Teaching and Research on Bharati Mukherjee 'S JASMINE

Appendix4 Teaching and Research on Bharati Mukherjee ’s J ASMINE and T HE H OLDER OF THE W ORLD

Below are the results from an email survey and Internet searches regarding the teaching of and research on Mukherjee’s Jasmine and The Holder of the World. In 2005 I sent an emailed survey to the top- 15 rated English departments in the country asking professors if they taught either book and in what context. I then did both a Google search of syllabi that include these novels as well as a Modern Lan- guage Association bibliography search for publications on each. It is evident from the results that Jasmine is taught more frequently and more frequently in a national context, and written on more frequently and discussed more frequently in a national context than Holder. I repeated these searches in 2007 and 2010 and got comparable results.

Teaching Results of Survey on Jasmine and Holder, compiled July– September 2005:

English Departments Surveyed: University of Pennsylvania, Yale Uni- versity, Princeton University, Harvard University, University of Cali- fornia Berkeley, Stanford University, Cornell University, Columbia University, University of Virginia, Duke University, University of Chi- cago, Johns Hopkins University, University of California Los Angeles, Brown, University of California Irvine. 166 Reconstituting Americans

Top 15 English Departments by scholarly quality of faculty and educational effectiveness as evaluated by the National Research Council and reported in Educational Rankings Annual. Ed. Lynn C. Hatten- dorf Westney. New York: Thompson Gale, 2005.

Scholars of American literature, postcolonial literature, Asian Ameri- can literature, and 20th century literature from each department surveyed.

• Total number of professors surveyed: 183 • Total number of responses: 113 • Total number of professors teaching or advising teaching on Jas- mine: 14 • Total number of professors teaching or advising teaching on Holder: 3

Topics of classes in which Jasmine was taught: On the Asian Ameri- can Subject (Undergrad), Freshman Literature/Writing (Undergrad), Multiethnic US Literature (Undergrad), Ethnicity in American Lit- erature (Grad), World Literature (Undergrad), American Upward Mobility Stories (Undergrad), Feminist Theory (Grad and Under- grad), Postcolonial Women’s Writing (Undergrad), Fiction of the Americas (Undergrad), Writing and Displacement (Grad and Under- grad), Fictions of Cultural Difference (Undergrad), Ethnic Literature (Undergrad), Post–World War II American Immigration Literature (Undergrad), Asian American Literature (Grad)

Topics of classes in which Holder was taught: Genre (Grad), Ameri- can Literature and World Religions (Grad), American Literature in a Transnational Context (Grad and Undergrad), Contemporary Ethnic Women’s Fiction (Grad and Undergrad)

Results of Google search for “Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” and “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus” 2005:

“Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” produced 101 results; “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus” produced 36.

Results of Google search for “Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” and “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus” 2007: Teaching and Research on Bharati Mukherjee 167

“Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” produced 829; “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus,” produced 61.

Results of Google search for “Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” and “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus” 2010:

“Jasmine, Mukherjee, syllabus” produced 49,700; “Holder of the World, Mukherjee, syllabus” produced 31,600.

Analysis of findings: Jasmine has been taught more often to under- graduates in classes looking at identity and American literature whereas Holder is more likely to be taught in a global context and to be taught to graduate students.

Research Results of Modern Language Association bibliography search for articles on the two novels 2005:

Jasmine 44; Holder 10

Results of Modern Language Association bibliography search for articles on the two novels 2007:

Jasmine 58; Holder 17

Results of Modern Language Association bibliography search for articles on the two novels 2007:

Jasmine 75; Holder 23

Locations of publication for articles on the two novels:

Jasmine: Women, America, and Movement, Contemporary American Women Writers, American Literature, The Immigrant Experience in North American Literature, International Women’s Writing; Holder: Postcolonial Theory and the United States, ARIEL, Borderlands, Inter- cultural Encounters- Studies in English Literature.

Analysis of findings: Jasmine has been treated as an “American” text, which represents a female, minority experience, whereas Holder has been categorized for the most part as postcolonial, cosmopolitan, 168 Reconstituting Americans multinational, or denationalized. The exceptions to this are the articles that treat Jasmine as postcolonial, published in places such as Cross- Cultures and Hybridity and Postcolonialism. However, this does not diminish the fact that of the two novels Jasmine appears more available for and amenable to a nationally oriented reading. Notes

Introduction 1. I am thinking of citizenship here not simply as a patriotic category or a chosen mode of identification, but instead as something similar to Lauren Berlant’s description of it as “an index for appraising domes- tic national life, and for witnessing the processes of valorization that make different populations differently legitimate.” Citizenship, says Berlant, “is continually being produced out of a political, rhetorical, and economic struggle over who will count as ‘the people’ and how social membership will be measured and valued” (Lauren Berlant, The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship [Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997], 20). I could have, and in places do, use the word “subjecthood” in place of citizenship but I more often choose citizenship in order to stress the modern nationalist dimensions of the rhetoric I am describing (as “subjecthood” tends to imply a position under monarchical government, as distinct from democracy); this choice also highlights the way in which the US popu- lation’s “participation” in government does not require any particular act that engages their rights as citizens such as voting but requires simply an unconscious acceptance of one’s own benefits as American and the corresponding worldview that accompanies that acceptance. Citizenship remains an important category of social analysis because, as Bernard Murchland has argued, even though “the driving forces of modern society . . . do not encourage a very strong sense of citizenship . . . [W]e are beginning to realize that this weak sense of citizenship may be at the root of many of our social pathologies.” Bernard Murchland, “The Rigors of Citizenship,” The Review of Politics 59, no. 1 (1997): 127. 2. I am not suggesting that no one is doing work on multiculturalism but rather that the term multiculturalism is often equated with the great production of work on identity and diversity in the 1990s. Part of the impetus for turning to cosmopolitan and globalized models is the frustrating ideological reification, discussed later in this introduction, of ethnic, racial, gender, and sexual identities in the broader American (multi)cultural public sphere. As early as 1995, David Hol- linger was arguing that while “multiculturalism is a prodigious movement . . . its limitations are increasingly apparent” and calling for a 170 Notes

“cosmopolitan- inspired step beyond the multicultural.” David Hol- linger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 1, 4. 3. Here, I use “the sixties” as shorthand for the civil rights movement, black nationalism, second- wave feminisms, the red power movement, the Asian American movement, the Chicano movement, and all other identity-based politics that emerged in and around that decade. Fol- lowing Cornel West, I use the sixties “for interpretive purposes,” not as “chronological category which encompasses a decade, but rather a historical construct or heuristic rubric which renders noteworthy historical processes and events intelligible” (Cornell West, “The Paradox of the Afro- American Rebellion,” Social Text 0, nos. 9/10 [1984]: 44). Also, I am not suggesting that conflicts between liberal and multiculturalist political ideologies do not arise in other nations. This is a problematic ideological position shared by many nations in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. However, in this book I am focused on the particularities of the US case related to its historically idealistic rhetoric of equality and its history of racially based restrictions on citizenship. As Evelyn Glenn has argued, the “struggle [between equality and inequality] has been particularly intense in the United States, where tension between a professed ideology of equality and inclusion—the so-called American Creed— and a ‘deep and common desire to exclude and reject large groups of human beings’ has marked every stage in the history of American citizenship.” Evelyn Glenn, “Citizenship and Inequal- ity: Historical and Global Perspectives,” Social Problems 47, no. 1 (2000): 1. 4. Louis Hartz’s The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955) is the foundational work that theoretically established liberalism as a central tenet of American social and political thought. Though his thesis has been challenged by theorists such as Bernard Bai- lyn (The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution [Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1967]) and J. G. A. Pocock (The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition [Prince ton, NJ: Prince ton University Press, 1975]), who have pointed out that the ideas of neoclassical republicanism were also important to the American Revolution and underlay the ideology of the writers of the Constitution, I am interested mainly in the way that specifically liberal US ideology was constructed, as it is liberalism that has remained at the center of US political, social, and legal discourse into the late twentieth century, the time period with which this book is most centrally concerned. Moreover, though republicanism did have an effect on the construction of American citizen identities, many of its ideals, which were taken up by the authors of the Constitution, over- lapped with and were incorporated into a stronger liberal ideology. For more on this, see James P. Young’s Reconsidering American Liberalism: Notes 171

The Troubled Odyssey of the Liberal Idea (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), Evelyn Glenn’s “Citizenship and Inequality,” and David F. Eric- son’s The Shaping of American Liberalism: The Debates over Ratifica- tion, Nullification and Slavery (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), in which he argues that in the early United States, “republicanism [was] related to liberalism as a species to a genus” and that the general “nature of American political thought” has been “consensually liberal” (2, 1). Rogers M. Smith also makes a convincing argument that US citizenship is not truly liberal but in fact a conglomerate of “multiple traditions” including liberal, republican, and ascriptive elements (Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History [New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997], 8). In practice, many other traditions have been employed. My argument, however, is not that the United States is purely liberal, but that liberalism is an ideal of US citizenship and the way Americans make sense of themselves ideologically as members of a nation. 5. Glenn, “Citizenship and Inequality,” 7; emphasis in original. 6. Ayelet Shachar, “On Citizenship and Multicultural Vulnerability,” Political Theory 28, no. 1 (February 2000): 66. 7. Ibid., 66– 67; emphasis in original. 8. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 136– 42. 9. Will Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism, Multicultur- alism, and Citizenship (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 22– 23. 10. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1995), particularly chapters 4 and 5. 11. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, chapter 4; Will Kymlicka, “Amer- ican Multiculturalism in the International Arena,” Dissent 45, no. 4 (1998): 73– 79. 12. Brian Barry, Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multi- culturalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 7. 13. Charles Taylor, “The Politics of Recognition” in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Prince ton, NJ: Prince ton University Press, 1994), 25. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Nancy Fraser, “Recognition or Redistribution? A Critical Reading of Iris Young’s Justice and the Politics of Difference,” Journal of Political Philosophy 3, no. 2 (June 1995): 167. 17. Most civil rights workers and feminists of the 1960s, who were some of the earliest inspirations for the academic focus on identity and recognition, saw the need to recognize the social construction of women and African Americans as a precondition for claiming certain social, political, and economic rights that had been denied them. As Joan 172 Notes

Scott argues, “The struggle for multiculturalism unfolds in the context of a prevailing ideology of individualism . . . In the 1960s and 70s proponents of affirmative action and identity politics took economic, political, and social structures for granted . . . but in the 1980’s and 90s the ideological pendulum has swung back to individualism.” Joan Scott, “Multiculturalism and the Politics of Identity,” October 61 (1992): 17. 18. Ibid. 19. As Fraser notes, “Where else but in the United States does ethnicity so regularly eclipse class, nation and party?” Nancy Fraser, “Recognition or Redistribution?” 174. 20. Nikhil Pal Singh cites this paradox in relation to racial blackness versus concepts of ethnicity in the United States. Singh addresses the ghet- toizing and historical erasing of aspects of civil rights that did not align with an American liberal model. Under what Singh calls “the regime of modern racial liberalism,” it becomes difficult not only to separate but also to reconcile narratives of successful black assimilation with histories of racial oppression. This creates “an intellectual division” between studies of race and ethnicity. Ethnicity takes on the liberal task of mark- ing “a kind of difference that no longer makes a difference, thus con- tributing to the transcendent idea of America as a container of only positive and uncomplicated diversities.” Race, by contrast, does the work of representing and encoding “legacies of conquest, enslavement, and non-national status that disturb the peace, whose narrative must thus be silenced within public culture, or hived off from the national story into a separate world of their own.” This splitting results in a paradox of representation that Singh calls a “national schizophrenia in which racial difference is either shouted down . . . or shunted into zones of institutionalized marginality.” Nikhil Pal Singh, Black is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 41– 42. 21. The social narratives surrounding such liberal multicultural paradoxes are repeatedly illustrated in the ongoing affirmative action debates— one of the biggest post– civil rights identity- based political controversies and one in which the national public as abstract unified entity is forced to recognize itself as differentially embodied. An AP article on the 2003 Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger cases—in which white under- graduates and law students respectively filed suits against the Univer- sity of Michigan alleging that the university’s use of racial preference in admissions violated the equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964— states, “A divided Supreme Court allowed universities to give minority applicants an edge in admissions Monday, ruling that the nation depends in part on educated leaders who respect and understand those who do not look like them” (Anne Gearan, “Supreme Court Split on Affirmative Notes 173

