Rebuilding of Tsunami Affected Areas in the Southern and the Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka

Workshop Proceedings

27th & 28th March 2009

Edited by Ranjith Senaratne Glen Charles Filson Jana Janakiram

All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the editors. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text or illustrations.

Workshop proceedings on Rebuilding of Tsunami Affected Areas in the Southern and the Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka held on 27th & 28th March 2009 at Hotel Tourmaline, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

ISBN 978-955-97159-3-1

Organizing committee: Ranjith Senaratne (Chairman) Wasantha Wijesinghe Pamoda Jayaratne Malsha Seneviratne

Cover design and typesetting: Shammika Wijewardane

Printed and bound by Tharanjee Prints, No. 506, Highlevel Road, Navinna, Maharagama, Sri Lanka.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS L.M. Abeywickrama Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

A.N. Ahmed Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

Goubin Antoine ENITA de Bordeaux, 1 cours du general de Gaulle, 33170 Gradignan, France

K.K.I.U. Arunakumara Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

H.S. Balasingham Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

N.W.B. Balasooriya Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

R.M. Ranaweera Banda Department of Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

I. Brintha Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

S.A. Buddhika Department of Marketing, Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

P.G. Chandana Department of Geography, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

S. Dharshini Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

M. Dupin ENITA de Bordeaux, 1 cours du general de Gaulle, 33170 Gradignan, France

P.R. Fernando Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

Glen Charles Filson University of Guelph, 50, Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

G.K.H. Ganewatta Department of Management and Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

James Gardner University of Guelph, 50, Stone Road East,Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

S. Guilhem ENITA de Bordeaux, 1 cours du general de Gaulle, 33170 Gradignan, France

V. Gunaretnam Coordinator/ Peace and Conflict Resolution and Senior Lecturer, Department of Social Sciences, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

S.H.K.K. Gunawickrama Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Hapugala, Galle, Sri Lanka

D.S. Hewamanage Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

Y.B. Iqbal Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

Regional Agriculture Research Centre, Department of Agriculture, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

Jana Janakiram University of Guelph, 50, Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

Z. Kerrim ENITA de Bordeaux, 1 cours du general de Gaulle, 33170 Gradignan, France

III

S. Krishanthan Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

R.A.U.J. Marapana Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

V. Einon Mariya Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

Y. Moreau ENITA de Bordeaux, 1 cours du general de Gaulle, 33170 Gradignan, France

R. Muniyandi Deputy Project Coordinator, CIDA Restore Project, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

M.F. Nawas Coordinator/New Technologies, CIDA Restore Project, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

A. Parvathakeethan Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

H.S.C. Perera Faculty of Management and Finance,University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

K. Pirapaharan Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Hapugala, Galle, Sri Lanka

Ranjana U.K. Piyadasa Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo, P.O. Box 1490, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka

K.M.Prahasan Project Leader/Peace and Conflict Resolution and Assistant Lecturer, Department of Social Sciences, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

M. Prishanthini Department of Zoology, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

K.G. Priyashantha Department of Management and Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

C.V. Rathnayake Department of Marketing, Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Matara, Sri Lanka

A.M. Razmy Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

E.M.J.M. Rizvi Coordinator, Land-based Ecosystems, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

M.I.S. Safeena Coordinator/Gender Issues, CIDA Restore Project, Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka

Ruwan Sampath Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

S. Santharooban Faculty of Health-Care Sciences, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

Ranjith Senaratne Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana , Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

T.H. Seran Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

R.T. Seresinhe Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

S. Subasinghe Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

G. Vickneswaran Project Leader/ Peace and Conflict Resolution, CIDA Restore Project

P. Vinobaba Department of Zoology, Eastern University, Vantharumoolai, Chenkalady, Sri Lanka

K.D.N.Weerasinghe Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

L.M.J.R. Wijayawardhana Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

S. Wijetunga Department of Agriculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka

VII

PREFACE The Tsunami in 2004 December caused a massive destruction to life, property and environment in Sri Lanka. Nearly 30,000 people died of this natural disaster and over 800,000 people were displaced. In addition, over 100,000 houses were damaged and the livelihood of a large number of people was disrupted. Thus it became imperative to rebuild and reconstruct the houses and the environment and restore the livelihoods of the people in tsunami-affected areas. Therefore, with financial assistance from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), four Canadian Universities, namely Guelph, Waterloo, Manitoba and Queen’s, collaborated with three Sri Lankan Universities, namely Ruhuna, Eastern and South- Eastern, and one NGO, Sri Lanka Canada Development Facilitation (SLCDF), in implementing the Restore Project, a reconstruction and restoration programme under CIDA. The Project adopted a multi-sectoral approach to environmental restoration, sustainable livelihoods and development, with full community input and participation, specifically in the tsunami-affected districts of Matara, Ampara and Batticaloa in Sri Lanka, which were among the hardest hit by the tsunami and representative of the three main communities of the country, namely Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims. In order to make a significant impact during its three-year span, the Project focused on six villages, two from each of the above districts, which demonstrated considerable need. The selected villages participated fully in community development initiatives to achieve the following objectives: 1. Restore damaged and destroyed environmental assets such as coral reefs, mangroves and other vegetation, lagoons, beaches, agricultural lands and fresh water resources; 2. Restore traditional livelihoods and develop alternative livelihoods especially linked to the coastal environment, including fisheries and tourism; 3. Establish disaster resilient community infrastructure using appropriate design, technologies and materials; 4. Develop community-based early warning and emergency response plans; 5. Build community-based institutional and human capacities for environmental management, sustainable livelihoods, and community development. These objectives were supported by six crosscutting themes, namely community-based participation; sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation; gender equality; peace and conflict sensitivity. The ultimate aim of the Project was to develop the six selected villages as 'model villages' so that their achievements could be replicated in other tsunami-affected regions. The Project supported (i) improved planning, management and conservation of the marine and land-based coastal ecosystem; (ii) enhanced quality of life and economic status of communities including diversification of livelihood opportunities in small- scale industry, agriculture and marine-based ecosystems for fisher folk and fishery dependent communities with emphasis on improving economic conditions which will reduce vulnerability of women, including widows and girls; (iii) enhanced community

VIII safety; (iv) enhanced inter-cultural understanding and social harmony through peace and conflict resolution practices; and, (v) enhanced levels of empowerment and greater roles for women in community life and improved quality of life for other vulnerable groups. The outcomes and the findings of the rebuilding and restoration initiatives were presented at a Workshop held in March, 2009 at Hotel Tourmaline in Kandy. The papers presented were categorized under the following sub-headings: • Risk Reduction and Disaster Management • New Technologies for Rebuilding and Reconstruction • Environmental Restoration • Gender Issues and Social Harmony • Livelihood Restoration • Lessons Learned The Proceedings constitute the outcomes, findings, best practices and lessons learnt in the course of the rehabilitation, reconstruction and restoration processes in three badly tsunami-affected districts in Sri Lanka. It will be of value and relevance to university students and teachers as well as governmental and non-governmental agencies and institutions engaged in the realm of disaster management and allied fields.

