turkish 26 Hebrew .... 10, 11, 12 Wallachian . 64 Hebrew (Archaic) .... 8 Wendish (or Serbian) 66
. . Zend . 41 Hebrew (Rabbinical) . .13 .... PERSIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS.
There are two main families of Cuneiform Characters which, before the expedition of Alexander the Great, were in use nearly in all Asiatic Conntries, snbjected to the (Achae- menides) Persian Kings. One of these, the Arian arrow-headed, is here given, and is a pure alphabet of fixed characters, which was made use of by the old Persians, proper, and is now read with tolerable accuracy. The other, however, not yet deciphered with sufficient certainty, was employed, with some modifications, by at least five different nations, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Medo- Scythians (the second in the triglot inscriptions of Persepolis and Bisutun), the Susians and the Armenians. Almost in each of these five sorts of characters can be distinguished three styles, the Archaic, theLapidary, and the Cursive.
Form Value Form Value Form Value Form Value
a t m before i s (sh) yyt s^yyy y<5^ ^
?Y i yyys^ t before i ^<- 111 before u y-y z
g'
k th h ys^ y d r thr (tr) «yy kh <^y (111 -« r' y< i-p, q point for separating k' s^y b Q (s) w- y^ A words. -<^ 0-' -yyy m 6 MEDIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS Form Value Form Value Form Value Form Value -T a 5^y t s^ys^y phi 2<1- VO -Bit a ^-yy ta yy y y^ s ^i: i -f^ ti -yy< y^i -t sa i ^< til -yyy yo 21 Sll < u ^ys^ th -^yy- r ^ yy thi ra s'a u y^ '^Yn y q -iiy thii -yyy< ri qu I'll z tt:h 5^5^y P -y'Sy y^ yy k pa ro za -n- . :y ^ys^ yy y '^T ka 5^y- pi ^1 hi yy h m^^ ku j^yy- pe -t:^ kh y?^ pu i: fc -5^y n y < klm -y plia ^tVy vu s^yys^ 111 ASSYRIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS Form Value Form Value Form Value Form Value TV >+ >y ( ch > n 1- J^-4 V r [ t Y \ »^YY a, ya <• [ 1' ly- fj L ^T w iy > r rsli I t, s £: i ^y t Ay i^y 1 TO > / m, V >+f TU-f »^<'< -:y *^-< nue uu 1 i j VjHf- y \ \ ilrrangement Hieroglyphics Hieratic Demotic Phcenician Numidian Early - Hebrew Aleph • • • • X f -t • • 2 Beth n ^ ^ 9 Gimel ;i t 7 1 1 1 Daleth rj 1 I • • • ^ ^ n He C71 ? ^ Vav 1 7 7 I Zayin I a A, A ...... n Cheth . . . n ft ^ ^ ))) B to Teth J © O •» Yodh . . IZ ^ ^ . 1-X 2 Kapli ^-^ 'fl )f oy ^ Lamedh L 4 y /. ^ V AA/WA i Mem A•v/^y^A f2 ^ ^ '^7 ^^ 2 Nun • • • 'z V ) D Samek n X. AAM t^ ^ y Ayin ^r- ^U u O • ^ Pe 1 > -n ) Tsadhe . . . V\A- ^ r r . . . Q'oph P V V V i7 n Resh r\ R u ^ ^ Shin tvw ^J ^^^ t^ ^ ^ . . . w Tav n . . . -^ h xt xt .... • • • I 5 ' 9 OLDEST CHARACTERS Aramaic Estrangelo Palmyrenian Kuiic Old-Heller,ic Old-Ilalic Etrurian \* 4 4 'T> Pi A\ H ni d^R^ L /\ iJ :n :5 J ^ ^ ^ ^ 9i S A X ^ rri"\ ( 7 ) ) A 1. p' Q ^ B "I h A fi^ /^ A 1 ^ -r\ >i A d q^ ^ ^• 3 3E a FM 7 1 a 1 1 :i =1F 1- + L ^ / 7. 1 I J / NHth''^ VX ...... C— H J 3 3 e E| • - .... • ...... s 8 f n .^ Ji 6 B H B.H a h e 1 i \} X 6 L © 9 ^ ^ ^ > D J ^ 8 7 JXHj H VJ 1 3 >l k >l K 1 "^^ 3 1 A J / U L X ^ J 1 Ih J ^ m m) /V w\ Mwl" ^"^ ^ tJ o M J 7 A/ M n \ ) 1 ^ r u 1 1 t I ^3 b f 1 1 ) u c () ^ J^ 90 , n r " i O O A :s J n r o) T ' r ^,V ^ ^ ^ b ^ ^ A 1', ^ 3 9 Q A PT • • • .... ^ V Y V / — : 10 HEBREW ————— Pronun- Numer.- Form Name ciation value NOTES. The Hebrew Alphabet, like ail Semitic al- Spintus leni8 s Alepli 1 phabets, consists only of consonants, 22 in number, some of which, however, have also i Beth b bh 2 2i the force is right of vowels. Hebrew read from \ to left. Because at the end of the lines, words y Giniel g gli 3 cannot be divided , the following dilatable cha- *' Daleth d dh 4 racters (dilatabiles) were employed to help to justify, or fill up the lines; but now the prac- n He h 5 tice is all but obsolete. ^ Vav w 6 tz: m S r-i r-i >^ ^ r- 1 Zayiii S soft f CONSONANTS. Chetli eh 8 Notes on Pronunciation. T' ^ is the softest guttural, an emission of the £0 Teth t 9 breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus lenis of the Greeks , similar to - , but much ' ^ Yotlli J 10 softer. before a vowel, is our aspirated h (the Spi- •^ Kapli k kli 20 PI i linal X ^? ritus asper of the Greeks); but after a 1 vowel, at the end of a syllable, it is a Laiuedh 1 30 h guttural, and, at the end of words, it Mem ni 40 often supplies the place of a vowel. a, linal U y 1 ) is a guttural g, accompanied by a gra- Nun 11 50 ting or rattling sound a softer breathing J, linal 1 ; 2) 1 like s. In reading and transcribing hebrew Samek s 60 D words, it is now usual to onnt y and s, Ayiu guttural • 70 e. g. "Vy Eli. V PI is the harshest guttural, like the German ph 80 ch as pronounced by the Swiss, or the ; linal Pe P £,^^ 7 H Spanish x and j. Tsadhe ss 90 2:, linal Y ^ is pronounced in Hebrew more like a ratt- ling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and Qi)pli 100 ^ q partakes of both sounds. ^* and ^* were originally but one and the Resh r 200 n same letter, as they still are when written without points ; but as in some words this tr Sin s 300 letter had a softer sound, similar to s. tr Shin sh this two-fold pronunciation is distinguished by the grammarians by the diacritical point n Tav t th 400 'V (sh) and -b (s). * is the English z. Final- K'ai)li " with Shva 7T wit 1 Q'aniets and are strongly articulated sounds. ^ , 1^ 2i * 1 with Daghesh an(A Q'aniets produced by a compression of the lower organs of the mouth; the two first, therefore, LIGATIJ RES. tr 11 differ essentially from n and 5 which are '^» or 2: — T^T.^ ^^ T equivalent to our t and k, and are often .: ^S, also ii istead of ai'"'?* aspirated. : : ) ; : 11 The six consonants nsST^a have a two- The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed fold pronunciation : 1 ) a harder and more slen- under the consonants after which they are der sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and pronounced (^ ra); but the Patach, phiced 2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft under a guttural at the end of a word, is pro- aspiration. The harder sound is the primeval nounced before this guttural, "T" ruach, in it occurs at the beginning of words and syl- which case it is named Patach furtivum. The lables without a vowel preceding immediately, Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the " is lene) left : ^ and indicated by a point ( Daghesh in consonant on the side r5. The figure those six consonants. They are aspirated after is to be pronounced sometimes oc , the "being a vowel immediately preceding; in manu- consonant, and the — preceding it: sometimes scripts this is indicated by the Raphe ('), but t'O, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It in printed books the aspiration is shown by is more accurate to distinguish thus: Y oy, i the absence of the Daghesh. vo, i o ; likewise also ^ (Shureq) and *: (Vav with Daghesh). As, however, ^ (Shureq) is CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS, readily discernible, because a vowel neither a) According to the organs of speech by which can precede nor follow it, only this form is are they pronounced made use of. 1) gutturalvS (gutturales) n y n s In opposition to the vowels 2) palatals (palatinae) p 5 ; "* r— ri — Shva (Sh^va) indicates the absence of a 3) Unguals (linguales) 13 t and ] h full and distinct vowel. Therefore 4) dentals (dentales) ^ :y D t 5) labials (labiales) ri a 73 i 1 ) placed under a consonant concluding a The 1 partakes of the 1. and 3. classes. syllable, itindicates the complete absence b) According to their sound: of a vowel and serves to divide the pre- 1) aspirated consonants (aspiranfes): rryrts ceding syllable from the following (*SA''i"« 2) soft consonants (molles): liquids i : ?3 V, quiescens). It is not made use of, how- "^ semivowels i ever, when the consonant concluding the 3) sibilants (sibilantes): :: •:; D t syllable at the same time concludes the 4) mutes (mutae): n s 5 -t ; a and p i: word, except in the case of the Final Qoph (tj), and those words ending in two VOWELS. consonants, when each of them is to be furnished with a Sh^va, e. g. ""p That the scale of the five vowels a e i o oo is derived from the three primitive vowels a 2 ) itrepresents a slight and indistinct vowel, I oo, is to be seen much more distinctly iu the as it were only the onset or beginning Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than of a vowel (Sh^va mobile). in other languages. The e has been formed The Sh^va mobile is pronounced somewhat -j- by a 3f, the o by a + oo, and, properly speak- more clear and distinct in the so called Cha- ing, both are contracted diphthongs : e = ai, teph- vowels (Titan rapidum), joining a short 6 = au. — The full vowels formed by this vowel to the Sh^va simplex; in opposition to process are the following, arranged according which it is also named Sh^vu compositum. There to the three principal vowels and to their pro- are three Chatephs sodical quantity -^ Chateph Patach, half a Vowel a (X) -^77- - Seghol , half -Y' Q'amets, a a Chateph e —z— Patach, o. a. -jT- Chateph- Qamets , half — ^ Vowel e 1 ( ) Tsere (with Yodh), e READING -SIGNS. Chireq (magnum), i There are some reading -signs which have close connexion with the vowels and probably Tsere (without Yodh), e (e) w^ere introduced at the same time. Amongst Seghol, e, e (the latter is also these is to be noticed the diacritical point of written *'~^) •J and 'i. Meeting together with the Cholem which re- Chireq (parvum), i (i). {—), only one point is made use of presents both; therefore •i;is to be pronounced Vowel — 00 ( osh. *] 60, if no other vowel -point is added ; and is unpointed, Cholem (magnum), o when the preceding consonant e. g, spiy sone ^ rr^y mosheh. Shureq, fi More frequently we see a point placed in Cholem (parvum), o (6) the consonant to indicate in general a harder Q'amets -chatuph, (5 pronunciation. There are three cases to be Q'ibbuts, 66 (oo)- distinguished, viz.: 2* 12 ACCENTS Daghesh forte , doubling the consonants. PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS. .*. Segholta Dayhesh lene , hardening the consonant; it stands only in the six mutae: fi B 5 n 5 a in • Zaqeph-qaton otherwise the point '• the above named cases ; Zaqeph-gadhol occurring in these consonants must be a Da- * Rebhia ghesh forte. ~ Zarqa Mappiq^ indicates that those consonants, Qadma which are also used as vowels , are then to be pronounced as consonants; in modern ^ Pashta printing it is made use of only in the W at j Shalshelet the end of the words. '^ Paser In opposition to the point hardening the '^'^ Qarne-phara consonant, a little stroke standing above the consonant indicates his softer sound. This ^ Great- Telisha stroke called ^ Little -Telisha Raphe (") is now almost out of use, and is *" Garesh in order to indicate express- only employed " Double- Garesh. ly the absence of a Daghesh or Mappiq. ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONG- ING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE ACCENTS. OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS. —— The general design of the accents is to indi- Merkha mahpakhatum cate the rhythmical members of the verses in Merkha sarqatum the Old Testament. In doing this, they per- form a twofold duty; for the accents mark at Mahpakh sarqatum. one and the same time partly the logical re- lation of each word to the whole sentence, : Soph-pasuq, separating verses. and partly the accented syllable of each single I Pesiq, between the words. word. In the first case the accents supply the — Maqqeph, hyphen, aloft, between the words. punctuation, in the latter they are signs of I Metheg, sign of tone (to the left of the tone. As signs tone, the different accents — of vowel). are equivalent, because there is in Hebrew only one kind of accentuation. In most words, NUMERALS. the last syllable is accented, more rarely the There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew; last but one. — As signs of p uncination , their but consonants are used instead of them. The use is more complicated, because they not "^ units are expressed by s — u, the tens by — ::, ojily , like points separate words our , commas 100— 400 by p—r. The numbers 500—900 and colons, but also join one to the other. sometimes are expressed by the five final letters Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and 500 D 600 700 P] 800 900, Conjnnctivi. In the following list they are ar- ^ J y ranged not according to their grammatical sometimes by n = 400 with addition of the value, but according to their being placed other hundreds, e. g. prr=500. In compound below the consonants or a6ot'e them, in order numbers, the greater is placed first, e. g. N'^ to give a more facile view of them. 11, S2p 12 L The number 15 is written with tr^, the name ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS. 113 (94-6), instead of because of God T^r^'^ begins with these letters; and for Silluq only at the end of the verse, there- , the same reason, 16 is written Tta instead of i". fore always joined with : Soph-pasuq, The thousands are expressed by the units, which stands between the single verses. superscribing two points, e. g. s 1000. ^ Athnach, mostly in the midst of a verse ^ Yethibh ( always to the left of the vowel). ABBREVIATIONS. ' A stroke aloft to the left of the consonant, .^ Tebhir e. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves Tiphcha initiale as a numeral. By the side of the last con- sonant of a word, e. g. 'zi2 (=:nmo73) it ^ Merkha marks an abbreviation. Double -Merkha " Two strokes above a word, e. g. ns, indi- of these letters stands for a J Munach cate that each separate word abbreviated. Mahpakh (to the right of the vowel) ^ or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to ^ Darga the readings placed in the margin or at the Yarach foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic, ^ Tiphcha finale. and the other is of modern origin. 13 RABBINIC GEllMAN-RABBINIC Form Name Pronunciation Form Pronunciation Aleph Spiritus lenis n a 2 b Beth bh b 2 V f Gimel gh g_ J( g 7 Daleth dh d 1 d n h He h I V U 1 Vav w II w r Zayin s s n cch n Cheth Ch guttural t Teth t i j e short Yodh y D, final 1 c ch final ^ ^ T Kaph ch k 1 J i Lamedh 1 M final ni , p ))j final C Mem m 5, final n I D s ss 5, final ] Nun n i; e long D Samek s final D 5 ^ p Ayin guttural D ph pf V ?, final z tz D, final Pe ph p I k ck P q final T J ^ Tsaclhe z 1 r s sh P Q'oph k to n t Resli r tt Shin Sm sh s DIPHTHONGS. n Tav th t >in au, >•> ei, »l eu, >|OUgeiman. , 14 HEBREW RU;^;srVG-HASD Form Pronun- Numerical Name Ligatures ciation value Polish German ^ A Alepli X a 1 O Beth 2 b 2 -€P — y:i 1)0 A Gimel 3 V = nn bh a Daleth n d 4 33 ng ^ ^ He n h 5 ^ t » Vav 1 w 6 Of — i: nd . 2 Zayin . r s 7 (^ — n: nh Cheth n ch 8 6 (j Teth D t 9 d; 53 nf ^ 1 ! Yodh ^ y 10 _p — :: nn j3 r) Kapb 3 cch 20 V Vor(^ fi i: nw Lamedh b 1 30 N R Mem 12 ni 40 J — •»: nj J Nun : n 50 a^ — n:i zd O O Samek D ss 60 yor^ yor^ Ayin •; e 70 7 i«i zw ® o Pe ^ 1> 80 ^:k* zi ® D Fe ^ f 90 y 1 with mark of ab- -3 -3 Tsadhe ^ C or Z 100 breviation in use at the Q'oph k 200 end of certain words. i <: P ") o Resh n r 300 Shin ^ sh 400 j> J\ Tav n th 500 FINAL LETTERS. Polish. German. ? — "[ cch -p — "7 cch ? — D ni ^ — Dm " i " I ( — ( ?| f H'^ - 1 f — c z c f K r" p — p z , : 15 SAMARITAN Pronun- Numerical Name Form ciation value NOTES. The Samaritan is a Seniilic language. Tlierefore, the alphabet consists only of consonants in number) A Aleph Spint'Js lenis 1 (22 and is read from right to left. As in this language 3 Beth b bh 2 words cannot be separated at tlie end of the lines, the two letters ending the last word are separated TC Giniel g gli 3 from the others and placed at the end of the line ; but in printing this is generally avoided by dimin- ^ Daleth d dh 4 ishing or enlarging the spaces between the single words. n He n Spir. asper 5 Save some points and scanty orthographical signs, there are in Samaritan no vowel- marks, t Vav W V 6 accents or other diacritical signs as in Hebrew. Therefore we are somewhat in the dark about the ^ Zayiu s ds 7 pronunciation of the consonants and vowels and it can be acquired only by comparison with the Syriac H Cheth ch hh 8 and the Hebrew. f Teth t 9 VOWELS. There are no vowel -marks as in other Semitic Yoclh 10 (n y languages. However, to supply this want and to indicate somewhat the pronunciation, some conso- Kaph k ch 20 ^ nants are used as vowels, viz. I Lamedh 1 30 a A, ^, V Mem ni 40 *ii s A, tirst V Ayin y hebrew 70 Of two consonants beginning a word , the is pronounced as if it were a slight and indistinct D Pe p ph 80 vowel, similar to the Hebrew Shwa. ^ Tsadhe ts 90 DIACRITICAL SIGNS. The only diacritical sign is a stroke over the Q'oph k 100 ? two consonant (e. g, ^) serving to distinguish manner, or two 'i Resh r 200 different words written in the same dilTerent forms derived from one and the same root, JUUL Shin sh 300 or to indicate some letter added or omitted. When stroke indicates that placed over fH °'" l^* '*^^ Tav t th 400 A these letters are real consonants, not representing vowels. PUNCTUATION. letter of a word. Resides lliis, the following; signs h:.ve been A point is put by the side of the final introduced by the transcribers: * t or or * at the end of a sentence, like our colon. (also ) at the end of part of a sentence, --.