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The Case of Anglophone Cameroon

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The Case of Anglophone Cameroon ISSUES OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN THE CONTEXT OF POLITICAL LIBERALIZATION: THE CASE OF ANGLOPHONE CAMEROON. By Anye Fru Emmanuel Department of PoliticalLIBRARY Studies - Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Political Studies at the School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand. CODESRIA October 2008 ii Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university. LIBRARY - Anye Fru Emmanuel Professor Achille Mbembe CODESRIA Date………………………….. Date……………………… iii Dedication To Shannon and Stacey, my little angels To my departed parents and sister, Mama Beltha Ngum Anye, Papa Frederick Anye and my elder sister Beatrice Anye, who sacrificed all to sustain my survival, God rest their souls. LIBRARY - CODESRIA iv Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor Professor Achille Mbembe, who agreed to supervise me before I was offered a place in the Department of Political Studies. I must confess that his supervision, keen interest and insightful advice guided me throughout this work. I am also thankful to Professor Tom Lodge for facilitating my admission to the Department of Political Studies. Much gratitude goes to Professor Sheila Meintjes, Head of Department, Political Studies for securing some funds for me to complete this thesis. I am particularly grateful to Professor John Stremlau, for the financial support he secured for me to travel for a six months research field work in Cameroon. My gratitude also goes to the Council for Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and the Centre for Africa’s International Relations (CAIR) for awarding me a research grant towards the completion of this thesis. LIBRARY - I am very grateful to Dr George Ngwa of the United Nations Population Fund for reading through my draft thesis and making some incisive comments that strengthened this thesis. Thanks go to Ms Brenda Keen for editing the thesis. To my family, a special thanks to Victorine, my wife who sacrificed everything to ensure that my efforts came to fruition. I thank my brother Aaron Anye for his love and financial support. CODESRIA Above all, I acknowledge the Postgraduate Merit Award and the University council for grating me financial support that went a long way to aid in the completion of this thesis. Thanks go to the Anglophone elites and the students of the four state universities for their willing participation in this research. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration………………………………………………………………………. iii Dedication……………………………………………………………………….. v Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………… v Table of Contents……………………………………………………………….. vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………………….. xiii List of Maps……………………………………………………………………… xiii Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………. xiv Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… xvi GENERAL INTRODUCTION Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 1 Demographic and socio-economic background………………………………… 4 Objective of the Study…………………………………………………………… 7 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………….LIBRARY 8 Rationale…………………………………………………………………………- 8 Theoretical Framework and Literature Review…………………………………. 13 What Constitutes a Minority?..................................................................... 13 Identifiability…………………………………………………………… 16 Differential Power ……………………………………………………… 17 Differential and Pejorative Treatment………………………………….. 17 Group Awareness……………………………………………………….. 18 The Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination………………………… 19 The RightsCODESRIA of Minorities to Preserve and Develop their own Culture, Religion and Language…………………………………………………… 21 The Right of Indigenous Populations to Preserve their Tradition………… 22 The Right to Self-determination………………………………………….. 23 The Making of Minorities in Africa………………………………………. 25 Types of Minorities……………………………………………………….. 26 Pluralistic Minorities…………………………………………….. 26 Assimilationist Minority………………………………………… 27 vi Secessionist Minority……………………………………………. 27 A Militant Minority………………………………………………. 28 Minority Problems………………………………………………………… 28 Minority Reaction to Dominance…………………………………………. 29 Acceptance………………………………………………………… 29 Aggression………………………………………………………… 30 Assimilation………………………………………………………. 30 Literature on Political Liberalization…………………………………….. 31 The Anglophone Minority in Cameroon…………………………………. 36 Methodology……………………………………………………………… 39 Research subjects…………………………………………………………. 40 Forms of Data Collection…………………………………………………. 40 Primary and Secondary Materials………………………………… 40 Questionnaires ……………………………………………………. 41 Semi-Structured Interviews………………………………………LIBRARY 42 Observations ………………………………………………..- 43 Analysis of Data…………………………………………………………… 44 Problems Encountered while Collecting Data…………………………….. 