Ranjith Senaratne Glen Charles Filson Jana Janakiram Editors

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This volume is culmination of concerted effort aimed at rehabilitating and rebuilding of some villages in the Southern and Eastern provinces in Sri Lanka that were affected by the Asian Tsunami in 2004. This restoration programme called the Restore Project was funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) during the period of 2008-2010. The CIDA Restore Project involved four Canadian Universities, namely University of Guelph, University of Waterloo, University of Manitoba and Queen's University, and three Sri Lankan Universities, namely University of Ruhuna, Eastern University and South Eastern University. In addition, Sri Lanka Centre for Development Facilitation (SLCDF) headed by the late Dr. W.P.P Abeydeera also played an important role in the rebuilding process. Professor Jana Janakiram of the University of Guelph served as overall Project Leader while Professor Ranjith Senaratne, former Vice Chancellor, University of Ruhuna, served as Project Leader in Sri Lanka. This project was implemented through the said Sri Lankan Universities and the restoration programme of each university was coordinated by a Deputy Director, namely Professor Danny Attapattu at the University of Ruhuna, Mr. Ravi Muniyandi at the Eastern University of Sri Lanka and Mr. A.N. Ahamed at the South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, under the guidance and direction of the respective Vice-Chancellors. During the formulation as well as execution of the Project, several Canadian dons provided valuable inputs to the Project. Contributions by Professor Glen Filson of University of Guelph, Dr. Brent Doberstein of University of Waterloo and Dr. James S. Gardner of University of Manitoba are particularly noteworthy and have contributed immensely to the success of the Project. Many members of the academic staff from each of the said Sri Lankan Universities were constructively engaged in the Project. We hugely appreciate their dedication and devotion to the restoration endeavours and regret our inability to name them individually in view of the large number involved. A special word of thanks goes to Mr. Calvin Pigottee (First Secretary), Dr. Nihal Atapattu, Dr. T. Jayasingham and other members of the administrative staff of the Canadian High Commission in Colombo for the support and cooperation extended during the execution of the Project. Mr. Wasantha Wijesinghe, who was responsible for overseeing the restoration programme at field level at Madihe village in Matara, worked with great commitment and distinction, which made the restoration programme in that village a singular success. A small, but a highly dedicated and dexterous team comprising Mr. S. Palliyaguru, Senior Assistant Bursar, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mrs. Pamoda Jayaratne, Mrs. Malsha Seneviratne and Mr. Lal Pathirana provided the necessary support, administrative and otherwise, which enabled the Project Leader to implement the Project effectively and efficiently. The editors also wish to thank the printer, Tharanjee Prints for the meticulous care with which the volume has been produced.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Contributors ...... I Preface ...... VII Acknowledgements ...... IX Table of Contents ...... XI I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW...... 1 Sri Lanka Restore’s Goal, Objectives and Operationalization ...... 1 Sustainable Rural Livelihoods as a Disaster Management Strategy ...... 11 II. RISK REDUCTION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT ...... 23 Adaptive System for the Prediction of Natural Disasters ...... 25 Development of Tsunami Evacuation Sites for Gandara and Devinuwara ...... 35 Tsunami Hazard and Preparation of Evacuation Plan- A Case Study from South Eastern Coastal Belt, Sri Lanka ...... 49 Intervention of CIDA Restore Project for Providing Safe Drinking Water to the Villages Palameenmadu and Puthukkudiyiruppu...... 57 Study on Behavioral Changes of Animals Prior to a Tsunami Natural Disaster ...... 65 III. NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR REBUILDING AND RECONSTRUCTION ...... 73 A Remedy for the Problems Caused by Eichornia crassipes in the Ampara District 75 Groundwater Distribution in the Gandara and Devinuera Areas-Southern Sri Lanka 83 Producing Lightweight Concrete Using Tobacco Wastes ...... 99 IV. ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION ...... 109 Rehabilitation of Mangroves in Paalameenmadu and Puthukudiyiruppu, Batticaloa and its Biodiversity ...... 111 Milk Fish Farming in Cages to Enhance the Income for Fishermen from Palameenmadu and to Preserve the Biodiversity in the Wild Ecosystem ...... 127 A Simplified Approach to Treat Wasterwater from Dyeing Industry ...... 139 Sustainability of Community Based Household Solid Waste Management: Lessons Learned from Ruhuna - CIDA Restore Project ...... 147 Cost Benefit Analysis of Novel Fish Drying Equipment in Gandara Central, Matara163 V. GENDER ISSUES AND SOCIAL HARMONY ...... 177 The Bereft Women of the East: Micro Enterprises: The Difference Between Survival and Living ...... 179 Group Formation and Social Harmony: A Case Study of CIDA Restore Project .... 185 A Gender Perspective on Tsunami Restore Activities Carriedout Under CIDA Restore Project in Two Villages in the Ampara District in Sri Lanka ...... 193 Perceptions and Realities: Women’s Factor in Disaster Management ...... 201 Impact on Selected Skill Development Programs on Women’s Income Generating Activities in Tsunami Affected Area in Batticaloa District ...... 207

XII

VI. LIVELIHOOD RESTORATION ACTIVITIES ...... 213 Home Gardening as a Tool for Improving Food and Nutritional Security - A Case Study at Madiha and Gandara in Sri Lanka ...... 189 Crab Fattening in Wooden Cages and the Enhancement of the Economic Status of the Fishermen from Paalmeenmadu, Batticaloa ...... 197 Biogas as an Appropriate Technology for Resource Poor Families to Meet their Energy and Fertilizer Needs; A Case Study in Madiha East on the Adoption of Technology for a Poor Family with Marginal Resources ...... 209 VII. LESSONS LEARNED ...... 221 Common Challenges in Post Disaster Recovery: A Civil Society Perspective ...... 223 Lessons Learned from the Restore Tsunami Project in Sri Lanka ...... 229

Author Index ...... 235

I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

SRI LANKA RESTORE’S GOAL, OBJECTIVES AND OPERATIONALIZATION

Ranjith Senaratne, Jana Janakiram, G.C. Filson and James Gardner

Background and rationale

The tsunami that struck Sri Lanka on December 26, 2004 is considered the single most devastating natural disaster to have affected that island. More than 1,000 km or 70% of the island’s coastline covering 13 districts, especially in the north, northeast, east and south, were directly affected. The tsunami killed approximately 35,000 people, destroyed over 80,000 homes and 5,000 village industries and degraded natural coastal features and ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, lagoons, inter-tidal zones and beaches. The number of women and children among the dead was disproportionately high; some estimates suggesting twice the number ofwomen died relative to men. Considerable losses to village infrastructure, fisheries, resorts, economic assets and transportation networks resulted in overall damage estimated at $1Billion. Coastal infrastructure systems, including roads and railways, power, communications, water supply and sanitation systems and fishing ports were severely damaged. Many of the affected communities were among the poorest segments of Sri Lanka’s population. Particularly, vulnerable groups such as small- scale fisherman and farmers, local entrepreneurs and wage-workers dependent on coastal environmental assets, had their livelihoods destroyed and/or compromised, causing greater poverty. It was estimated that 443,000 persons were displaced permanently (ADB, 2005).

The most significant environmental damage was in the coastal zone, in particular to fisheries, related habitats, reefs and through saline contamination of surface water, groundwater and soils. The northeast coastline bore the brunt of the disaster, with affected areas reaching 2-3km inland. Areas protected by natural barriers, such as coral reefs, mangroves and dunes, were largely unaffected. Coral reefs were degraded by sedimentation and erosion. Existing damage from excessive coral mining was exacerbated by the tsunami. Approximately 27,000 fishermen and their families died and 65% of country’s fishing fleet was destroyed. Damage to coastal agriculture included destruction of standing crops in paddy and home fields and soil contamination by sea-water intrusion which limited agriculture development for a number of years in the affected areas. Collectively, these impacts left the coastline and coastal communities more vulnerable to damage from recurring natural processes such as cyclones, floods, droughts and earthquakes and to other economic, social and political stresses and shocks. Before the tsunami, poverty in the worst affected districts was above the national average, and the tsunami disaster has only increased their poverty and vulnerability.

The economic impact of the disaster was significant. Overall direct asset damage was estimated at US $ 1 billion (4.9 percent of GDP). Destruction of private assets in the affected districts was substantial with losses estimated at US $ 700 million. This figure includes losses in fishing (US$ 100 million), tourism (US$ 250 million), and housing (US $ 300-350 million).Output losses resulting from the damage of assets and the disruption in 2 economic activity in the affected sectors were estimated at 1.5 percent of Sri Lanka’s GDP. In terms of employment, an estimated 200,000 people (or about 3 percent of the labour force) lost their jobs or livelihoods including 100,000 in fisheries, 27,000 in tourism and tourism-related activities, and the rest in other informal sector activities. The tsunami slowed GDP growth in 2005 by up to 1 percentage point from an original government estimate of 6 percent.

Sri Lanka is situated on the large Indo-Australian plate, far removed from any of the plate boundaries. Consequently, many believed that Sri Lanka was safe from risks associated with seismic activity. However, the tsunami disaster was a reminder that coastal zones were a risk from distant seismic events. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests a possible fracture of the Indo-Australian plate approximately 300 km off the south-west coast of Sri Lanka, creating a new plate boundary and thereby increasing the risk of future seismic activity and tsunamis. This continuing and increased risk highlighted the need for effective warning systems and community-based emergency response plans.

The immediate response to the tsunami from the Sri Lankan government and local people was unprecedented. International relief efforts were considerable, with approximately 250 aid organizations on the ground, up from 75 prior to the disaster. Central government capacity to administer and coordinate the relief and recovery effort was limited.

The tsunami and the devastation caused to the people and the country made people all over the world react generously. Funds and aid items were collected all over the world and sent to Sri Lanka. This was the same in Canada where the people reacted very positively and gave money and other useful items. Development initiatives were considered by individuals, students and the average workers.