Action,” Associated Press, June 23, 2003, http:// news .yahoo .com). This might be seen as a multicultural approach to education in the United States—one that values diversity and an appreciation of difference. However, what should theoretically be an argument about struc- tural adjustment and redistribution of resources based on histories of racial oppression and systemic inequalities in access to higher education becomes, in the discourse of liberal multiculturalism, about specific individuals. Not only does it become individualistic, but it seems only to be able to address the benefits for “educated leaders” (here coded as white) who will benefit from the “multicultural exposure” to difference and become, as Justice Powell argued in the Bakke case, “better pre- pared for an increasingly diverse workforce and society” (Gearan). This approach is doubly limiting in that it stunts material change by erasing the historic and systemic aspects of the issue, and it disallows representation of the minority citizen, removing his or her stake in affirmative action from the discussion. 22. The question of aesthetics’ relation to politics implicitly goes back to classical Greece but explicitly goes back at least to the eighteenth century, when Burke linked notions of political and aesthetic consensus, and it has been with us every since. Romantics, Marxists, poststructur- alists and feminists have approached this question from multiple angles. Contemporary theorists such as Jacques Rancière (discussed below) continue to focus on this question. Terry Eagleton, Isobel Armstrong, and Emory Elliott, briefly mentioned in this chapter, have all done extensive work on the question of the radical power of aesthetics. This long history implies the ongoing usefulness of such interrogations as well as an anxiety about our inabilities to fully resolve the questions it poses. 23. George Levine, “Reclaiming the Aesthetic” in Aesthetics and Ideology, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 3. 24. Isobel Armstrong, The Radical Aesthetic (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000), 40. 25. Ibid., 41. 26. Christopher Castiglia and Russ Castronovo, “Preface: A ‘Hive of Sub- tlety’: Aesthetics and the End(s) of Cultural Studies,” American Litera- ture 76, no. 3 (September 2004): 423. 27. Kušnír, “Ideology and Aesthetics in Literature,” in Ideology and Aes- thetics in American Literature and Arts, ed. Jaroslav Kušnír (Stuttgart: Verlag, 2007), 7. 28. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism introduces the third Cri- tique as “a compendium of the beliefs about and ideals for art that have come to be called aestheticism (the separation of artistic concerns and values into their own sphere, which is seen as superior to all others)” and as introducing a “characterization of art [which] resonate[s] 174 Notes

through the Romantic and modernist periods.” Vincent B. Leitch, Wil- liam E. Cane, Laurie A. Finke, Barbara E. Johnson, John McGowan, and Jeffrey L. Williams, eds., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criti- cism (New York: Norton, 2001), 499. 29. Immanuel Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, ed. Paul Guyer, trans. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews (New York: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 2000), 91– 95. 30. Ibid., 97. This is sometimes translated as “subjective universal validity.” 31. Ibid., 99. 32. Ibid. 33. As Wai Chee Dimock puts it, “‘Taste,’ the most private of our senses, is singled out by Kant as the most public, its contents most univer- sally communicable, its field of action of the largest scope.” Wai Chee Dimock, “Aesthetics at the Limits of the Nation: Kant, Pound, and the Saturday Review,” American Literature 76, no. 3 (September 2004): 530. 34. I choose these two theorists in part because they represent rather divergent positions in relation to literary theory. Fish works in a more tra- ditional US close-reading style of aesthetics in literary studies, while Rancière writes out of a continental, philosophical, and visual-studies- based understanding of aesthetic theory. Additionally, Fish played a major role in twentieth- century traditions of reader- response theory, which take as their object not the text alone, but the aesthetic response to that text, theorizing a distinction between formal objective qualities of a text and the subjective (but nevertheless theorizable) effects of the text on the reader. Illuminating the parallels between Fish and Rancière reveals a similar understanding of the politics of aesthetics underlying what may in other contexts be seen as oppositional or at least divergent approaches to art, aesthetics, and politics. 35. Jacques Rancière, Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy, trans. Julie Rose (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 29. 36. Ibid., 30. 37. Ibid., 29– 36. 38. Ibid., xi. 39. Ibid., 100. 40. Jacques Rancière, The Politics of Aesthetics, trans. Gabriel Rockhill (New York: Continuum, 2004), 13. 41. Stanley Fish, Self- Consuming Artifacts: The Experience of Seventeenth Century Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), xii. 42. Ibid., 1. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid., 1– 2. 45. Ibid., 2– 3. 46. Rancière, Disagreement, 31. Notes 175

47. Judith Butler, Antigone’s Claim: Kinship between Life and Death (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); Judith Butler, “Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen’s Psychoanalytic Challenge,” in Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limitations of Sex, 167– 86 (New York: Rout- ledge, 1993). 48. Jean Wyatt, “Love’s Time and the Reader: Ethical Effects of Nach- träglichkeit in Toni Morrison’s Love.” Narrative 16, no. 2 (May 2008): 195,196. 49. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre,” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 221. 50. Louis Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Toward an Investigation)” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 127– 186. 51. Althusser, “A Letter on Art,” 221. 52. Ibid., 223. 53. Ibid., 222; emphasis in original. 54. Ibid., 224. 55. Ibid., 225; emphasis in original. 56. Ibid., 227; emphasis in original. 57. Ibid., 225; emphasis in original. 58. Priscilla Wald, Constituting Americans: Cultural Anxiety and Narra- tive Form (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 1. 59. Ibid., 69. 60. Ibid., 91– 92. 61. Ibid., 10. 62. Ibid., 39. 63. Philip Fisher, Still the New World: American Literature in a Culture of Creative Destruction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 52. 64. Herman Melville, Benito Cereno, in Billy Bud and Other Stories (New York: Penguin, 1986), 207. 65. Ibid., 208. 66. Ibid., 198. 67. Ibid., 213. 68. Ibid., 218. 69. Ibid., 233. 70. Ibid., 258. 71. Ibid., 257. 72. Ibid. 73. For a slightly different subtle and complex reading of Benito Cereno as internally distantiating, see James Kavanagh, “‘That Hive of Subtlety:’ Benito Cereno as a Critique of Ideology,” Bucknell Review: The Arts Society and Literature 29, no. 1 (1984): 127– 57. 176 Notes

74. Fisher talks about this either- or construction as the construction of a riddle for which the solution is either “the abolition of complexity” or “the abolition of consciousness” (Fisher, Still the New World, 114). 75. Melville, Benito Cereno, 162. 76. Ibid., 167. 77. Eric Sundquist describes these types of descriptions as “knots” in the text that are “ironic” and “tautological.” I argue that Melville undermines our ability to read irony confidently, thus disallowing the reader the ability to separate herself from the practices and rhetoric of slavery. My reading corresponds to Sundquist’s in that he sees “the operative irony in the tale” as one “that finally goes beyond the revelation of apparent deception to verge more closely upon outright tautology, sus- pending meaning between possibilities that are not simply exclusive and opposite but rather dangerously equal.” Eric Sundquist, “Suspense and Tautology in Benito Cereno,” GLYPH 8 (1981): 108. 78. Melville, Benito Cereno, 213. 79. D. W. Winnicott, “The Fate of the Transitional Object,” in Psychoana- lytic Explorations, eds. Clare Winnicott, Ray Shepherd, and Madeline Davis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 57. 80. D. W. Winnicott, “The Use of an Object,’” in Psychoanalytic Explora- tions, eds. Clare Winnicott, Ray Shepherd, and Madeline Davis (Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 221. 81. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art,” 224. 82. Winnicott, “The Fate of the Transitional Object,” 58. 83. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London: Routledge, 1995), 19. 84. Ibid., 97.

Chapter 1 1. James Baldwin, “Everybody’s Protest Novel,” in Notes of a Native Son (Boston: Beacon, 1955), 20– 21. 2. Ibid., 22. 3. Ibid., 19. 4. Ibid., 18. 5. Ibid., 21– 22. 6. Ibid., 15. 7. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 223. 8. James Baldwin and Audre Lorde, “Revolutionary Hope: A Conver- sation between James Baldwin and Audre Lorde,” Essence 15, no. 8 (December 1984): 74. 9. Ibid. Notes 177

10. Cheryl A. Wall also sees Lorde as taking up a “challenge that Baldwin posed,” though she suggests that Lorde responded to Baldwin’s call for a God that can “make us larger, freer, and more loving,” finding those qualities in the goddesses of Dahomey. Cheryl A. Wall, Worrying the Line: Black Women Writers, Lineage, and Literary Tradition (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 51. 11. This comes from the front flap of the dust jacket of Alexis De Veaux’s Warrior Poet: A Biography of Audre Lorde (New York: Norton, 2004), designed by Charlotte Strick. 12. AnaLouise Keating, Women Reading Women Writing: Self- Invention in Paula Gunn Allen, Gloria Anzaldúa, and Audre Lorde (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), 157. See also Elizabeth Alexander on Lorde’s “creation of a new language to make space for the ‘new’ of the self invented body” (Elizabeth Alexander, “Coming Out Blackened and Whole: Fragmentation and Reintegration in Audre Lorde,” Ameri- can Literary History 6, no. 4 [1994]: 696); Kara Provost who claims that “[Lorde’s] work helps transform difference(s) from solely points of pain into points of power as well” (Kara Provost, “Becoming Afrekete: The Trickster in the Work of Audre Lorde,” MELUS 20, no. 4 [1995]: 57); Sarah E. Chinn, who says Zami gives us a “new body language” and is “a source of a new ethics of interconnection from which we can all learn a new spelling of all our names” (Sarah E. Chin, “Feeling Her Way: Audre Lorde and the Power of Touch,” GLQ 9, no. 1–2 [2003]: 197); and Margaret Kissam Morris on Lorde’s “performative” language as “a bridge toward the possibility of organizing around difference” (Margaret Kissam Morris, “Audre Lorde: Textual Authority and the Embodied Self,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women’s Studies 23, no. 1 [2002]: 172). 13. Cathy Caruth, “Recapturing the Past: Introduction,” in Trauma: Explorations in Memory, ed. Cathy Caruth (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 151. 14. Audre Lorde, “Poetry Is Not a Luxury,” in Sister Outsider (Freedom, CA: Crossing Press, 1984), 39. 15. Lorde read and was influenced heavily by canonical romantic and modernist poets, including Keats, Byron, Shelley, and T. S. Elliot. See De Veaux, Warrior Poet, 25. 16. Karla Hammond, “An Interview with Audre Lorde,” American Poetry Review 9, no. 2 (1980): 18. 17. Judith Lewis Herman, Trauma and Recovery (New York: Harper- Collins, 1997), 2. 18. Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 266– 67. 19. Althusser, “A Letter on Art,” 222. 20. Ibid., 225. 178 Notes

21. Dori Laub and Nannette C. Auerhahn, “Knowing and Not Knowing Massive Psychic Trauma: Forms of Traumatic Memory,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis 74 (1993): 288. 22. Ibid. 23. Cassie Premo Steele, We Heal from Memory: Sexton, Lorde, Anzaldúa, and the Poetry of Witness (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 4. 24. Ibid., 3– 4. 25. Though I am not centrally concerned here with whether Lorde herself experienced personal psychological trauma, this is not to suggest that living as a black lesbian in the United States is not a potentially traumatic experience. Wahneema Lubiano argues that dominant US political and cultural narratives create the experience of being “mugged by a metaphor,” through existing “at the mercy of racist, sexist, het- erosexist, and global capitalist constructions of the meaning of skin color on a daily basis” that can “physically traumatiz[e] and psycho- logically assault[]” one via their operations (Wahneema Lubiano, “Like Being Mugged By a Metaphor,” in Mapping Multiculturalism, eds. Avery F. Gordon and Christopher Newfield [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996], 64). Elizabeth Alexander argues, “Public rapes, beatings and lynchings . . . the Clarence Thomas senate hearings; Mike Tyson’s rape trial; Magic Johnson and Arthur Ashe’s televised press conferences about their HIV and AIDS status; and, of course, the Rodney King beating . . . and O.J. Simpson case,” are each “traumatic instances [in which] black bodies and their attendant dramas are publicly consumed by a larger populace” (Elizabeth Alexander, “‘Can You Be Black and Look at This?’ Reading the Rodney King Video(s),” Public Culture 7, no. 1 [1994]: 78–79). While this chapter in no way undermines Lubiano’s or Alexander’s arguments, it does maintain that, though Lorde deals with culturally and identity- based traumatic material and traumatic historical memory, her use of what I am calling traumatic form is not a clinically traumatized reaction to such events. It is a controlled and nonpathological use of language to capture the experience of living in the subject positions described by Lubiano and Alexander. 26. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, 1903 (New York: Penguin, 1989), 5. 27. Ibid., 4– 5. 28. Lorde, “An Interview: Audre Lorde and Adrienne Rich,” Sister Out- sider (Freedom, CA: Crossing Press, 1984), 104. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid., 105, ellipses in original. 31. Here I am thinking of self- “expression” along the lines of Roland Barthes who describes “a text” as “a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blend and clash. The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture . . . Notes 179

