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How Do Female Muslim College Students Who Maintain Their HOW DO FEMALE MUSLIM COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO MAINTAIN THEIR ISLAMIC IDENTITY RECEIVE SUPPORT?: A QUALITATIVE STUDY by ELIZABETH SHAH, MAT DISSERTATION Presented to the Graduate Faculty of California State University, Bakersfield in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION IN EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP COMMITTEE MEMBERS: John Stark, Ph.D., Chair Randolph Schultz, Ph.D., Emmanuel Mourtzanos, Ph.D. CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, BAKERSFIELD School of Social Sciences and Education August 2019 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First, to my husband, Richard, for his unwavering support and encouragement. Also to my two older children, Farhana and Uthman, for never letting me quit and taking over my parental duties so that I could focus on my studies. Similarly, to my youngest child, Layan, who was born in the second year of the doctoral program. Her beautiful smile always brightened my day and got me through the tough times. Finally, I dedicate this to my mother who was always there for my family while I was in class. She made sure that my husband and children were fed and taken care of, and for that I will forever be grateful. My family truly was my inspiration and motivation to help me complete this program. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Of course, this incredible journey would not be possible without the assistance of my Lord, so to Him I am most thankful. I would also like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all my professors who helped me through this process. Additionally, I would like to thank all my cohort members. I would not have been able to get through this without their constant support and encouragement. I owe my deepest gratitude to the chair of my dissertation committee, Dr. John Stark. For three years, he has continually encouraged and inspired me with his optimism and enthusiasm. He believed in me when sometimes I did not believe in myself. As I struggled to figure out my topic, he listened to all my ideas and helped me narrow them down to an area of research that I was most passionate about. I can honestly say that without his support, this study would not have been possible. I truly appreciate all his patience and assistance throughout this process. I would also like to thank Dr. Randolph Schultz. I came to him last minute and asked if he would serve on my committee. Without any hesitation, he graciously accepted. I would also like to thank him for his constructive suggestions, which have been essential in helping to guide my study and develop my ideas. Finally, I would like to also acknowledge Dr. Emmanuel Mourtzanos, who also served on my dissertation committee. I am particularly thankful for his willingness to give his time so generously to critique my writing and offer valuable recommendations. His insights and editing advice have undeniably been helpful towards the completion of my dissertation. August 2019 iii HOW DO FEMALE MUSLIM COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO MAINTAIN THEIR ISLAMIC IDENTITY RECEIVE SUPPORT?: A QUALITATIVE STUDY Elizabeth Shah, Ed.D. California State University, Bakersfield, 2019 Supervising Professor: John Stark, Ph.D. The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine and understand how female Muslim college students who choose to embrace their Islamic identity while in college receive support. The data for this qualitative research study has been collected through interviews from nine Muslim women attending universities in the Western United States. All students were undergraduates. They each maintained Islamic identity, which entailed wearing a hijab and modestly covering all their bodies except for hands and face. The results of this study indicated that Muslim students do feel supported in their schools, particularly by their peers, the faculty, and administrators in their diverse academic settings. This study also identified areas where Muslim female students who maintain their Islamic identities could be further supported. The data suggested that there is a need for a place for students to pray and that a meditation room can serve that purpose for people of any faith so they may fulfill their religious obligations. This study also indicated that students have the need for an active organization for Muslim students to come together, such as the MSA. The results of the study also showed that Muslim students wanted inclusion, Islamic awareness, and understanding towards them and their religion. Finally, the study found that students need a safe place to go to if they are feeling vulnerable or just need someone to reach out and talk to. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1 Chapter Two: Literature Review ....................................................................................................14 Chapter Three: Research Method ..................................................................................................36 Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................43 Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations ....................................................65 Appendices.....................................................................................................................................77 References .................................................................................................................................... 111 Vita v LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Participants’ Characteristics and Demographics....................................................46 vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Presently, there are roughly over 2.5 million Muslims in America (Pew Research Center, 2010), yet there is little research available about Muslims, particularly women, who have chosen to embrace their Islamic identity while pursuing higher education in the United States (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010). Similar to everyone else, Muslims represent an essential part of a diversity- enriched campus community (Cole & Ahmadi, 2010). It is surprising, therefore, that the research is lacking. Nasir and Al-Amin (2006) also wondered why the literature is lacking especially since religion is integral to the identity of students. Nasir and Al-Amin state that “religion not only defines us in terms of our participation in practices and membership in certain communities within the context of our societies, but it also defines us in relation to God and the universe” (p. 23). Furthermore, Bowman and Smedley (2012) mentioned that “university student satisfaction is related to the social status of one’s religion (or lack thereof)” (p. 756). Additionally, in recent years, Muslims have been portrayed in a negative light which has incited fear amongst both Muslims and non-Muslims alike (Suri & Wu, 2017). Possibly due to negative media attention, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has reported a rise of Islamophobia and hate crimes against Muslims in recent years. College and university campuses are not immune to exposure to hate crimes (“Hate Crimes,” n.d.). In fact, the United States Department of Justice mentioned that, currently, there is not a single campus that is protected from hate crimes (“Hate Crime Laws,” 2017). According to Suri and Wu (2017), after September 11, 2001 when a terrorist attack committed by Al-Qaeda in the United States, Sikh- American groups have faced an increased number of incidents of discrimination since their turbans and long beards make them more visible than other groups of minorities (Suri & Wu). Similarly, this may also impact Muslim women since they are easily identified by their religious 1 dress, and they often experience discrimination more than men do (Hyder & Hussain, 2015). Therefore, studying the experiences of Muslim women is of vital importance in order for university and college administrators to maintain a more tolerant and informed college environment. This chapter presents background related to the college experiences of women in higher education who have chosen to maintain their Islamic identity. This chapter will also address and identify problems related to this area of research as well as its significance and purpose which helped guide my research questions. It will then continue with the theoretical foundation and the nature of the study followed by definitions, assumptions, scopes, and delimitations. Finally, the chapter will conclude with the limitations and significance of the study. Background of the Study Even though Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world (Lipka, 2010), it is often ignored and widely misunderstood (Callaway, 2010). According to Calloway, misrepresentations about Islam have caused many non-Muslims to have negative perceptions about Muslims and Islam, particularly in the wake of September 11, 2001, and the Boston Marathon bombing, which was a terrorist attack in America that occurred on April 15, 2003 (“Boston Marathon Bombing,” n.d.), both of which have incited fear among non-Muslims and Muslims alike.
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