* etc at ibe end of a longer sentence = ,* or — or section the end of one section. ^^.•-^--^^^ or similar signs, sometimes again and again repeated, between paragraph or chapter, and the beginning of the other. The numbers are written as in Hebrew (see under). -i^ . 16 SYRIAC Form VOWELS. connect- connect- Pronun- Numer. Name The Syriac is written from right to uncon- ed with ''T"^-m' ed with ciation value a preced- left. — The vowels are expressed by nected ^^^^ inpletter inp letter diacritical signs or some marks iii imitation of the greek; the latter of which Jire now mostly in use. In former times both kinds Spiritas lenis 1 were era- Olaph J ployed promiscuously. b or V 2 Figure Beth Name ^2 Syriac. Greek. j Gomal 3 •\ g • 7 W ^ _ Pethocho a " y Dolath 5 r d 4 — or . Rebotzo e He CI h 5 _ Chebotzo 1 DC P Van O a W or V 6 ^7 or _ Zekopho • • 7 Zaiii — Etsotso > Z 7 Q. a a 0. 00 DIACRITICAL SIGNS. Cheth ch 8 . Ruchoch , a point below an aspi- rated letter to indicate that it is to be aspirated. Teth t 9 . Qushoi , a little point over an 4 aspirated letter to indicate that it is not to be aspirated. 10 •• Ribui, two points placed horizon- Yud y tally above the word to indicate the plural. — Marlwtono , a line above a letter Koph ch 20 between two consonants to indi- cate the absence of a vowel. Be- sides, this line signifies 1) a num- Lomad 1 30 ber, 2) an abbreviation, 3) an exclamation ^ Mehagijono , a line below a letter, ni 40 to show that though without a Mini la vowel it is to be pronounced as if it had one. — Linea occultans, a line placed be- n 50 Nun 1 low a letter to denote that it is to be mute or omitted in pro- nunciation. s 60 Semcath PUNCTUATION. S marks a single part of the premise as m 70 of a sentence. Ee ^ hebrew •. marks the end of a premise; or, it is sign of interrogation. •* marks the single parts of the con- Pe P or f 80 clusion of a sentence; or, larger interrogations. J* or ;; at the end of a period. Tsode tS or Z 90 NUMERICAL VALUE. The consonants of the alphabet sup- Quph q 100 ply the numbers from 1 to 400; in compound numbers . the greater i^re- cedes. Within 500 — 900, the tens Rish r 200 from 50— 90 are denoted by a point standing aloft. The mark y under a unit denotes the thousands, -the ten- thousands, /v the product of the thou- Shin sh 300 sands multiplied by thetenthousands. In writing fractions, the numerator is denoted by a little stroke going Tau th or t 400 from left to right, placed above the A denominator. LIGATURES. '^ Doubie-Lomad. :^ :i. Olaph-Lomad. ? ft ^ Lomad -Olaph. ^ Double-Gomal. ^^ 17 SYRIAC Cut in the printing -office of B. G. Teubner in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Professor TuLLBERG of Upsala and Professor Bernstein of Breslau. Form Pronun- Name Form Pronun- Name Form Pronun- Name ciation ciation ciation 57 1 I 29S4S, ) a gh Gomal Z Zain (gr. ?) 2 > or Olaph 30 58 J Spirit, N^ [ lenis. 3 ] 31 1 59 ^ 32 60 ^ 4 2> * > kh Cheth 5 ^ 33 y d 61 ^ > and 6 ^ b 34 dh 62 w^ ^ and 7 .^ bh 35 S 8 > 36 V 64 ^ 9 i 37 i 65 ^ 10 => 38 ^ > Dolath t Teth \ ^ 11 21 Beth 39 V 67 ^ 12 i. > b 40 V 68 ^ 41 fi 13 'i • 69 4> 14 ^ 42 7^^ \• 1 43 . 71 * 15 p * or • dh 72 . IG :;j 44 t ' bh 17 73 -. y 45 5 .V 74 ^ ^ i Yud 18 > , 46 ^ 19 ^^ 47 O) 75 ^ 20^ 48 O^ 76 :; ' and 77 u 21^ 49 6i "1 22 V^, 50 CH 78 O > h He 23^ 51 01 79 D > Gomal 24^ 52 Ci 80 •> c > and ^ g 25"^ 53 O) 81 ^ ch Koph • 26 Vi^ 54 CH 82 * ^ 83 2"? S^ 55 O -f ' gb W V u Vau -^ 56 84 b ^ 28 <5. Q \ 18 SYRIAC 1 Form Pronun- Name Form Pronun- Name Form Pronun- Name ciation ciation ciation 85 a 115 QQ 145 A 86 116 3D 8 Semcath 146 A > sh Shin 87 i ^ C 1173a 147 ji 88 118 \ 148 I -J 89 ^ 119 i. 149 N t > and 90 p ' Koph 120 b. ee 150 i th (hebr. Ee 91 p 121 ^ 151 -^ 92 •> 122 >\ 152 I ch 93 -i 123 Vy 153 fc< > Tau 94 ^ 124 2> 154 i > t 95 125 155 -^ -f a p > and 96 \ 126^ ph(f) 156 I 97 \ 127 ^ 157 I > Phe 98 >\ 128 2> 158 N 1 Lomad P . th 99 >^ 129 2i 159 i 100 \ 130 2> 160 -^ ph f 101 "i 131 a LIGATURES. 102 X> 132 J 161 >$^ Olaph- > al Sharp Lomad 103 iO 133 j 162^ s . Tsode or 104 » 134 163 V5^ j SS ni Mini 105 K5 135 164 j . <^ 106 )0 136 i> 165 v^ Double- 1 107 137 ' )Q 166 s^ gg Gomal > k Quph 108 ) 138 JD 167 ;5^ 109 J 139 JQ 168 v^ 110 X 140 ^ 169^ > n Nun 1 111 ^ 141 ; 1700^ Gomal- r Rish . gv Vau 112 V 142 V 171C^ 113 y 143 172 ^ Vau- vll > Nun 114 05 s Semcath 144 jt sh Shin 173 >9 19 SYRIAC Form Pronun- Name Vowels, Accents and Orthographi- ciation cal Signs Points and Numbers 174 x^ VOWELS AND ACCENTS. POINTS. in Yud-Nun 203 175 ^ 224 . 229 a Pethocho 176 Jil 225 _: 230 177 U Lomad- 226 -: 231 la Olaph 178 )K e Rebotzo 227 _. 232 179 y^ 228 -% 180^ 233 <• Mark of marginal notes 181^ Lomad- ^ i Chebotzo 234 ^ Number - Mark It Teth 182^ 183^ NUMBERS. Form Value 184 "^^ ' o Zekopho / 1 185 "J^ Double ^ 2 186^ 11 Lomad 11 Etsotso 3 187 ^^ 1 4 188^ O) 5 189 :JS. ORTHO GRAPHICAL o 6 SIGNS. 190 :;s. Loniad- I 7 lee Ee <^k* 8 191 n;^ 215 • Ribui •h 9 192 >^ 216 - Mehagyono w* 10 193 li^ 217 — Marhetono 20 194 25^ Lomad- 218 . Qushoi, Riichoch 30 It Tau 40 195 -IJ^ 50 196 -j^ 60 Mim- mil 219 Little hooks at the 197 i 70 ^ Nun beginning of a word 220 at the end of a 80 198 \s Nun- j word na ( 221 90 Olaph ^ J I 199 \l J JO 100 Tsode- 222 I Strokes between 200 -ssn / the single letters to 200 ^ Nim 223 I I adjust the lines 300 201 ^ ^ Tsode- I 400 ssg 202 v^ I Gomal 1000 20 ARABIC Form Numerical Name Connected Connected Pronunciation Unconnected Connected value with a preced- with both with a follow- ing letter ing letter . . . . lenis A Elif 1 L . . N Spir. 1 8 Ba V^ v^ A J b 2 Ta C^ Tha ^ C>> A 3 th 500 r Jim J 3 Hha c e hh 8 Cha c e eh 600 . . Dal 4> . . . . d 4 i>,\ . . . Dhal 6 cX . . . dh or ds 700 . . . K Ra . . , r 200 ; 7 y- . . . -f Zay • • z 7 ; > Sin s 60 V u* Shin LT Mi* sh 300 -^ or /p Ssad U^ (j<=. J^ SS Q 90 J^ Ddad U^ (ja J>Q. d or dd 800 Tta i^ ia h tt or th 9 h k ^za ic ia la ii zz 900 £ Spir. giitt. 6 Ain e d X V 70 Ghain £ k £ gh 1000 Fa o SL i f 80 ^ Qaf O i3 A 5 k 100 K Kaf d d s:^ f ^ k soft 20 30 j^ Lam J J^ JL J 1 Mim 4- JO m 40 4^i r r Nun X j n 50 .V u c> • Ha s Final » & Final R •^ h 5 [ -^ . . . w 6 t- Waw ^ ^ Ya 1^ J) i 10 j ^ (5 y, ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS : 21 VOWELS. ^L_ ~~ Fatha, a a e Kesre, i e .^_ Damma, oo o At the end of the substantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the case viz. _?_ on ~" in -^_ an This is called Nunation^ because, in pronouncing, Nun is added to the vowel. DIPHTHONGS: ,<_:L '^ V5 <^iai ^I ciLiin as in Rernian. ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. _^_ Jezma, separating syllables, is written over the final consonant of all shut syUable and indicates, that the syllable is finished and the consonant to be pronounced with the preceding vowel; it corresponds to the Shwa quiescens of the Hebrew. _^ Teshdid , mark of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as that beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked "' with the sign , which corresponds to the Hebrew Daghesh forte. In African manu- scripts it is written v or a. _£l. Hamza is placed generally above the Elif , when this is used as a consonant and furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath; sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufic Korans it is supplied by a little green stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dot. "° vvGSla, joining- mark. The Elif , at the commencement of a word, is sometimes in pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this case, the vowel of the IClif is elided and marked by the Wesla. ^ Medda stands above an Elif pronounced by Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it in- dicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed, also, above an Elif at the commence- ment of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre- viation. PUNCTUATION. There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic, only in the Koran the verses are separated by ^. This sign, however, or * or < or a red dot, is employed also in other books at the end of a section. In manuscripts, sometimes, a new section begins with a word written in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line is placed above each catch -word. CIPHERS. Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to express numbers ; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures, called by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones. t d 1 V A ^ 123t' r t^4567890 Regarding their composition and value they accord with our numerals , which are taken from them, whereas the consonants expressing ciphers are written from right to left, viz. tA*lt (1861). ARABIC LIGATURED) Ba- Jim Tha-Cha Ba-Hha Jim - Jim Jim Jim-Hha Ba-Hha- • Ba-Cha c^ Hha-Jim Ta-Jim Hha - Jim - Jim Ta-Hha Hha- Jim-Hha ^ ^ ^ Ta-Cha e^ Hha -Hha ^ Tha-Hha Hha -Hha -Jim 22 ARABIC LIGATURES ^ Hha-Cha Kaf-Cha t f ^^ Cha-Jim y :i Lam-Elif e* Cha-Hha Lam -Jim cc^^ Sin -Jim Lam -Jim -Hha ee^^ Sin-Hha Lam -Hha •f^^'^ Sin-Cha Lam -Hha -Jim ii^^ Shin - Jim Lam -Hha -Hha i ^^^ Shin-Hha i^^i Lam-Cha a Shin-Cha Lam- Cha-Jim ^^^4P S sad -Jim Lam - Mini - Hha -Jim ^^^SP Ssacl-Hha Lam - Mini - Hha - Hha ee^^ Ssad-Cha i ^ Lam-Ya ^ Ddad-Jim t^^ Mini -Jim ^ ^ Ddad-Hha Mini -Hha ^^ Tta-Hha Mini -Hha -Jim ^ # Ain-Jim ^ Mini -Hlia- Hha .:^ :^ Ain-Hha ^ ^ ^ Mini - Cha 4-^ Ghain-Jim i^^ Nun -Jim ^ :^ Ghain-Hlia tt^^ Nun -Hha Fa -Jim Nun -Cha ii^^ 4 de^^ Fa-Hha 4^ ^ Ha -Jim ee^^ Fa-Cha ;s§v ^ Ha -Hha i Fa-Ya ^ i? Ha -Cha it Qaf - Jim ^ Ha-Mim it Qaf - Hha ^e^ - Ya-Jim tt Qaf-Cha :^. Ya- Jim -Hha ir K Kaf-Elif Ya-Hha tf e^^ i^^ Kaf-Jiin M Ya- Hha -Hha ^^L Kaf-Hha Ya-Cha 23 AKTHIOPIAV AND AMHAPJC Form Name 2.2 with n witli li with i Willi a with e with e with 6 Hoi U ha Ih hu xjr U If ha y he U he If ho h la lu H i\ la le J\o lo 1 Lawi A A^ A. A 1= A ha hu rf\ ha he he ho h Haut jfh rff /fl. 1^ fh. fh £U Mai C^ ma <^^>» mu (H mi d9 ma <5^ me f^ me Cp mo m a su s sa Be se qj so s Saut UJ Uh m. W Ui 1. Rees Z, ra 4, ru Z ri i^ ra /o f« C re C ro r sa su sa se se jh so s Sat Jft rt- IX 3. 1^ Jrt. h sh, sha she she sho sh *Shat £^ sha iJt- shu Ft p^ ii> n fl ki ka ke ke cj> ko k Kaf tiu h, ha he he •^ ho h Harm -J ba -}, ^ -^ 1 fi nu "' 4" iia ne ne 4° no n Nahas { na f. I I 1 •5: gna 3ns =? gne gno gn *Gnahas T gna gnu ?; 3"' ? ^ ^ a a e e a Alf A A. ^ ^ ' \ A. :k ^ Kaf Yl ka Tl" ku YX k' VI ka U ke 51 ke 'O ko k cha chu cW *?! cha ^ che che "Y^ cho ch *Cliaf T:i '5ft- •»h, ^ wi wa we we wo w Wawi (D wa (D, wu <5 ted by : — The alphabet of both ijio kua km kua kue 4^ kue 4m, 3i J> languages is syllabic ; the Am- haric, however, has seven hhua hhue '^ hke *^ hhua •^ hhui 'i "J orders of letters (each order consisting of 7 forms or cha- kue YTt® kua 11^ kui YX kua ^ kue YY* racters), wanting in Aethiopi- an, which , in the above table, T gua 7^ 3m 2 8^^ 3 9^^ ^ 9^^ are marked by *. 24 AETHIOPIAN Out ilk the printing -office of F. A. Bkockhaus in Leipzig unde r the direction ul tlie German (Jriental Society. Willi a With u With i With a With e With e With 6 u ha th hli t hi y ha t h6 u he If ho A la A- kl A. li /^ la A. 16 A le A» 16 Wi ha rh- hu A. hi #h ha A. h6 ;h he rh ho ao ma OO* mii "^ mi ^ ma f^ me jp me r mo t^ w sa IP" SU "I si sa "i s6 /" se r so ru ra 1-6 C ra <• £ "-i ^ sii sa s6 se A sa A- A. si ^ A. A fi so + qa * qu * qi ^ qa * qe * qe * qo bu bi ba b6 be n ba n- fl. fl n. -fl a bo tu + ta * -1: ti ;^ ta -t te 1- te * to :i h^ he •i ha -i- M 'i. hi M -i -i -v h6 na nu ni na ne -> ne no V V- 3s «S" i, ? -li -6 h. -a h. K i h -a fc 6 h -e h h ka h- ku h. ki h ka h. k<^ h ke h ko tp (0 wa (D. Wll ^ wi wa ^ w6 AH we p wo a (h U «%.' ^ 'a •i 6 6 e p zu za z6 ze If za H- H. ^i If H. -n H z6 y^^' ye • f y^ e P. yi ^ y^-^ ?• y6 je- p- yo dii tii da de R da * S. fl ft. <16 Jt ^ do T 8« 7- s^ I gi P ga I ge •7 ge ^ go tu ti ta t^ te m ta rtl- m. #1) fll. T rn to pi pe A pa A. P^ A, ft pa A. p6 A- ft po K za K. zu X. ?i « za R. ?6 x- ze ^ z6 za 0- zu 1 zi ? za ft z6 d ze /* z6 fa fu fi fa f>^ fe fo 1^ *• A 4, -t. ¥ c T pa •P pu X pi ;r pa T P^ T pe r p6 25 DIPHTHONGS. ]f|o kua h^ kui yf- kue Vi^ kua Vj, kue 7v To gua Kll gue :j gua Ji gue qua 4*^ qui que qua (jue •fe ^ if ^ •^ hua "J*, liui '^ hue :5^ hua ;V. hu(> PUNCTUATION. : Stop for the division of words : Comma • Semicolon ;: Full stop NUMBERS. SScefeJ^SBI I^S s ^ 9 3 S ff "H" 2 8 it if. f^ i'& Jff 1 2 :i 4 5 6 7 8 y 10 11 etc. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 etc. 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000.000 Ethiopia, formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians , by whom it was called Geez, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the Himyaric, a South- Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence Avith which the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient J]thiopic inscriptions show examples of writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, espe- cially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language. AMHARIC. This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplant- ed the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper hand, eft'ected the preponderance of the Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peculiar to the Amharic lansjfuage. with a with u with i with a with e with e with 6 shi sha sh6 she sho ff sha Jf shu 7L n ?E •fi tr tshi »2 tsha Ishe tshe tsho 5f2 tsha ^ ishu ;g ^ ^ y y na •y. fill i m y ha g fie ^ lie kha khu kl'i Tl kha \ih^ khe Ti kho •fi Ti- U Th Ti (Fr.) jo If ja IF ju TC Ji TTJa 1fj6 3rjt IT j^ ji ja je jo E J'^ % ^ ^ Kj^ jf ^ chhi chha chht^ chhe ^Bbchho 6tt> chha 6tfe chhu ^Cl. 6^ flite* ^ DIPHTHONGS. sua nua n^ tua A lua W vl r uiua n bua y^ zua ^E|^ cua & rua ;h tua r vua ^ zua cua dua fua 9. sua S ^ ^ 26 TUHKISH. The Turkish language is u compound of words taken from the Tatar, Persian and Arabic languages. The high dialect, only spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is / a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages , Turkish is written and read irom right to left. £/i/ supplies the german vowels a,y, o, \jO Ssad like sharp ss. I M, the consonants of the word being hard ; ijfi Ddad, like our z; the Arabs pronounce i, ii, consonants but the german e, o, the it like d. being soft. When Alif is followed by Jb Tta like t or fh; it is often confounded a hard consonant, the ^ . ( Ustiin) is ~7~ with Ta and Dal. pronounced like a, the (Esre) like y, like o or u. Follo- and the _2_ {Utru) jb Zza like our z. wing, however, a soft consonant, the -^ Ain like a strong guttural and nasal a, {Ustan) is to be read as e, the ~7" (Esre) ^ C M. as i, and the > (Utru) as o or u. In the 2/, middle and at the end of words, without A Ghain like ^ guttural. Hamzalif , the Alif is always pronounced like a, but with Hamzalif, like e. \^ 2*0 like our/. J Ba is our b. After Ta, Tim, Jim, Cha, Qtr/ like k, kh or c^\ I * Sin, Shin, Ssad, Tta, Qaf, Gef it is often fi] Kaf, like ^ or ^, as in the french words read like />. qui, quel. ^ ^ Pa is our ^j. ii; Gef, accords with our g in give; in Ta is our t. In the conjugation of some O some cases it is pronounced like gi very verbs it is changed into Dal. soft; in the middle of words and in some ^ Tha is our s or ss, except the word terminations like y. tult. The Arabs pronounce it like th. '^ ^^ Saghur i. e. Nun, mute Nun , like the Jim, the italian g before e or /. When french nasal -w in mon, son. C meeting the consonants named above in La}n our /; in some cases it is connection with the letter v^j, it is pro- (J soft like nounced like Tchim. Hn limb, in some hard like /in all. 3Iim, like m. Tchin like our ch in chess. I* £ 1^ Nun our n; but when followed by a Ba, like in Hha h have. it is pronounced like m. -^ Cha, the german ch in brauchen. ^ Waw our w or v; furnished with Utru, it is pronounced like u in conjunction 4> Dal like d. It is pronounced like t when with hard consonants ; like german il or o, above in meeting the consonants named how ever, in conjunction with soft ones. connection with the letter ^,J. p Ha like our h; at the end of words it is 3 Dhal like z. mostly pronounced like a or e. Ra like r. Lamelif, la or lia (Ligature). ) ^f Za like our z. a consonant like our a ^ Ya , when y, when Sin like s, ss. •• vowel like <; it represents a vowel only U*» in the middle or at the end of words. {Jm Shin like sn. ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. Ustun is placed over the consonants and Jesm (sign of pause) is placed over a pronounced like a with a hard consonant, consonant wanting a vowel , followed by an like e with a soft one. other consonant. Esre below the consonants , is pronounced Teshdid or Shedde when placed over a con- like vowel y with a hard consonant, but sonant doubles it. like i with a soft one. Meddelif ov Medda, is only placed over the Utru is pronounced like o or u with a hard Alif, which, then, is always pronounced consonant, but like o or u with a soft one. like a. Iki ustun (double Ustun) like en. or Hamza; placed over , is Iki esre (double Esre) like in. Hamzelif Elif pronounced like e ; over Waw, like u, Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un. over Ya, like i; at the end of words, end- The three last marks are only employed in *'. Arabic words. ing with a vowel , like : 27 PERSIAN Form Pronun- Nuracr: Name connected connected Notes uncon- with a connected with a ciation value preceding following nected with both letter letter Spiritus lenis Elif I 1 Many Ar;tI>io words liaviiig I)ocii iiitiothucd into the ['orsian language, Ba li 2 the Persinn alphabet ronsisls of 32 Pa P con sonants, which arc wrillen ami read from right to left ; of these Ta V^ L soft 400 consonants, 28 arc common to both lang'uages ; only the following four Tha S sharp 500 are purely Persian : Jim t J 3 ^ Tchiin V tch £^ nil sharp Hha t 8 VOWELS. kll'guttur. ()00 Cha letters consonants, t All Persian are t except ElifjWaw andYa, which also Dal d 4 supplylo n g vowels (theWaw, some- times, represents a short vowel): Dhal j Z soft 700 r 200 la ^ w y Ra ; ^ The short vowels are written thus Z soft 7 Za ; > j;;_Zabar, a ~Zir, e j_Pish, u trench Zha ) ZilorJ S sharp 60 Sin ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. Shin sh 300 ,> Hamza, at the end of a word, sharp S 90 it is Ssad oa. X3. sometimes supplies the Elif", also placed above an Elif in the Z hard 800 Ddad ya middle of a word , when the Elif represents a consonant. Tta h ia t 9 w Teshdid, doubles the letter Zza ii lb Z hard 900 over which it is placed. Spintus lenis 70 Ain t X. -^ Medda. Instead of an Elif written twice, a Medda is placed X. gn guttur. 1000 Ghain t over it. It is properly a second Elif, it but written lengthwise ; sometimes Fa A i f 80 o has a vertical form. K guttur. 100 Qaf O (J- *< Jezma, over a consonant by Kaf r k 20 which a syllable ends. Itis also placed over Waw or Ya, when they form a Gaf J: £>' palatal diphthong with a preceding. 1 30 Lam J J^ JL i m 40 CIPHERS. Mini r r To write numbers, the Persians n 50 alphabet . or the Nmi J employ either the Arabic ciphers (see under). w 6 Waw y Ha 4 h 5 LIGATURE. ^^ Ya yandi 10 . ^ Lam -Elif, la. : 28 AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO Figure Figure Pronun- Pronun- at the coni- ciation at the com- ciation unconnected in the midst unconnected in the midst nieiicement mencement 1 1 L 1 a, a, i, u (Ji Xm. tfW sh A J b -i. khin ^ L^ ^ • ^ X J P u» •^ ^ ss ^^ X J t UO J^ ^ dz • • •• '^ tt if h. is t ^ ^ 3 t's So la is z • A •• £ t's £ X 86, a X £ j £ £ •^ ^ ch o A i f c ^3. ^» h O A i* k,q t ^:v. ^ kh (^ ^ JC ^ r k tX J d c/ ^^ / g JL J 1 ^ S^ ^ 44 J i> tX 3 z •«> X) m r r X j n ) 7 ; u • rrn J J J rr ly g, * W U ) > ) z ^ y ; • •• •• dz 5J> h a MJ> a;w s J y, e, 1, ai LT iS ^ NOTES. Before the introduction of arabic words, the diphthong au\ followed by ^, as the diph- original Pushtoo alphabet consisted only of thonfic al. 29diiFerentsounds; at present, theAfghans make " use also of the 28 arabic letters, and of these o or Jesm or Jesmah indicates that the consonant has no vowel and the syllable four letters used in Persian: v«> ^ •; and t^^ is finished. from which results an alphabet of 40 different ^ Meddah or Medd, an other form of Elif, characters which are all consonants. is sign of producing a syllable. The Pushtoo vowels are the same as the '^ Teshdid indicates that a consonant is to Arabic and Persian be pronounced double. •^ Zahar or Fatha a, ~7~ Zet' or Kasrah e, '^ oining - mark. Wesla , j ? Pesh or Zammah u. ^' Hamzali supplies the place of Elif. They are placed either above or under the conso- ^ ~7~ Q Tanwin is the arabic Nunation at nant hi, beginning a syllable, as: \^ ha, ^ by ad- the end of the words , pronounced ^ the vowels: an, in, yn. V—J hu. Zahar followed by is read as the ding a n to 29 J.t5« >V7<.»'w COPTIC Figure Name Pronunciation Notes Alpha a The Coptic language is divided into iwodialecis: the upper -egyptian or liicbaic or sahidic , and the lower- B s Vida b V egyplian or meniphitic or Coptic par excellence, 1^ to which may he added a third, the hashmuric dia- r Gamma g lect. The letter.s ^ — CM in the Coptic alphahet Dalda d are of greek origin; ^ — Q on the other hand sig- e e Ei e nify sounds which either wanted at all in the greek language, or which since the christian era no longer Zida z used in writing; they are taken from the older egyptian. This sign T^ denotes the syllabic ti; its prototype H w H Hida 1 is the Semitic and greek Tau. e e Thida th The vowels are : I I Jauda ^. e \ o, K I'ke in before R Kabba ; k the 00 is written hy OV, greek ; it is pronounced by oo, before a vowel ?v a consonant ! Laula 1 A : by V. The coptic diphthongs are U M. \ Mi m ^.1 ei oi H n i Ni n pronounced in the sahidic dialect only as e, T, 1, in , diphthongs E Exi X the memphitic , however as the german E ai, ei, oi. o short n n Pi pb READING -SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION. p p Ro r ^ above a letter: the greek gravis. ^ behind a word in sahidic manuscripts : dividing C c Sima s • T sign. T Dau t d or *y signifies a greater pause , like our semicolon point. f V He i, VL Germ. ; signifies a shorter pause, like our comma. 4> c^ Phi ph — sign of division. sc «^ DC Chi ch sign of abbreviature above the characters. ijf 1^ Ebsi ps -^ graphic sign above some characters in sahidic manuscripts. «3 long m ' behind some words in sahidic manu- diacritic sign ^ q Fei f ph scripts. Comma, only in later sahidic manuscripts. 8 g Hori h f • orthographic sign above some characters in mem- I) * Chei kh phitic books. UJ «, Scei sh VALUE. a: 2: Giangia g dsh NUMERICAL coptic characters is the <5^ The numerical value of the Scima sk sc gh by above (T same as in greek. Numerals are written —i by below near the letters; the thousands are marked , Ligature ti T i^ Dei place of the greek the letter, q (90) supplies the ^ r »• So Cipher 6 (koppaj. ^ . 6 , 30 CHINESE. A calculation, based upon the Imperial Cliinese Dictionary, shows that the Chinese language is represented by 43,496 characters or symbols. Of this number 13,U00 are totally irrelevant and con- sist of signs which are obsolete , incorrectly formed, and unexplained. For the expressions in ordi- nary literature about 4000 signs appear to suffice. The writings of Con-foo-tse (Confucius) and his disciples can even be read by the help of only 2500 characters, and a knowledge of these will enable the student tolerably to understand all Chinese works on history and philosopliy. In lieu of the phonetic and lexicographical system, which appertains to most languages, the Chinese have adopted 214 signs any of which, being placed by the side of an unknown character, indicates at once its pronunciation. These indicators of sound, are termed by the Chinese ^'' Tribunals". European gram- marians have called them ^'•Ket/s" or "Radicals". Occasionally the ^'Tones'''' (modulating accents) are appended at tlie top or foot of the character, at the right or the left side. Such accents are de- scribed as follows, entering tone. tone. 1 o Q ^v^^'' tone. 2 U o 3 [J falling 4 Q rising tone. The "Keys" are divided into 17 Classes, according to the number of strokes of which each character is composed, and are arranged in the following order: Class Class 1. consisting of 1 stroke extends from Nr. 1 — 10. consisting of 10 strokes extends from Nr.l87— 194 » 2 strokes 7—29 11. » 11 » 195-200 >) 3 » 30-60 12. » 12 .) 201—204 » 4 » 61—94 13. )) 13 » 205—208 .) 5 » 95—117 14. » 14 « 209—210 >) 6 .) 118—146 15. » 15 » 211 )) 7 « 147—166 16. « 16 ). 212-213 » 8 .) 167—175 17. » 17 .) 214 .) 9 .) 176-186 * ""^ yt, one kan 33 s'z, scholar 1 o "oU ^0 2 chieh, perpen- tou, knife 34 fanfun lo '\71 X-^ ^^ dicular stroke ^ lie, strength 35 tsieh, 3 o tien^ point ''^. ^0 slowly 4 ) /5/e/j, stroke slant- 20^0 chwen, equal 36 ^° dsieh, evening ing to the left triangle 5 -Lo yi. crooked 21o tj pi, spoon 37o>^ td, great stroke 6 Jo /aw, hooked 22 C fa7ig, to pull out 38 ]< nu, girl stroke kwah, division tse, son, child 7<)"— urh^ two 23 L< o 39 -^ between fields 40 shiah, ten oi^ mou or poen-an «c,-«- yitien-yiwa 24 To hat 25° poh, to divine 41 tsim, inch 9 A, fin, man h \J ° 10 n. chah, foot 26 n tsshi 42VJ> siou, small to enter 27/^0 shi, shelter 43 kang^ horrible 11 K shah, "fio ;=i° 12 K pah, eight 28 J\ chee^ perverse 44 shi, corpse 13 kwah, desert 29 ^"^ yili, again, 45 1^' tsou n. moreover 14oi^ mien, to cover 30 LI kill, mouth 46 IH° san, mountain < stream 15 y pin, ice hwei, return chiien. -°a '^oi\{ kbng, artisan, 16 chi, bench too, the ground 48 )i° ''K± y time , 31 ° chi, self 49 ^ -0o t/i/M; to talk 9ToKt kwah, melon 50 ^^^^*li rn ^^*^^^; yueh, moon wa/?_, tiles, earthenware 51 1 /i;a/2;Shield,spear 75 /Ko moh, tree 99 Ho kan, sweet 52 i/weW; source chidn^ debtor o y^ 76 A 100 ^° se;2/i; to live, to give birth 53 o/ 2/m, hut 77 -lt° ts\ to stop 101 o /M ybng, to use ?SOW; long walk tie, 54 ^ 78 ^ wicked 102 fflo mn, field 55 / 1 /i;o/i(/ higher , Q ^ 79 5:, kbh the young 103 aLo pieh, piece of animals 56 \i ///e/i; spear f'6, is not 104 ^ o /s/e/i, sick 57 '"^ /i:d/?^; a bow BlJ*'. "pl, to compare 105 ^^o /a/i^ to divide 58 o kway , Come! mou, feather ^1— 82 o L 106 No huh , white coat 59 .^ saW; 83 A ss ; clan 107 o />L hi, skin /r o 60 -^ shuang-ji7i, two 108° 84 -t. chi, air M ?/im; implement y o men 61 jIj\ sm^ heart 85 shway water 109 y o ?;?6/?; eye TK"" f ^':>2 A'd/i; a lance fire J^ 86.,^ chaw, llOo/I* mabh , spear 63 ?^'oo inner door ^sow. claws, nails 5/lt; arrow o/P 87;k° n.^° 64 "X" s/ieW; hand 88°^ /'d/i; father 112 ^ o shieh, stone 65 ^ ^z', branch «9o^ ^oi^; sign 113 ^K" SS; to admonish HO 66 the stalk 90 ;l=| chicany pole 3^ cM. , 114 f^o ?m/?^ or shbh clapper of a bell 67 gentle p/^w. spHnter haiv grain ^>C. /mm; ^loA 115o/R , 68 c^ ^ou, a measure 92o^ yah, teeth 116 yvo yiieh, cave 69 /T Q c/w'/J; hatchet. 93 0-4^ ?UW; ox 117 ALo //e , to stand o 1 pound 7*^ 94 /7 /tt/i^; a square, A ch/,en, dog lis tt° choh, bamboo o ^^ then 71 yL f e, no ?/?ie^; intermin- 119o^ mi, rice able ^o slieh , sun, 72 P day 96 7iiV)/?; gem 120 silk o lo ^ sz, 32 121 f'oW^jSiT 45 i, clothing 69 pN m?i/i; a door -^-fj ^"^ o yiu, twilight ^oz<; a mound 122"|)()n kang , hedge 70^ y 123 ^zjpr yang, sheep chi^Hj to see 71 o^v. fl?/; to accomplish o I 124 ^^ w^ long feathers 48 krlh, horn, cor- 72 ^P§ chiah, fine ^ ner 125 ^^ lab, old 49 p ni^n, word kbh, apertures 126 Irh urh, and 50 ;gi^ 74 f^ Q tsin, green in rocks ^^^; handle of a 127 "H^ 51? toil, head 75 ^^p ^(.g/j^ not /Tvo spade S IflJ 128 ~H- z^//, the ear shil, swine 76 Q m?g/i^ face yueh, to mani- chi, superior or- 129 53 ^° 77 ^F- o /^e/j^ leather fest, a baton der of animals 130 jbh, flesh 54 M pei, valuables 78 -^ hway, high 1^ * o 79 ^uT 131 p cte; an official 55 ^ cheh, red c/iiw. leeks 80 EJ 132 g ^s% from one self 56 ^ tsoii, to walk o ^m^a sound, tone ° "-? ^^^^ ^^ arrive, 81 hieh, a sheet, a 133 tsbh, leg --*-" extreme leaf Q 82 ^^ind 1^4 pq c/?m^ mortar 58 shin, bodv /^ A^^^.' ->. 83 /eg; to fly 135 pfo (^hweh, tongue 59 o chii, cart ° bitter, hard- sheh, to eat 136 yip chiah, strong 60 ^V- sm; 84 ships 61 jen, an hour, 85 q" s/ieW; head 137 TfJ* chill, vessel ^^ azure 138 Q ^w/i , inferior or- .86 shiang, scent 62 ^Ci /S6i/; to run -^^ ^ der of nature 1=1 7?zdtt; horse 139 seh, colour "3 87 t:*-^ C o ./^; a town o 88 St^ kwiih. bones 140 tsab grass 64 UJ ?^oo, twilight ^^ , R /rao; high 141 '/ioo, tiger 65 89 o-^ 7I\ ^si'e^ to separate o 154 /^; one third of 90 kab , whiskers. 142 ii4, chdng , insects 166 ^ JE^ a mile olA^ beard 91 to fight 143 h." shiveh, blood 167 SlL. o gold, metal trrl tou, c/im^ Plo y— o 144 ^^ jen, to walk, to 168 chang, long 92 chang , sweet act o ^ wine ; 33 lieh^ to cup o 93 g| 201 hwmig^ yellow 208 1^ c/??V; rat '^^ o open devil 94 ^ kway, 202 ^i sllii, millet 209 /; 95 ^ nii, fish 203 ^heli. black 210 ^° /s/; to put in or- o /M^ 4 t ^\ O der, equal -Lb. o ^^^/t>; bird <"/i/, embroidery 96 H, 204 "fj^ ts'z, the back teeth brine 97 loo, 205 Q ?^iV/^ a toad 212 Io)ig^ dragon Ra O ngRg ^o/i; stag tripod 98 J^ ^ 206 mr ^^^^ 213 ^ Ixtvny ; tortoise 99 ^5^ meh. wheat 207 o <^>^ ^00^ drum yah, a musical o instrument 200o/H[ ^'^<^; 1^^"^P ARITHMETICAL FiaUEES. All arithmetical combinations are performed by 17 Cardinal figures. In the subjoined table, three different forms of numerical characters are given. The series in the left column represents the p la i?i Aanc? which serves for literary and ordinary purposes. In the middle column woi'ds are employed instead of figures. This class is used in bonds, con- tracts etc., where it is of importance to guard against alterations and fraud. The figures in the right column, written in a "running hand", are used by merchants and traders in keeping their business accounts. >^> T '^^"1^ shiah 10 1 iirh 1 ^ peh, 100 1^ san ^ tsien 1000 van, 10,000 it ee, 100,000 loh . 6 chab 1,000,000 , tsie ^ chin, 10,000,000 l^-o^z/Za/^ .100,000,000 The numbers by which 10, 100 etc. are multiplied are placed at the top of the multiplicand. The numbers added to ten etc., are marked below the figure. Example -}- ten. -|- twice ten and two, or 22. 34 JAPANESE IN THE KATA-KANA ciiaractek. (This type was cut under the direction of Prof. J. Hoffman of Leyden and cast by N. Tettekode in Kotterdam.) I-EO-EA (Abe). The Japanese Alphabet organically arranged. * 1 a 25 49 /v^ 25 1 -( I T ir se ba 2 y AVa 26 ^' ze 50 /^ pa 2G y no 2 t/ ro 3 jl e 27 ^ si 51 -^ fe 27 :A 3 /^ fa, \a -^^ 4 -f i 28 ^ zi 52 be 28 ^ kii 4 ^ ni 5 ;t 29 y so 53 -< pe 29 ya 5 fo -V :fe 6 y wo 30 y ZO 54 i: fl 31 30 "V 111 a ^\ fe, ve 7 3^ U X SU 55 i:'^ bi 8 A" ya 32 X^ ZU 56 t° pi 31 ^y ke 7 h to 9 X ye 33 9 ta 57 :t fo 32 y fu 8 Isi ^ ^' 10 # yi 34 da 58 d;-^ bo 33 :3 ko li 7" 11 3 yo 35 te 59 ^ po 34 X ye mi 12 3L yu 36 r' de CO y fu 01 35 7" J3 ka 37 tsi y bll te 11 ?i/ I'll :^ ^ 02 ^° pu L4 ::^' ga 38 f^ dsi 30 T a 12 ^ wo 63 ^ na 15 :^ ke 39 |. to 37 t sa 13 y Nva 04 ^ ne 16 ^ ge 40 K do 38 ^ ki 14 :P ka 05 -::i ni 17 ^ ki 41 y tsu 00 y no 3'J i yu 15 5 yo 18 ^' gi 42 y' dsu 07 y nu 40 7^ me IG ^" da 19 :/ ko 43 ^ ma 08 2/ n 20 :/' go 44 7^ me 41 2. mi 17 i^ re 09 > ra 21 45 £. ;^ kii mi 70 i^ re 42 iy si 18 so y ^'' 22 gll 46 ^ mo 71 Ij ri 43 X e 19 y tsu 23 4^ sa 47 A mil 72 t7 ro 44 t: fi, \i 20 ^ ne 24 ^f' za 48 /^ fa 73 iU ru 45 "^ mo 21 ^f- na * Tlie accent niffori, consisting of two minute marks at tlie 46 i^ se 22 > ra right of the syllable, softens the consonant. The accent maru, a dot likewise at the right, the the -/ hardens consonant. By 23 2. mil 47 Sll addition of these marks and the w, unattended by a vowel, 24 ^ u tlie letters originally 47, are raised to the number of 73. ABBREVIATIONS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 1 koto. T goto. y site. 5E tania. ^ Sign of doubling a letter, placed in the middle line. < Sign of doubling a syllable. \ Sign of lengthening a vowel. Full stop. ^ comma, towards the right, beyond the middle line. ; 35 SANSCIUT CONSONANTS. VOWELS. Each consonant is sounded with an iuhcrout Tlie vowels in the loft row arc uttered as initials short a. or are placed before their consonants. The vowol- sij.?ns in the right division being nicdials and finals, coalesce witli their consonants, and are respec- CtUTTUKALS. LABIALS. tively placed over, under, before and after the letters. ka ^ pa a COALESCENT VOWELS. kha pha a ' a follows tllPCOIlSOUUllt ga ba i f. gha bba ^ 1 precedes >> » r A 1 3 na ma I 1 follows i> » u 3 ^ U under PALATALS. SEMI-VOWELS. 