the writer can only imitate a gesture that is always anterior, never original. His only power is to mix writings, to counter the ones with the others . . . Did he wish to express himself, he ought at least to know that the inner ‘thing’ he thinks to ‘translate’ is itself only a ready- formed dictionary.” Roland Barthes, Image, Music, Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 146. 32. Laub and Auerhahn, “Knowing and Not Knowing,” 228. 33. Ernesto Laclau, “Identity and Hegemony: The Role of Universality in the Constitution of Political Knowledge,” in Contingency, Hegemony, Universality: Contemporary Dialogues on the Left, Judith Butler, Ernesto Laclau, and Slavoj Žižek (New York: Verso, 2000), 76. 34. Michele Wallace, “On the National Black Feminist Organization,” in Feminist Revolution: An Abridged Addition with Additional Writings, ed. Kathie Sarachild (New York: Redstocking), 174. 35. De Veaux, Warrior Poet, 130– 31. 36. Audre Lorde, From a Land Where Other People Live (Detroit: Broad- side Press, 1973), 29. 37. Amitai F. Avi-Ram, “Apo Koinou in Audre Lorde and the Moderns: Defining the Differences,” Callaloo 26 (Winter 1986): 193. 38. Patricia Hill Collins, “Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing about Motherhood,” in Representations of Motherhood, eds. Donna Bassin, Margaret Honey, and Meryle Mahrer Kaplan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 68. 39. Ibid., 69. 40. “Generation II” suggests not only the next generation but also “second generation”—a phrase most often used to describe sons and daughters of immigrant parents. With the knowledge that Lorde’s parents were Caribbean born, we can place this poem in the additional context of conflicts and connections between mother and daughter as first and second-generation West Indian New Yorkers. Lorde said in a 1990 interview that because her parents had always planned to come to the United States for only a short time to make money and return home, she was “raised to believe that home was somewhere else” and that she and her siblings “were just sojourners in this place.” Charles H. Rowell, “Above the Wind: An Interview with Audre Lorde,” Callaloo 23, no. 1 (2000): 52. 41. In addressing these paradoxes, Lorde turns to a number of tropes of high modernism, which also required theretofore unaccustomed modes of poetic attention and reception from its readers. Modernist poetry is often figured as traumatic, particularly in its representations of the results of World War I on individual and national psyches. The sociopolitical context of Lorde’s poetry differentiates its use of similar formal tropes from that of the modernists. Blackness is always already a part of literary modernism, but it is often there to create a white, modernist aesthetic or to reconstruct the stability of a black identity 180 Notes

destroyed through slavery (see Michael North, The Dialectic of Mod- ernism: Race, Language, & Twentieth-Century Literature [New York: Oxford University Press, 1994] and Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness [Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1993]). Though Lorde employs tropes of canonical white modernism, she does it to create a specific political, identity- based aesthetic of internal distantiation that does not— and cannot—place itself at a distance from its sociopolitical context; rather, it prompts its reader to become aware of her own immersion in and reliance on social and political ideologies of identity. 42. Consider the Black Arts Movement, which was contemporaneous with Lorde’s early writing. Both Black Arts poets and Lorde had access to a literary history, or syntax, of African American texts, but this history had to be mined in different ways. It was mined very warily by Lorde, whose poems could be incorporated along the lines of the Black Arts Movement for their racial content alone, flattening their multiply signifying language by making them “about” racial blackness. Access to self- expression that is socially and syntactically meaningful without being self- contradictory thus becomes an impossibility. Lorde instead negotiates a mode of expression that requires a different mode of reception from the reader, a mode in which the reader becomes aware of the limitations of social identity representation while she allows syntax and connotation to function in alternative ways so as to allow the registra- tion of those social identities. 43. Audre Lorde, Zami: A New Spelling of My Name (Freedom, CA: Cross- ing, 1982), 180– 81. 44. Ibid., 54– 55. 45. As Lorde noted in her private journals, “In this country we do not speak of contradictions, we merely live them, all too often in rage or silence, unnamed and unused.” De Veaux, Warrior Poet, 347. 46. Lorde, Zami, 162. 47. Ibid., 160. 48. Ibid., 215. 49. I am thinking of Lorde’s poems as more “direct” representations of selfhood in that they, like trauma patients’ stories, function more like an immediate representation of experience than a description of it. They lack the translation between self and other, experience and expression, and speaker and audience present in Lorde’s prose works. This translation process, which requires packaging self and experience into socially intelligible and often identity- based language both makes the prose more accessible and limits its range of representation. 50. Lorde, “Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic as Power,” 55. 51. Ibid., 59, emphasis added. 52. Obviously, there are limits to all forms of expression, linguistic or otherwise. What I am getting at here is that the somewhat jarring Notes 181

contradiction between Lorde’s stated goals in these essays and the linguistic representations her prose produces points to the fact that the language she has available to her in order to speak publicly on these issues is not entirely sufficient to express her personal and political goals. Thus, examining these limitations is meant not to be a discovery about language or speech itself but to point to a historical moment in which the language of representation is, for particular social and political reasons, insufficient to encompass the range of desired expression. The essays of Sister Outsider make clear that our everyday ways of thinking and talking about identity, the individual, the group, difference, cultures, and so forth are not fully adequate to address the com- plexities that exist in relation to lived identity within the contemporary US democratic social system. 53. Caruth, “Recapturing,” 153. 54. Lorde, “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House,” 110. 55. David Kazanjian, The Colonizing Trick: National Culture and Imperial Citizenship in Early America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 8. The idea of the problematic character of the “list” has been around at least since the beginning of modern identity politics. I bring it up again here to reinforce the way in which identity is built into the language of its expression. Judith Butler, for example, has argued that we as critics should try to get beyond “those proverbial commas (gender, sexuality, race, class), that usually mean that we have not yet figured out how to think the relations we seek to mark.” Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York: Rout- ledge, 1993), 168. 56. Ibid. 57. Lorde, “The Master’s Tools,” 112. 58. Ibid., 37. 59. De Veaux, Warrior Poet, 166. 60. Ibid., 199, 161, and 230. 61. Audre Lorde, “Coal,” in Coal (New York: Norton, 1976), 6. 62. Wendy Brown, “Injury, Identity, Politics,” in Mapping Multicultural- ism, ed. Avery F. Gordon (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 155. 63. Ibid., 164. 64. It is interesting that Lorde uses the British spelling of “coloured” here. This is another of many ways she subtly points out the historical and national construction of language and identity. It evokes the interlocking national and colonial histories that appropriated the word “colo(u)red” to define/construct racial identity while also pointing out the arbitrariness and instability of an identity that relies on arbitrary and unstable language systems to create and mark it. It implicates a trans- Atlantic history of racial violence that extends beyond the United States 182 Notes

(and thus “African American” history/identity) to other former British colonies, particularly in Lorde’s case the English- speaking Caribbean. 65. One could, of course, write on a window with a diamond. But even if this is the image evoked for the reader, since Lorde does not indicate what is written there, the image of the written word must be still be understood by the reader not as linguistic code to be deciphered but as an aural and visual sensory experience. 66. Herman, Trauma and Recovery, 38. 67. Ibid. 68. Lorde, “The Master’s Tools,” 110. 69. Ibid., 112. 70. Laub and Auerhahn, “Knowing and Not Knowing,” 288. 71. Thomas Ogden, The Primitive Edge of Experience (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc., 1989), 195. 72. Angela Y. Davis, “Gender, Class and Multiculturalism: Rethinking ‘Race’ Politics,” in Mapping Multiculturalism, eds. Avery F. Gordon and Christopher Newfield (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 46. 73. Ibid. 74. D. W. Winnicott, “Playing and Culture,” in Psychoanalytic Explorations, eds. Clare Winnicott, Ray Shepherd, and Madeline Davis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 204; emphasis in original. 75. Barbara Johnson, “Using People: Kant with Winnicott,” in The Turn to Ethics, eds. Marjorie Garber, Beatrice Hanssen, and Rebecca L. Walkowitz (New York: Routledge, 2000), 50. 76. Most contemporary psychoanalysts use the word “potential” for this psychic space. Winnicott himself only rarely used “transitional,” but I choose to use it because it stresses the relation between that psychic space and the experience of using the transitional object. It also suggests that one reenters this space throughout life through the use of transitional objects, whereas potential space is something that exists constantly and is always available in a healthy person. 77. Caruth, “Recapturing,” 153; emphasis in original. 78. D. W. Winnicott, “The Child in the Family Group,” in Home is Where We Start From: Essays by a Psychoanalyst, eds. Claire Winnicott, Ray Shepherd and Madaline Davis (New York: Norton, 1990), 133. 79. Winnicott, “The Fate of the Transitional Object,” in Psychoanalytic Explorations, eds. Clare Winnicott, Ray Shepherd, and Madeline Davis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 57. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid., 58. 82. Audre Lorde, “Power,” in Between Our Selves (Point Reyes, CA: Eido- lon Editions, 1976), 1– 2. 83. Thomas Dilworth, for example, claims that the line “my teenaged plug” is not a phallus but the teenaged son of the female speaker whose Notes 183

function it would be to “acquire power” for her and “energize her ego” (Thomas Dilworth, “Lorde’s Power,” The Explicator 57, no. 1 [Fall 1998]: 57). Similarly, Lexi Rudnisky reads the “I” as a woman. She claims that the female speaker’s failure to use poetry instead of rhetoric “will have the result of metamorphosing the black-woman speaker into an angry black teenage boy,” which would “confirm the racist rhetoric that black people are ‘beasts’ and quite literally ‘motherfuckers’.” Lexi Rudnitsky, “The ‘Power’ and ‘Sequelae’ of Audre Lorde’s Syntactical Strategies,” Callaloo 26, no. 2 (2003): 480.

Chapter 2 1. Cyrus R. K. Patell, “Representing Emergent Literatures,” American Literary History 15, no. 1 (2003): 68. 2. Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 114. 3. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 222. 4. Homi Bhabha, “Signs Taken for Wonders: Questions of Ambivalence and Authority under a Tree outside Dehi, May 1817,” in Critical Inquiry 12, no. 1 (1985): 152. 5. This is not to suggest that no work has been done on hybridity in an American context. Rafael Pérez-Torres has addressed the problems with using a British postcolonial vocabulary to discuss Chicano mestizaje (a term often used to describe the cultural and racial “mixing” of Spanish and American Indian people). Werner Sollors has written specifically on racially hybrid characters in American literature, highlighting their particular national roles. Nevertheless, when “hybridity” is invoked, it is often taken from postcolonial theory and imported, without enough explicit revision, into a US context. This chapter follows the example of Pérez- Torres and Sollors by attempting to consciously use postcolonial vocabulary in relation to, but also redefining it to fit, the historically distinct context of the United States. See Rafael Pérez- Torres, “Chi- cano Ethnicity, Cultural Hybridity, and the Mestizo Voice,” American Literature 70, no. 1 (1998):153– 176; Werner Sollors, Neither Black Nor White Yet Both: Thematic Explorations of InterracialLiterature (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999). 6. Marta E. Sánchez, “Arturo Islas’ The Rain God: An Alternative Tradi- tion,” American Literature 62 (June 1990): 285, 303. 7. David Rice, “Sinners Among Angels, or Family History and the Ethnic Narrator in Arturo Islas’s The Rain God and Migrant Souls,” in Litera- ture, Interpretation, Theory 11 (2000): 172. 8. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 1995), 25– 26. 184 Notes

9. Ibid., 26. 10. Ibid., 19. 11. Ibid. 12. Arturo Islas, “On the Bridge, At the Border: Migrants and Immigrants,” Ernesto Galzara Commemorative Lecture (Fifth Annual Lecture, Stan- ford Center for Chicano Research, Stanford University, 1990); see http:// ccsre .stanford .edu/ pdfs/ 5th _Annual _Lecture _1990 .pdf. 13. Frederick Louis Aldama, Dancing with Ghosts: A Critical Biography of Arturo Islas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 30. 14. Trinh T. Minh- ha, Woman, Native, Other (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1989), 89. 15. José David Saldívar, “The Hybridity of Culture in Arturo Islas’s The Rain God,” in Cohesion and Dissent in America, eds. Carol Colatrella and Joseph Alkana (New York: State University of New York Press, 1994), 161. 16. Ibid. 17. Cherrie Moraga, “Queer Aztlán: The Reformation of the Chicano Tribe,” in Queer Cultures, eds. Deborah Carlin and Jennifer DiGrazia (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), 234. 18. Antonio Viego, “The Place of Gay Male Chicano Literature in Queer Chicana/o Cultural Work,” Discourse 21, no. 3 (2000): 128. 19. Quoted in Paul Skenazy, “The Long Walk Home,” Afterword to La Mollie and the King of Tears by Arturo Islas, ed. Paul Skenazy (Albu- querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 174. 20. Arturo Islas, La Mollie and the King of Tears, ed. Paul Skenazy (Albu- querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 12. 21. The character Louie was inspired by an exercise Islas did with his students. According to Aldama, they were asked to “imagine someone completely different from them and speak in that character’s voice alone.” Aldama, Dancing, 52. 22. Arturo Islas, Migrant Souls (New York: Avon, 1990), 211. 23. David Román, “Arturo Islas (1938–1991),” Contemporary Gay Ameri- can Novelists: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook, ed. and pref. Emmanuel S. Nelson, intro. Gregory W. Bredbeck (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993), 224. 24. Ibid. 25. Islas, La Mollie, 120. 26. Ibid., 126. 27. Ibid., 6, 9. 28. Ibid., 126. 29. Ibid. 30. Rafael Pérez-Torres, “Chicano Ethnicity, Cultural Hybridity, and the Mestizo Voice,” American Literature 70, no. 1 (1998): 168, 173. 31. Islas, La Mollie, 126. 32. Young, Colonial Desire, 19. Notes 185