At this time an NGO (non-governmental organization) named World University Services Canad (WUSC), which works with universities in different countries sponsored a “fact finding mission” in Sri Lanka and invited the universities in Canada to send representatives to visit Sri Lanka. Guelph was one of the universities that sent a representative on this mission. Other representatives that participated in this mission were from Manitoba, Trent, Queens and Waterloo. The team leader of this mission was from WUSC and their local office coordinated the visit.

In Sri Lanka, the Canadian team along with the WUSC team visited a number of institutions of higher education, local NGOs and government institutions in different provinces. They listened to the needs of the people and had discussions with them and came to the conclusion that the Canadian institutions should actively participate in the reconstruction of the tsumani affected areas and affected people.

The team discussed the priorities as identified by the people and requested feedback from the different Sri Lankan institutions who were willing to be partners in this effort. A few institutions responded and of them Ruhuna University in the Southern Province was willing to work with Eastern and Southeastern Universities in the Eastern Province. After a few discussions with themselves and their Canadian partners, they too came up with a project proposal, which was acceptable to the Canadian Partners.

The proposal was refined to suit the priorities of the Sri Lanka Tsunami Facility as defined by CIDA and was submitted for funding. The competition for funding was intense and after a few revisions, the proposal was accepted by CIDA and the project emerged.

Long-term strategies for the restoration of coastal features and ecosystems and associated livelihoods were needed. Sri Lanka is endowed with significant coastal natural resources that were the basis of livelihoods for thousands of people and offer potential for livelihoods development and sustainability. However, several key issues have been identified. First, the loss of livelihood capacities has not been adequately addressed at the community level. Secondly, environmental restoration had been sporadic and, in some cases such as mangrove restoration, may have caused future problems. Thirdly, the lack of coordination among the state sector, donor agencies, and affected parties did create unrest among affected parties. Fourth, in certain circumstances, relief efforts had created a dependency syndrome among the recipients. Consequently, there was a need to change attitudes, perceptions and expectations of affected people and to build community-based confidence and independence in the affected areas. Fifth, the lack of previous experience related to tsunami events contributed to inadequate warning systems and disaster management knowledge and capacity at all levels of government and in the communities. Finally, all restoration efforts had to be cognizant of existing social conflicts in the country and take steps to promote social harmony, peace and good governance.

The development problematique (The reason for doing the project)

The most significant environmental damage incurred was coastal, in particular the loss of related habitats, livelihoods, damage to reefs and corals, sea grass, saline contamination of surface water, groundwater and soils. Damaged coastal agriculture included standing crops of rice, home gardens and soil contamination by sea-water intrusion. Problems addressed related to repair and restoration of these tsunami-related impacts at selected sites.

The situation on the ground called for restoration and development of coral reefs, sea grass, mangroves and other vegetation, lagoon systems and beaches. These response efforts provided the basis for the restoration and development of traditional and alternative livelihood opportunities in such enterprises as fishing, coir making (and retting), tourism, small business, handicrafts and services. Interwoven amongst the environmental and livelihood needs was a variety of issues relating to appropriate planning, design, technologies, materials, services, institutions and governance for building disaster resilient communities. Experience elsewhere, lessons learned and observations in the area, suggested that any such endeavors should be rooted in community public involvement and participation in order to be successful and sustainable in the long-term.

Goal and objectives

The purpose of this project was to implement a multi-sectoral approach to environmental restoration, sustainable livelihoods and development, with full community input and

4 participation in thespecific tsunami-affected districts of Matara, Ampara, and Batticaloa in Sri Lanka which are representative of the three linguistic/religious groups of the country namely the Sinhalese, Muslims1 and Tamils respectively.

In order to make a significant impact over the span of 3 years, the project focused on six villages, two from each of the above districts and which demonstrated considerable need. The selection of the villages was undertaken according to an agreed set of selection criteria that were determined through a detailed, participatory baseline survey. The selected villages participated in the community development initiatives to achieve the following objectives: Restore damaged and destroyed environmental assets such as coral reefs, mangroves and other vegetation, lagoons and beaches. Restore traditional livelihoods and develop alternative livelihoods especially linked to the coastal environment, including fisheries and tourism. Establish disaster resilient community infrastructure using appropriate design, technologies and materials. Build community-based institutional and human capacities for environmental management, sustainable livelihoods, and community development. Develop community-based early warning and emergency response plans. These objectives were supported by the following cross-cutting themes: Community-based participation; Sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation; Gender equality; Peace and conflict sensitivity. The project developed the six villages into‘model villages’ that demonstrated a process of community development that can be replicated in other tsunami-affected regions. Specific results in the selected villages included: Improved planning, management and conservation of the marine ecosystem; Restored and enhanced livelihoods of fisher folk and fishery dependent communities; Enhanced quality of life and economic status of communities; Improved planning, management and conservation of coastal zone; Diversification of livelihood opportunities; Enhanced food security Diversification and expansion of small scale industries; Diversification and expansion of improved agriculture; Enhanced community safety; Improved relief coordination;

1 Though Muslims are a religious group, in Sri Lanka they tend to be comprised of several non- Sinhalese (mainly Buddhists), non-Tamil (mainly Hindu) ethnic groups so Sri Lankans refer to them as if they represent one ethnic group, Mulisms. 5

Enhanced inter-cultural understanding; Improved opportunities for peace and conflict resolution through social harmony; Improved economic conditions and reduced vulnerability of women, including widows and girls; Enhanced levels of empowerment and greater roles of women in community life; and, Improved quality of life for vulnerable groups.

Results

The project developed six villages into ‘model villages’ that demonstrated a process of community development that could be replicated in other tsunami-affected regions. Project activities supported (i) Improved planning, management and conservation of the marine and land-based coastal ecosystem; (ii) Enhanced quality of life and economic status of communities including diversification of livelihood opportunities in small-scale industry, agriculture and marine-based ecosystems for fisherfolk and fishery dependent communities with an emphasis on improving economic conditions which will reduce vulnerability of women, including widows and girls ; (iii) Enhanced community safety; (iv) Enhanced inter-cultural understanding and social harmony through peace and conflict resolution practices; and, (v) Enhanced levels of empowerment and greater roles for women in community life and improved quality of life for other vulnerable groups.

The selected districts of Matara, Ampara, and Batticaloa were amongst the hardest hit regions of Sri Lanka. In addition, these regions represented the three main linguistic and religious groups that comprise the majority of the island’s population, namely the Sinhalese, Muslim and Tamil people. The project was delivered by the University of Guelph with its local sub-contractors (Sri Lankan universities) and its Canadian sub- contractors (Canadian universities) through an integrated set of components and activities which were synergistic.

The major effort of the project was environmental restoration of the chosen affected areas enhancing the sustainable livelihoods of the communities who live within these areas through associated interventions on gender equality and peace and conflict sensitivity. To achieve this effort six (6) “communities (villages) in need” across the three main regions were identified using an acceptable set of selection criteria established through a detailed baseline survey. The majority of the activities were focused in these communities in order to produce significant impacts and provide a replicable model that could be utilized in other regions of Sri Lanka.

A process of ‘adaptive management’ was incorporated in the project as the duration of the project was only three years and tangible results were expected in that time frame. From the initial stages, sustainability of the efforts was a key question and was addressed at every stage of the project through appropriate strategies and partner involvement.

The purpose of the adaptive management approach was to assess the project, make changes if necessary and build capacity “by doing” at various levels of the community. A significant component of the project was multilevel capacity building for partner institutions, NGOs, CBOs (community based organizations) and government agencies. The tsunami disaster was so devastating that it changed the established attitudes and mindsets of educators, government officials and ordinary community members.

Outreach training was a focus of the project and was delivered in cooperation with the government agencies and project NGOs and CBOs that had the ability to work with the smaller rural communities through established networks. The training of trainers and the development of training materials was addressed through Sri Lankan and Canadian faculty and staff interactions and the needs of the communities.

The strengthening of existing postgraduate programs and undergraduate programs in the partner institutions was limited. This was mainly due to the pre-occupation of the faculty and students who just wanted to complete their courses. During this period of the project there were a number of closures of the main partner institutions due to various reasons and faculty and students were literally hurrying to make up for lost time.