3 II cha i ml " or iia o^ 1 » CEEEBRALS. SIBILANTS AND DIPHTHONGS. ASPIRATES. "^ e over z ta sba ^ "^ ai ) z tha ai sh'ba % z da follows » • dba sa ^ au w na ba 5fT au NASAL SOUNDS. DENTALS. 3o i . Anusvara and \*) Auunasika, FT ta are substitutes for m and ». The anunasika has This character peculiar its place above the letter or laterally with virama tha to the Kig-Veda has a underueatli. sound which partakes ; h (orproperiyg) visarga, jibvamuliya da of I and r. It stands for + the cerebral cJa. When and n upadhmaniya, dba it represents the aspi- are strong final aspirates. The visarga which is rate of this letter, it is the substitute for 6- and /' is the only one in com- use. The last two signs bear also the com- expressed by^ ADDITIONAL SIGNS. PEOSODIAL MARKS. Viraiua (pause) is placed under a final con- denotes brevity, length. of the inhe- I ^^ sonant , and denotes the absence rent short a. indicates the close of a sentence, ending in ACCENTS. a vowel, a diphtliong or a visarga. In poetry it under the vowel. denotes the half of a verse. At the end of a Anudatta or grave accent stands is verse or a period this mark doubled jj. Scarifa or circumflex is put over the vowel. s serves 1. as the sign of hiatus, 2. as sign of In connexion with these marks the numerals o, ^.^. as the sign the elision of a after e and J and 3 serve as accents. of coalescence of two a. is the sign of abbreviation, and -^ represent the letter r. The former sign NUMERALS. is pronounced before the consonant (and the semivowel ri) at the top of which it is placed tlie latter sign is placed under the consonant 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 and sounded after it. 2 5* 36 SANSCRIT The similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs ; it may therefore be of advantage both to compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference. The form of the subjoined Alphabet differs from that which precedes, but is superior in point of correctness. a 27 -sir re(withAcc.) 53 kya 1 ^ ^ 79 1; lika A 2 ^ a 28 «^l ai(withAcc.) 54 ^ kra 80^ nkta ^'"5: i 29 •^ raim 55 ^ kra 81 ^ likja i 30 56 kla 82 likslia 't H If kva 5 TJ u 31 * 57 ^ 83^ likba '58 6 ^ 11 32 \if ksha(x) rikhya 1^ '' m ri 33 59 ksh 85 liga ^^ 1 > ^ ^ A • 8 ri 34 60 Igp kshma '' ligja ^ II C/5 ^ li o 61 ksliya 87 «^ • 35 P ^ ^ ligha 10 ^ Ji 36 - 62 kshva lighya o ^ 88^ 11 IT e 89 ^i 37 s CD 63 1^ kha lighra 12 a s o kh liiia T 38 64 :io 90 ^ 13 f i 39 \ o 65 ;^ khya 91 -^ cha (ca) A go 14 1 ^ t 40 66 7\ ga 92 X. ch (c) A 15 ri 41 - 67 g" T El T 93 If cca 16 vD 11 42 1 2 68 IJ gna 94 ^ ccha CO 17 cs 11 43 <1 69 1^ giiya 95 ^ ciia 18 c ri 44 K 70 U( gra 96 xJT cma A • 19 6 ri 45 w% 71 Xlf grya 97 xZJ cya 20 ^ 72 '^ 98 ]i 46 ^ ka gha ^ cha c^ 73 21 ji 47 15 kka r gh 99 ^ chra 22 •s e 48 ^ kta 74 ^ glina 100 IT ja 23 •=^ ai 49 ktja 75 glima 101 ^ ^ ^ J "^ 24 50 15 ktva 76 T2I ghya 102 15f jja ghra 25 ^1 e (with Ace.) 51 li kna 7^ IT 103 ^ jiia 26 ^r re 52 ^ kma 78 g: ria 104 § jn 37 • SANSCRIT 105 ^ jjlia 133 ^ ndra 161 ^ th 189 I2f dhja 106 s^r J>a 134 ?jfr ndrja 162 ^ th;ya 190 y dhra 107 15f jra 135 ^ ndha 163 ^ da 191 ^ dhva 108 jva 136 nna na ^ ^ '''I du 192 ^ 109 :^ jha 137 ^jir nja 165^ dii 193 ^ n 110 jha 138 nva 166 nta >^5^ ^ ? dri 194 cff 111 ^ fia 139 W ta 167 ^ dga 195 fPJ nt;ya 112 > 11 140 r t 168 f dglia 196 ^ ntra 113 -^ fica 141 tka 169 197 nda ;q^ 15; dda ^ 114 ^ nja 142 ^ tta ddba 198 f^ ndra ™f i 115 fa ^ • 143 ttja 1^1 199 ndha ^ q dd^^a ^ 116 tka -^^ ndhra 5 144 ttra 172 ^ ddlia 200 f^J ttva nna '''I tta 145 ^ 173 ^ ddhya 201 ^ 118 tya 146 ^7 tna 174 ^ dna 202 npra 2-r ^ 1 tha 119 Z 147 HT tpa 175 ^ dba 203 Tqj npha i 120 thya nphra ^ 148 jJT tpra 176 ^ dbra 204 ^ (lira nma 1215 149 ?qi tplia 177 ^ dbha 205 w^ da 122 5 150 iW tphra 178 ^ dbliya 206 Tlf nya dda 123 ^ 151 J^ tma 179 ^ dma 207 ^ nsa 124 dda 180 208 pa I" 152 tin tmja ^ dya JJf dha 125 ^ 153 HI tya 181 ^ dra 209 X P 126 ST dhya 154 ^ tra 182 XI drya 210 ^ pta 1275 dlira 155 ^ trja 183 ^ dva 211 ?f pna na 128 T!T 156 j^ tva 184 5J dvya 212 TXf ppa n pma 129 TL 157 m tsa 185 If dha 213 TJf 130 ^ nta 158 1^ tsna 186 \ dh 214 TZf Pya 131 ntha 159 tsya 187 dhna 215 pra :(J5 • • i^ « H 132 ^ nda 160 ^ tha 188 ^ dhma 216 5T pla 38 SANSCRIT 9ra 301 "^ sma 217 T^ pva 245 11 ya 273 ^ -g' 302 smya 218 T^ psa 246 1 y 274 ..la ^ 275 T^ ^va 303 sya 219 TR plia 247 ^ y ^ 248 jya 276 99a 304 sra 220 «f ba ZJf ^r ^ 305 '^ sva 221 © b 249 ^ ra 277 "Cf sba "^ 306 ';5j ssa 222 SET bglia 250 ^ ru 278 sh 307 ha 251 ru 279 Igf shta ^ 223 5q|f bja ^ slitja 308 h 224 ^ bda 252 ^ la 280 ^ sr 281 -g shfra 309 bri 225 sq* bdha 253 ^ 1 ^ 2S2 shtrya ^^^^ hna 226 ^ bba 254 ^ Ika ^ 283 shtrja 311^ hna 227 o^ bbha 255 ^ Ipa ^ slitva 312 ^ hill a 228 ^ bra 256 ^ Ima 284^ "^ shtha 313 hya 229 ^ bba 257 ^ lya 285 ^ 314^ bra 230 ^ bh 258 ^ 11a 286 ^ shna 287 '''^ hla 231 }fq bhya 259 ^ Iva Hf sbpa 316 hva 260 288 'Bgf sbpra 5 232 ^ blira cf va sluna 317 3^ 1 233 >^ bhva 261 V 289 "RT 290 sliya 318 Iha 234 TT ma 262 i 295 sta 323 t| 5 239 13 mba 267 ^ 9a ^ 1 296^ stra 324 f^ 6 240 7H mbba 268 ^ 9 297 stba 325 v9 7 241 151 mya 269 ^ 9 ^ 298 "^ sua 326 t 8 242 mra 270 "^ 9ca i IJ 299 spa 327 ^ 9 243 mla 271 ^ 9cya ^ 1 ^ 1 300 spba 328 244 1^ msa 272 ^ ^na ^ 1 39 TAMIL The Tamil language was earlier cultivated than the other memhers of the Dravidian family. It includes two dialects the (ancient) Shen-Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil is spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Co- niorin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has 12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to right. SHORT VOWELS. The consonants have been divided into row^rA, ^ ft as in America soft and intermediate sounds. The first class includes the tenues (<5, c5p, lL, ili , i .) » fill ^, p^. The second class contains the corresponding SL U » )> full Nasals. The third class contains the Liquids. (oT e » » self A dot placed at the top of a consonant indi- O » w long ^ cates the absence of a vowel , but is omitted THE CORRESPONDINa LONG VOWELS. in native MSS. ^ R in ah FT- 1 >> feel The following rules are to be noticed in pSYT U » foo the pronunciation. (oj e » they a) Short a, before the soft letters esr, (S^sot, the intermediate letters /f, go , , , and & >^ sole m ^ at the end of polysyllabic words, sounds like DIPHTHONGS. e in men. Gy in eye & b) Combined with a preceding n it receives ^(sn OU >. foul the same sound. c) The e and e as initials are pro- CONSONANTS. vowels nounced as if y were placed before them. d) The vowels i (j) and e (e) before Unguals n ng in long [lL, (smr and efr, p and /^) are respectively s articulated somewhat deeper than the French n as gn in french regne u and eu. e) The consonants s , , u are only har- t like t d of Sanscrit cerebrals ^ dened as initial letters, or when doubled in the II like n of Sanscrit cerebral middle of a word. The same is the case with t lL which does not occur as an initial in pure n Tamil words. <5 , il u P f) When , ^, u occur as medials of m a word, ^ sounds like c/«, u like 6, ^ like th, and like the Sanscrit cerebral d. r rolled, partly like a cerebral, ^ p partly like a dental g) t£F is always sharply hissed like ss. When (oil n as in on the nasal @ precedes, it coalesces Avith it and LIQUIDS. sounds like ng (in angel). When doubled after ^ , or /P, it sounds like cli (in church). V as in yes h) e and y at the end of a syllable have an r » » round intermediate sound of i (in vine) and a^ (in (3\) 1 » » lap vain). V i) Double p sounds like tt. After the cor- responding nasal <2^, it be m 1 hard, it is of cerebral character may pronounced like d. 1 intermediate between r and 1. 40 The Tamil Alphabet being syllabic, a word is divisible in any part, so long as the con- sonant remains united with its vowel. In punctuation the full stop alone is employed. The vowels, in their separate forms, are only used as initials. The following table shows their mode of coalition whith the consonants. The short a, as in Sanscrit, is not expressed before a consonant. a k i } u u e 6 ^y 6 au ?> psrr ^ ^ i) FT- (ST 11 ltd s c5F cF/7 9 9 <3r (3 Qc^ Qj^ (55)^3^ Q&=fT (3<3=1 Qa^iSYT fi & (SJf? ^ (^ (S5J ^iJ] Q@ Co(g5 (o3>(^ Q(^fi (o(G^l Q(^6n t 1 / fJ /p (?/ fi • •^ (5) (S 0/ (SJO/_ Ql-1 Qi Ql^gyt n (bUdl (toM) (o!SsPt 4)Mi (oa^)i (S6d)JT Q(oMi (o(o3(5) &J3T Q(tM) (o(to(id) Q(dd(M'61fi t ^ ^fT ^ ^ r^ ^IT Q^ Q^ (SlS)&f Q^fj Q^fT Qa,(on n ^ jbh ^S / Ml ^ Qjs QlB (SisyjB QfBT QfBfT Q/D(srT P u UfT i5 d H y Qu Qu (5S)U Qui QufT QU(SYJ ID LLfT i£ in u9 (hP OP Qld Qll (5S)LL QlDf] QwfT Qldgtt y lU UJfl ai) 11^ N u Qiu Qiu (oS)lU QlUfT QlUIT QiU(on r If III ifl /f (S 25 Qu Qn 1 6V 6VfI sQ SIS' V 61/ (SUfT Slfi S)? Q(su (5^51/ Q(Sijfr (o(snfT (oil @^ Qqj Q(5n6YT LpfJ Qlp (Sip QTiLp QipfT Qipi Qip^rr ! kP ifi 1^ (W ^ 1 (sn QT/7 sifl Grf & &> Qgyt Q(on ?m QsniT Q r fSI Si (olS)p QpSYT • P car / jm Qp Qp Q(ff Q(ff I) G^ & loifl (oSp .m G^IT Q(o5i Q(o!ir Q(^ (5(63} Q<661 ADDITIONAL LETTERS AND CONTRACTIONS. (SL- (oi^ (oif., (Sl^ 61^ (oisX) (51iD. o^o L^ sh sha shi shi s sa ch Month Year Om ^fT.'^ NUMERALS, ds ^ /Tr? c^ ® c^ Examples of compound numbers, (ds = 11, u)9- = 12 etc. 41. ZEND BURMESE FOEM SOUND FORM SOUND VOWELS FORM SOUND FORM SOUND AJ AX) 3-^ a G e a J W) t 35)0 3^ ^y ie au J t g(^o ee > th au O V£» d u o 3^ an e (e dh o li 00 3SQS ah e II CONSONANTS e P f CT) k d b o) kh dh O n ao m g VD gh O P an y C ng&gn >2) ph k y medial ch O b kh 7 o)C chh 00 bh ^' q J Q ni V CD V 9 gh w n r n 9 t CO 1 th o vv c (ch) sh s d 00 s J ^^ dh (JO h sh n OD 8 i OO t PUNCTUATION. 3^ an OO th 42 CANAE.ESE (carnataca). This language, belonging to the Dravidian family, is spoken throughout the plateau of Mysore, in some of the western districts of the Nizam territory, and in the district of Canara on the Malabar coast. A & a ^ e t> nga 6 ta dX ya a cha tha ^ so ai •rf ^ ^ ra ^ i (ee) 2o ^ chha 6 da d la 1 ja dha ^ (ee) to 6 8S ^ 5S \a 3-0 dr u (oo) au jha na sa 2i 1 ^ ^ O u (oo) 11 qC na ^ 2S pa sha h \AX) r &) t'a pha V za 1 %xyr r' ^ ka 6 t'ha ha © ba TS' ^, 1 kha la SO S§ d'a ^ bha t r ga e® sha r r< C3 d'ha dS ma 1 gha «o e 0» cr>2 n'a 1 LIGATURES 4 ki 'T^ liu o3^ da ^ nna <>:>" va ?Fu ku d'e t^ pu vu rl ^ di § •|uT> ko d'o pra t:?^ # kslia 8 ti -• ^ de diSfl bhii / ga 8? • ti -" rr^ ^ dri ^ mma ^? gi §i tu vai ^ ^ n o^ ra 1/^ ^ te i na 3^ vvu 7^ g" (J^ s re tai ni X g^^ 41 ?i (OJ-D la 0^** sha ttu ?i? tyr^ ^? g« ^ ni lu g^ sht'a i tte ^ nu e5/2 16 ^ lio ^ 1^^^ ^ tra -| lie ^ va 43 GUJERATI OR GUZERATTEE. This Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit (Devanagari) characters, from which it principally differs in the omission of the connecting lines. Gujerati is spoken in the province of Gujerat ((iuzerat) , espe- cially by the Parsee inhabitants, and is considered to be the mercantile la-nguage of Western India. In modern times various Gujerati publications have appeared in Bombay. ^ cha ta 7) n bha a chha 2i tha ma a ja ^ da 'H i(ee) vu yX Id lift n'i H nil 3 ^ J- ^ku <'aii Ilk n'ft JM urt khi ^ r(l ti khu ^ U t« m khu -d ri ^ pliu §i 9(1 >" sA tiii J ^'" J ^t'u 0(1 M SI il t'hi glii «(1 SU t'hu ghu ^ ^ su X t'hu ^ du ^ ghu (A di ^du bhu <([ chi ^ dhi rA bhu <* chu ^ ^ni Oji mu hu ^ chhu ^ d'hu ^ chhu ^vi hu ^ ^ d'hu ^ 6* 44 TELUGU one of the branches of the Dravidian stock, is spoken along the eastern coast of India from the neigh- bourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Coun- try and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of the territories of tlie Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language is spoken by about 14 millions. £D e ?i"ga ^ a ^ ta ^ ra J e l3 cha W a ^ tha O la 2o i (ee) €j chha SS da ^ va ^ 1 6 Co ja sa ^ i (ee) 2g ^ dha q) u (oo) ^u ^^« jha sha ^ qi) ^ iia(soft) ^ ° 11 nya few 11 (oo) Zt ^ pa •^ sa '^A\^ r : h 6) t'a •^ pha {yo ha 1 1§ ka 5 t'ha ^ia i kha 2§ d'a Jo ^ bha (tjS' W sha ga olr^i' ^ ^ d'ha 1 1 Pause JS coo gha £Q n 'a (hard) C533ya 1 LIGATURES 3^ ka f^S^ jha <^^Sr> ma a ti ^Dl, li 1 ku S^ mi ti ocyy° jhi ^ 6 e)J lu ^ ku mu 3o tu er^io ^Sxr-jiiu ^ r" ko 3j me "S te ^ lla 3d mo So ttu ?^ni 7\ g^ 2^ nu 53^ va ;7fT>> mmu \^ tra 7^ g^ <^ii * na d^ ya c5^ da ^ vu "A g^" ^ ni di Cx5^ yi (S Id ve 6^ gha |i 111 ye tSS du vva 1 ^ ^ nu ^ "^ ghu ^Kj^y^ -g> de g)VVU "S ne "0^ ra ^ do ghu si nna • ^ ^ ddu ^ po ^ sha 2\jenu J;^^ ddha ngu ppu &u ^ "Iv. sht'a t'e CjJ5 dha ^ Chi <2bi ba "S; ^sa 2o d'u ri chu 'iiSi bu 5 ^ •j^ ssa d'hu tJO ru So :& che 45 BENGALI. This Alphabet is based on tlie Devanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms. ELS CONSONANTS. THE VOWELS sounded after tlie con- ^a Iri "^ ka na sonants take their po- ^ ^ dha r^ la sition before, after above and below their Iri •^ kha ta na ^ ^ ^ va letters. They receive ga ^ in such cases the fol- e n tha npa lowing forms. ^ i *»! sha -^ gha da pha ai ^ 5e t1 a follows its cons. 4 nga 3^ sa \Q ba dha ^ 1 precedes » » F "^ \ G tsha sha •^ ^ na ^ bha au "5 § •K tshha ha [ 1 follows » )) ^ ta Jf ma ri vSjc^aiig ^ ja ^ khya *w U is subjoined ^ \^ tha ^ ya ah ^11 3TS ci^ U » » ^ jha Tf da ^ ra < ri ,. >> OBSERVATIONS. < rl » ,^ The vowel -sound of the short a is V* r stands under a consonant and is Q% G precedes inherent in all consonants. pronounced after it, (birdmj subjoined to a consonant ai » \ ^ over a consonant, represents its nasal C . take the cons. causes the a to drop. A consonant sound. C 1 ^ in the middle. moreover loses its a by being attached t\ denotes the word Gancsh. to the following consonant. ^'^ nyt take the cons. denotes the name of God. ^ I in the middle. J denotes y affixed to a consonant. (J a ano" follows the ^ denotes r. It is placed at the top of serves as a stop at the end of a '^ cons. I the letter, and sounded before it. sentence. o ah follows the cons BUGIS is supposed to be the most ancient of the languages spoken in the island of Celebes. The same Alphabet is used in the Macassar langiiage. ^T a ^ ba ^ ra ^ la >v ka ^ w. ma ^ cha -y^ wa -^ kha )d pha -D ja '^^ sa ga ^r a ->) ^ ta - ^ ha chha * J% ^^ga ^ da CC ^^ ya ^ pa ^ na ^ ra Every consonant has an inherent vowel, with which it forms a separate syllaltle. The following vowels vary in position t" e before a letter. ^ i over a letter. 1 after a letter, . u under a letter, uno" at the top of a letter. e 46 JAVANESE ORDINARY LETTERS INITIAL LETTERS Ordin. Form Pasangans Sound Ordin. Form Pasangans Sound ,iiin . . ha am • . . . aTTin Na . (Kl . .na Tya. . .tya . . (KV . . Ka . in. . . ra . . . . Ta . in* (P a (Kin . .ka or (Ml 0^ Sa . (kl,* . . (LQ da . . . (13» . .-.3» Pa . (isin . . ta Nya, (ISl, (kji . . sa Ga . o . . wa o Ba , (inji . .la (10, UNCONNECTED VOWELS. (U . . pa . .da ^ CJ * (IK . . dya <^* ADDITIONAL CONSONANTS. (IIUI . .ya uui The following four letters, with the sign a (Sastrosworo) at the top, occur in (oin . .nya words derived from the Arabic, as there ^are no consonants in the Javanese Alphabet, which fully express these sounds. (EJl . .ma ' ' Chcl stands for the ann (KIT Arabic ,^ cha m • ga c " '' (Ol O fa '' " o f . . ba m za » » » \ ze . .ta nm gha » » » ghain (a . . nga ^ NUMERALS. - Fd-tyere\ \" ^ re 'Wi 6 (L^ (ifui g laf] (3j c^ m o &• Nga-letd, le 12 34567890 3 ; \ 47 VOWELS AND DIACRITICAL SIGNS, called Sandangun. Form Name Sound and power Pepet Q UIU or Wulu Suku U r Taling (in — Taling-Tarung Paten or Pankon (deprives a consonant of its vowel) •Jl Sagnyan orWignyan h (at the end of a syllable) Tyety'a ng (at the end of a syllable) Layar r (at the end of a syllable) Tyakra r (between a consonant and a succeed- ing letter) Keret r6 (after a consonant) Pmkal y (after a consonant) PODOS OK PADAS. Under this designation the Javanese writing contains the following signs t Podo andegging lyelatu or dirgo muraras occa- ''^1 sionally replaces the Podo-lingso\ mostly it II II Podo luhur. With this sign superiors begin isolates their letters to inferiors. accompanies numerals, and them from the adjoining words. I (121 ri is at the [1 Podo madyo used commencement Q Ulu munta. When the vowel of a final syllable VjSjUl of letters by persons of equal rank. is an ulu^ this character takes a Tgetifa in the centre. Suku mendut. When the vowel of the last syl- Podo andap, with this superscription an in- J is a it takes this form. ferior addresses a superior. lable Suku Dirgo mure is the name of the sign placed over Podo-bab stands at the beginning of a new the Taling or Taling-Tarung, when this vowel paragraph. occurs in the final syllable. 