33. Islas, La Mollie, 5. 34. Ibid., 46. 35. Tony Castro, Chicano Power: The Emergence of Mexican America (New York: Saturday Review Press, 1974), 178. 36. Rafael Pérez- Torres, Movements in Chicano Poetry: Against Myths, Against Margins (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 41. 37. Ibid. 38. Islas, La Mollie, 12. 39. Castro, Chicano Power, 38. 40. Islas, La Mollie, 18. 41. Ibid., 16. 42. Ibid., 79. 43. Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on Signing the National Hispanic Heri- tage Week Proclamation,” September 10, 1984, The Public Papers of President Ronald W. Reagan, accessed November 2007, http:// www .reagan .utexas .edu/ search/ speeches/speech _srch .html. 44. Islas, La Mollie, 53. 45. Ibid., 82. 46. Ibid., 47. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid., 48. 49. See Reagan, “Remarks.” 50. On Reagan’s response to AIDS, see Paula Treichler, How to Have The- ory in an Epidemic: Cultural Chronicles of AIDS (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 57. 51. José Esteban Muñoz, Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Perfor- mance of Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 12, 31. 52. Islas, La Mollie, 19– 20. 53. Ibid., 19. 54. Ibid., 13. 55. Ibid., 149– 50. 56. Ibid., 9. 57. Ibid., 10. 58. Ibid., 166. 59. Ibid., 30. 60. Ibid., 31. 61. My thanks to Adam Waterman for this insight about Hayworth. 62. Quoted in Aldama, Dancing, 55. 63. Islas, La Mollie, 37. 64. Ibid., 56. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid., 20. 67. Ibid., 46– 47. 68. Ibid. 186 Notes

69. Ibid., 6. 70. José Antonio Burciaga, “A Conversation with Arturo Islas,” Stanford Humanities Review 2, nos. 2– 3 (1992): 175. 71. Lloyd Davis, “Death and Desire in Romeo and Juliet,” in Shakespeare and Sexuality, eds. Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 37, 36. 72. Ibid., 40. 73. Nicholas F. Radel, “Queer Romeo and Juliet: Teaching Early Mod- ern ‘Sexuality’ in Shakespeare’s ‘Heterosexual’ Tragedy,” in Approaches to Teaching Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, ed. Maurice Hunt (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2000), 91. 74. Ramón Gutiérrez, “Sexual Transgression on the U.S.-Mexican Bor- der,” in Mapping Multiculturalism, eds. Avery F. Gordon and Chris- topher Newfield (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 255– 56. 75. Islas, La Mollie, 18. 76. Ibid., 53. 77. Fredierick Luis Aldama, “Ethnoqueer Rearchitexturing of Metropoli- tan Space,” Nepantla: Views from the South 1, no. 3 (2000): 591. 78. Islas, La Mollie, 71. 79. Ibid., 146. 80. Ibid., 145. 81. See Aldama, Dancing, 75– 99. 82. Leo Bersani, HOMOS (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 99. 83. Ibid., 101. 84. Islas, La Mollie, 141. 85. Ibid., 143. 86. Ibid., 145. 87. Ibid., 124. 88. Ibid., 86. 89. Ibid., 30.

Chapter 3 1. Jamaica Kincaid, My Garden (Book): (New York: Farrar, Straus and Gir- oux, 1999), 7– 8. 2. Carol A. Breckenridge, Sheldon Pollock, Homi K. Bhabha, and Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Cosmopolitanisms,” Public Culture: Special Issue on Cos- mopolitanism 12, no. 3 (2000): 578. 3. David Hollinger, “Not Universalists, Not Pluralists: The New Cosmo- politans Find Their Own Way,” Constellations 8, no. 2 (2001): 239. 4. Ibid., 245– 46. 5. Mary Louise Pratt, “Criticism in the Contact Zone: Decentering Com- munity and Nation,” in Critical Theory, Cultural Politics, and Latin Notes 187

American Narrative, eds. Steven M. Bell, Albert H. Le May, and Leon- ard Orr (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993), 86. 6. Will Kymlicka, “American Multiculturalism in the International Arena,” Dissent 45, no. 4 (1998): 73. 7. Barbara Brinson Curiel, David Kazanjian, Katherine Kinney, Steven Mailloux, Jay Mechling, John Carlos Rowe, George Sánchez, Shelley Streeby, and Henry Yu, “Introduction,” in Post-Nationalist American Studies, ed. John Carlos Rowe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 7. 8. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre,” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 222. 9. In this I am following Timothy Brennan’s suggestion that one “com- pelling possibility” in the atmosphere of new cosmopolitanism might be “not only to supersede the would- be universal of a ‘U.S. point of view’ by rushing to mark the margin’s counternarratives but to dwell within that universal, examining its particular manias.” Timothy Bren- nan, At Home in the World: Cosmopolitanism Now (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 27. 10. Hollinger, “Not Universalists,” 239– 40. 11. Anthony Kwame Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Prince ton, NJ: Prince- ton University Press, 2005), 268. 12. Arjun Appaduri. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globaliza- tion (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 176. 13. Even the editors of Post- Nationalist American Studies, who begin their book by explicitly stating that “none of us believes that the nation- form has been or will any time in the near future be superseded,” do not seem to believe that this nation “form” ultimately limits modes of thinking and understanding, as they go on to say later in the introduction that “our use of the word national thus refers to a complex and irreducible array of discourses, institutions, policies and practices which, even if they are in flux or in competition with other structures and allegiances, cannot be easily wished away by the application of the post- prefix.” From there, the editors go on to speak of relation to the nation in a completely voluntaristic way: “[S]ome Americans still feel unique, others look for more specific forms of identification within the nation- state, and others reject the very idea of nationalism.” Barbara Brinson Curiel et al., “Introduction,” Post- Nationalist Studies, 1, 2, 6, emphasis added. 14. As George J. Sánchez has put it, theories that attempt to exist outside national modes of thinking are often problematic because of “what [they] ignore: power, shaped between American groups and between the U.S. citizenry and other citizens of the world” (George J. Sánchez, “Creating the Multicultural Nation: Adventures in Post- Nationalist American Studies in the 1990s,” in Post- Nationalist American Studies, 188 Notes

ed. John Carlos Rowe, 53; emphasis added). And George M. Fred- rickson insists that “historians have to confront the world as it actually existed rather than as they would like it to have been. Nations and national identities are not facts of nature; they were socially and historically constructed, but they have become potent forces— probably the most salient sources of modern authority and consciousness.” George M. Frederickson, “From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross-National Comparative History,” The Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 590. 15. Literary critic Bertram D. Ashe lauds McKnight for treating the “black experience” across national and continental boundaries. Ashe said of McKnight in a 2001 interview that he “translates [many different] voices into narrative. He allows these voices to tell their own stories, stories that explore race in the United States as well as Africa. In McKnight’s fiction ‘multiculturalism’ is as likely to mean a clash of cultures between black people as it is between black and white people” (Bertram D. Ashe, “‘Under the Umbrella of Black Civiliza- tion’: A Conversation with Reginald McKnight,” African American Review, 35, no. 3 [2001]: 427). While it is true that McKnight’s fiction does take on transnational questions of race and identity, Ashe’s review does not take sufficient notice of the importance of a particular US black identity in these novels. Interestingly enough, it is the popular literary reviews (invested in selling books to a US readership) that point out the importance of national identity to McKnight’s narratives. The Washington Post said of I Get on the Bus, “what becomes absolutely certain by the end of this spellbinding narrative is that Evan Norris has brought many of his problems with him [from the U.S.]” (Charles Larson, “Cultures in Collision; Three Fictional Voyages: Review of I Get on the Bus” [The Washington Post, June 17, 1990], XI). The New York Times says He Sleeps is “a sly, deep, perverse study of black [American] middle- class alienation” (Bridgette Fraise, “Cat- naps: Review of He Sleeps” [The New York Times, October 28, 2001], BR31). 16. Reginald McKnight, I Get on the Bus (Boston: Little Brown and Com- pany, 1990), 12. 17. Ibid., 72. 18. Ibid., 23. 19. Ibid., 3. 20. The bus is also a reminder of “busing” in the United States as a response to segregation. Although McKnight never explicitly raises this history, its uncomfortable relation to the bus as mode of tourist transporta- tion underlies the entire novel and is significant in relation to Evan’s avowedly raceless, liberal, integrated childhood. 21. McKnight, I Get on the Bus, 6. Notes 189

22. D. W. Winnicott, “The Fate of the Transitional Object,” in Psychoana- lytic Explorations, eds. Clare Winnicott, Ray Shepherd, and Madeline Davis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 53. 23. Ibid., 55. 24. Stuart Hall, “The Problem of Ideology: Marxism without Guaran- tees,” in Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, eds. David Morley and Kuan- Hsing Chen (New York: Routledge, 1996), 26, 43; emphasis in original. 25. Winnicott, “Fate of the Transitional Object,” 54– 55. 26. Ibid., 57. 27. Ibid., 58. 28. Formally, this transitional space is indicated in I Get on the Bus by the narrative shifts between direct and indirect dialogue. For example, just after Evan wakes up from a bout of malaria, McKnight gives us the following “dialogue”: Are you Muslim? says the voice. If you are, the prayers can heal you. The room is hot and black. The room is hot and full of sun. She slips into my room. She turns on the light. She carries a cov- ered bowl between the curve of her hip and her wrist. In her other hand is a spoon. “You hungry?” she says. “No.” (McKnight, I Get on the Bus, 40). This is only one of the more pronounced examples of transition from (1) everything happening within Evan’s head (the voice that speaks in direct dialogue but without quotations and without a speaking subject) to (2) the exterior (fragmented description of the room) to (3) an interaction with separate quoted voices and a separate person (“she”). Even in normal conversation, Evan will switch from a direct dialogue to a first-person indirect or free indirect dialogue, constantly confusing the relationship between the narrative voice and the people and objects it describes. 29. Here the navy is not only metonymically representative of the US nation but also metaphorically representative of its tendency to profit from, or at the very least not be substantially harmed by the death of, its young male citizens of color. This is suggested both by the implication that Evan is very likely to end up a prisoner of war and by the fact that he is literally trained through torture. 30. McKnight, I Get on the Bus, 26. 31. Ibid., 27. 32. For more on this history of the formation of the Peace Corps, see Fritz Fischer, Making Them Like Us: Peace Corps Volunteers in the 1960s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998). Fischer suggests that the Peace Corps “symbolized the desire of the United States 190 Notes

to apply liberal ideas and American experience to mold the world’s future” (1). 33. Julius A. Amin, “The Peace Corps and the Struggle for African Ameri- can Equality,” Journal of Black Studies 29, no. 6 (1999): 810, 815. The Peace Corps National Advisory Council included singer and civil rights activist Harry Belafonte, NAACP attorney Franklin Williams, and civil rights attorney and chairman of the Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights Harris Wofford. 34. Ibid., 815. 35. The society was so color blind, in fact, that there was no record of volunteers by race under Shriver and therefore no official record of the number of African Americans who belonged to the agency in its first decade. See Jonathan Zimmerman, “Beyond Double Consciousness: Black Peace Corps Volunteers in Africa, 1961–1971,” The Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 1002. 36. Shriver, 1961, quoted in Amin, “Peace Corps,” 812. 37. Zimmerman, “Beyond Double Consciousness,” 1000. 38. Ibid., 1002, 1001. This same collection of rhetorics continued into the late twentieth century. Charles R. Baquett III, the deputy director of the Peace Corps and an African American, said in a 1997 speech titled “Finding My Village: At Home in the Peace Corps and the World” that “the same . . . desire to do something meaningful that [he] and other Peace Corps members felt in the 1960s” still moves people to volunteer. “By serving others,” he claims, “[today’s volunteers] are finding their inner villages and laying the foundations for their [American] futures.” Thus Baquett makes use of a national rhetoric of international salva- tion, a diasporic racial commitment, a chance to recover lost identity in Africa, and a cosmopolitan rhetoric of being “at home in the world.” Charles R. Baquett “Finding My Village: At Home in the Peace Corps and in the World,” American Visions 12, no. 3 (1997): 23. 39. Out of the first one hundred applicants, only two were African American. 40. See Zimmerman, “Beyond Double Conscisouness.” 41. The outcome of this policy was that in 1965, the Corps admitted 19 “culturally deprived” candidates— almost all of whom were southern whites. 42. Zimmerman, “Beyond Double Consciousness,” 1011– 12 43. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 23– 24. 44. Ibid., 19. 45. Ibid. 46. Tim Youngs, “Punctuating Travel: Paul Theroux and Bruce Chatwin,” Literature and History 6, no. 2 (1997): 77. 47. Quoted in Youngs, “Punctuating Travel,” 77. 48. Ibid. Notes 191

49. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992), 216. 50. Ibid., 217. 51. Ibid. 52. McKnight, I Get on the Bus, 24– 25. 53. Susannah Clapp, With Chatwin: Portrait of a Writer (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 157, quoted in Youngs, “Punctuating Travel,” 75. 54. Ashe, “‘Under the Umbrella,’” 428. 55. Youngs, “Punctuating Travel,” 75–76. 56. McKnight, I Get on the Bus, 161. 57. Ibid., 162. 58. Ibid. 59. Reginald McKnight, He Sleeps (New York: Picador, 2001), 112. 60. Ibid., 63. 61. Ibid., 22; emphasis in original. 62. Ibid., 21. 63. Ibid., 34. 64. See bell hooks, “Representations of Whiteness in the Black Imagina- tion,” in Black on White: Black Writers on What It Means to Be White, ed. David R. Roediger (New York: Schocken, 1998), 51. 65. Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 266–67. For a fuller discussion of trauma and liberal multiculturalism see Chapter 1 on Audre Lorde and traumatic formalism. 66. McKnight, He Sleeps, 96. 67. Ibid., 139. 68. Andy Walton, “A Bridge to Africa: Tiny Island Weathers Storm of Con- troversy,” CNN Interactive, August 27, 2005, http:// www .cnn .com/ SPECIALS/ 1998/ africa/ senegal. Curtin backs up this statement with an accusation that the number of slaves that passed through Goree was “overestimated.” How many slaves, one wonders, would have had to pass through Goree to make it a “serious museum”? 69. Graham M. S. Dann and A. V. Seaton, “Slavery, Contested Heritage and Thanatourism,” in Slavery, Contested Heritage and Thanatourism, eds. Graham M. S. Dann and A. V. Seaton (Binghamton, NY: Haworth Hospitality Press, 2001), 15. 70. Glenn T. Eskew, “From Civil War to Civil Rights: Selling Alabama as Heritage Tourism,” in Dann and Seaton, Slavery, Contested Heritage and Thanatourism, 206. 71. Ibid., 207. 72. For more on US plantation heritage tourism, see Seaton and Dann, Slavery, Contested Heritage and Thanatourism, especially the introduction and the chapters by Butler, Roushanzamir, and Kreshel and by Eskew. 73. For example, Senegal’s national tourism web page advertises Goree as having been “deeply rooted in the history of the slave trade . . . . Forts 192 Notes

and cannons attest of the island’s violent past.” http:// www .senegal -tourism .com. 74. Cheryl Finley. “Authenticating Dungeons, Whitewashing Castles: The Former Sites of the Slave Trade on the Ghanaian Coast,” in Architec- ture and Tourism: Perception, Performance and Place, eds. D. Medina Lasansky and Brian McLaren (New York: Berg, 2004), 111. Finley includes a quote from a white American tourist at a slave trade tourism site in Ghana that exemplifies the difference between roots tourism to Western African slave trade sites and American tourism to national monuments like plantations and sites of civil rights activism. After a tour of a castle and its dungeons where slaves were kept, this tourist commented, “Very impressive castle. Tour was very good. Great views toward the city, beach and ocean. One concern—a man during the tour was distracting and I felt offended by his anti- white sentiments, as he kept saying, ‘white people this . . .’ I couldn’t understand exactly, but he should respect other people more who are trying to follow the tour guide” (Finley, 118). What is immediately clear is what Pratt might refer to as the pure Euroimperial white male sensibility that gives this tourist the right to see without being seen. A white US abstractionism is also apparent: the white tourist not only has the right to not be seen but as a white American simply expects that this will be the case. Finally, we see the US liberal multicultural structure of “color blindness”—or at least the presumed equality of all colors—that disallows (a perhaps entitled, given the situation) anger toward white people. Moreover, this tourist’s frustrations are expressed as annoyance not about an explicitly racialized altercation, which Americans are generally encouraged to avoid at all costs, but about not being able to hear the guide over the man’s mumbling. For him there is no sense of particular racial authen- ticity or rights over the narrating of this castle’s history. There is only the official narrative of the tour guide. He is there to learn about a multicultural global history, and he is thus disturbed by the man’s sup- posedly incoherent (I have a very hard time believing that he couldn’t figure out what the man was saying about “white people”) complaints. 75. Ibid., 114. 76. Saidiya Hartman, “The Time of Slavery,” South Atlantic Quarterly 101, no. 4 (2002): 770. 77. McKnight, He Sleeps, 178. 78. Much like Evan’s “we were not like that.” 79. McKnight, He Sleeps, 178. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid., 197– 98. 82. Donald Barthelme, Sixty Stories (New York: Putnam, 1981), 180. 83. McKnight, He Sleeps, 204. Notes 193

84. The novel switches between first- and third-person narration and letters. This is also the place in the novel as a whole where the first-person narration starts to use quotations to indicate speech. 85. Ibid., 206. 86. Ibid., 209. 87. Ibid., 210. 88. This is another way in which the liberal multicultural ideologies of US industry (including publishing) incorporate potentially disruptive difference by creating idealized difference. As Caren Kaplan writes, “[I]f cosmopolitan writers appear to signal the dissolution of the nation-state in favor of a new pluralism, it is crucial to keep in mind that this ‘pluralism’ is warmly welcomed in metropolitan cultural capitals that may be less interested in recognizing more overtly revolutionary nationalist struggles in former colonial locations . . . reviewers and critics construct ‘authentic public voices of the Third World’ by celebrating cosmopolitan authors who can appear exotic even when they have similar ‘tastes, training, repertoire of anecdotes, current habitation’ as those very same reviewers and critics.” Caren Kaplan, Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), 123– 24. 89. Quoted in Jane King, “A Small Place Writes Back,” Callaloo 25, no. 3 (2002): 887. 90. Kay Bonetti, “An Interview with Jamaica Kincaid,” The Missouri Review 15, no. 2 (1992): 134. 91. Amy Kaplan, “‘Left Alone with America’: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture,” in Cultures of United States Imperial- ism, eds. Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (Durham, NC: Duke Univer- sity Press, 1993), 7. 92. Jenny Sharpe, “Is the United States Post- colonial? Transnationalism, Immigration, and Race,” Diaspora 4, no. 2 (1995): 189. 93. It is also telling of Kincaid’s liberal multiculturalist approach that she claims there is “no significance”—that is, no history— attached to the name “Jamaica Kincaid.” See Bonetti, “Interview,” 132. 94. Jamaica Kincaid, Lucy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1990), 17. 95. Ibid., 18. 96. Ibid., 19. 97. Appaduri, Modernity at Large, 176. 98. Eleanor Wachtel, “Eleanor Wachtel with Jamaica Kincaid: Interview,” The Malahat Review 116 (1996): 57. 99. Frank Birbalsingh, “Jamaica Kincaid: From Antigua to America,” interview, Frontiers of Caribbean Literature in English, eds. by Frank Birbalsingh (London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1996) 139. 100. Bonetti, “Interview,” 133. 194 Notes

101. Anne Norton, “Reading in the Shadow of History,” Social Text 56 (1998): 49. 102. Ibid., 50. 103. Jane King, “A Small Place,” 902. 104. Kincaid’s other books foreground a postcolonial displaced Antiguan voice. In A Small Place, this puts the (white) American reader in a position of opposition to the narrative voice. But this text is so con- frontational to the white European American tourist that she must either establish a position of distance to the text’s addressee or willingly ignore her own part in the tourism industry of Antigua through the tools of the liberal multicultural imagination. The nonwhite reader, on the other hand, is invited to identify with the “native” speaker as a fel- low global/colonized subject. Kincaid’s autobiographical stories Annie John, Lucy and even The Autobiography of My Mother give the American reader a relatively safe position in that even in their harshest moments of critique of global inequality and the effects of European colonialism, the British are always more at fault than North Americans. 105. James Clifford, “Traveling Cultures,” in Cultural Studies, eds. Law- rence Grossberg, Cary Nelson and Paula A. Treichler (New York: Routledge, 2001), 110. 106. It imitates the trauma of grief and loss that is experienced often as cycli- cal, analeptic, and proleptic. 107. I use “Kincaid” as metonymy for “Kincaid’s narrator” or “Kincaid’s text” throughout this chapter. I want to be clear that what follows is an analysis of how Kincaid’s texts work to produce distantiating effects. It is not a critique of her personally, nor is it a claim that there is something wrong with her writing. 108. AIDS is often represented in cultural and medical narratives as a disease that unites people across the globe in cosmopolitan identifications. See, for example, Dennis Altman, “Globalization, Political Economy, and HIV/AIDS,” Theory and Society 28 (1999): 559– 84. Altman agues that “community-based activity in United Nations AIDS programs has implications for both the creation of new forms of global co- operation and the idea of global citizenship” (559). Similarly, Paul Farmer argues that the global inequity surrounding AIDS should be considered “a human rights tragedy” that joins health care workers around the world. Paul Farmer, “Global AIDS: New Challenges for Health and Human Rights.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 48, no. 1 (2005): 11. 109. Jamaica Kincaid, My Brother (New York: Noonday, 1997), 30. 110. Paula Treichler, How to Have Theory in an Epidemic Cultural Chroni- cles of AIDS (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 104. 111. Kincaid, My Brother, 31. 112. Nor is there mention of the US government’s pressure on other nations to buy exclusively from certain companies and to reject compulsory licensing and other intellectual property policies that could make drugs Notes 195

more affordable. For more on US policies in relation to the distribution of AZT and other AIDS medicines, see Robert Weissman, “AIDS and Developing Countries U.S. Pharmaceutical Companies and the U.S. Government Have Blocked the Availability of AIDS Drugs in Develop- ing Countries,” Enotes, June 5, 2005, http:// www .enotes .com/ aids -developing/ 38769. 113. Treichler argues that “narrative conventions” and “visual representations” in US publications surrounding AIDS in Third World countries tend to “reinforce what we think we already know about AIDS in those regions”— “frail, wasting bodies in gloomy clinics; small children in rickety cribs; the prostitutes, who always seem to be wearing red” (Treichler, How to Have Theory, 105). 114. Kincaid, My Brother, 32. 115. Ibid., 108. 116. Ibid., 32. 117. Ibid., 48–49 118. Ibid., 49. 119. Ibid., 49–50. 120. For a recent discussion of the ways in which US “immigration policies are based on race rather than reason,” see Charles J. Ogletree Jr.’s “America’s Schizophrenic Immigration Policy: Race, Class, and Rea- son,” Boston College Law Review 41 (1999– 2000): 755– 70. 121. The disparity in the ratio of nonwhite to white people globally who die of AIDS (mostly from sub- Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Carib- bean) has led to the belief in many parts of the world of a conspiracy theory that AIDS is part of a US-originated plan for global racial geno- cide. While this may not be true in a factual sense, it does reveal underlying systemic inequalities that function along racial lines and ultimately cause the mass death of nonwhite populations (see Treichler, How to Have Theory, 103, 221). Treichler also argues that the practice of test- ing new drugs on poorer populations as opposed to providing AZT “is consistent with a history of colonialism in which the interests of empire take precedence over those of the colonized; empire in this case has apparently nothing to gain from paying for AZT. Many black Ameri- cans, similarly, hold the belief that people of color are especially vulner- able to the projects of science, a belief consistent with such events in US history as the Tuskegee syphilis study” (221). For more on the inequalities of healthcare in relation to race in the United States, see David R. Williams and Chiquita Collins, “US Socioeconomic and Racial Dif- ferences in Health: Patterns and Explanations,” Annual Review of Soci- ology 21 (1995): 349– 86. 122. Kincaid, My Brother, 96. 123. Ibid., 97; emphasis added. 124. Ibid., 98. 125. Ibid., 79. 196 Notes