Implementation methodology

The project was led by the University of Guelph and implemented with the assistance of Canadian sub-contracted Universities (Manitoba, Queens and Waterloo) which are all comprehensive universities in Canada with most of the disciplines or expertise that are needed for this project. To deliver this project, University of Guelph also sub-contracted Sri Lankan universities from the tsunami affected districts -- Ruhuna University from the Matara district, Eastern University from the Batticaloa district and the South Eastern University from the Ampara district.

These three universities are placed within and catered to the needs of the three major ethnic/religious populations in Sri Lanka-Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims. For the project, the Canadian and Sri Lankan universities worked with non-government and community- based organizations (NGOs and CBOs) which were active in the target communities prior to the tsunami and whose work intensified after the disaster. These are organizations which had built bonds with their communities through hard work, trust and mutual respect and so they were well suited to work with the project. The identified NGOs/CBOs were well- established in the fields of poverty reduction and peace-building through micro-enterprise development, environmental conservation and management, agro-processing, participatory methods, psycho-social support, water supply and sanitation, gender equality, leadership, and vocational training for women and youth. They assisted in the identification of local needs and resources; managing local projects; establishing and fostering relationships with local communities; and, contributing to the development of replicable models to benefit at- risk populations, based on their experiences. The partner NGOs were: (i) Intermediate Technologies Development Group (ITDG), (ii) The Sri Lanka Centre for Development Facilitation (SLCDF), (iii) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): (iv) Institute for Development of Community Strengths (INDECOS); (v) Social Welfare Organization Ampara District and Hambantoba District Chamber of Commerce. 7

Management and organization

Co-Management was the management strategy followed for the project. Though one institution in Sri Lanka and one in Canada was the lead in each of the countries, most activities and decisions were undertaken in consultation with the University of Guelph and the main sub-contracted universities.

The lead institutions in Sri Lanka and Canada were Ruhuna University based in Matara, Southern Province of Sri Lanka and the University of Guelph based in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. The Project Leader in Sri Lanka was elected from Ruhuna University and the University of Guelph appointed the Project Director in Canada. This was necessary for project administration and management, particularly with regard to financial management and accountability.

The Vice Chancellors of each of the universities in Sri Lanka were appointed as part-time Co-Directors and were responsible for overseeing and facilitating the project within their districts. Part-time Deputy Directors reporting to the Project Leader in Sri Lanka were appointed at each Sri Lankan university and they were responsible for all activities conducted by the university in their districts. They were responsible for the day-to-day activities and implementation of the project through thematic program coordinators whom they identified in consultation with the Co-Directors. The Sri Lankan Project Leader was responsible for all activities of the project in Sri Lanka.

A half-time Canadian Project Leader/Manager, reporting to the Canadian Project Director was appointed and based in Guelph to manage the project. The Canadian Project Director reported and was accountable to CIDA. Institutional Memoranda of Understanding was developed by the partners to assign and guide the roles and responsibilities of the participating institutions.

A Project Steering Committee, consisting of representatives of the participating institutions, organizations and the communities in which the work is carried out, provided general guidance and approvals of annual narrative and financial reports and yearly work plans and budgets. Individuals from other Canadian and Sri Lankan institutions were seconded to work on the project on an as needed basis.

Stakeholders, their roles and responsibilities

The main stakeholders of the project were the people from the six selected villages in Sri Lanka and members of the participating Sri Lankan universities. This project had been designed in such a manner that the beneficiaries participated actively in the implementation of the project. Towards this end, active discussions and consultations took place before the villages were selected. The roles and responsibilities of the communities were to articulate their needs and actively participate in the implementation of the project.

The personnel from the Universities of Ruhuna, Southeastern and Eastern were the lead institutional persons in this project in Sri Lanka. The University of Ruhuna selected and worked with the two villages Madihe East and Gandara Central in the Matara district. The people in these villages were mainly Sinhalese and the University of Ruhuna was able to interact with the community members and facilitate their implementation of the project.

The Southeastern University selected and worked with the two villages Akbar and Maligaikadu in Amparai district in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka. The people in these villages were mainly Muslims and the Southeastern University was able to interact with the community members and facilitate them to implement their project.

Eastern University selected and worked with the villages Puthukudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu in Batticoloa district, Eastern Province. In these two villages the people were mainly Tamils and the Eastern University was able to work with them.

The roles and responsibilities of the three institutions were to interact with the villagers and be actively involved with the villagers in the implementation of project activities. The institutions were also required to encourage their students to interact with the villagers and thus obtain experience in rural community development. The three institutions were also responsible for the finances that were allocated to each district and reported directly to the Sri Lankan project director who had his office at the University of Ruhuna.

In the partnership that was forged for this project, 7 NGOs had agreed to work with the main universities. Due to unforeseen circumstances all seven NGOs could not fulfill their commitments. The Sri Lanka Center for Development Facilitation (SLCDF), which served as an umbrella organization and had networks with smaller NGOs and CBOs agreed to take on a major commitment in Batticoloa.

Batticoloa district, at the start of the project was deeply affected by the ethnic conflict which engulfed the country at that time. Eastern University was constantly under pressure both by the rebels and the armed forces. Personnel had difficulty moving out to the villages. At this time SLCDF, which had networks in Batticoloa offered to take on a major role of the project and implement them on behalf of the university. This proved to be a very effective partnership and strategy and as such the villagers benefited and so did the personnel from the Eastern University.

The Canadian lead partner of this project was University of Guelph and the Sri Lankan lead partner was the University of Ruhuna. In 2008, when there was a change in the Vice Chancellor position, Ruhuna opted not to be the Lead any more but was happy to maintain the office of the project director etc. At this time all three Sri Lankan universities agreed to be equal partners.

The Canadian partners were mainly facilitators and assisted the personnel from the three Sri Lankan universities. When a need was expressed, the project identified local resources and sometimes brought in Canadians to assist.

Overview of the proceedings

This Proceedings compiles the papers presented at conferences within Chennai, India, Kandy, and Colombo, Sri Lanka produced mainly by the Sri Lankan colleagues at the three universities who participated in the initial Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and/or the community development/livelihood activities conducted in the six villages. Part I explains the origin and development of the CIDA funded Sri Lanka Restore program. It ends with a paper which outlines the background and theoretical issues raised by the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods and disaster management approach which provided the modus operandi of the program. Risk reduction and disaster management is the focus of Part II. An adaptive system for predicting natural disasters is discussed prior to a paper which explains how tsunami evacuation sites were developed for two vulnerable villages. Several papers dealing with new technologies for rebuilding and reconstruction and then presented in Part III. Environmental restoration is the focus of Part IV prior to Part V’s detailed discussion of gender issues and factors that affected social harmony after the tsunami. The sixth Part provides several papers on the livelihood activites that have been undertaken with the support of Sri Lanka Restore since the tsunami. Part VII summarizes what has been learned including the nature of the challenges that have been faced in the post-disaster recovery.

SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS AS A DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

G. C. Filson

Thousands of people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand were killed by the tsunami of December 26, 2004. While the tsunami occurred as the result of this fourth largest earthquake since 1899, the scale of the destruction within these and many other countries was unprecedented (Tsunami South Asia, 2009). This collection of proceedings from several conferences in Sri Lanka and India sponsored by CIDA Restore, outlines many of the steps that have since been taken to restore people’s livelihoods within southern and eastern Sri Lanka since the disaster.

Sustainable rural livelihoods in perspective

CIDA Restore’s Sri Lankan tsunami livelihood restoration strategy was based upon the Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) framework first developed by Chambers and Conway’s (1992) and later elaborated by Ashley and Carney (1999), Ellis (2000) and Carney (2002). It attempts to promote sustainable livelihoods both as a method of disaster prevention and, after a shock, a way of mitigating the effects of the disaster on the affected people’s livelihoods. CIDA Restore’s purpose was to implement a multi-sectoral approach to environmental restoration, sustainable livelihoods and development, with as much community input and participation as possible. Its projects attempted to restore affected environmental assets including coral reefs, mangroves and other vegetation; to restore traditional livelihoods and develop alternative livelihoods; to establish disaster resilient community infrastructure using appropriate design, technologies and materials;and to develop community-based early warning and emergency response plans. In order to accomplish this, a Sri Lankan and Canadian university consortium worked at building village community-based institutional and human capacities, managing the environment more effectively, and promoting sustainable livelihoods through community development activities. An overview, critique and assessment of this framework’s strengths and weaknesses is presented here in order to provide sufficient context for the ensuing chapters outlining the many Sri Lanka’s CIDA Restore projects’ seminal accomplishments.