2 Podo watyan anglegenno. Under this name the - Podo lingso , the usual stop at the end of Tarung is employed as a sign of separation. a sentence or a detached word. In poetry it marks the end of verses, which are written consecutively like prose. It is Piselep ingstembarg gede, serves to divide poetry. doubled at the end of a section. ^oi^ on ^3I"^S'^l"S(m (m~^fe^"^(m (m- v. Purwo-podo stands at the be- Madyo -podo, at the beginning of a Wasono-podo at the end of ginning of poems. song following another, when the a poem. melody and the measure are changed. 48 LIGATURES. The following ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suku, Ti/okro, Keret and Pinkal combined with the ordinary characters and Pansangans. The diacritical marks are also added. 5 J 3 c^; d ^ ULl QXT (fa- J? 0. Q 3 ai J ~3 (151 O Oil J ^ 3 ofifinjis (KTJ (ir qI ^3 '3 (K¥)[ annn a OOjIO cat 3 3 Q 1 S (UU) 3 pj dl o/ o/ >/ Q. Q/ Of; O The small pasangan Wo is placed below a letter standing in the third row. -? S 1-3 These small diacritical marks are placed under auxiliary letters which stand in the third row. I The short Lnyar is employed when there is no room for the large Layar. ^^ This mark is placed under the letters Wo and "Sqo to form the vowels u and o. OBSERVATIONS. The Javanese language has 20 letters which are obviate a disjunction arising from the use of this called Aksoro, Sastro or T'iarakan. They are written sign, the Paten is omitted, but the letter, which from left to right, without being joined together. follows the mute consonant, is changed in form or By the many auxiliary letters, vowels and diacritical in position or in both. The substituting sign is signs, the numbers of characters is considerably then called Pasangan. The Pasangans being mostly increased. The Fasangans, employed in the Alpha- placed under the common letters, while some vow- bet, are in close connexion with the sign Paten, els and diacritical signs figure above the letters, which in fact they replace. When a consonant the Javanese writing runs within three rows. The occurs in the middle of a word, and is to be de- position of a character in one row or an other is prived of its vowel, a Paten must be employed. To indicated in this Alphabet by the addition of dots. 49 TIBETAN Form Value Form Value VOWELS. The Tibetan language is read from left to right five k 5! 111 and has vawels. The vowel a is ^ inherent in the several consonants. When confusion is apprehended from the absence c of a distinct a after the prefixes kh ts P Zfj T^ rj 5J the sign i^ inserted to denote a. The S tsh ^ Q^ ^ remaining vowels are written and named as follows, c gigu i C ng s ^ ^ ^^ zhabs-kyu u N drengbu e ^ ch ia w ^ 11 arc o The yifju drengbu and naro are placed below clib above their consonants, the zhabs-kyu S> j (French) ^ them. When double, the zhabs-kyu is pro- nounced uu or ow; double drengbu ay or ie ; double naro oo or ou. Gigu is often 5. J 3 z formed thus () A is placed below the letters. Ph is chang- ed by it into f ; ss into x. Under the nya ") a ha other letters it represents the vowel a: according to others it denotes u. o placed over th, a and h denotes with the first of these letters mce with the t tl! J 3 other two m. According to others it signifies ang and ong. t a th ^ r ACCENTS. A guttural sign d QJ I ^ P palatal )> i- nasal « ^ n sh T sign of the singular number. PUNCTUATION. SI SI s P 0^7 is an introductory sign. Besides ^ 1 this figure other varieties are in use. T Comma. Two such signs are equal to a SJ ph h '***' full stop. Four such strokes, with ^ 1 between them, denote "the end". u b 15^ a T is inserted between the syllables. u o mark the stress of a word. LIGATURES. S ©^ 50 CO a > -+J r-- >^p • : s < LP >l^ IP" llP" ri- L> n h 1/^ o ^o <^<^ u s \' <^ ^ "<^ ^ p^ ^ n 1/ i^ o ^o «^ o C C o V ^ ^ ^ ^"t^ ^^^ci^^ C ^^^ ^ 3 s =^ MANTSTIU uKuiaai ^13 ) Ul tural rated rated ft >IS c« o; .^ O S r re <4' -Cp "3 ^. 1 ^ : P r^ > : .P ^ •i-H K o '-S ; > r r^ f ^^. ^" 0) o p 1-1 .^ o ^ r^ n^.7^^.irv^^ a c5 5 1^ 51 let- full left lines semi- guttur- char- written down- the as the to pq to g i from The 11 sound. top ACCENTS. PUNCTUATION. into are right, softens equal changes equal TheMantshu the read colon. stop. 2 ters als. to T acters wards. * 2 ^ from are I op CT3 a;' 9 ^ O --^ '^ =5 .,-. •;z: 2 S ^ o := I—I 13 ^(3(^(f^(P-(R(r^ H c^(^4(^ ^(^-(^ * h- r-( cH 1-^ • 1— Cp(?(?(^ ^(^-(^(^^(2 w -ri a> o .- 1 f. o 1=: > C=j I— ^ N N ^^^ P^ r^ ^4-H !? T:^ -t-S -r—s CC O 'r—i 'b 'b Is ':':':':':': < p • f-H O ;^ o -- o i 'b K a rf' 17 K -K • O s o u o H-l fin -^ •: '3 ^ I7K-K: A.^ fx n^ / T5 o i-H 0) m p o O"A "•J o o >^1^^^^^^ • 1—< • r— s / _^ c5 O o =5 ..c! c^ 7* 52 MONGOLIAN CONSONANTS VOWELS Initial Medial Final Value Initial Medial Final "Value / n a b ch Scotch ^ c g gh guttural -T-Q •^ }0 C k "TO u C c g •^ m ^ u T 1 1 PUNCTUATION. r T» This sign divides sentences. * is used at the end of a period. J t Mongolian books are not numbered by d the page but by the folio. It is usual to head each folio by ^^ or some other y mark like this. "7 z^ dz OBSERVATIONS. or IT ts ch Like the Mantshu the Mongolian cha- A h ^ 4 racters are written in perpendicular lines from left to right. The Alphabet consists sh of seven vowels, together with diphthongs derived from them, and of seventeen con- w sonants which vary in form according to their position at the beginning, the middle, and the end of a word ; or according to the effect exercised upon them by certain orthographical rules. — The consonants are not regarded as isolated sounds, but are always joined to vowels with which they form simple syllables. An exception is made to this rule when a consonant occurs as the final of a syllable or a word. But even such final consonants may be attended by a vowel. A variation of the Mongolian characters is known under the name of Galik. 53 ARMENIAN Num.- Num.- Form Name Value Form Name Value power power. ,f i; .u Jpe a 1 \y mien m 200 or or (in V- i^ pien P 2 3 J he ye h y 300 toy) i]. ^ kim k ck 3 Hi ^ noo n 400 'h t tah t ( soft) 4 r^L shah sh 500 WO(inword) h ^ yetch y (cons.) 5 n " wo 600 or (in move) P. 7. zah z 6 12 iL tchah tch 700 ' W n yet e (in paper) 8 ,9. t tche ch (soft 900 {d- ^ twoh t (hard) 9 lb - rah r (hard) 1000 " c> <^ zhe j (French) 10 11 se s 2000 i (in ill) viev V t inni 20 ^K -i V 3000 K L lime 1 30 S " dune d 4000 1" ^ khe Ch(German) 40 p p re r (soft) 5000 ^ '(V dzali Z (Italian) 50 8 s tzvoh tZ (hard) 6000 - ll i ghien g (hard) 60 V une U (in due) 7000 A ^ kwoh h 70 <1> -t pure P 8000 ^ u tzali tZ (soft) 80 ^K -e ke k 9000 1. L ghalid y (Romaic) 90 () » 10000 je f A' ^ J 100 * * pha 20000 LIGATURES. fi& hii ^ Is J]^ me lif mi Sffi nnil Zl yev "^ lu Jtl mg Jk mye ^ \ 11 ACCENTS AND PUNCTUALnoNS. acute apostrophe ^ sign of length * i- grave , comma sign of brevity and abb rev ation circumflex : colon or semicolon *" sign of abbreviation, it also coii- rough breathing . full stop verts a leltci into a numc ral. ^ soft breathing y hyphen 54 GEORGIAN. The Georgian language is written in two Alphabets. The ancient character, us ed in the Bible and ecclesiastical works, is called Khutsuri (i . e . sacerdotal). The character MkhedrUli (or rather Mkhedruli Jcheli i.e. Soldier's hand) is used in ordinary writing and printing. KHUTSURI MKHEDRULI s ',-1 Form Value Form Value o Name Value o Name Value Kv; a bif s b an a oo ()| un I "^a b ^E t ban b w ^•3 g Oam{ oo 6 gan g "5 ve ve 'S^ d <• don d phar ph ^Pl V «J en e khan kh Mt( e Tip p'h a i win V ghan gh (C Arab.) T*i]/ w + f k 3 ^ % zen z d qar q(^'Arab.) Vft z nnt gh (Arab.) '6 <^ he e shin sh H' h, e (short) H', q CD than th B chin ch d>m th a^ sh " o in i tzan tz t5 It i ch ^f- A kan k d dzil dz Grp ts las 1 thzil thz T"i" ^T •^bin 1 4tJ. ds 9 man m jar j ^r'J m Kpi thz G nar n khan kh (rough) lU n kh (^«^y ?K .a ie i (short) .^ khhar khh rough), bo i (short) khh Ol ¥h« on o jan j 0.U1 ^h J 3 par hae h P 3 1 'Uu fh (mute) P 1 zhan (French) hoe hoi m d j 3^ M^ (French) ho j cfiJ ^ rae r * fa f thilr r Ss ch I san s 9 short e 6 tar t PUNCTUATION. - Hyphen : Full stop :• End of a Period . Semicolon ^ Comma. . 55 GREEK Form Name Value Accents and Punctuation A a Alpha SPIRITS OR BREATPIINGS. B ^ Beta Every Greek word, commencing with a vowel, has over this initial either r Gamma T (') spiritUS lenis, the soft breathing, A Delta or (') SpiritUS asper, the rough breathing. E £ Epsilon e short The former is aspirated before a vowel and equal to our h. The spiritUS lenis is placed over an unaspirated initial vowel. Z Zeta z When a word commences Avith a diphthong (at, Zi, ot, ut, au, £U, f]V, ou, (Ou), the breathings as well as the accents are placed Eta e long H 7] over the second vowel, as auTO?, olo?, £^)((ov. p always has the rough breathing at the beginning of a word. In the middle of e ^ e Theta th a word, when this letter is doubled, the first o has the soft and I I Iota i the second the rough breathing, as ^p. K z Kappa k ACCENTS. A X Lambda 1 acute or sharp sound, \K m M My grave or heavy sound. N V Ny 11 circumflex or long and trailin" sound. S ? Xi X Accents , combined with either of the breathings or with the O Omikroii o short diieresis, are marked in the following manner. n t: Pi P P Rho r 9 PUNCTUATION and OTHER MARKS. Sigma s The point and comma are used in Greek as in English. There is no semicolon. The Colon is denoted by a dot over the T T Tail t line (*). The note of interrogation is (;). In some modern editons note of exclamation has been introduced. Y yj Ypsilou u the (!) The Comma is also used to distinguish two words of equal Phi f ph Psi ps syllables. The Apostrophe ('), the Diseresis ('*), over a vowel ^ separated from the sound of a preceding vowel, and the Coronis ' 12 o Omega Ions in contracted words lo denote a Crasis as Touvavrtov for tc ^vavTtov. OBSERVATIONS. Iota subscriptum is the Iota under the vowels a, X], (o, and indicates the etymology of the words. Formerly this i was pro- Y before y anJ the other palatals (x "^ ^) nounced, and had its place by the side of the vowel. This lateral is pronounced like n, as ^yyu? (eng-gus) Iota is still used in words spelled with capital letters, as THI t is a mere vowel and never represents 20^IA (for xfi ao9(.a) ""'AtSif]? (a8iQ?). the consonantal sound of y, as 'Icoviot (I-onia). In foreign words the de- ficient consonant was replaced by i, as NUMERALS. louXio? (Julius). The Greeks employed the letters of the alphabet to denote the is an initial and medial s. The final is a numerals, but as these characters were not sufficient for this pur- marked by the sign of?. The latter is, pose, the s (BaO, Van) or f (Digamma) was inserted after in some modern editions, used at the the £, the s (KoTiTia) after it, and "TTi (2afJi,TCf) after w. The end of medial syllables. letters employed as numerals are distinguished by a top line slop- its p' X before (.. followed by a vowel, retains ing, to the right as a 1, 2, g'6, i 10, vx' li, / 20, xs' 26, proper sound of ti, and is not pronounced p' 100, a' 200, aX^' 232 etc. The thousands recommence with like shi, as TolKolxiol (Ga-la-ti-a). a, and have a stroke below on the left, as oi 1000, ,^0^^' 2232. I 56 - GREEK LIGATURES and ABBREVIATIONS. These contractions are peculiar to old editions of Greek works. They are no longer used in modern typography. ji eirai « ov 91 on av av c/K ex ov^e oro aX ovx OTQ <^ OTV all V^ ell OVTOV If OTCO av e)^ elaTTOv 71 av OV ano cv ev Tia^d aw 00) d() nei r ag 1 '0^ eneidi] ^ ne{) ra av enev avTov %^ 7ie(jl rai > jiiev VI ^sv f/5j() csr on 0(f WJ vv Ay jitevog onav i^eS vn Liera. OS 00 (^la vno 9' or ^la aeia 24i- ^ ora yav it cor Cm (T(> ore /^ ?V OLOV ei ei Orel /(> ei OQ OTTj 57 ROMAIC OR MODERN GREEK. The Ali)habet consists of the following- 24 letters, which are the same as in ancient Greek. A a, B p, r Y, A 6, E £, Z ^, H 7], e ^, I I, K x, A )v, M jx, N v, S ?, TT, a (final t, u, «• O 0, n P p, 2 c), T Y ^ 9, X x, ^ 'J^, ^ The vowels are a, £, tq , i, o, y and (u. of K'j , s'j, PRONUNCIATION. Ti'j sounds like p before a vowel, or the soft and liquid letters P, y, 8, !;, X, (jl, v, p. — A a (Alpha) short or long as in papa. 01 is like ee and cj like oo in good. B 3 (Vita) is represented by 6// or v. In sound it Tlie diseresis over the second vowel of di- differs slightly from the English v, the mouth phtliongs restores to each vowel its original sound; being somewhat rounded in the articulation of ai, a'j, si, eo are pronounced separately a-i, a-y kc. the Romaic letter. r Y (Gamma) is an aspirate of g in go. In yy tbe first gamma becomes nasal; ayY^^-oc, for instance, BREATHINGS and PUNCTUATION. is pronounced ang - ye - los. It receives the same or sound before the palatals x q and y, as aya^xi] The Eomaic Modern Greek admits like the ancient language two marks over initial vowels, (a-nang-ki). Before s t and u it is like y in y/e.v. To produce the sound of our g in grey, the Mo- namely the Smooth breathing Spiritus lenis ('), which dern Greeks use J'x as Ixpsiyafj. ((Jraliam). is not noticed in reading, and the Rough breatldng Spiritus asper ('), which in classical Greek takes A 8 (Delta) is aspirated as 1 t (Iota) like t in machine. When i is placed under The names of the stops are, TsXsia, full stop (.)i the vowels as in a Tj co or by the side of capital [xtaoaTtypLTj colon ("), 'jTX'jJTty[j.'rj or 'jTcooiajToXTj ' vowels (Ai, Hi, ill) it is not sounded and only comma (,) and arj[j.-lov spoiTTjasioc sign of inter- lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known rogation (;). The mark of exclamation (!) is as the Iota subscriptuin. rarely used. (Kapjpa) like our A-. It is softened K X after the To these signs must be added the apostrophe and nasal hence d^vJkid is pronounced angiid. y the dioiresis. The former (') denotes the elision A X {Lanivda) like I in long. Before t it has the of one or more vowels. E. g. oltJ' sjjisva, dcp' r^p-a- sound of lU in William. instead of arro etc. This elision of vowels occurs consonants as 'aTi' to instead of dTio to. M Cil/Zj like m. Placed before -, these two letters even before fj. acquire the sound of b (xTiapo'j-rt (burooti). This In xav (instead of xai av) and xdv£V7c (instead combination of (j.7t takes the sound of b in words of ka'i dv i.vac) etc, the mark (') denotes the co- received from foreign languages , but in com- alescence of vowels (y.pdjic) and is called coronis. pound Komaic words, each letter retains its ori- This mark is often used in contractions as [xo'jxo- ginal pronunciation. Example z]xTJjovi\).a (em- 'j^av TO X^pi. pee -reo -ma). The diseresis prevents the union of diphthongs. y N V (Ni) is n. Placed before t, the two letters E. g. [jLKOiavTCTjS sounds bo- - an- jis. coalesce in the sound of d, which is articulated Another mark of separation is the diastole (,), somewhat harder than the 6. For example which resembles the comma, and is used to dis- 'jTipa'Ji (diwani). vtS^ have conjointly the sound tinguish the pronoun o , ~i and the adverb to, ts of as vxtafxt (jami). the letters v and i j; When Irom the conjunction oti and the adverb tots. form part of two syllables in a compound word, they retain their natural sound of nt. For example svTijjioc (en-timos). Before the vowel i the v is ACCENTS. articulated like ni in opinion as vt;:Ttu (nyipto). The tone is indicated by three accents , namely a k (Xi) is A'. the circumflex (7isptJ/iu)[jLiv7]) ' or long accent, the like (Omikron) o in dot. acute (oy;ia)' or sharp accent, and the grave (papsi^:)' n It (Fi) like p. or heavy accent in final syllables. Some mono- syllabic words, being unaccented, are called atoiui. P (Ro) like r in rod. If doubled, it has a sharper p can only be placed on the ultimate sound. The circumflex and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a 2 a (Sigma) like s in so. Before B, F, A, Z, A, final syllable is long, the penultimate vowel can- M, N, P and in the proclitics (such as to'jc xdc) not take the circumflex. A word is termed peri- before the same consonants, the Sigma is sounded spouienon, when it has the circumflex on its last like z, as 2,a6pv7] (Zmirni). syllable, or if it is a monosyllable and is marked T T (Tapli) is t. ~K, sounds sometimes like /s, but with this accent. When the circumflex occurs generally like ch, as tCsXitttjC (chelepis). Words over the penult, the word is properispoz/ienon. with t!