45 Ethical Issues………………………………………………………………. 46 Chapter Summary…………………………………………………………. 47 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 50 CHAPTER ONE HISTORICALCODESRIA CONSIDERATIONS 1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 51 1.2 Pre-Colonial Period………………………………………………………. 52 1.3 The Colonization of Cameroon…………………………………………… 56 1.4 The German Protectorate………………………………………………….. 61 1.4.1 German Administration in Cameroon……………………………………... 62 1.4.1a Courts………………………………………………………………. 63 vii 1.4.1b German Economic Exploitation of Cameroon…………………….. 64 1.4.1c Health…………………………………………………………….. 66 1.4.1d Education…………………………………………………………. 66 1.5 Cameroon and World War One……………………………………………. 67 1.6 The League of Nations Mandate System………………………………….. 69 1.6.1 Cameroon under British Mandate 1922 - 1939……………………………. 69 1.6.1a Indirect Rule………………………………………………………. 70 1.6.2 Cameroon under French Mandate 1922 - 1939……………………………. 73 1.6.2a Direct Rule………………………………………………………… 74 1.7 The Trusteeship System…………………………………………………… 77 1.7.1 Cameroon under French Rule: The Trusteeship Period 1946 - 1959……… 78 1.7.1a The emergence of Party Politics…………………………………. 78 1.7.1b Education…………………………………………………………. 79 1.7.2 Cameroon under the British Trusteeship 1946 - 1961……………………. 79 1.7.2a Some Constitutional Developments in LIBRARYBritish Cameroon…………. 80 1.7.2b The Emergence of Political Parties- in British Cameroon…………. 81 1.7.2c Education………………………………………………………… 82 1.8 Nationalism and Reunification…………………………………………… 83 1.8.1 The Foumban Conference……………………………………………….. 85 1.9.1 The French and British Approach to Colonialism Compared …………… 87 1.9.1a The Role of Traditional Chiefs…………………………………… 87 1.9.1b Education as a Tool for Cultural Assimilation and Progress……… 88 1.9.2 Similarities Between French and British Rule……………………………. 90 1.9.3 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 91 CODESRIA viii CHAPTER TWO NATIONAL INTEGRATION UNDER FEDERALISM AND THE UNITARY STATE 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 94 2.2 National Integration……………………………………………………… 95 2.2.1 National Integration during Federalism………………………………….. 98 2.2.1a Integration of Economic and Transport Spheres………………… 98 2.2.1b Institutional Integration…………………………………………… 99 2.2.1c Integration in the Legal System………………………………….. 101 2.2.1d Integration in Education………………………………………….. 101 2.2.1e Bilingualism……………………………………………………… 103 2.2.2 Political Integration………………………………………………………. 105 2.2.2a Towards a Single Party System for East Cameroon……………… 106 2.2.2b Towards a Single Party System for West Cameroon ……………. 108 2.3 National Integration in the Unitary State………………………………….LIBRARY 113 2.3.1a Education………………………………………………………….- 114 2.3.1b The University of Yaoundé………………………………………. 117 2.4.1 Bilingualism in the Unitary State………………………………………… 118 2.4.1a The Armed Forces………………………………………………… 123 2.4.1b Cameroon Radio and Television Corporation……………………. 124 2.4.1c Cameroon Tribune………………………………………………… 125 2.5 Government Appointments……………………………………………….. 126 2.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 128 CODESRIA CHAPTER THREE THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANGLOPHONE NATIONALISM 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 130 3.2 Background: Southern Cameroons Nationalism under Colonialism……. 132 3.2.1 Emergence of Party Politics in Southern Cameroon…………………….. 140 3.2.2 Development of Southern Cameroons Politics 1950 – 1960…………….. 143 ix 3.3 Southern Cameroons Nationalism before Political Liberalization……….. 146 3.3.1 Action and Reaction: The Government’s Policies and the Pattern of Southern Cameroons Nationalism………………………………………… 148 3.4 Southern Cameroons Nationalism after Political Liberalization in the 1990s……………………………………………………………….. 152 3.4.1 Anglophone Writers as another Voice in the Liberalization of Anglophones………………………………………………………………. 154 3.4.2 State Policies and the Development of Anglophone Nationalism………… 158 3.5 The SCNC and the Struggle for Autonomy……………………………….. 161 3.5.1 Setbacks in the Anglophone Struggle …………………………………… 164 3.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 167 CHAPTER FOUR THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE ANGLOPHONE PROBLEM LIBRARY 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………- 169 4.2 Anglophone Movement’s Attempts to Dialogue with the Government…… 171 4.3 Cameroon Government’s response to the Anglophone Problem………….. 174 4.4 Anglophone International Campaigns……………………………………. 178 4.4.1 The Bakassi Crisis………………………………………………………… 178 4.4.2 SCAPO in the High Court in Abuja Nigeria……………………………… 183 4.4.3 Southern Cameroons National Council and UNPO………………………. 187 4.4.4 Southern Cameroons National council and the UNCHR…………………. 190 4.4.5 SouthernCODESRIA Cameroons at the African Court………………………………… 195 4.4.6 1992 Victims of the Post-Presidential Election Violence at the African
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