SRL built upon the theory and practice of rural development

Sustainable rural livelihoods (SRL) research and development is also rooted in integrated rural development (IRD) (Scoones, 2009), ecosystem analysis (Rapport, 1995), capacities and vulnerabilities analysis (CVA) (Woodrow, 1998), farming systems analysis (Filsonet al, 2004) and participatory rural appraisal (Chambers, 1995). IRD theory was first popularized in the 1970s by the World Bank but was later criticized because and centrally based authorities often made inappropriate assumptions about what the local communities’ needs were and inadequately coordinated diverse and often ineffective projects (Parker, 12

1995). Nonetheless, there has recently been a resurgence of the IRD strategy, especially within the European Union. In this context IRD has been defined by Nemes (2005: 23) as an ongoing process involving outside intervention and local aspirations; aiming to obtain the betterment of local groups of people living in rural areas and to sustain and improve rural values; through the distribution of central resources, reducing comparative disadvantages for competition and finding new ways to reinforce and utilize local resources.

Robert Chambers book Putting the Last First (1995) also was substantially based on IRD theory and practice. Several other strategies designed to achieve local development and reduce poverty combined a ‘basic needs’ interest with a focus on improving the livelihoods of the landless and poor farmers such as Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSRE) and Capacities and Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA). Besides a focus on meeting people’s basic needs especially in the aftermath of a disaster, these strategies have increasingly had a participatory focus.

Though CVA has long preceded the existence of SRL for disaster mitigation (Cannonet al., 1997) its methods have also been incorporated into the SRL strategy. Its focus has often been on such shocks as earthquakes, cyclones, hurricanes and tsunamis and how they affect households from the outside. CVA was initially conceived specifically for use in humanitarian interventions, and for disaster preparedness but it has also been used, after the shock, to ameliorate the worst consequences of the disaster.It aims to assist outside agencies to plan interventions in a way that meet the immediate needs of people by building on their strengths and supporting their livelihood efforts. CVA helps to prioritize and sequence actions and inputs, to determine who and what should be addressed in each stage. The core concept of CVA is that people’s existing strengths (capacities) and existing weaknesses (vulnerabilities) determine the effect that a crisis has on them and their response to it.

Capability, equity and sustainability are the three building blocks of the SL framework. Capability is assessed via the PRAs by determining people’s assets within the human, social, financial, In addition to the use of wealth and well-being ranking (analogous to class analysis), social mapping and the analysis of differences, implementers of the SRL framework focus on employment and income diversification between the genders (an attempt to do gender analysis). These tools are connected with the deployment of daily time-use charts and seasonal calendars which capture cyclical variations in activities, seasonal variation in food availability so that the most appropriate livelihood activities can be identified and encouraged.

Just as gender analysis needs to be mainstreamed into SRL (see Razavai below), vulnerabilities analysis should be too.Vulnerability analysis should be added to emergency preparedness and efforts to reduce illiteracy, exclusion and poverty. Anderson (1994) observed that when assistance is provided to people to meet their needs without regard to their existing capacities, very often the capacities that they possess are undermined and undertaken by the overpowering presence of the aid giver. When this occurs, vulnerabilities are often increased rather than reduced by aid. An adequate notion of vulnerability, then, must take account of people’s capacities, which some perceive to be the opposite of vulnerability. 13

CVA could direct development aid interventions, protect and enhance people’s livelihoods, help vulnerable people protect themselves, and support institutional disaster prevention. People’s social vulnerability has to do with their initial well-being (nutritional status, physical and mental health, morale); theirlivelihood and resilience (asset pattern and capitals, income and exchange options, qualifications); and theirdegree of self-protection (the degree of protection afforded by their capability and willingness to build safe home, use safe site). Their social protection (forms of hazard preparedness provided by society more generally, through for example, the quality of their building codes and the regulation thereof, mitigation measures, shelters, preparedness);their social and political networks and institutions (social capital, insofar as it is a genuine form of capital, but also the role of the institutional environment in setting good conditions for hazard precautions, people’s rights to express needs and their access to preparedness).

Lower vulnerability occurs when livelihoods are adequate and sustainable. Poor people (especially women and children) are disproportionately vulnerable as compared with others within patriarchal societies and they are less capable of recovering from shocks. A failure of much disaster preparedness and mitigation is that it often does not support livelihoods and future resistance to hazards by reducing vulnerability sufficiently in addition to dealing with peoples’ immediate needs.Instead it usually concentrates on meeting people’s immediate needs. This mistake is particular common when non- governmental agencies (NGOs) are more supply than demand driven.

Instead CVA seeks to strengthening people’s nutrition, health, morale and other aspects of well-being. It reinforces their livelihoods so they are more resilient to the impacts of hazards. It prepares their homes and workplaces against hazards by developing early warning systems, evacuation plans, coordinated disaster preparedness and practice and it assesses and organizes support from government, civil society community based institutions local and international non-governmental organizations.

Data is collected for CVA via PRAs such as through semi-structured interviews on problems, vulnerabilities and capacities. Also, community mapping is done of topography, houses, land use, hazards, elements at risk and safe areas. Transect walks ought to be conducted with key informants,seasonal calendars developed, livelihood and coping strategies analysis are conducted, then an institutional and social network analysis is developed. This is also often combined with a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis that the people face.This then is integrated into the normal SRL data collection and analysis of the people affected or potentially affected by the disaster.

Table 1.1 is adapted to Sri Lanka from the CVA Framework developed by Anderson and Woodrow’s (1998).

Vulnerabilities Capacities Physical/material e.g. loss of fishing gear, boats, Relatively high education for What productive resources, etc.; coral reef damaged, coastal regions in developing skills and hazards exist? housing destroyed, some countries, etc. salinated wells; much destruction of mangroves Social/organisational Civil strife ongoing especially Extended family, religious and What are the relations and in the East, ethnic distrust, social ties still strong; fishing organization among people? patriarchal relations limiting and farming skills widespread; women’s potential; lack of the existence of many university faculty rural community based development experience organizations (CBOs) Motivational/attitudinal Given the destruction and Entrepreneurial spirit even How does the community view widespread debris after the among the less educated; its ability to create change? tsunami, without physical strong willingness to rebuild capital and financial resources, livelihoods; support from community motivation initially CBOs & nongovern-mental was weak. organizations (NGOs).

One of the techniques developed by FSRE was Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), a situational analytical approach preceding development work, used by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR). It was designed to overcome the time limitations associated with academic approaches to situational analysis and the costs of formal surveys. RRA uses many qualitative research techniques including focus groups, interviews and observation (FAO, 2009).

The SRL version of IRD evolved out of work by Chambers and Conway (1992), Chambers (1995) Scoones (2009) among others in the International Development Studies (IDS) Department at Sussex University, England. Chambers transformed RRA into Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) as a generative strategy where a shift occurred from starting with need identification to one which discovered and built on people’s already developed capabilities, other assets and indigenous forms of livelihoods. PRA has since emerged as a widely used essential opening gambit in initiating livelihood strategies to restore or strengthen local development. PRAs were therefore used to launch the CIDA Restore livelihood projects described in the chapters below.

Conway and Chambers (1992) felt that livelihoods were sustainable if they enabled people to recover from shocks and stress by maintaining their capability and passing that on to the next generation. Livelihoods therefore include capabilities, assets and activities. The central building block of livelihoods is a focus on households. In response to a shock like a tsunami, the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (SRL) response is to attempt to create those activities that enable people to recover from the shocks without depreciating the environment or minimizing the social and economic support of others can promote environmentally sustainable rural livelihoods.

Thus there has been a steady increase in interest in indigenous knowledge and the diversity of rural livelihoods focused around local households. Once the British Department for International Development (DFID) accepted the SRL framework for development projects and UNDP, CIDA, other international agencies including the UNDP have followed the SRL approach. The SRL which has been summarized on the IDS sustainablelivelihoods.org website as the following,

Figure 1.1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework

As indicated above a PRA is usually conducted to establish the vulnerability context. Here human capital refers to people’s individual developed education and skills which they use to acquire jobs and interact socially. The literature on social capital has proliferated recently so its use in the above version of SRL does not surprise but whether it is helpful with respect to SRL requires close scrutiny.

Social capital, a variation of the term cultural capital developed by Bourdieu (see Bourdieu and Coleman, 1991) generally refers to the networks that people have including their relationships of trust. As Coleman (1990) pointed out, people are simultaneously involved in their social and economic environments and this is reflected in the term social capital. For Putnam (1996: 56), on the other hand, social capital refers to the “features of social life—networks, norms and trust—that enable people to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives.”