^ are mostly of foreign origin. The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and T y (Ypsilon) lik y in Egypt. For example ipyf-iXiov ante -penultimate syllable. Also on the final syl- lable at the end of a period, or when an enclitic follows (i, e, a word like [xoO, [xot, |j.s which throws cp CP/i/; like / or ph. its accent on the antecedent). ch. X y T-^'/'^ or C//0 like the German or Scotch When the final syllable is long, the acute can- Before the vowels a, o, u, it is more harsh than not revert to the ante -penultimate. before e and i. When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in ^ ']; (Psi) like ^s in gipsy. a final syllable, the word is called oxytonon; the Q 10 (Omega) is the long o. penxiltimate, thus accented, is called paroxytonon; The following are diphthongs at, ccj, si, so, t/j, and the ante -penultimate with the acute is ^jro- 01 and o'j (8). Ai sounds like e in ethics. The y 2jaroxytonon. \ 58 OLD -SLAVONIC (CYRILLIC). Based on tlie most ancient MSS, and cut nnder the direction oif the I. R. Aulic Councillor Dr. I>ai:l Jos. Sciiafarik at the type- factory of Gojtlikh H AASE SoHNE in Prague. Form Name Value Form Name Value A ^ Az a Fert f, ph B G Buky b X X Cher kh B B Vedi V CO a 6 r r Glagor g (0 & Ot ot Dobro d ts A A ^ '1 Ci V e e Est' e Y Y Gerv' C V 7R 7K Zivele Z lU 111 Sa s S s Zelo z l|l ip Sta st, so — ? ? Zemlja z I T. Jer H H Ize 11 11 Jery y 1 1 1 i hi U Jery —y 1 1 I h y k b Jerek K K Kako k t t Jet e A A Ljudi 1 H) 10 Ju yu M M Myslite ni lA E\ Ja ya n H Nas , n l€ 16 Je ye On A A F,s ^ n n Pokoj P ;K .ii; 4s ^ P p Rci (Reci) r l]\ ift J^s y^ C c Slovo s 1^ EK JcJS n T T Tverdo t ? 5 Ksi X 1i Is Teiv' t f * Psi ps oy ov Uk u e * Thita th » 8 Uk u V V Izica y NUMERICAL LETTERS. a- K* r- € etc. Bl* *f\* *GI' etc. Kd- KK* Kr* K^^* KG* etc. *fi^* ah A'* 1 '2 3 4 5 M 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 ^z=:s=^ ^ = Y=90 j,=:100 0, E. g. y8T^8*=6396. ABBREVIATIONS (In Slavonic Titly). - Titla (simple). ^ Glagol'-Titla. Onecek. ^ Dobro -Titla. '^ Slovo -Titla. Pajerek. NOTES. 1) The power and pronunciation of the accented middle ages must be restricted to ecclesiastical (Roman) characters are sufficiently explained in works. Here they are solely introduced as histori- the Polish and Czechian Alphabets. cal forms. The "Pajerek" is a Jer or Jerek lAaced 2) The alphabetical names have been rectified over a letter. and , as regards the nasals , completed according 4) As in ancient MSS, the numbers are indicated Jto approved ancient authorities. by the insertion of the letters between two dots. 3) The characters are designed to be printed The "Titla" formerly used have thus become un- without the abbreviations, which as relics of the necessary. . : 59 GLAGOLITIC. According to ancient MSS (sec. XI—XII) designed by Dr. Paul Jos. S( iiaim!IK, cut ;vt the type- factory of Gottlieb Haase Soiine in Prague. Value Num . Value Num: Form Name Form Name value value Cyrill. Latin Cyrill. Latin + + Az a a 1 ^ » Uk ov U 400 e e Buky B b 2 CP (t)( Fert <^ f. ph 500 V V Vedi B V 3 % % Glagol' r g 4 lo h Cher X ch 600 ' <^ Sb Dobro A d 5 O Q (0 6 700 3 3 Est' e e St 6 W w Sta M' 800 o6 36 Zivete m z 7 V M Ci M c 900 ^ ^ Z61o s z 8 ^ w Cerv' Y 1000 Ob Zemlja ^ ? z 9 m uj Sa Ul s , *S T Ize H i 10 o ^ -8 Jer 7» S 5 I , i 20 e" D6rv' 0. ^S"8T Jery LI y /W /v«j <),l dj,j 30 Jot S -8 e Jerck h i :• J. Kako K k 40 ' ' \ <% (R> Ljudi ^ 1 50 A A Jef t e,ja J 11 10 Myslite ij m 60 M M i lis e •P ^» Nas II n 70 d€ ^ As ;n a 9 9 On 80 3€ ae Jes lA j§ f> ^. Pokoj n P 90 ^C ^ Jqs i;i; .ja. b b R'ci P r 100 O- -0- Thita ^ th g 2 Slovo c s 200 §• & 1 Izica V y UO TO Tvr'do T t 300 NOTES. 1. The letter Jeri/ is a compound of Jcr and Ize. 2. The letters vs— a\ and =8— i are duplicate forms. w and ^ are peculiar to Bulgarian MSS ; M and i are Croatian characters, jq, on the other is not a real duplicate form of (() it being identical with which hand , ^ , is used instead of (J) 3. These characters are arranged to be printed without abbreviations, which are confined to liturgical books. 4. The numerical power of the letters is indicated by dots on both sides, as ;h. .c etc. 5. Further information on the value and the pronunciation of the accented letters is given in the Czechian and Polish Ali)habets. 8* : : 60 CROATO-GLAGOLITIC. Designed from Croatian MSS and printed works by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarik; cut at the type- factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohnb in Prague. Num Num F()rin Name Value value Form Name Value value rTi rft Az a 1 m m Uk u 400 t? t! Buky b ^ cp (D Fert f, ph 500 nn nn Vedi V 3 Ja Ta Cher kh (ch) 600 Ta % Glagor 4 O Q 6 6 700 Db nb Dobro d 5 W W Sta St 800 3 3 Esr c 6 h; h; Ci ts 900 V V mi m] Zivete z 7 ft « Cerv' c 1000 £ £ Zelo z 8 m m Sa s Zemlja z 9 > Jer e 4r 4f Ize i 10 8 8 I i 20 Jery y ( Derv' 1 dy, y 30 c. Jot -8 ( ) -B e > Jerek Kako k 40 T T i x^ [ft Ljudi 1 50 A m Jet' 6, ya ili m Myslite m 60 JD JD Ju yu F F Nas n 70 € « }^s ^ a a On 80 ^ 3e 4s ^ p P Pokoj P 90 3=6 ae J^s y? B B R'ci r 100 ffl€ fte JfJS yn fi 3 Slovo s 200 u[]u dBd Thita th uu UU Tvr'do t 300 & & Izica y NOTES. 1. These characters are designed to be printed without the a 3breviatio ns, pecu- liar to liturgical works. 2. The numerical letters are distinguished by dots on both si(ies, as .ffi . .«£?. etc. 3. The punctuation is the same as in other languages. 4. The letters tions ogg and cg^, are onlj- found in Bulgarian MSS. The ligature :E instead of 33 only occurs in Croatian MSS. 5. The value and pronunciation of the accented Roman chai•acters mrly be as- pertained by referring to the Czechian and Polish Alphabe ts. ; 61 RUSSIAN Form Name Value Observations Straight Italic The Russian Alphabet con- As a A a J a sists of 35 letters. Ecclesiasti- B 6 E 6 Buki b cal and Old -Russian works, being written in the ancient B B B 6 Vyedi V tf Slavonic character, contain the following additional letters, I Glagol gli r r r g « (Selo) s, 6 or 8 (Ik) u, (D (Ot) iifi (Yuss) K), Ci (), 4 A 4 A d Dobro d 0, (0) ^ (Ksi) X, -f (Psi) ps. E e E e Yest e ye yo In ecclesiastical books these letters serve as numerals, and zh sh 5K at M Zliivete are arranged as in Greek. The sign -L-r is placed over numeri- 3 3 3 3 Zemla z cal letters. M H uu Izhe i a has the sounds oihar and bat. '> I i 1 I « ^ I i 6 like h. Before the strong consonants and as a final letter K K K K Kako k ck it sounds like p. B At the beginning of a syl- i A J Jl Liucli 1 1) lable and before .i h p like v. 2) M M M M Miiislete in As a final, and before a hard consonant, like^. H H H Nash n H r 1) As an initial and medial On a letter nearly like g in give., but with a hard Hibernian aspira- n n n n Pokoi P tion. 2) As a final, or before sA, like k. 3) In ecclesiastical pro- Rtsui r p p P P nunciation it is aspirated like h. In some words, especially C c C c Slovo s foreign, it sounds like ch in the T T m T T m Tverdo t Scotch loch. 4) The adjectival and pronominal ending ro is U u y y y commonly pronounced I'O, and in inferior style it is even spelled $ * cfi Fert ph f so. X X X X Kherr kh(dlinGer.) ^ as our d. e 1) At the beginning of syl- Tsui ts U u lables like yai. 2) At the end of syllables like e in met., with a ^ >i V % Tsherv ch feeble y before it. After sibi- lU ui III m Slia sh lants this y is not heard. 3) When accented it sounds like Shtsha shch m m yeo in yeoman, and after ac H m m, like o in go. This rule is YeiT hard suffix n applied a) before a consonant bl bi hi hi Yeriii ui i thick followed by the vowels a, o, y, BI, X ; b) 2it the end of a word soft suffix L b b b Yer c) in the instrumental case eio or of nouns fem. sing ; d) be- S IbJh Yat ye eyo eft fore r, K, X, and the sibilants 9 3 d 3 E e m, m. e) in the present tense. In improved spelling the sound K) K) K) JO Yu yOO Fr. of ijo or is indicated by e. This e also denotes the French sound a a a H Y'a ya ye of eii. e e Fita f HC likey in the French word jour. ir Izliitza V Y V V y H and i sound alike. 62 RUSSIAN Observations CURRENT HAND .1 final, attended by "h, sounds very hard. a: Jt oc a A a m rn T t accented, sounds like the in ^0. When unaccented T s cTS- B 6 y >/ y y it is pronounced like the a in 6' (£ CD (^ far. ^ n e B B X is a stronger guttural than ch in the Scotch loch. J .y T I X X H like tz in Fritz. H ordinarily like ch in A S) 4 A 74 It, U u church. In iTO (what) and be- 9^ 9 % ^ fore 71 it takes the sound oish. m consists of the sounds 8 8 e e E e oish-ch. A notion of its pro- nunciation may be formed ui M Die ^ 5K 3K m m III m by a connected articulation To of the letters sh-chi in the 3 3 words English children. ' / % after a final consonant H "C "6 T> produces a hard and ringing .% 7/ // u H sound. L is placed at the end of J ^ I i M a a a BI bi words where it softens the preceding consonant, and je % n k K K =g 6 6 6 adds to it the sound of ye, such as is heard in theFrench m U Ji J K) fh % % pronunciation of Charle- magne. In the middle of a M word, mostly between two ^m jUd ^t.M M consonants, it is uttered with a slight sound of ee. cf£ m n H H WWmH> K) H, Bi is identical with the Polish y, and somewhat like cr Q Si Ji> a Ji ^ n the English we, when rapidly articulated. Ji 6 © e a Q t as an initial like yai. &r .IT n n n The y of this diphthong is cp also sounded in the middle T V r V \ ^ .fl' of a syllable after Ji, but is '€ scarcely audible after the c e c C c other consonants. a This reversed e is the initial of words in Latin words as AnHHSa.i'L, Hannibal. 2) c commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or foreign words in which it replaces oe. tz, is expressed by v, as I5Hi;epOH'B, and before m sounds like ew. In foreign words it is a, 0, u hj k, as Ko^.ieria. 3) x is expressed similar to the French u. by KC, as A.ieKC'tii (Alexius). 4) / and the a when accented, sounds like ya in yard. In German v are changed into ^, as Cyrillic Latin Pronunciation I. II. III. Pronunciation A a A a a a a a B 6 B b b b b b The Vowels a, o, u, i, c c cz e sound as in German or B B V V V Italian. (3 ch ch r r G . g o c cs cs e as a medial follows all the consonants except A A D d d d d d gutturals. It rarely is a i) Hungarian dj % dy, gy di dy final letter and never an E e E e e e e e initial. Its general sound is like ye (in yes). In e e e i )K i in French JK Z the dialect of the Herze- f f f govina it has the same 3 3 z Z () g c pronunciation when not H H I i gj gj gy lengthened , otherwise it sounds like ee combined I i I y b h h with ye, as is heard in J i J J J y see yet. Before i, like y K K K k k in ye. In the Syrmian dialect it varies between A A L 1 1 1 ayandee. In the Ressava Jh Jb ij ly, 1*^1 gi. gii dialect it almost invariably ^ Ij ly sounds like ay (in nay). M M M m m 111 111 m This e is now often spelled 11 11 11 H H N 11 n ie. "j nj "y Hj lb Nj nj ii Ital. andFr. llg c is like ts in lots. o C and tj almost like ts. P P p The difference between n n P p r r r P these spellings is, that c p p R r s s ss sz can be used indiscriminate- s sh sc ly, and tj only in derived c c S 8 words. I t t T T T t tj ch ty c like j in jar. ii h C c ly, U u u u dj and gj are nearly y y U u u V V V like j in jar. F f f z z z Ij Uke Hi in William. z X s X X H h nj hke ni in opinion. dz dx ex ds s like sh. C Is like s in measure. C ch z dz like in jar. m m S sh j r has the power both of a consonant and a vowel. Sc sc shcb mm As a consonant it sounds as in other languages. As hardening suffix a vowel it forms a separate syllable and is pronounced with a very slight sound of e. The orthography of bl bl I i ee, French U this syllable varies. Some spell it er, the Ragusans b b softening suffix kr. Others omit a and e and simply write r, others again write r. B u Je je e ie ye, ie e e Je je ye Accents used in Servian: acute {"); sign of 10 10 '^ Ju ju yu length (') ; a H Ja ja y*"i \y u Dz dz J e Th th th 64 WAI.LACHIAN Form Name Value Modern Shape Imp roved Modern Shape Anti lua Curi ent a As a 3 Besides the Al- A a a a A a B B Biike b phabet on the left A a BJ-* 6\J b1./ V there are two va- H B Vide I> 6 B 6 b rieties of charac- B B V r r Glagol g ters. B 6 B 6 V Dobro d r r Of b (pronounced Eer) ye e long r r r V Q e Yest is appended to a A A d consonant at the IK m Shivete zh D d D d d end of a word E e y S e Zalo Nr. 6 without being 5K zh E e E e ye e B 3 Zemlia z sounded. In mo- printing it is dern 3 3 z ;T J- (^-> H I i J- i J H H omitted. i I i i Ishe y I i i z z z z z (Yori/) only k Bl is K K Kako employed in words K K k I i I i I A A Lrnde 1 of Slavonic origin. A 1 ni K k K k k M ni Meslite V Ishitza, occurs n in words derived M M m H H Nash L A L d 1 from the Greek. On H II n After vowels its M m M m m 11 11 Pokoi P sound is v, after consonants i (as r N n N n n P pJ Rtse in Bit). n n P c Slovo s P r T T Tverdo t P n n n re P 8 6 Uk u SHORT ACCENTS. c c s p p p p r Oy oj Uiiiku u o is placed over T T t an initial vowel Fert f ph s s s s s and the diph- y y u X X Khir kh h thong M>. f T t T t t GO (0 long « stands over a X kh(ch) Y Y V Y u Hu Tsi ts medial and final X H and over a ^I -I Cher ch ts $ ^ ^ i' f final H). ^ n m Sha sh m ch X X X X kh(ch) Shta sbt TTT m sh u ts Yor e sliort LONG ACCENTS. I^ sht 5 * Yaty ea " over initial vow- ni H H 1 H ch els and over A A Yus e (uiih) H). T> e L m m UI HI sh ' over medial vow- H) H) Yu t ea els. Ty T, ly 1> e Yako ya over the medial R n ya Irl A la ya 1 i t I (iin) &. and the final (uiih) -0^ « Ftita ft th ^ A d, *, ^, H. \i y V V j t Psi ps lin t ~ "^ over abbre- 4 ¥ viations let- (§ ^ Xi X and APOSTRC PHISE D LETTERS. J * ters employed as Ishitza V i numerals. Q, and Y are only Aa elt irOoY tin ting ill Germ. used in foreign words. ua D HS sTti'a V 9 Je J 6 The Alphabet to the left is used in liturgical and ancient woi*ks. With the improved cultivation of the language the letters have been considerably simplified, as is shown in the two Alphabets at the right. No notice has been taken here of the ancient names and the accentuation of the letters. 65 a like a Aii - ong The marginal column shows the pronunciation of Polish letters e — e in as far as it approximates the English. The vowels a, e, i, 0, e — ie ou, u, u in the adjoining column are sounded as in German. The ^e - eng following peculiarities must be noticed. In addition to the five elementary vowels, common to the Eu- 1 — 1 — ropean languages, occurs y^ which is deeper than the i and sharper 06 - ou than the French mute e (in jyoudre, F olish piidyr). As accessory u — u vowels of a, e stand the nasals a and g (ong, eng). Before h, p^ they sound om^ but nasally; e, always strongly accented, is an y - e(u) intermediate of e and i. In ie, ia, io, hi the i merely indicates b - 1) the preceding consonant; in fact this i forms part i - by' the softness of of such a consonant. 6 is a strongly accented deep o, nearly like c — ts 21. Hence the Polish vowels descend in the following gradation: Cc - tssli (ie), e, a, a, o, 6,u. cz — ch 2, e, §,y, These vowels have a clear and distinct sound, except the i d - d which obtains the consonantal force oiy, when it is followed by dz- dz a vowel and preceded hy b, c, dz, m, n s, iv , z. In this case dz- dzy* , x^, the i is merely the medium of softening the consonant. Ex : biodro dz- J (loin) sounds byodro. Before e it becomes ie. f - f The consonants b, c, dz, m, n,p, s, iv , z are attended by a g - 8" slight and rapid articulation oiy, as if vv^ritten by, cy, dzy, my, h - h(ch) They stand as finals of words, and also of syl- ch- kh ny, py, sy, ivy, zy. lables followed by consonants. Of these letters c takes the inter- j - y mediate sound of our h and cli. k - k c sounds like ts in loants. 