126. Named by a Spaniard in the sixteenth century, it was divided between the Dutch, British, and Germans in the nineteenth century; occupied by Australia after World War I, partially occupied by Japan during World War II, and finally independent in 1973. 127. Kincaid, My Brother, 20, 91. 128. Kincaid tells us that Carolus Linnaeus, visiting a greenhouse in the Netherlands, became “enraptured with seeing all these plants from far away . . . he saw an opportunity, and it was this: These countries in Europe shared the same botany, more or less, but each place called the same thing by a different name . . . but these new plants from far away, had no history, no names, and so they could be given names.” Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 122. 129. Ibid., 122. 130. Ibid. 131. Ibid., 197. 132. Richard Kerridge, “Ecologies of Desire: Travel Writing and Nature Writing as Travelogue,” in Travel Writing and Empire: Postcolonial Theory in Transit, ed. Steven Clark (New York: Zed Books, 1999). 171. 133. Ibid., 171. 134. Jamaica Kincaid, A Small Place (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1988), 16. 135. Ibid., 14. 136. Moira Ferguson, “A Lot of Memory: An Interview with Jamaica Kin- caid.” The Kenyon Review 16, no. 1 (1994): 125. 137. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 196. 138. Ibid., 202. 139. Ibid., 222. 140. Ironically, the way Kincaid describes China actually points out the simi- larities between histories of colonization in the United States and the Caribbean in that it replicates the language of colonization across the Americas. Her description of China is, in fact, very close to the way Aisha Khan argues the Caribbean is represented in everything from “literary tropes” to “advertisements for holiday vacations” as “a crucible of the wildness and beauty of nature”: a set of images that “constitutes a powerful epistemology, a way of knowing the Caribbean, where nature becomes Nature— the region’s raison d’être and common denomi- nator” (Aisha Khan, “Portraits in the Mirror: Nature, Culture, and Women’s Travel Writing in the Caribbean,” Women’s Writing 10, no. 1 [2003]: 93). Khan also notes the way in which the Caribbean “garden” has traditionally been described as “Edenic; it is precultural in the sense of not having lost anything because it had not (yet) had to lose. But it is also extra-cultural, in the sense of being outside of culture— culture qua civilization” (111). These modes of describing the Caribbean are closely related to the early tracts on the Americas, which described it as a new Eden. Kincaid herself describes the Americas that Columbus saw as Notes 197

being for him “the blankness of paradise; paradise emerges from chaos and this is not history; it is not a legitimate order of things” (Kincaid, “In History,” Callaloo 20, no. 1 [1997]: 2). For more on the transition in American representations of the “wilderness” landscape from Eden to battleground, see Martin Christadler, “American Romanticism and the Meanings of Landscape,” in Myth and Enlightenment in American Literature, eds. Dieter Meindl and Friedrich W. Horlacher (Erlangen: Universitätsbund Erlangen- Nürnberg, 1985), 71– 106. 141. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 219. This statement is what Soto-Crespo uses to argue that the garden allows Kincaid to see “how her personal past is tied to politics, and specifically to the history of imperialism” (Ramon E. Soto- Crespo, “Death and the Diaspora Writer: Hybridity and Mourning in the Work of Jamaica Kincaid,” Contemporary Litera- ture 43, no. 2 [2002]: 346). I would suggest, on the other hand, that Kincaid has always known this. In earlier work she makes it more than clear that she sees a deep connection between her personal past and the history of imperialism. 142. Ibid. 143. Philip Fisher, Still the New World: American Literature in a Culture of Creative Destruction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 18. 144. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 219. 145. Philip Fisher, Still the New World, 3. 146. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 64. 147. Ibid., 66. 148. Ibid., 69. 149. Ibid., 12. 150. Ibid., 204–5. 151. My thanks to Ross Posnock for pointing out this parallel. 152. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 215. One would like, with Jane King, “to hear [Kincaid’s text’s] read so that [one] could be sure which parts were meant to be sarcastic” (Jane King, “A Small Place,” 895). Kin- caid often presents us with passages that seem to ask to be read ironically, and yet the meaning they carry is literal. Even if Kincaid’s tone expressed sarcasm at Winfrey’s position as “all-powerful and keenly dis- cerning literary critic,” this does not change the fact that Oprah’s pres- ence on this magazine does facilitate a reentrance into her US subject position of black female writer, mother, wife, and gardener. This double reading, where the reader must take on an ironic/critical position and be forced to see the way in which this distance does not allow her to “get outside” the ideology being critiqued, is one of Kincaid’s aesthetic techniques for provoking internal distantiation. 153. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 213. 154. John Young, “Toni Morrison, Oprah Winfrey, and Postmodern Popu- lar Audiences,” African American Review 35, no. 2 (2001): 199. 198 Notes

155. Janice Peck describes Oprah as a figure who is able to function as a “comforting, nonthreatening bridge between black and white cultures.” Janice Peck, “Talk About Racism: Framing a Popular Discourse of Race on Oprah Winfrey,” Cultural Critique 27 (1994): 91. 156. Young, “Toni Morrison, Oprah Winfrey,” 182. 157. Kincaid herself has complained of this kind of requirement of “authen- ticity” from her black US audience: “[T]hey write those long articles about who is really black and who isn’t, and who’s part white, and this sort of nonsense, just absolute nonsense.” The way Kincaid extracts herself from this conversation is by turning to a humanist liberal multiculturalism that reincorporates a civil rights discourse invested in a history of racial difference and inequality by saying, “[T]hey’re [sic] just never really gotten beyond the question of the color of your skin to see humanity, and it’s a great problem because there was a moment when that was being done, I think with Martin Luther King.” Gerhard Dilger, “‘I Use a Cut and Slash Policy of Writing’: Jamaica Kincaid Talks to Gerhard Dilger,” Wasafiri 16 (1992): 23. 158. To illustrate this point, Young notes the change between the 1970 cover of The Bluest Eye— which describes it as a “black” and “dark” story— and the Oprah’s Book Club edition, which describes it as “an inquiry into the reasons why beauty gets wasted in this country. The beauty in this case is black” (Young, “Toni Morrison, Oprah Winfrey,” 192– 93). 159. This suppression of history to sell the books of black women writers is evident in Young’s description of Winfrey’s marketing of Song of Solo- mon, which he says, “reads the characters entirely within the rubric of talk- show topics. ‘It’s about 10 OPRAH shows rolled into one book,’ Winfrey told her audience when announcing the selection. Within this framework Song of Solomon loses its vital political subtext, as the book club’s discussion ignores the critique of American racial history.” Young, “Toni Morrison, Oprah Winfrey,” 182. 160. Janice Peck, “Talk About Racism,” 92. 161. Ibid., 100. 162. Kincaid, My Garden (Book):, 217. 163. James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 3.

Chapter 4 1. Henry Yu, “How Tiger Woods Lost His Stripes: Post-Nationalist American Studies as a History of Race, Migration, and the Commodi- fication of Culture,” in Post-Nationalist American Studies, ed. John Carlos Rowe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 238. Notes 199

2. Louis Althusser, “A Letter on Art in Reply to André Daspre” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 223. 3. Ibid. 4. Bharati Mukherjee, “Beyond Multiculturalism: Surviving the Nine- ties,” Journal of Modern Literature 20, no. 1 (Summer 1996): 33. 5. Ibid. 6. Quoted in John K. Hoppe, “The Technological Hybrid as Post- American: Cross- Cultural Genetics in Jasmine,” MELUS 24, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 137. 7. For documentation, see Appendix 1, a survey of professors in top US English departments, in which I found that most professors teach Jas- mine in undergraduate courses such as freshman writing, Asian Ameri- can literature, and ethnic American literature courses. Holder, on the other hand, is taught more often in graduate courses, generally in global or transnational contexts. To illustrate the way in which Jasmine has been treated as an “American” text that represents a female, minority experience—whereas Holder has been categorized for the most part as postcolonial, cosmopolitan, multinational, or denationalized— one need only look at the locations of publication for articles on the two novels (e.g., Jasmine: Women, America, and Movement, Contemporary American Women Writers, American Literature, The Immigrant Expe- rience in North American Literature, International Women’s Writing; Holder: Postcolonial Theory and the United States, ARIEL, Borderlands, Intercultural Encounters- Studies in English Literature). The exceptions to this are the articles that treat Jasmine as postcolonial, published in places such as Cross- Cultures and Hybridity and Postcolonialism. However, this does not diminish the fact that of the two novels Jas- mine appears more available for and amenable to a nationally oriented reading. 8. Kristin Carter- Sanborn, “‘We Murder Who We Were’: Jasmine and the Violence of Identity,” American Literature 66, no. 3 (1994): 575. 9. Ibid. 10. For a concise version of this argument, see Anne Brewster, “A Critique of Bharati Mukherjee’s Neo- nationalism,” SPAN: Journal of the South Pacific Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies 34– 35 (1993): 50– 59. 11. For example, see Deepika Bahri, “Always Becoming: Narratives of Nation and Self in Bharati Mukherjee’s Jasmine,” in Women, Amer- ica, and Movement: Narratives of Relocation, ed. Susan L. Roberson (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998), 137– 54; Suzanne Kehde, “Colonial Discourse and Female Identity: Bharati Mukher- jee’s Jasmine,” in International Women’s Writing: New Landscapes of Identity, eds. Anne E. Brown and Marjanne E. Goozé (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), 70–77; Jill Roberts, “Between Two 200 Notes

Darknesses The Adoptive Condition in Ceremony and Jasmine,” MLS 25, no. 3 (1995): 77– 97; Sämi Ludwig, “Cultural Identity as ‘Spouse’: Limitations and Possibilities of a Metaphor in Maxine Hong Kings- ton’s The Woman Warrior and Bharati Mukherjee’s Jasmine,” in Fusion of Cultures? eds. Peter O. Stummer and Christopher Balme (Atlanta: Rodopi, 1996), 103–10; Kent Bales, “Walt Whitman’s Daughter, or, Postcolonial Self-Transformation in the Fiction of Bharati Mukher- jee,” in Daughters of Restlessness: Women’s Literature at the End of the Millennium, eds. Sabine Coelsch- Foisner, Hanna Wallinger, Gerhild Reisner (Heidelberg, Germany: C. Winter, 1998), 187– 201; and Car- men Wickramagamage’s “Relocation as Positive Act: The Immigrant Experience in Bharati Mukherjee’s Novels,” Diaspora 2, no. 2 (1992): 171– 200. 12. For example, see Gönül Pultar, “Jasmine or the Americanization of an Asian: Negotiating between ‘Cultural Arrest’ and Moral Decay in Immigrant Fictions,” in The Immigrant Experience in North Ameri- can Literature: Carving Out a Niche, eds. Katherine B. Payant and Toby Rose (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 45–57; Geral- dine Stoneham, “‘It’s a Free Country’: Bharati Mukherjee’s Vision of Hybridity in the Metropolis,” Wasafiri 24 (1996): 18–21; and Bri- gitte Scheer- Schäzler, “‘The Soul at Risk’: Identity and Morality in the Multicultural World of Bharati Mukherjee,” in Nationalism vs. Inter- nationalism: (Inter)National Dimensions of Literatures in English, eds. Wolfgang Zach and Ken L. Goodwin (Tübingen, Germany: Stauffen- burg, 1996), 351–59. 13. For example, see Susan Koshy, “The Geography of Female Subjec- tivity: Ethnicity, Gender, and Diaspora,” in Contemporary American Women Writers: Gender, Class, Ethnicity, ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora (New York: Longman, 1998), 138– 53; Brewster, “A Critique”; and Sangeeta Ray, “The Nation in Performance: Bhabha, Mukherjee, and Kureishi,” Hybridity and Postcolonialism: Twentieth Century Indian Literature, ed. Monika Fludernik (Tübingen, Germany: Stauffenburg, 1998), 219– 38. 14. Rey Chow, The Protestant Ethnic & The Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 51. 15. Pultar, “Jasmine or the Americanization of an Asian,” 45– 46. 16. Ibid., 46. 17. Ibid., 53. 18. Bharati Mukherjee, Jasmine (New York: Grove Press, 1989), 9. 19. Pultar, “Jasmine or the Americanization of an Asian,” 51. 20. Koshy, “The Geography of Female Subjectivity,” 139. 21. Ibid., 148. 22. Mukherjee, Jasmine, 241. Notes 201

23. Philip Fisher, Still the New World: American Literature in a Culture of Creative Destruction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 192. 24. Ibid., 192–95, 231– 34. 25. Mukherjee, Jasmine, 7– 8. 26. Fisher, Still the New World, 228. 27. Steven J. Belluscio, To Be Suddenly White: Literary Realism and Racial Passing (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006), 4. 28. Mukherjee, Jasmine, 115– 16. 29. Ibid., 4. 30. Ibid., 5. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., 109. 33. Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of Ameri- can Fiction 1970–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 126– 27. 34. Mukherjee, Jasmine, 131. 35. Ibid., 185. 36. Ibid., 200. 37. Ibid., 202. 38. Ibid., 231. 39. Ibid., 125, emphasis in original. 40. Jane F. Thrailkill, Affecting Fictions: Mind, Body, and Emotion in Amer- ican Literary Realism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 23. 41. Tompkins, Sensational Designs, 126. 42. Fisher, Still the New World, 197. 43. Belluscio, To Be Suddenly White, 5. 44. Fisher, Still the New World, 37. 45. Ibid., 46. 46. Ibid., 47– 51. 47. Ibid., 38. 48. Ibid. 49. See Colin Greer, “The Ethnic Question” Social Text 0, nos. 9/10 (1984): 119– 36. 50. Mukherjee, Jasmine, 181. 51. Ibid., 138– 39. 52. Ibid., 240. 53. Ibid., 201. 54. Michael Gorra, “Call it Exile, Call it Immigration,” The New York Times, September 10, 1989. 55. In addition to Nalini Iyer and Christian Moraru, discussed later, Kent Bales sees the novel as one that “multiplies . . . possibilities for self- discovery and self-creation” (Kent Bales, “Walt Whitman’s Daugh- ter,” 199). Shao-Pin Luo reads it as a “narrative of women’s travel and 202 Notes

transformation” (Shao-Pin Luo “Rewriting Travel: Ahdaf Soueif’s The Map of Love and Bharati Mukherjee’s The Holder of the World.” Jour- nal of Commonwealth Literature 38, no. 2 (2003): 87). And Florence D’Souza argues that Holder is a “reinterpretation of heterogeneous cultural elements” (Florence D’Souza, “The Paradoxical Position of an Immigrant Writer: Bharati Mukherjee, Neither Global, nor Particular?” in The Global and the Particular in the English Speaking World [Dijon, France: Editions Universitaires de Dijon, 2002], 69). 56. Christian Moraru, “Purloining The Scarlet Letter: Bharati Mukherjee and the Apocryphal Imagination,” in He Said She Said: An RSVP to the Male Text, eds. Mica Howe and Sarah Appleton Aguiar (London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001), 256; emphasis added. 57. Nalini Iyer, “American/Indian: Metaphors of the Self in Bharati Mukherjee’s ‘The Holder of the World,’” ARIEL 27, no.4 (1996): 35; emphasis added. 58. Examples of such critiques are Judie Newman’s, which I discuss later, and Bruce Simon’s, which reads Holder as a revisionary text that challenges American origins in Puritanism and is “interested in subverting colonialist historiography from within” by introducing Indian influence on America’s beginnings (Bruce Simon, “Hybridity in the Americas: Reading Condé, Mukherjee, and Hawthorne,” in Postcolonial Theory and the United States: Race, Ethnicity, and Literature, eds. Amritjit Singh and Peter Schmidt [Jackson: University of Mississippi, 2000]: 422). 59. Judie Newman, “Spaces In- Between: The Holder of the World,” in Borderlands: Negotiations in Post- Colonial Writing, ed. Monika Reif- Hulser (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi), 77. 60. Newman, “Spaces In- Between,” 81. 61. Bharati Mukherjee, The Holder of the World (Toronto: HarperCollins, First Edition 1993, HarperPerennial Canada Edition, 2003), 31, 8. 62. Richard Dyer, White (New York: Routledge, 1997), 13. 63. Please note that one does not have to “be” white to rely on hegemonic ideological forms that reinforce whiteness as an aspect of normative Americanness. 64. Mukherjee, Holder, 293. 65. Ibid., 293– 94. 66. Ibid., 103– 04. 67. Ibid., 103. 68. Ibid., 105. 69. Ibid., 170. 70. Ibid., 107. 71. Ibid., 12. 72. Ibid., 61. 73. Ibid., 183, emphasis added. 74. Ibid., 245. Notes 203