Natural capital is somewhat akin to circulating forms of capital like wood, fuel and other naturally available assets employed used in constructing livelihoods. Physical capital could include fixed assets used in production from factories to even simpler phenomena such as looms. Financial capital is clearly closer to the classic form of money capital which is part of the metamorphosis of money, labour power, means of productioncommodity capital, then more money capital. But are these five forms of identified capital really capital or more simply assets used in the construction of livelihoods?

As indicated above, one potential problem with this approach is that this schema uses the word ‘capital’ as broadly equivalent to ‘assets’. The problem with this is that, as Marx observed in Capital, Volume I (1977), building on the work political economists from David Ricardo to James Mill, capital is really more than a mere asset. It refers to self- expanding value within a capitalist society. Money capital purchases labour (L) plus means of production (MP) in order to produce a commodity which exchanges for more money than originally invested in L and MP thus it includes surplus value or profit. This extra money is partly removed as luxury goods by the capitalist and the rest is in turn reinvested in expanded reproduction through the purchase of more L and MP, generating more commodity capital and even more money capital in exchange. Thus, “If we pin down the specific forms of appearance assumed in turn by self-valorizing value in the course of its life, we reach the following elucidation: capital is money, capital is commodities” (Marx (1977: 255). This cycle continues until a glut of commodities occurs, transforming the prosperous period into a crisis and then stagnation until a new period of prosperity returns after the price of L drops due to rising unemployment and new, profitable production is able to commence again because industrial capitalists are once again able to generate a profit through this process. This is a crucial component of the growth of capitalism, however, the rural Sri Lankan communities we are speaking about are more mercantile capitalist than industrial capitalist as Dr. Banda argues in “Perceptions and Realities: the Women’s Factor in Disaster Management” below. For this reason rather than speaking about the five types of Capital (as indicated in Fig. 2) it is more reasonable to speak about an Asset pentagon.

Livelihood activities include farm income from fishing, crops and livestock, rental income, household production, off-farm work and such non-farm income as remittances from urban areas and internationally. Secured livelihoods are the desired outcome of the strategy based on improved income levels, more equitable social and gender relations, greater livelihood stability as well as restored ecosystem health. While there is some debate about how integrated gender analysis is within the SRL framework, SRL advocates argue that gender analysis is part and parcel of the method (Razavi, 2009). The SRL method of development and disaster management also seeks to build on political ecology using local field level work but within the context of an understanding of “the complex realities of diverse livelihoods but linking to more macro-structured issues” (Scoones, 2009: 174).

The way the SRL proceeded with CIDA Restore was to begin by identifying people’s assets through conducting PRA’s in 18 villages prior to selecting six, two each relatively near the three universities. The next step was to find the critical linkages, the livelihood gaps created by the tsunami and the constraints to successful livelihood outcomes for those six villages. CIDA Restore’s faculty within Ruhuna University, South-Eastern and Eastern Universities then “Interactively formulate[d], with those concerned, policies, programmes, and projects to overcome those constraints and allow for the use of productive assets” (Ellis, 2000). After identifying the livelihood assets to obtain a sense of the balance/imbalance in each of these essential building blocks of people’s livelihoods CIDA Restore personnel thus attempted to either stimulate or restore livelihoods while paying attention to macro-micro linkages between the local and larger economic and political institutions and coordinating their work with what other non-governmental (NGOs) and community based organizations (CBO) were doing in the region. This was essential 17 because mediating processes between assets and successful livelihood strategies include contextual considerations such associal relations, institutions and both NGOs and CBOs. Out of this analysis, livelihood strategies were identified and agreed to by the potential beneficiaries. These were then developed and implemented mostly over the second half of the three year period of the project. As this was occurring there was ongoing collaboration via conferences and workshops, with faculty from the Sri Lankan and Canadian universities in the CIDA Restore consortium.

In retrospect, one must ask if, in the case that SRL is really so similar to IRD, whether the IRD really had been the failure that some people had earlier concluded than IRD had been (Scoones, 2009) and what is wrong with involving rural people and especially women in restoring their own livelihoods as a way of better managing the aftermath of a disaster like a tsunami. On the other hand, the criticism that the SRL approach has often been suspect for being too ‘local’ and insufficiently linked with larger government institutions and political forces, may be well taken. According to Scoones (2009: 182) “the lack of attention to power and politics and the failure to link livelihoods and governance debates in development” is indeed a failing of the SRL approach. More theoretical and empirical work is needed to connect SRL with climate and other global economic change processes in the future. However, given the ongoing nature of the Sri Lankan civil war during the reconstruction, the avoidance of all things overtly political probably was a saving grace of this project.

Gender relations and rural livelihoods

Key to understanding household dynamics and inequality within SRL thinking and development is gender analysis which conceptualizes households with respect to micro and macro political economic categories including feudalism, the peasant mode of production, mercantile and even, at times, more industrialized capitalism (Marx, 1956; Chayanov, 1966). Rural social classes intersect with gender relations insofar as how the former are inserted into rural markets and social relations of production, on the one hand, and domestic relations on the other. Whereas men tend to participate more in rural labour markets than women, domestic unpaid household labour is predominately done by women. Furthermore as Harris (1990: 410) has argued, “there are class, caste and regional differences in the operation of patriarchy” such that, for example, in the face of calamities like famines, earthquakes and tsunamis, the burden of coping falls “disproportionately on females in poor households” (Agarwal, 1990). One useful definition of patriarchy was provided by Harrison (1977) as men’s rule over women and younger men.

Not only must poor female agricultural and non-agricultural labourers in general engage in the double day of intensive domestic work as well “but also in marital patterns and household structures, as well as in the degree of control that women of different class and caste households exercise over resources (common property resources, wages, land), and over their own sexuality and fertility” (Razavi, 2009: 206). The significance of this for SRL is that “livelihoods depend not only on money wages, but also on the unpaid work that reproduces the labour force overtime and across generations” (2009: 207).

It is likely that in the aftermath of the tsunami, there was an expansion of non- commodified, unpaid work. An understanding of gender relations in peasant and mercantile capitalist households must recognize that there is much less commodification and industrialization of household labour than in industrial capitalist societies and that the extra burden of this after a tsunami falls disproportionately on women.

Razavi (2009) reminds us as well that households are sites of inequality between men and women and consequently they are, in turn, sites of struggle. In male headed patriarchal households there often is female accommodation and cooperation but also resistance. Yet female headed households also may find that their access to land is still mediated by extended patriarchal households. Beyond the household, rural labour markets tend to be segmented so that females do less remunerative work, whether paid or entrepreneurial within the informal sector (Whitehead and Kabeerm 2001; Razavi, 2009).

This makes one wonder whether the creation of small farm and diversified entrepreneurial livelihood activities in the informal sector are actually a route out of poverty and drudgery. It may enable subsistence but this type of work rarely forms the basis for accumulation or a transition to better paid formal sector work.

Othercriticisms of the SRL approach

One criticism of the SRL approach has been elaborated above: that is, that the asset/capital pentagon framework (social, human, financial, natural and physical) was a proliferation of meanings from the original conception of capital as self-expanding value transposed from industrialized capitalist societies into pre-capitalist peasant or mercantile capitalist societies like rural Sri Lanka. Others complained that SRL was merely a rerun of the relatively unsuccessful Integrated Rural Development (IRD) projects of the seventies and eighties which simultaneously attempted to promote improvements in agriculture, health care, education and governance (Bunch, 1977). Still others complained that SRL dealt insufficiently with the complexity of power at a macro, structural level (Scoones, 2009).

While the participants in the restoration projects are either professors and other NGO professionals who facilitated the livelihoods activities, as well as peasants, fisher folk or rural labourers, insufficient attention may have been paid in our work to social class (O’Laughlan, 2004) and gender as relational and analytical categories (Razavi, 2009).