1 - 1 Lt - — cz is our ch, and sz our sh. m — m dz sounds like ds in ivands, dz is like j in jar. m — my' h is of rare occurrence, the Slavonic h being represented in 11 — n Polish by g. It is as guttural as the German c/i, Ex: hultaj Nn - ny' (a Good for nothing). P - p i t]^e virgulated Z is heavier than the common /. The middle — p P part of the tongue is more raised in the articulation of this letter. r — r rz is r blended with i. The r is softly rolled, and its z is like rz — rsli the French J. Ek: przy. s — s z like J in the French word jour. S s - sy' To avoid the accumulation of softening iota-nisivks of the sz — sh letters b, m, n, p, s, w, z, the following process is preferred. t — t Before a vowel an i is inserted (as bia mia etc.); before i however w — V and before consonants the «oto-sign is dispensed with ; b, p, w, m, vv — yf lose this sign even at the end of a word. Owing to the diminution z — Z signs, letters w, b , n , s , z deviate of the characteristic the , p m, 2z - zy' from the original rule and may be followed by either i or y. ZzZz--jCFr.) 66 SORBIAN OR WENDISH OF LUSATIA. Tlic vowels are: a, O, U, y, e, i. The union of a and o makes 6; and u form 6; e and i coalesce HI e. The semi-consonant j is connected with i; h willi e; W with a O u. Tiie consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, V, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and FJng-nals n, 1, r. 4^ Sibilants Gutturals :',i Dentals d, t, C. Z Z, S s, C C. 5) h ch (g) k. With regard to their articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, itcconl- ing as they are hardened or softened in their utterance. Broad sounds: w, vv, b, b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g. Slender sounds: f, v, p, p, s, s, t, c, c, c, ds, ts, ch, k. lietween these letters nine intermediates take their place: m, ill, n, n, 1', 1, 1, r, r. The whole Alphabet thus consists of the following 8 vowels and 32 consonants. A (6) O, 6, u, y, e, e, i; j, w, \\ (f, v) b, b, p, p, m, m, n, n, 1, 1, (T), r, r, z, z,s, s, d, dz, dz, t, e, c', c, ts, h, eh, g, k. In combining one consonant or several consonants with a vowel to form a syllable, a distinction is made between hard soft and neutral consonants. At the same time the following rule is to be observed. In the grammatical combinations of structure, derivation, declension, comparison and conjugation the vowel y cannot follow a soft consonant, nor can e and i follow a hard consonant, whilst the neutral consonants may be succeeded by eiihei' y or i. In conformily with this rule are reckoned as Soft, j vv V b' j) 111 n 1 r z s c dz c. Hard, t r z s d dz t c (h ch g k). Neutral, w f b p m n ds ts. The letters qu and x, in words of foreign origin, are spelled kw and ks, as kwadrat, Aleksander, kwas. Also g occurs only in foreign words. Y and f are found in but few vernacidar terms. PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS. Tlie accented characters \v b p m n r differ from the unaccented in softness of sound. Before e (acute) e and i this accent is unnecessary, because these vowels are sufficient to soften the preceding consonants. t sounds like v. In the north-eastern part of the country it is pror.ounced like a harsh 1. For instance colo. dz as in English, but without a break between the two letters. Example na tidzy. dz like g in gentle, as dzera, nadzya. Z as in English, f. i. zuby. z like the s in pleasure, f. i. zolty. s like sh, f. i. saty, sery. c like ts, as cybac. C nearly like ch in churn, f. i. cern. C the sharpest sibilant like tch in wretch, f. i. corny. ds, ts like ts, f. i. tsihac. ch is frequently pronounced hard, like c before a, O, u, especially at the beginning of words, for instance chory. j like y in yes. s like z. W like V. PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. a i u as the vowels in are, here, true. After it is often like e is acute , grave . or long. c Z e pronounced y. o acute grave or lengthened. 6 deep nearly like u, e like ea in dear. V deep as ea in dearth. ' . 67 CZECHIAN OR BOHEMIAN. Roman. a b c d e f g h ch i j k 1 m n p r s t u V y z — a e i 6 li y — ii » V . - t ^, Y V \' c (I C D D' (F (; I n n r S s 1 i I / z German. abcbcf9l^d)tif(mnoprf^tut)t),^ — dei 6 li I) — u — c q nnd X only occur in foicign words, qii is gnnerally replaced liy kv as kvitaiice (receipt). Sonic writers use w for v and oil for an. The accented vowels a e i li y and u are long; j like y, as jaro (pr. yaro) springlinie. without accent their pronunciation is short. n before i i, nr when marked ii, snimds like \\\ in e i i are termed soft vowels. The others are hard. opinion. h ch k r arc hard consonants. o as in of. C c d' j n r s t z are soft . and 6 as in door. b d f g 1 m n p S t V Z are railed indednite OU is a diphthong which blends the sound of o (in consonants. pole) with u (in put). These vowels retain their separate pronunciation in verbs with prelixed po, as poiibrati po - u - bra - li ) THE FOLLOWING SOUNDS DIFFER FROM ( THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION. S (in German type [[, and as a Ihial, 6) like sli in tish. a sounds like the lirst a in pajia. t before i i, or when marked t, sounds like a t with which the semi-vowel y coalesces, as udipan (pron. a like a in father. tyoo -le-pan) tulip. C even hefore k, sounds like ts, as necky (nets-ku; u as in put. the tray. li and 11 long as in ])lue. c like ch in church. y like u in the French pure. d before i i or when marked with the liquifying- sign Z as in English but. (d) is sounded dy. This consonantal y is softly blended with its d, as div or (pronounced diw 7. like s in measure. dyiv). e like e in den. ORTHOEPIC RULES. e like a in late. 1) The vowels with the long accent ('; should not be lengthened to e.xcess, e as ye in yet. It can only occur after v, f, b, p, m, n, d, t with which it coalesces. As vek (vyek) 2) The consonants s, S, Z, z, become nude bcfure a century. the affi.v sky, as vessk}\ like in followed by in , as consonant as an initial before another ey a late y yet woley 3) The j , (call thou). This llnal y forms a distinct sound. consonant, is not pronounced, as jsein. When a syl- lable ending in a vowel precedes, the j becomes g as in garnet. It only occurs in foreign words. audible. h aspirated at the beginning and in the middle of a 4) The compounds tc ds and ts are pronoiuiced worfl like h in house. At the end of a syllable it like c ; ds aiul ts, like c. partakes of the guttural sound of ch and is some- what softer than ch in the Scotch loch. 5j Prepositions consisting of a simple consonanl, such as k, S, V, Z, although standing by themselves, ch like ch in the Scolch woid loch, as chleb form a syllable, but are sounded together with (bread). do not the first syllabic of the next word, for instance k tobc i as in grin. S nami. These unconnected prepositions cannot be of a line or i like ee in green. placed by themselves at the end a page. . : 68 (]) Tlic auxiliary verb, jsem, jsi, jest-jsme, to ascertain the component syllables. In this language jste, jsou, llie conjunclional particles bych, bys, most syllables end in vowels. The following circum- by, bychom, byste, by, and the rcfloclive pronouns stances must be noticed in applying this rule, se, si altaclicd to an aciivc i)articiple, are blended 1) A consonant placed between two vowels or be- together in the pronunciation and joined by a hyphen. tween a vowel and 1 or r, joins the next syllable. The same is the case when si, se are postpositions of Example: stra-ka, ba-vl-na. nouns or adjectives. E.g. shledani-se,morllici-se. 2) Of several consonants, followed by a vowel, only 7) The soft consonants must he carefully distin- the last consonant goes to the next syllable; yet guished in articulation from the indefinites, and the i sk, sk, st, st arc not separated but join the next syllable. i e must properly coalesce with the latter. In such instances the preceding syllable is often with- 8) The sibilants c S Z differ from each other as out a vowel, while 1 or r forms the medial consonant. well as from c s z. Example , hrn-cif 9) h is never mute. Example hrom (thunder) in which the h sounds as the h in the Scotch pronun- 3) 1, r, r, with a vowel after, arc joined by Ihc ciation of which. preceding consonant in forming one syllable. To this 10) The accent always rests on the first syllable, rule n forms an exception. The consonants sk, sk, as be-zim, pri-nesii. The accented syllable may at st, st must without separation be annexed to the syl- the same time be lengthened, as sna-zim, kra-sa. lable which follows. Example, kno-flik, zei-dlik, DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. sve-tlo, han-li-vy. In words which arc difficult to pronounce, owing 4) Compound words are divided according to their to the complication of consonants, it is of importance component parts, as ou-voz, na-cTvo-fi. HUNGARIAN. The Hungarian language comprises 31 sonants which are expressed by the Roman Alpha- bet. Owing to the combinations of some letters the Alphabet is formed as follows a b cs cz d e f g gy h i j k 1 ly m n ny p r s sz t ty u 11 V z zs. The vowels a e i o 6 u it, are sounded as in German. With the accent at the top the vowels a e i 6 it u are lengthened. The combinations cs cz gy ly ny sz ty zs represent single articulations and are inseparable in spelling. CS sounds like ch as Jcocsi. cz » ts as czukor. oy )) di in the French word Dieu, as gydr. ly )) il in the French word email.) as homdly. ny » ni in opinion, as anya. SZ )) s as szag. ty » ti in the French metier as tyiik. ZS » j in the French word Jo^rr as zsdk. With regard to the consonants is to be noticed that, j is pronounced like ij in yes, and s like the English sJi, as sas. The letters c ch q iv x are only found in foreign words , for instance Cato , Achilles. y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungarian words y and ch are employed as independent letters. The former then sounds like i in it, and ch as in church. For example JPdlffy, Forgach. The compounds cs and cz are often denoted by ts and tz. Modern Orthography rejects this spelling except in words where the t is radical, as bardtsdg (not baracsag). , 69 LETTISH. The Lets have adopted the following 22 letters of the German Alphahet, abcbegl;ii!lmno:prf§tums. in combination The c and I; are only used with f to express the sounds of fd; and fd;. to lengthen the vowels. i) The I) moreover serves The German consonants h d) f never occur in Lettish. Nor are b and it in use. The q J t; are represented by flu, H, i. By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the Lettish language are formed. a b bj b e g § ® j t ! I xt ( i 8 in mj u « ^ o p pj r v SS t f bf f^ bfdj f m (§) fd) tfi u it) \vi g. PRONUNCIATION OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. a e i U are short. When lengthened they are marked thus a e t u The is always long, nevertheless it receives the lengthening mark to distinguish the accented of) and 5 from the lighter o. PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS. There are six diphthongs in this language, ai ail ei oi ui ee. The first five are pro- nounced as in German. Although ai and ei are naturally long they occur with the circumflex at et. The diphthong ci only appears in the word Icoi. When ail and ui are to become separate syllables the ii and i are marked with the diaeresis , aii, ill. Peculiar is the sound of ec; it passes from the articulation of ee (such as is heard in the German word @ee or in the English word say) to an intermediate sound, such as is heard in the second o oi advantage. CONSONANTS. The following letters have the English sound, B b I m 11 ^ r t. The j is a consonant like our y; ID sounds as t), and 3 like tS. The labials b m :|3 U) may be followed by the modifying |, which like the Russian x, helps to soften the consonant and causes a slight t to ring after it. It cannot be separated from the consonant nor uttered as an independent letter. I n r are virgulated as i n r-, instead of being follow^ed by j. Besides these letters the follow- ing four are virgulated. ^ like the German ! before c and i; g is like ! before a c u. I hard like Tc in hing, ! as c in come, cut. f , sharp like our s. 6 is the final of this sharp f. \ is soft like our 3. bf form an inseparable sound like the soft Italian z. fc^ sharp like the Russian m and the English sh. The virgula of f and fd; does not indicate the sound of an inherent \, It only helps to distinguish the sharply pro- nounced consonant from the soft ]' and \6.}, the latter is pronounced like the Russian ac or the French j in Jour. tfrf; is like the English ch and b[d; like g in gentle. PRONUNCIATION OF SUCCESSIVE CONSONANTS. Two or more Consonants, joined together in one syllable or in two syllables, must be so articulated that each should retain its original and independent sound. The 11 is some- what modified by the g and L It being assimilated with these letters, its sound is like that in the English words sing, sink (not as in tingle, tinkle). When g and f are marked with the cross -stroke the ll is likewise virgulated, and is then pronounced in accordance with the foregoing rules. . 70 GERMAN a 2i a a b c 11 li ii d ch e cf ck f ff ff g fi li h ft fl i fi si J ff ss k ft St 1 sz m m 111 tz The vowels are: a li e t o o ii li. The diplithongs In the middle or at the end of a word d) has a ^ or compound vowels arc: ai ci an an cii; all other' pronunciation quite peculiar to the (iernian language, letters arc consonants. and more or less guttural, but lor which no corre- sponding sound can be found in English; it is like Simple vowels. Ihe Scotch ch in the word loch after a o ii an, but Kvery vowel, followed by two consonants, is short, if softer after a c i 6 ii an cii , and after a consonant. followed hy only one con'sonanl it is long. tf)^ or (t}^ is pronounced like r when these conso- 21 is pronounced like a in the Knglisli word father. nants belong to the root or radical syllable. % a is pronounced like a in the K.n^lish word Inte. Hilt the d) preserves its gntlural "proinuiciation, (5 c is pronounced like e in the English word Id. when it stands before the £* or f by conlraction or i is ])ronounced like e in tiie English word me. ^ in a compound woril. £) is pronounced like o in the English word hope. 0) n at the beginning of a syllabic is jironounced t) 6 is pronouncedl like cw in the Eronch'word .s"e!«(. like the English 7 in the word r/ood: but between U U is pronounced like no in the English word roof. two vowels , in the middle of a word and at the end of ii it is jironounced like the French (/. There is no a syllable it has a sound like the d), only much softened. ^Corresponding sound in the English language. .\fter n at the end of a word it is pronounced ^ t) has the sound of the Gernuui i" hy which like a very soft k. it is re|)laced. generally .'p I) is always aspirated at the beginningof a syllable. Bouble vowels. The aspiration becomes however almost imper- The double vowels aa, cc, i'>i.\ are no diphthongs, ceptible before a linal c. because only one letter is souiulcd, and the second After a vowel or a t, the h is not pronounced, serves to indicale that the syllable is long. but, only indicates that the syllable is long. is )neat. ic pronounced like ea in the English word v^ i only stands at Ihe beginning of a syllable Diphthongs. and is pronounced like the En^'lisb 1/ in the word//e/. In the German di|ihlliongs, the two vowels must be d replaces the double f, and is pronounced short. sounded one alter the other, but so quickly as to £lu qii has the sound of kv in English. form only one syllable. <3 f g at the beginning of a syllabb' is pronounced at and ci are pronouiu'.ed almost alike, and have like the English :, at the end of a syllable however the sound of ihe English / in the word fire. like the English v. nit IS pronounced like ou in the English word house. The long I is placed at the beginning and in the middle, g only at the end of syllables. If in an nnintlected word (ill and m sound almost like'jOi/ in the word joi/. there are two ( one after another, they are written ff. Consonants. jj is only placed at the end or in the middle of The pronuncialion of the consonants dilfers but syllables, has the sound of the English vv. little in the two languages; the learner should no- ^d) \(i) is pronounced like the English .s7i. tice the following pecutiarilies. ft and fp are pronounced like st and sp in Eng- 6 C before a c and i is pronounced like Is. lish ; but in some |)arts of Germany Ihev pronounce Before a v> u, before a consonant, and at liie eiid ft at the beginning of a word like v/j/', and fv like •«/(/>. of a syllable it is pronounced like /r, by which in /'. 