75. Ibid., 93. 76. In Hawthorne’s case, I am thinking of the progressive passages on women’s liberation and equality that he must reign in at the end of The Scarlet Letter by domesticating Hester’s feminism. 77. Ibid., 153– 54. 78. Ibid., 3. 79. Ibid., 289. 80. Dyer, White, 12. 81. Ibid., 4. 82. “The Holder of the World,”Publishers Weekly, July 26, 1993, 56. 83. Beverly Byers-Pevitts, “An Interview with Bharati Mukherjee,” in Speaking of the Short Story: Interviews with Contemporary Writers, eds. Farhat Iftekharuddin, Mary Rohrberger, and Maurice Lee (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1997) 196– 97. 84. Mike Hill, “Introduction: Vipers in Shangri-la: Whiteness, Writing, and Other Ordinary Terrors,” in Whiteness: A Critical Reader, ed. Mike Hill (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 5. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid. 87. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White Peo- ple Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), 93. 88. Mukherjee, Holder, 240. 89. Ibid., 292. 90. Ibid., 291. 91. See Cheryl Harris, “Whiteness as Property,” Harvard Law Review 106, no. 8 (1993): 1707– 91. 92. Moraru, “Purloining The Scarlet Letter,” 255. 93. Jane Haggis, “White Women and Colonialism: Toward a Non- Recuperative History,” in Gender and Imperialism, ed. Claire Midgley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 48. 94. Mukherjee, Holder, 12. 95. Ibid., 60. 96. Ibid. 97. Ibid., 159–60. 98. James Baldwin, “On Being ‘White’ . . . And Other Lies,” in Black on White: Black Writers on What It Means to Be White, ed. David Roediger (New York: Schocken Books, 1998), 177, 178. 99. Susan S. Lanser, “Feminist Criticism, ‘The Yellow Wallpaper,’ And the Politics of Color in America,” Feminist Studies 15, no. 3 (1989): 420. 100. Ibid., 424–25. 101. Stanley Fish, Self- Consuming Artifacts: The Experience of Seventeenth Century Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 2. 102. Ibid. 204 Notes

103. Tina Chen and S. X. Goudie. “Holders of the World: An Inter- view with Bharati Mukherjee.” Jouvert: A Journal of Post-Colonial Studies 1, no. 1 (1997): n.p. http:// english .chass .ncsu .edu/ jouvert/ v1i1/ BHARAT .HTM. 104. James Baldwin, “Everybody’s Protest Novel,” in Notes of a Native Son (Boston: Beacon, 1955), 20. 105. Ibid., 20–21.

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abjection, 60, 64– 65, 82, 115– 16 articulus, 41 abolition of slavery, 3, 16, 20, 137 Asians and Asian Americans, 57, 91, See also slavery 125, 147, 151, 154 aestheticism, 173n28 Auerhahn, Nanette, 31, 33, 46 aesthetics and politics, 8– 12 Avi- Ram, Amitai F., 35 See also distantiative aesthetics; Aztlán, 66, 75 representative aesthetics affirmative action, 172n17 Bailyn, Bernard, 170n4 Africa, 87, 90– 97, 99– 105 Baldwin, James, 27– 29, 55, 141, African Americans, 4, 32, 43, 57, 154, 156, 163 87, 91– 95, 101– 2, 131, 137, “Everybody’s Protest Novel,” 160– 62 25– 27 See also black Americans “Stranger in the Village,” AIDS, 70, 109– 11, 178n25, 118– 19 194n108, 195n121 Balzac, Honore, 12, 13 Aldama, Frederick Luis, 60, 78, 79 Barry, Brian, 5 Alexander, Elizabeth, 177n12, Barthelme, Donald, 104 178n25 Barthes, Roland, 178n31 Althusser, Louis Belluscio, Steven J., 131, 135 internal distantiation, 2, 22, 27, Benito Cereno (Melville), 15– 20 33, 38, 46, 58, 85, 124 Bercovitch, Sacvan, 138 “Letter on Art in Reply to André Berlant, Lauren, 169n1 Daspre, A,” 12– 13, 30 Bersani, Leo, 79 American Literature, 8 Between Our Selves (Lorde), 49 Antigua, 84, 106– 12, 115– 16, Bhabha, Homi, 57– 58, 64, 83 194n104 black Americans See also Caribbean Black Arts Movement, 180n42 apo koinou, 35– 36, 50 feminism, 34 Appaduri, Arjun, 86 history tourism, 101– 2 Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 86, 99 lesbians, 34 Arabs, 159 men, 63– 64 Armstrong, Isobel, 8, 173n22 nationalism, 92 art and ideology, 12– 13, 58, 86 slaves, 16– 18, 20 222 Index black Americans (continued) Chow, Rey, 128 women, 34– 37, 52– 54, 100, Christianity, 68, 75, 159 119– 20 circumcision, 100, 103– 4 See also African Americans citizenship, 1– 7, 21– 24, 26, blackness, 51, 97– 98, 153– 54, 106– 7, 124, 136– 39, 155– 56, 172n20 158– 64 borders See also national identity crossing, 94, 109– 15 civil rights movement, 3, 25– 26, gardening, and, 121 171n17 Mexico and United States, 63, class, 4, 28, 40, 44, 67, 96, 108, 66, 68, 70, 77 112, 129, 142, 155 United States, 87 Clifford, James, 108, 121 Breckenridge, Carol, 83 “Coal” (Lorde), 41– 46, 49 Broadside Press, 35, 36 Cobb, Jelani, 162 Brown, Wendy, 42 Collins, Patricia Hill, 36 Brown v. Board, 4 colonialism Burnham, Margaret, 162 historical, 84, 140, 142 buses, 87– 89, 93, 188n15 hybridity, and, 58–59, 64 Bush, George W., 157– 59, 161 Kincaid, Jamaica, 106– 8, 112– 13, Butler, Judith, 12, 181n55 115, 194n104 Senegal, 102 Cambridge Police Superior Officers travel narratives, 93, 95 Association, 160 violence, and, 77 Caribbean, 83, 94, 106, 108– 9, women, and, 152 114– 15, 117– 18, 196n140 See also neocolonialism; See also Antigua postcolonialism Carter- Sanborn, Kristin, 127 “coloured,” 181n Caruth, Cathy, 28, 29, 48 coming of age, 35– 37 castration, 100, 104 Constituting Americans (Wald), 14 Castro, Tony, 67 Coromandel Coast, 142– 43 Castro district, 69 cosmopolitanism César Chávez, 66 Kincaid, Jamaica, 105, 107, Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 83 109– 21 Chatwin, Bruce, 94, 96–97 McKnight, Reginald, 90– 93, 99 Chicanos theories of, 22, 23, 83– 86 Chicano movement, 66– 68, 70, creative destruction, ideology of, 75 136– 38 hybridity, 64– 65, 74 Critique of the Power of Judgment identity, 61, 66– 70, 73, 75, (Kant), 9– 10 77– 80 cucuys, 74, 80 masculinity, 23 Curtin, Philip, 101 writers, 60– 61, 63 China, 84, 108, 114– 16, 118– 19, Davis, Angela Y., 47 196n140 Davis, Lloyd, 76 Index 223

Delany, Martin, 93 El Paso, Texas, 66– 68, 71 democratic social space, 16, 20, 136 empathy, 131, 136 De Veaux, Alexis, 41 Ericson, David F., 171n4 dialectical literary presentation, 11 ethnic identity, 4, 15, 28, 58– 60, diaspora, African, 87, 93– 94, 82, 124, 172n20 102– 3 See also minoritarian identity Dilworth, Thomas, 182n83 positions; racial identity Dimock, Wai Chee, 174n33 “Everybody’s Protest Novel” Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy (Baldwin), 25– 27 (Rancière), 10 disidentification and hybridity, “Fate of the Transitional Object, 70– 74 The” (Winnicott), 88– 89 distantiative aesthetics Faulkner, William, 130 defined, 2 feminism, 34, 139, 149, 152, 155, Islas, Arturo, 58– 62, 61– 62, 65, 203n76 70– 82 Finley, Cheryl, 102 Kincaid, Jamaica, 112– 14, 121 Fish, Stanley, 10– 11, 13, 155, Lorde, Audre, 28– 37, 54– 55 174n34 McKnight, Reginald, 90, 92– 94, Fisher, Philip, 16, 117, 130– 31, 99, 105, 121 135– 38 Melville, Herman, 16– 20 Florida, 112–13, 132 Mukherjee, Bharati, 123– 25, Fraser, Nancy, 5– 6 139– 47, 147– 56 Freud, Sigmund, 30 national ideologies, and, 85– 86 From a Land Where Other People social identity, and, 156 Live (Lorde), 35 “teachable moments,” 162 traumatic formalism, and, 41– 46 gardens, 83– 84, 114, 117– 18, 121, use in literary studies, 163– 64 196n140, 197n141 See also internal distantiation Gates, Henry Louis, 160– 63 Dorn, Edwin, 161, 162 gay double consciousness, 32 bars, 78– 80 Douglass, Frederick, 14 Chicanos, 61, 63, 69 Down to Earth, 73 gay rights movement, 70 dreaming, 99– 100 See also homosexuality; lesbians; Du Bois, W. E. B., 32 sexual identity Duel in the Sun, A, 73 gender, 4, 15, 28, 51– 55, 75, 124, Dyer, Richard, 141, 147 144, 149 “Generation II” (Lorde), 34– 37 Eagleton, Terry, 8, 173n22 Gilroy, Paul, 93– 94 either- or statements, 18– 20, Giuliani, Rudolph, 159 176n74 “Glass Mountain, The” Elliott, Emory, 173n22 (Barthelme), 104 El Movimiento. See Chicano Glenn, Evelyn, 2, 170n3, 171n4 movement Glover, Clifford, 49 224 Index

Gonzales, Rodolfo “Corky,” 66 identity politics, 1, 6, 14– 15, 25– 26, “good physician,” 11, 13, 155 35, 85, 129, 149, 172n17, Goree Island, 101, 103, 191n73 181n55 Gutiérrez, Ramón, 77 See also minoritarian identity positions; social identity Haggis, Jane, 152 Ideology and Aesthetics in American Hall, Stuart, 89 Literature, 9 Harris, Cheryl, 151 Ideology of the Aesthetic (Eagleton), 8 Harris, David, 162 I Get on the Bus (McKnight), 87– 98, Hartman, Saidiya, 103 99 Hartz, Louis, 170n4 immigrants, 108, 124, 126, 137 Hass, Robert, 160 imperialism, 84, 117, 197n141 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 126, 139, independence, 2– 3, 126, 142 145 India, 123, 125– 26, 132, 139– 43, Hayworth, Rita, 73– 74 145, 147– 48, 150, 153– 54 heritage tourism, 101– 2 Indians (Native Americans), 64, 66, See also slavery tourism 68, 73, 77 Herman, Judith Lewis, 29– 30, 44 See also Native Americans He Sleeps (McKnight), 87, 99– 105 individual rights, 2– 7 heterosexuality, 64, 74– 77 internal distantiation See also sexual identity aesthetics and politics, 8, 12 Hill, Mike, 149 American literature, and, 12– 15 history, construction of, 144– 47 defined, 2, 27 Holder of the World, The Lorde, Audre, 32– 33 (Mukherjee), 123– 25, 139– 56 psychoanalytic aspects, 21 Hollinger, David, 84, 86, 169n2 trauma theory, and, 29– 34 Hollywood films, 70– 75 See also distantiative aesthetics homosexuality, 23, 68– 70, 76– 80 interracial relationships, 153 See also gays; lesbians; sexual interrogation, 100, 103– 4 identity Iowa, 125– 26, 128, 130– 33, 137 hooks, bell, 100, 149 irony, 176n77, 197n152 horticulture, 84, 113, 114 Islas, Arturo Hurtt, Harold, 161 hybridity, 22 hybridity La Mollie and the King of Tears, defined, 57– 60 23, 57, 60– 82 La Mollie and the King of Tears, Migrant Souls, 62 60– 70 Rain God, The, 60, 62 sexual implications, 23 theory, 13, 22 Jasmine (Mukherjee), 123– 39, 146, United States, 183n5 147, 148, 150, 155 Johnson, Barbara, 48 “I” (letter), 42– 43 identification (in narrative Kant, Immanuel, 9– 10, 174n29 structure), 134 Kaplan, Amy, 106 Index 225

