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Eastern Nigeria by Okunade Samuel Kehinde

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Eastern Nigeria by Okunade Samuel Kehinde CROSS-BORDER INSURGENCY AND THE COPING STRATEGIES OF BORDER COMMUNITIES IN NORTH- EASTERN NIGERIA BY OKUNADE SAMUEL KEHINDE (216076644) Supervisor Dr. Olusola Ogunnubi Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Conflict Transformation and Peace Studies) in the Graduate Programme in the College of Humanities, School of Social Sciences, of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. 1 DECLARATION 1: Plagiarism I, Okunade Samuel Kehinde declare that: i. The content reported in this dissertation, except where otherwise indicated, is my original work. ii. This research has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. iii. This dissertation does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. iv. This dissertation does not contain other persons’ writings, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a. their words have been rearticulated and the general information attributed to them has been referenced; b. their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotations marks and referenced. v. Where I have reproduced a publication of which I am an author, co- author or editor, I have indicated in detail which part of it was actually written by myself alone and have fully referenced such publications. vi. This dissertation does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the sources being detailed in the dissertation and in the reference sections. Signature: Date: 23/08/2019 i DECLARATION 2: Publications Okunade, S. K., & Ogunnubi, O. (2018). A “Schengen” Agreement in Africa? African Agency and the ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 1-19. Okunade, S. K., & Ogunnubi, O. (2019). African Union Protocol on Free Movement: A Potential to ending Border Porosity in Africa? Journal of African Union Studies, Vol.8 (Issue 1) Pp 73-91. ii ABSTRACT Across continents, countries share borders with one another and so, have settlements called border communities. Nigeria is not an exception as she shares borders with neighboring states like Benin Republic in the South-West, Niger in the North, Chad and Cameroun in the North-East. For over 5 years, Nigeria has witnessed serious security challenge most especially, in the North-Eastern region, through the activities of Boko Haram, who infiltrated through porous borders putting the communities on constant threats and invasion. Extant literature reveals that these communities are being marginalized, with little or no attention from government in terms of basic infrastructure needed for daily survival. So far, research has focused on the coping strategy of Internally Displaced Persons and refugees in camps and host communities, to the total neglect of the border communities. It is therefore in this light that this study focuses on the coping strategies evolved by the border communities which ensures their continued survival against cross-border insurgency. This study was underpinned by three theories such as state fragility theory, functional prerequisite, human needs theory while a theoretical model that speaks to the coping strategies of border communities in North-Eastern Nigeria will be constructed from the study. For this study, qualitative research model was adopted using a phenomenological case study approach in exploring the coping strategy of border communities to ensure their survival and continuing existence, against cross-border insurgency. The target population consisted of all inhabitants of border communities in the North-Eastern Nigeria. Purposive sampling method was employed utilizing the typical case in the selection of participants. In-depth Interview (IDI) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was employed in collection of data while the interviews conducted were interpreted, transcribed, and content-analyzed. Data from both primary and secondary sources were descriptively analysed systematically and objectively, making valid textual inferences from them by identifying specific characteristics as it relates to cross-border insurgency and the coping strategies of border communities which are the crux of the study. Findings revealed that truly the border communities suffer Boko Haram attacks which has not only created a state of insecurity within the communities but has also created humanitarian crisis. Pathetic to note that this situation has received limited or no response hence, the evolvement of coping strategies by the communities for continued survival. These coping strategies involve reconciliation and unity, vigilance and Prayerfulness, formation of Vigilante Groups, and Bargain. Though, these strategies have been iii effective for survival, they have proven not to be totally capable of preventing further attacks in the communities. It is therefore necessary for the government through its agencies most especially, the North-East Development Commission and the Border Community Development Agency to synergize and improve on these strategies so that these communities can continue to experience the peace and tranquility that have eroded them for too long. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many whose contributions have in one way or the other made this academic adventure come to a successful conclusion. Firstly, my sincere gratitude goes to God Almighty, the most beneficent and ever faithful who in His infinite mercy saw me through the course of my study. I especially thank my diligent supervisor, Dr. Olusola Ogunnubi whose intellectual expertise assisted in shaping my work. His constructive comments and critique at different stages gave the study added value and made it worthwhile overall. I also will not forget your spontaneous acts of support at different instances both in cash and in kind. You were a push to making sure that I attended international conferences and publish as well. I could not have wished for a better supervisor. I must acknowledge my mentors in the field of borderlands studies. They are Dr. W. Eselebor, Dr. I. Moyo, and Prof. M. Klatt. You have all inspired me to attain this great height and please do not stop inspiring me and many more behind me. Also, I really acknowledge the CODESRIA College of Mentors and Mentees for the immeasurable input through knowledge transfer from mentors such as Prof. A. Bangura, Prof. I. Munene, Prof. J. Obando, Prof. Abdoulaye and fellow CODESRIA mentees. You all impacted my research positively. I cannot forget the financial assistance I received from the National Research Foundation (NRF – KIC Travel Grant). This enabled me attended several international conferences in the United States. To Prof. Mutula, I say thank you for the prompt support that you gave all through this academic journey. And to the administrator, School of Social Sciences, Nancy Mudau I say thank you for the spontaneous assistance you rendered, especially when deadlines were close. My immense gratitude also goes to my parents, Pastor J.O. & Prof. (Mrs.) Okunade whose dogged and resolute stance redirected my focus to this course. The love, care, physical, moral, spiritual, and most importantly financial support received from you and my siblings (Oluseyi and Omotayo Abiri, Omobayode Odeleye, Paul Okunade and Toluwalase Okunade), throughout my course of v study, will remain indelible in my memory. Without you, I would not have embarked on this adventure in the first place. In the same vein, to my cousin Kolawole Beyioku (OmoIbadan) thank you for sorting my accommodation during international conferences. You inspire me to do more. To my precious jewel that I found in the course of my program IyanuOluwa Dada, thank you for coming into my life when you did. The illumination you brought into my life remain strategic as it spurred me on to complete this task. I love you unreservedly. I will be indebted if I fail to appreciate my fathers and mothers for their moral, spiritual and financial support at one point or the other. Mr. and Mrs. Abiodun Beyioku, General Jones Arogbofa (CFR), my late uncle Dr. Sanjo Olaniyi, Mrs. Olaniyi, Pastor Olaleke, Pastor and Pastor (Mrs) Richard Ubani, Dr. Martins, Elder and Mrs. Michael Bakare, Dr. and Mrs. Isaiah Dada, you are all appreciated. I would like to appreciate my friends who constantly kept checks on me and encouraged me: Olatunde Olaolu, Olorunshagba Daniel, Mr. Henry Hamilton, Nnah-Amobi Chibuzor, Adediran Adekunle, Safiriyu Ibrahim, Abayomi Popoola, Henrietta Eshalomo, Olaniyi Adebisi, Eweka Osagioduwa, Late. Mr. Robinson, and Late. Dike Stephen. Your calls and text messages were a strong force that propelled me to forge ahead. Thank you all for believing in me. My appreciation equally goes to my wonderful colleagues at UKZN for their unflinching support. The fact that I had you all around me pushed me to work hard and finish in record time. I appreciate you: Prophet Ebenezer Oni, Soji Adedipe, Ayo Ogunleke, Bimpe Oduola, Demilade Adesesan, Vumile Mncibi, Dr. Teju Adeleke, Dr. Teju Ajanaku, Quadri Oluwaseyi, Rhoda Abiolu, Jacob Kutu, Anthony Gathambiri, Edwin Ndlovu, Christy Olorunfemi, Dr. Faith Okite-Amughoro, Dr. TonyeTamuno, Njideka Ojukwu, Gideon Ayeni, Samuel Oladunjoye, Larry Anifowose, and Adebimpe Fagbemi. Dr. Bunmi Bakare, Muyiwa Faluyi, and Dr. Lukong Shulika you remain the best. Finally, this acknowledgment will be incomplete
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