'i8 ti has the sound of most cases it may be re|)laced. as to is pronounced like the English v. (£1) at the beginning of a word is pronounced is sounded like <.s\ like k, except in words derived from the French, 3 J the is very hard. in which it retains tlic French pronunciation. ^ rejilaces double ^ and pronounced 71 DANISH 21 a The Danish language forms part of the great Gothic family and derives 3la aa its origin from the ancient Norse which once extended over the whole of b ^ Scandinavia. Hence it is closely connected with modern Icelandic and a c Swedish, more distantly with the German, Dutch and English languages. In its further development it has embodied a variety of terms from the ^ b French, Latin and Greek. e @ The Alphabet consists of the adjoining 28 characters. % f ® 9 VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. The simple vowels are |) [j (haa) a aa e i u I) CT y 3 i They are long as in @tat (the a as in star) 9?aab , 33eeu, bUb , or short (Jodj 3 i as in ®tab, 5tanb, teb, 53ib. The vowels e i O U i; have an open sound as t f (kaa) in ^kt, 2)igt, gobt, or a close sound as in ftreb, ftrib, gob. e i u, as long middle vowels, are doubled unless the in t), as « I word ends b b g @teen, ^een, 2)?UU^. At the end only the e is doubled, as tee, fee. The other vowels at the end of a syllable are always long, as Xaa, ®ti , ^{0 , and often add a 9Z n mute e, as \tciai. In inflections the reduplication of the vowel ceases, as D §UU§, ^ufe. The vowels oe cannot be spelled ae oe. t) is pronounced like the French ii , not like the English y. Ex: 9)ube. aa mostly sounds like a ^ V in warm. In modern times q has been adopted for aa, and b for the open 0. For the deep pronunciation of this vowel, the mark has been retained. a q As diphthongs are reckoned at et Ot yi uj a\X eu OU Ut, Some grammarians 9t X only admit the following six, ai au et eu ou ei. The pronmiciation of these © ^ f vowels consists in a rapid blending of their respective sounds. X t u u 58 t) (we) CONSONANTS. The consonants are 2t ? b c b f I n V ^ t i) ^- f g H m ^ q f S. D P According to the organs of speech they are divisible into: 1) Linguals h 3 b 1 1 U r. 2) Labials b ^ Hi. 3) Palatals f j. 4) Sibilants 5. 5) Aspi- V'* f g q \ rate w (Z (a) ^. In the dialect of the Juts the h is aspirated before j and t>. b b g and M are softened to such a degree as to become frequently inaudible. ^ 6 (oj After a vowel or when placed between two vowels b is pronounced bl; (like the Anglo-Saxon iS or the English th in smooth). Double b has a similar pronunciation. Kb and nb sound like 11 and im. In rb the b has a very soft sound. Also before ^ the b loses part of its force, and it becomes inaudible before t. j sounds like y in yes. i) sounds like the English v. The following letters are peculiar to foreign words. 1) c before a U or a consonant, is pronounced as in English; before e i t) iT 0, it is like s. C^ is like k. 2) q, followed by "o, sounds like hv. 3) 5 is like dz or tz., and sometimes like the English z. 4) ^* in the middle and at the end of a word is like gs or ks. As an initial it is almost as soft as z. Combinations of letters, tt \t ff fi ft ff fl ft. 72 SWEDISH. The Alphabet consists of the following 28 letters, Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh li Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Go Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa Go. PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. The vowels a u a are hard, and e i y a 6 are soft. The vowels a i u sound as in German or Italian, d is like a in bare, a like o in tone. The e sounds as a in ale. 1) when forming an independent syllable. Ex: e-vig (eternal). 2) at the end of a syllable, Ex: ande (spirit). 3) In many monosyllabic words, inflections, derivations and compounds, e sounds like ai in air. 1) before/^ Im n r, when the next syllable of the same word is a consonant, as efter (after). 2) before j as 77ej (no). 3) in many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules have many exceptions, o has two sounds, 1) nearly as in move, when it constitutes a syllable by itself, or at the end of a word; also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o has a lengthened sound before a final/, and a sharp sound (as in not) before m n p r t. — o is mostly lengthened (nearly like the French eu in Jetir) as do (to die), or the sound is sharper and quicker, as for (for). There are no diphthongs in this language. CONSONANTS. b retains its ordinary sound. j like y in yes. After /m np the J is clearly c before Jc stands for Jck. Before h it only articulated and the preceding consonant occurs in the Swedish word Och (pro- has a very slight pronunciation. As a final nounced ocJc). Before the soft vowels it letter it is somewhat like the German ch. sounds like^, before the hard vowels like A;. ]c 1) as in English. It is subject to the same d sounds like our d. Before t like t. As a rules as g. 2) before the soft vowels it final after n almost like n. Before J it is is like our ch. In Jcjortel the Jc sounds silent. like t. / as in EngXi§h. At the end of a word like v. I before j is mute. In theiniddle of a worcj before v of the m as in English. The final m sounds like same syllable, also after I and r, it is mute two m in those radical words which, on Ex: Jcalfven (pron. kalven). f and v oi being inflected, are spelled with double m. separate syllables retain their original Ex: lam (pron. lamm). sounds. Ex: drifved (= driv-ved). q with V after, sounds like kv. g 1) as in good before a hard vowel, before r and s as in English, stj, sj, skj like sh. i and e in a sharp unaccented syllable , at sk before soft vowels is likewise pro- the end , and before a consonant of the nounced as sh. same syllable. 2) like y in yes, before the t as in English, tj like ch in church, tion, soft vowels , and after I and r. Ex : ge (like with a hard vowel before it, like schone, ya). Of this rule there are some excep- and after a consonant like shone. tions. 3) like cli when a t follows. Ex: V as in English. The wordvon is pronounced sagt {=sacJct). 4) like ng when a syllable fon as in German from which language it ends in gn , as vagn (pronounced vangn). is borrowed. 5) before J it is mute. Ex: gjort {^v.jort). X is like ks. h is aspirated, before J and v it is mute. z is pronounced like s. 73 ANGLO-SAXON. ipasH. The Ang-lo-S;i.\oii liiiigiiiigc (U-volopod itself IVoiu It has been a subject of learned discussions whe the Low- Gerniati (Old-Sn.von) idiom, which was in- ther the Irish in the Pagan period made use of the troduced in England hy the Saxons in or before the fifth ancient alphabets, which are known by the name of century. In the ninth century this language was cul- Ogham, and are preserved in some sculptured mo- tivated in writing, and obtained currency through numents and in various MSS. With the introduction the agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh of Christianity and the spreading of conventual edu- century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty cation the subjoined Alphabet was formed, which is and the conniiencement of the Norman rule . French still employed in antiquarian publications and in some became the language of the court and of judicial pro- works intended for the Irish people. At the present ceedings. The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language time the Irish language is frequently written and was confined to the dependent classes and to the re- printed in Roman (English) characters. sidents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when this idiom once more became popular, it had received such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so % a a 111 many native characteristics, that it could only bo con- t) sidered as a mixed dialect, out of which the modern B1) b N English language was gradually formed. C c c k Oo PRONUNCIATION. t)^ d Pv A a a a e i o u have the same souml as b e e e Bb in German or Italian. f Cc c y has the same force as in Eng- ry lish. re Db d 35 g [e sounds as a in that. 6e e ; ) i I 1 Fp f I The Consonants have the following Q5 g peculiarities of pronunciation, LIGATURES. h bh C is in all instances hard like k. cw stands for Irish MSS. contain contractions of which the following I 1 i kw. are the most usual. kk k f between two vowels or as a final letter is pronounced like v. • LI 1 g is always like the modern g in r did t5 gh go. Occasionally 5 occurs instead CDm m A^-o adli i of g. This letter takes the sound Nn n of y in yes. 4^ e 11 Oo eg is used instead of gg. ^ air 1)1 Pp P h is a strong aspirate. As a final 3^ an IW 111 of a syllable and before a con- r ^ am It) w Rl\ sonant it resembles the German 11 ch. agur Sr s 7 nil hw answers to the English wli. h ar 11 Tv t 4 is also found before the liquids f 1} V w P Qu u 1, 11, r. P13 b bv^ V w w sometimes precedes r and ]. VF V tll^ IT 1)15 b \i (tha) hard, like th in thick. X oc X r h ^ (elb) soft, like th in this. Usually CC g 1) 81 Yj is the initial and (^ the final of y J) c ch ll a syllable. Zz z -Dr- d and slaiids for and. "cr t ©S dh "-J 2F ee d ^ stands for piet. -cz d ea \y\^ th % 1 i stands for 0^6"e. ^ (J^i-D ea A'r'C) i • The accent (') over a vowel denotes its length. In h ie words of ecjual spelling this points out the accent 3c g difference of sound and meaning. For instance ac iil3 i (but, eke) ac {oak). The elision of in and u is indi- cated by a short line (-) over the antecedent letter. 10 1 74 GOTHIC Nam: Ligatures and Form Value Observations power marks a 1 LIGATUKES The Gothic language was in ancient times spoken by the eastern Germans who were de- B b 2 of frequent oc- currence in the signated by the collective name of Goths. It be- I' g 3 Skeireins. longs to the Indo-Germanic family, and as a dead language, it has been remarkably preserved in Ol d 4 Tl for tlT the most ancient relic of Germanic literature. It e is the first of the sister- languages that was com- 6 5 h^ — Nj\ mitted to writing, and has thus reached us in its z' U q 6 original purity. Although the relics of Gothic literature are very scanty, for beyond the frag- Z ii 7 - n)^ mentary version of the Bible and the so called h h 8 — NN Skeireins, we possess but insignificant remains, there is enough matter extant to afi'ord a perfect dh(,>) 9 — NiV insight into the grammatical structure of the 1 i 10 — NS language. The Gothic Alphabet has the adjoining 25 let- K k 20 — )^t ters. Their names are not known, as the lan- A 1 30 guage was not cultivated by native grammarians. — t)^ The invention of the Gothic characters is attri- 111 H 40 buted to Ulphilas. N 11 50 MONOGRAMS. To distinguish the numerical letters from the q J 60 ' * other characters , the sign or is placed Tl u 70 above or below the number. In these cases the diasresis over the i' is omitted. Such letters receive n P 80 for mat|iaius a characteristic dot on the right and left. In the 1^ r 100 Neapolitan copy two dots, in the shape af a colon, are placed on both sides of the letter. Instead s s 200 is I sometimes to Ifi" of dots the upright circumflex t be found, T 300 for markus. Y V 400 '¥'(2), ^(40), sqT(60). f 500 The "catchword" is likewise enclosed be- NUMERICAL tween upright circumflexes, as s6s. X X 600 FIGURES. w 700 = 90 ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. Q 800 = 900 1. Diacritical signs only occur in the diseresis over the initial I. 2. Punctuation. As a general rule the single stop represents the brief pause, and the double stop a longer pause. Yet this punctuation is not consistently carried out, such signs being often introduced without purpose, and contrary to the sense. After a long pause a blanc space is left. In the other parts of the text the words are all strung together without division, and sometimes the new sentence is placed in an other line, in which case the "" *~~* initial letters are preceded by the sign * or '. 3. The division of a word, written in two lines, is often made without any rule, and merely to fill the vacant space. The separation is in rare instances indicated by a hyphen, which then is marked at the beginning of the new line, and not at the end of the preced- ing one. 4. Quotation s are distinguished from the text by the single upright markS or the double all lines contain the quotation. \^. This mark is continued in the margin before the which '^"'^ the sign is superadded In the Skeireins , which has single marks of quotation, in the first line, and the sign . in the last. '— "^ '""•^ or 5. Abbreviations. The elision of n is marked by ' or ', and m by '""=^. These signs are generally used at the end of a line, when there is not enough space for the letters, but sometimes they also occur in the middle of a line. Real abbreviations are in some instances indicated by the sign s before and after the word, but generally the * signs ' ', ' ' or ' are employed. 75 RUNES Num; Value Observations Form Name power r Fe f 1 The adoption of the Norse Runes takes its origin in remote antiquity, and probably belongs n Ur U 2 to a pre- christian period, as is suggested by a variety of coincidences, although hitherto no l> Thurs th 3 positive proofs have been discovered in the Runic stones, by w^hich those monuments might ^ Os 4 be connected with the prevalence of paganism. As is the case in the Greek, Gothic and other Reid r 5 R alphabets , the Runic signs represent both letters and numerals. These characters, 16 in k G r Kami number, bear peculiar names, and appear to have been arranged in an arbitrary manner, no h 7 * Hagl attention having been paid to the mutual rela- tion and transition of the several letters. k Naud 11 8 The Runic characters were divided into Is i 9 three classes, in the letter headed the 1 which p' first series , X and 't^ each of the other two A Ar a . 10 series. These three divisions were therefore H Sol s 11 respectively named Freys-aett (Frey's family), Hagls-aett and Tyrs-aett. It is obvious that t Tyi- t 12 these letters could but imperfectly express the variety of sounds. There was only one sign Biork b 13 for and k, and and and It ^ g d ^, h p, u v y. is most curious that the connective e and 6 are 1 14 h Laugr omitted in this system. The latter vowel is replaced by au, and»the former by i, «, ia and Madr 111 15 T at. Instead of g and gh the h is occasionally employed, while u might serve as the substitute Yr y 16 i of 0, of the vowel y, of the diphthongs ae, au and ey, and even of the consonants v and/. Yr was equivalent to final r (of the same value as or and ur), and as such it was called ai4r. When the insufficiency of the Runic alphabet was more sensibly felt, four additional letters were adopted, namely e, g,p and v. Their names were no longer in conformity with the 16 archaic characters. Nor were new shapes given to these Runes. The simple expedient of adding one dot or two to the kindred letter was considered sufficient; therefore these sign bear the name oi stungnar runir {dotted runes). The old letters adapted to this purpose are i, A:, b and /. When the Roman cha- racters, along with the use of paper and parchment were adopted in the North, the Runes were increased by the addition of dh, d, ae, oe, ue, and subsequently by the superfluous letters and z. The latter signs may be regarded as spurious augmentations of the Runes. c , q, X The same criticism seems to hold good in reference to the three double runes, by which the numerals were increased to niuteen, and beyond which the numeral system of the Runes does not extend. The 3 double -runes are, /|^ al, Arlaugr. 17. >|< mm, Tvimadr. 18. To express the subsequent numbers, several Runes were combined. ^^ (= twice ten) denoted 20,^^P^21. ^^[^ = 22 and so on. • • * * , 4 • • • • • • • ^ 76 RUNES compared with the Gothic Alphabet of Ulfilas. Northern Golden Golden Bracteates Anglo-Saxon Alphabet of Ulfilas Runes Horn le f feoh f r r r 1^ faihii 9 n lir U V n n A ur U 11 urus OU »> E'urs torn t>^ > > t*orn P ^1^ Paiirnus ^ A a OS =1 + OS p F: t^ A ans a reid^ r rad 1^ r R R K V 1^ rai(5^a 9 K kauii kg < < c(k) khh ceil c (k) R kaunzama k c (y x) X X X sy^u 8 r giba T p f V F* wen w Y? vinja V u >fHH hagal 1) H HH h HN* hgegl h h liagls h + h nau^ n + + n + nyd n n nau|)S V 1 is i 1 1 i 1 is 1 I eis t (t) u e £l) -H ar a q <1> ^ ger ge (-y) q jer t 4- (A) (yr) \ 1- eoh eo z z iuja ? (5) M H peorr ir w » Y eolhx H sol s 5 ^ s H sigel s s£ir sojil (?) t 1 tyr t d t t t t tir t T tins T ^ biarkan bp ^ ^ beorc b B B bairika |5 (V) M M e M eh e en aihvus Yj(t£ata£) YCp ma*r m M Y ni M M man m M manna P- logr I 1 lagus X r 1 r r r lagu A o o gg(ng) $ ing ng x + iggvs X (k) S * \A d H dseg d A. dags W (M) k ec^el e oe Q 6|)al G) (O OU) ac a F; aisc se 1?) yr y T ear ea ior io calc slan St 38eM gar g » • • • -f—»^ — 1 — t. 1^ PRINTED BY F. A. BROCKHAUS, LEIPZIG. < • « « * ' C ( t C < ( . / ^ > X 3 1197 00436 2551 DATE DUE iU m 1 200!: ^ ICT 2 I 1988 ft>T»4 im i 1 i*^-i^ r* aw I 9 1Q3^ ^f^.1 ^ 6 19«» 7J ' ^ ggrX^ fti ?^ APS n? ?0 )4 M/SV U 7M '1 M/»v IIIN 7 IM S OCT ? / 7102 fiHT wum MAY 3 nff)*^ f DEMCO 38-297