Kaplan, Caren, 193n88 internal distantiation, and, 12– 15 Kazanjian, David, 41, 181n55 Kincaid, Jamaica, 105– 21 Keating, AnaLouise, 28 McKnight, Reginald, 87– 90, 97, Kennedy, John F., 91 99– 105 Kennedy, Robert, 67 Mukherjee, Bharati, 135, 141 Kerridge, Richard, 115 paradoxes of, 2– 7, 21, 22– 24, 26, Khan, Aisha, 196n140 128, 146 Kincaid, Jamaica social identity, and, 1– 2 cosmopolitanism, 83– 87, 105– 9 trauma theory, and, 29– 34 distantiative aesthetics, 23 US citizenship, and, 158– 64 Lucy, 107 whiteness, and, 147– 56 My Brother, 106, 108, 109– 14, Lipsitz, George, 149, 150 116 literary studies, 8, 11, 60, 123, 163, My Garden (Book), 83, 106, 108, 174n34 114– 21 litotes, 18– 19 Small Place, A, 115, 194n104 Lorde, Audre King, Jane, 108, 197n152 “Coal,” 41– 46, 49 knowing, 150– 51, 156 “Generation II,” 34– 37 Koshy, Susan, 129 From a Land Where Other People Kymlicka, Will, 4– 5, 85 Live, 35 “Love Poem,” 35, 36 Laclau, Ernesto, 33 Between Our Selves, 49 La Mollie and the King of Tears poetry and prose, 27– 29 (Islas), 23, 57, 60– 82 “Power,” 49– 55, 183n83 Lanser, Susan, 154– 55 trauma theory, 31– 34, 180n49 La Raza Unida, 66– 67 traumatic formalism, 21– 22 Larsen, Nella, 12 “Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic as Laub, Dori, 30, 31, 33, 46 Power,” 39– 40 lesbians, 28, 33– 34, 33– 35, 37– 38, Zami: A New Spelling of My 40– 41, 63– 64, 69 Name, 38, 40 See also gay; homosexuality; sexual Love (Morrison), 12 identity “Love Poem” (Lorde), 35, 36 “Letter on Art in Reply to André Lubiano, Wahneema, 178n25 Daspre, A” (Althusser), 12, 30 Lucy (Kincaid), 107 Levine, George, 8 Leys, Ruth, 30 Marxism, 8, 12, 46, 173n24 liberal multiculturalism McKnight, Reginald academic investments in, 123– 25 distantiative aesthetics, 23 contemporary US citizenship, He Sleeps, 87, 99– 105 and, 158 I Get on the Bus, 87– 98, 99 cosmopolitanism, and, 83– 87 national identity, 188n14 ethics of, 133 transnational perspectives, 85– 87 ethnic representation, and, 81 Medley, Ralph, 162 identity politics, and, 25– 29 Melville, Herman, 15– 20, 176n77 226 Index memory, 117 name changes, 114 Mexican Americans, 62, 67 National Black Feminist Mexicans, 61, 71, 77 Organization, 34 Mexico, 39, 84, 117 “National Hispanic Heritage Week,” Miami, Florida, 112– 13 69 Migrant Souls (Islas), 62 national identity Milk, Harvey, 70 Islas, Arturo, 70, 75, 78 Miller, Perry, 106 Kincaid, Jamaica, 106 Minh- ha, Trinh, 60 McKnight, Reginald, 93– 94, 97, minoritarian identity positions, 33, 100, 103, 188n15 37– 38, 40– 41, 45, 69– 70 Mukherjee, Bharati, 123, 138, See also ethnic identity; identity 140– 43, 141, 154 politics; racial identity new perspectives on, 162 minorities, 4, 7, 14– 15, 27, 28 postnationalism, and, 187n13 See also ethnic identity; race speech about September 11 mirrors, 80– 81 attacks, 158 missionaries, Spanish, 68– 69 See also citizenship Mission District (San Francisco), nationalism, 14, 83, 91– 92, 123, 68– 69 160, 187n13 modernism, 179n41 National Nutrition Survey (1967), Moraga, Cherrie, 61 67 Moraru, Christian, 152 National Organization of Black Law Morrison, Toni, 12, 198n156 Enforcement Executives, 160 Moscone, George, 70 national racial ideologies, 89, 98 motherhood, 49, 51– 54 national self- narration, 37– 41 Mukherjee, Bharati Native Americans, 62, 78– 79, 137, Holder of the World, The, 123– 25, 141 139– 56 See also Indians (Native Jasmine, 123– 39, 146, 147, 148, Americans) 150, 155 navy, 90, 189n29 representative and distantiative neocolonialism, 91, 127 aesthetics, 23 See also colonialism; multiculturalism. See liberal postcolonialism multiculturalism Newman, Judie, 140 Muñiz, Ramiro “Ramsey,” 67 new social movements, 1, 3, 14– 15, Muñoz, José, 70– 71 21– 22, 28, 34– 37, 149– 50, Murchland, Bernard, 169n1 163 Muslims, 159 Norton, Anne, 108 My Brother (Kincaid), 106, 108, Now Voyager, 73 109– 14, 116 My Garden (Book) (Kincaid), 83, Obama, Barack, 160– 61 106, 108, 114– 21, 197n141 O’Connor, Dennis, 160 mythology of American national Official Report of the Niger Valley identity, 140– 43 Exploring Party (Delany), 93 Index 227

Ogden, Thomas, 47 postracialism, 160 oppression potential space, 47– 48, 88 black lesbians, 34 “Power” (Lorde), 49– 55, 183n83 black women, 36 Pratt, Mary Louise, 85, 95– 96 construction of social identities, Prescott, William, 84 27 protest novels, 25– 26 feminism, and, 149 psychic fragmentation, 97 histories of, 6– 7, 67, 113, 137, psychoanalysis, 21, 29– 30, 47– 48 161 Public Culture, 83, 84 power, and, 54 Puerto Rico, 112 racial, 36 Pultar, Gönül, 128– 29 refusal to acknowledge, 17 Puritans, 126, 140– 41, 143, 152– social identity, and, 26– 27 53, 202n58 See also racism Oprah Winfrey Show, The, 120 queer literature, 7, 35, 63 otherness, 7, 61, 106, 119– 20, 127, 132– 34, 138, 144– 46, 154 race, 4, 26– 28, 38, 49– 55, 90– 105, 124, 159– 62 Passing (Larsen), 12 racial identity, 15, 16, 23, 58– 65, Patell, Cyrus, 57, 60 154, 172n, 198n157 Peace Corps, 87, 90– 93, 94, See also ethnic identity; 189n32, 190n38 minoritarian identity Peck, Janice, 120 positions Pérez- Torres, Rafael, 64, 66 racialized narrative position, 144 pictorial realism, 130, 132 racial violences, 97, 100 pluralism, 57, 84, 193n88 racism Pocock, J. G. A., 170n4 connection to sexism and Pollock, Sheldon, 83 homophobia, 40 Possessive Investment in Whiteness: global, 119 How White People Profit from histories of, 18 Identity Politics, The (Lipsitz), Peace Corps, 91 149 sexualized, 73 postcolonialism United States, 53, 80, 97– 98, Africa, 91 111– 12, 120 Holder of the World, The white feminism, and, 149– 50, (Mukherjee), 126, 140 155 Kincaid, Jamaica, 86, 106– 8, 115, See also oppression 116 Radel, Nicholas, 76 travel narratives, 93, 95, 97 Radical Aesthetic (Armstrong), 8 See also colonialism; Rain God, The (Islas), 60, 62 neocolonialism Rancière, Jacques, 10– 11, 40, postnationalism, 83 173n22, 174n34 Post- Nationalist American Studies, Randall, Dudley, 35 85, 123 rape, 26, 53– 54, 125, 128, 131 228 Index

Rawls, John, 3– 4 sexual identity, 15, 28, 58– 60, 61, reader- response theory, 10, 174n34 82 Reagan, Ronald, 69, 70 See also heterosexuality; realism, 130– 33 homosexuality recruitment, Peace Corps, 92 sexuality, 49– 55, 57– 82, 100, representation, 80, 148, 162 104– 5 representative aesthetics, 23, 25, Shachar, Ayelet, 3 124– 25, 129– 39, 155– 56, Shakespeare, William, 70, 72, 76 163 Sharpe, Jenny, 106 republicanism, 170n4 Sherman, William Tecumseh, 78– 79 rhetorical literary presentation, 11 Shriver, R. Sargent, 91 Rice, David, 58 Singh, Nikhil Pal, 172n20 Rich, Adrienne, 32– 33 “sixties, the,” 170n3 Richardson, Elaine Potter. See slavery, 16– 17, 20, 52, 100– 103, Kincaid, Jamaica 117, 118 Rites of Assent: Transformations in slavery tourism, 101– 3, 192n74 the Symbolic Construction of Small Place, A (Kincaid), 115, America, The (Bercovitch), 194n104 138 Smith, Rogers M., 171n4 Román, David, 63 social identity, 1– 12, 15, 22– 24, romantic love, 75– 76 27– 29, 39, 46, 59– 65, 80–82, Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare), 156, 158– 64 72, 76 See also identity politics; national Rudnisky, Lexi, 183n83 identity Russell- Brown, Katheryn, 162 social movements. See new social movements sadomasochism, 79 Sound and the Fury, The (Faulkner), Saldívar, José David, 60– 61 130 Sánchez, Marta, 58 Spanish missionaries, 68– 69 San Francisco, California, 68– 70, Steele, Cassie Premo, 31 71, 77– 78 Still the New World: American sarcasm, 197n152 Literature in a Culture of Scarlet Letter, The (Hawthorne), Creative Destruction (Fisher), 139, 141, 145, 149, 152, 138 203n76 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 25 Scott, Joan, 171n17 “Stranger in the Village” (Baldwin), second generation immigrants, 118– 19 179n40 subjective universality, 9– 10 segregation, 4, 92, 137, 188n20 Sundquist, Eric, 176n77 self- expression, 178n42 Senegal, 86– 87, 89, 90, 93– 94, tautology, 176n77 97– 105 Taylor, Charles, 5 sentimental fiction, 133 Theroux, Paul, 94– 95, 106 September 11 attacks, 157– 59, 163 Thrailkill, Jane F., 135 Index 229

Tijerina, Reies López, 66 virtual reality, 146– 47, 148, 151 Tompkins, Jane, 133, 135 voice- based realism, 130– 33, 134 toubob, 98, 104 Volk, 136– 37 tourism, 101– 2, 116, 194n104 See also heritage tourism; slavery Wald, Priscilla, 14– 15 tourism Wall, Cheryl A., 177n10 transitional space, 21– 23, 48– 55, Wallace, Michele, 34 88– 90, 97– 99, 103– 4, 112, We Heal from Memory: Sexton, 115, 182n76, 189n28 Lorde, Anzaldúa, and the Poetry transparency of experience, 132, of Witness (Steele), 31 144 West, Cornel, 170n3 trauma, 28– 29, 31, 178n25 whiteness, 51, 141, 147– 55 trauma theory, 13, 21, 29– 34, Whitman, Walt, 73 29– 37 Winfrey, Oprah, 119– 20, 197n152, traumatic formalism, 21, 41– 46, 198n155 47– 48 Winnicott, Donald Woods, 21– 22, travel narratives, 108 47– 49, 60, 88– 89, 97, 104 travel writing, 93– 97, 114– 15 winter, 118 Treichler, Paula, 109 women’s suffrage, 3 truth, 144– 45, 147, 150 Wyatt, Jean, 12

Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 16, 20, “‘Yellow Wallpaper,’ and the Politics 25– 26, 130 of Color in America, The” universalism, 4, 7, 84, 128 (Lanser), 155 “Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic as Young, James P., 170n4, 171n16 Power” (Lorde), 39– 40 Young, John, 120 Young, Robert C. J., 23, 58– 59, 64 Van der Kolk, Bessel, 30 Youngs, Tim, 94, 97 Vermont, 84, 109, 113 Yu, Henry, 123, 124, 150, 156 victimization, 159 Viego, Antonio, 61 Zami: A New Spelling of My Name violence, 78– 79, 138– 39 (Lorde), 38, 40, 177n12