We still don’t know enough about which social classes and castes were most devastated from the tsunami and which benefited most from the restoration work. Were they the same classes and castes? We need to know more about how the tsunami and efforts to counteract its devastating effects impact ongoing changes in social relations of production and distribution within the region affected. How have the long term shifts in livelihoods affected local capacities and changing gender, class and caste relations in these areas? Were the six villages which were focused on after the tsunami and more or less sustainable and resilient prior to the CIDA Restore sustainable rural livelihoods work? How representative of the 18 villages in these tsumani affected areas were the 6 villages which were selected for livelihood restoration and to what extent, if at all, have they been affected by the CIDA Restore project? 19

Conclusion

The SRL approach from which CIDA Restore is based has therefore become the most popular approach to restoring people’s livelihoods in the aftermath of a disaster. It’s not without its critics, however, as it has been accused of being a method in search of a theory and alternatively of being a framework which merely adds gender, class and caste analyses of inequality onto the framework without sufficiently integrating the understanding of these inequalities from the outset. Its expansive use of the term capital as a stand in for assets has also been criticized for transforming a stock of goods into something which has capacity to generate new assets independent of the level of development of local forces of production.

Yet SRL advocates claim that the approach is emancipatory for the poor and for women based on capacity development of local people’s existing assets. The SRL framework tries to facilitate interventions in organizations affecting people’s livelihoods so that local conditions are taken into account in the light of regional and national factors.While it purports to be able to analyze the connections among local social relations including gender, age, class, religion and caste (Ellis, 2000), it remains to be seen how effectively this, admittedly tall order, is achieved.

Nevertheless, it has several advantages as well. It begins with the people most directly affected by the disaster and asks them to build upon their capacities as a way of reducing their vulnerability. Thus it shares an optimistic focus akin to a related development process, Appreciative Inquiry. In so doing, SRL avoids the problems associated with supply driven development projects and responses to disaster which are notoriously wasteful and cater to the needs and plans of the donors instead of the recipients of aid. Therefore SRL consciously sets out to be demand driven and sensitive to the need to build on local indigenous knowledge in its support for disaster mitigation.

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II. RISK REDUCTION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

ADAPTIVE SYSTEM FOR THE PREDICTION OF NATURAL DISASTERS

K. Pirapaharan and S.H.K.K. Gunawickrama

Introduction

The South Asian countries suffer repetitively from natural disasters for instance drought, floods, cyclones, earthquakes and recently tsunami as well. In South Asia, the pressure from population increase and over-exploitation of resources for haphazard development have disturbed the ecological balance, in turn causing degradation of the natural environment, deterioration of the ecological system and widespread destruction of the natural resources on which human life and well-being depend.

Risk analysis and vulnerability assessment lead to the creation of a scenario for each potential disaster in terms of exposure, loss of life, property damage and the geographic distribution of each hazard (Van Veen, B., at.el., 2008). Early prediction of the risk factor of a probable disaster can help minimizing disaster losses by taking preventive measures. Scientific and technological advances of the information and communication technology especially in the information systems management have played a significant role in improving preparedness capabilities. The main objective of this work is to produce an adaptive system to predict the disaster warnings well in advance using the available data from scientific techniques, indigenous knowledge and the animal intelligence due to the unusual sensory powers of animals and birds.

On the other hand, the danger of information overload and its potential for delayed decision-making is equally crucial that there must be a continuous development in more systematic data and information exchange. This entails the more effective use of existing resources on preparedness and risk reduction, in order to minimize duplication and to foster stronger partnership and exchange of experiences.

In order to optimize the performance of the system, the data must be conserved in an organized manner that is called as smart database. Smart database design is the principle that an elegant diagram makes the data intuitively obvious and enables maintaining huge set-based queries that respond well to indexing. This in turn creates short, tight transactions which improves concurrency and scalability while reducing the collective workload of the database.

Generally, natural hazards are categorized into two major categories as atmospheric/climate hazards and geophysical hazards due to its nature. Earthquake 26 and tsunami are categorized into the geophysical hazards while almost all the other natural hazards are classified into the atmospheric/climate hazards. It is understandable that single data or information is vital for the prediction of particular hazard while the same data or information is insignificant for another hazard. Hence, classification of the data or information respective to the relevant hazard is critical for quickly making correct decisions. Hence, here we propose to classify the data or information into five major categories as meteorological, geophysical, biological, indigenous and sundry. The database system is designed to collect the available data and information from the appropriate resources with the date and time mark.

The intelligent system will access the data from smart database and process data in a predefined time intervals for the listed hazards without human interface and notify the alert messages to the appropriate individuals for further verification and decision making. Since the data and information processing part is more complex, hazards need to be modeled with the respective data.

Methodology

Methodical data accumulation and trouble-free data access are the two important factors which decide the overall performance of the system. In order to optimize the function of the system, it is necessary to classify the data based on the data collection path as well as the data access path. After careful studies, we categorize the hazards and classify the data in an appropriate manner to optimize functionality.

Categorization of hazards

In order to accumulate the data in a methodical manner for the easy access based on the hazards, the natural hazards are categorized as two major categories as Atmospheric/Climate hazards and Geophysical hazards based on its nature. In addition, hazards relevant to each category are identified as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Hazards relevant to each category

Atmospheric/Climate Hazard Geophysical Hazard Flood Earthquake Landslide Volcano Lightning strikes Tsunami Cyclone Typhoon Hurricane Tornado Tropical storm Drought Forest fire

Classification of data

Then again, different data need to be collected from different sources. Furthermore, all the data are not equally important and their significance may vary depending on the hazards. Moreover, it is not possible to collect all the data in the same frequent and some data may not be available for the system depending on the availability of sources. Therefore, the data accumulation path ought to be flexible enough to overcome above mentioned complexities. Considering all the factors, we primarily classify the data in five major groups as given below. Meteorological Geophysical Biological Indigenous Sundry

Meteorological

Under the classification of metrological data, we mainly consider the scientific data collected by the metrological department which are used to forecast the atmospheric/climate hazards. In our database, we update each data with its respective date, time and location. The following data are identified as the metrological data for our data base. Temperature Rain fall Humidity Pressure

Wind speed Tide heights Cloud motion Soil moisture Sunrise and Sunset time Moonrise and Moonset time

Geophysical

Here we mainly consider the scientific data which is necessary to predict the geophysical hazards discussed in the literature (Sidorin, A.Y. 2003 and Yamanaka, C., at. el., 2002). The following data are identified under the geophysical category. Again we update each data with its respective date, time and location. Seismographic measurement Tsunami buoy (Change of water pressure in the ocean bed) Electromechanical potential (Static charge intensity at the ground) Water electrical conductivity Altitude of ionosphere layers

Biological

Abnormal animal behaviour is widely studied to predict the natural hazards (Motogi Ikeya, at. el., 1998, Papathoma, M., at. el., 2003 and Sidorin, A.Y., 2003). Extraordinary sensory power of animals and birds can be used as an input to predict the natural hazards. When the earth plates started crushing each other before the earthquake, it radiates the electromagnetic field. However, it is very difficult to sense this electromagnetic field due to its low strength. In China, they have already tested and succeeded of using snakes to predict earthquake. However, it has not been universally accepted as a method to predict an earthquake. In Japan, Catfish is tested and proven that it reacts to electromagnetic signal due to its electrosensory organ (Papathoma, M., at. el., 2003). Animal Science department in the Agriculture Faculty, University of Ruhuna has set up a fish tank with inbuilt sensors to monitor the motion of a catfish. However, it may take lot of stimulated trials and studies before deciding the unique behavioural changes relevant to earthquake. In our expert system, we have included the path to incorporate the data from appropriate animals and birds into the system. However, we have not finalized the suitable animals or birds and their unambiguous behavioural changes significant to the hazards.

Indigenous

In the ancient days, people used their indigenous knowledge to predict natural hazards. Especially, in Japan, they have several Falk talks to envisage the earthquake and those have been proven scientifically in the recent past (Motoji Ikeya and Hiroshi Matsumoto, 1997 and Nikonov, A.A., 1992). Yet again, we have included the path to accumulate the outcome of the well-known Falk talks in our expert system though the system can be upgraded to incorporate many more Falk talks in the future depending on the reliability of those Falk talks. Initially, we have considered the following Falk talks as the input to our system. Bending of candle flame Dropped nails from magnet Bowing Mimosa leaves

Sundry

Under this category, we have considered some common observations observed in the recent past before earthquake or volcanic eruption. Also these observations can be scientifically explained. We have included the path to accumulate two such observations in our system though we can add many more such observations to our system in the future. The following two observations are included in our system. Eccentric interruptions in electronic devices (due to atypical electromagnetic wave interactions). Able to hear some strange Shortwave broadcasting (reflection from anomalous ionosphere layers).

Hazard modeling

Natural hazards need to be modeled based on the available data in order to evaluate the risk factor of the respective hazards. Extensive studies need to be done to facilitate the significance of diverse data respective of different hazards. We follow the following order to model a hazard respective of its data. Categorize the relevant data set of particular hazard. Recognize the significance of the data respective of the hazard. Estimate the severity or hugeness of the data. Evaluate the risk factor.

While recognizing the significance of the data respective of the hazard, we assign a different significance factor Sij 0 Sij 1 for the same data respective of the hazard [7]. Evaluation of severity of data is little bit complex since there is no reference level of a particular data. Therefore, we have taken the worst-case data as the maximum and normalized all the data based on the maximum value to evaluate the severity factor Ai 0 Ai 1 . Once we have the significance factor and the N

B Ai Sij severity factor, we can evaluate the risk factor i1 of the R j N 0 R j 1

B Sij i1 particular hazard. Based on the risk factor, the decision can be made.

Equipment

We have acquired the following list of equipment given in Table 2.2 to set up a database at the Faculty of Engineering, Hapugala, Galle from the CIDA Restore project. The devices are installed and connected to the network through the existing network of the Faculty of Engineering.

Table 2.2: Equipment for predicting natural disasters

Device No. of Units Rack Mount Basic Server 1 Rack Mount Mainstream Server 1 Desktop computer 5 Laptop computer 1 CISCO Router 1 CISCO Switch 1

Results

We have built up a smart database to accumulate data and provide easy access to the data. Also we have developed the software to facilitate the data processing for all defined hazards. Based on the hazards, the software accesses the required data from the data base and process the data based on the hazard model. Finally the risk factor is calculated without human interaction. Whenever the data is not available, the program automatically calculates the required data by interpolating or extrapolating from the existing data. In case, when the data is not available for a long time, the program set the significance factor to zero of the particular data if the significance factor is very small. However, if the significance factor is large then the program 31 notify to the administrator about the non-availability of the data. In addition, program automatically notify to the administrator over SMS or e-mail whenever the risk factor is high for a particular hazard.

Even though, we have developed the smart database and processing software, we are facing problem of accumulating data since it is necessary to subscribe to the Meteorological department to obtain the data available with them. In addition, seismographic data is not available from the Geological Survey and Mines Bureau although it maintains a Global Seismic station at Pallekele, Kandy. Furthermore, there are no Tsunami buoys put up around Sri Lanka. These are the major constraints of accumulating data for our smart system.

We have developed a user friendly graphical interface to access and upload the data from remote locations as shown in following figures.

Figure 2.1: The user interface of Figure 2.2: The new client request of the the database database

Figure 2.3: The user login page Figure 2.4: Part of the meteorological data of the database entry interface

Figure 2.5: Part of the meteorological data entry interface

Conclusion

We identified the set of data to predict different hazards and modeled all the hazards based on the respective data. Further, we built up a smart database to accumulate data and provide easy access to the data with a graphical user interface. In addition, we developed the software to facilitate the adaptive data processing for all defined hazards. Moreover, we developed the software program such a way that it works without human interaction and notifies the disaster risk to the administrator over SMS or e-mail.

The system is an upgradeable system. Any time, hazard models and additional data sets can be included to the system or existing hazard models can be removed from the system without changing the basic structure of the database.

We faced constraints of accumulating data due to the subscription fee and non- availability of some important data. In addition, we need some more time to incorporate the biological data in our data base since further studies need to be done to identify the animals/birds and their specific behavioral changes respective of hazards.

Acknowledgment

This work is fully supported by the funding of Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The authors acknowledged that without the support of CIDA, this work would not have accomplished. 33

Bibliography

Motogi Ikeya, Tomonori Matsuda and Chihiro Yamanaka. (1998). Reproduction of mimosa and clock anomalies before earthquake, Proc. Japan Acad., vol. 74(B), pp.60-64.

Motoji Ikeya and Hiroshi Matsumoto. (1997). Reproduced Earthquake Precursor Legends Using a Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator: Candle Flame and Dropped Nails, Naturwissenschaften, vol. 84, pp. 539-541.

Nikonov, A.A. (1992). Abnormal Animal Behaviour as a Precursor of the 7 December 1988 Spitak, Armania Earthquake, J. of Natural Hazards, vol. 6, pp. 1- 10.

Papathoma, M., Dominey-Howes, D., Zong, Y. and Smith, D. (2003). Assessing tsunami vulnerability, an example from Herakleio, Crete, J. of Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, vol. 3, pp.377-389.

Sidorin, A.Y. (2003). Search for earthquake precursors in multidisciplinary data monitoring of geophysical and biological parameters, J. of Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, vol. 3, pp.153-158.

Van Veen, B., Vatvani,D., Kurniawan, A. and T van der Plas.(2008). A Tsunami Early Warning System based on database of Flood Model Results for Aceh and Nias, Proceeding of EGU General Assembly.

Whitehead, N.E., Ulusoy, U., Asahara, H.and Ikeda, M. (2004). Are any public- reported earthquake precursors valid?, J. of Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, vol. 4, pp.463-468.

Yamanaka, C., Asahara, H., Matsumoto, H., and Ikeda,M. (2002). Wideband Environmental Electromagnetic Wave Observation Searching for Seismo- electromagnetic Signals and Simultaneous Observation of Catfish Behavior-The Cases for the Western Tottori and the Geiyo Earthquakes, J. of Atmospheric Electricity, vol.22, no.3, pp.277-290.

DEVELOPMENT OF TSUNAMI EVACUATION SITES FOR GANDARA AND DEVINUWARA

K.D.N. Weerasinghe, P.G. Chandana, Ranjana U.K. Piyadasa, Goubin Antoine, Z. Kerrim and S. Guilhem

Abstract

In the present paper an appropriate model for Sri Lanka to develop Disaster mitigation and evacuation zones through techno-Socio economical integration is discussed. The study was conducted in Gandara and Devinuwara area which underwent the Tsunami tragedy in 2004. A field survey was conducted through a structured questioner to collect the data on Tsunami impact in the area of four bays in Gandara which were affected due to the tsunami. GPS coordinates were collected to locate them on a digital elevation map. Evacuation sites were demarcated in the outer skirt of the Tsunami hazard zone, considering the factors of road accessibility, availability of common places, such as temples, schools in coordination with the disaster management center and other stake holder institutions. This helps to develop Simulation maps for the planning processes of tsunami mitigation programs. Levels of the submergence due to 2004 tsunami in the inundated areas were demarcated and appropriate evacuation sites and routes were identified to fix sign boards to follow in case of a tsunami warning An eco touristic approach is adopted to maintain the sustainability of the site. People mobilization and training programs were initiated by cataloging the historical and cultural heritages, Natural resources, Local wisdom and knowledge of the people, etc to convert the sites in to an eco touristic zone. In the investigated areas, the flooded area was demarcated as 172,380 sq meters and the average distance covered by the wave inside the land as 90 meters with a maximum of 530m. The sustainable evacuation shelters for the future Tsunami mitigation programmes in Gandara and Devinuwara areas were identified in Purana Viharaya and Jayabhodhi Viharaya in Gandara, and Wawwa temple in Devinuwara. Galgane Temple in Devinuwara is identified as the principle evacuation site after considering of elevation of the site, availability of water, food, medical and communication facilities for a large mass of people in case of a disaster. Presence of four fresh water historical wells with quality drinking water, a capacious temple premises to host the refugees, a flat grass carpeted ground cover on the top of the hill with an archeological site where helicopters would be landed ,and the availability of on-site telecommunication towers are some of the major factors which has been considered for the site identification.

Introduction

World disaster data for the past decade (1997-2006) indicates that the number of reported disasters grew from 4,241 to 6,806, an increase of 60%.The number of reported deaths due to disasters were doubled, from more than 600,000 in early Nineties to more than 1.2 million at present. Asian Tsunami in 2004 killed more than 225,000 people in eleven countries, inundating coastal zones with waves up to 30meters (100feet) high.It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand were turned to be the most affected countries. In Sri Lanka, the tsunami claimed over 35,000 lives and left half a million people homeless (World Disasters Report, 2005).

Correct assessment and protection of the natural and environmental resources is a major strategy to mitigate the heavy damages caused by a disaster. One of the practical action which could be applicable for nature protection would be the promotion of agro and eco-touristic features with the community participation. It appears that development of eco-villages may be a viable option for the development of disaster evacuation and mitigation centers. This could be archived by exploiting and mixing the modern Information and Communications Technologies (ICT), Remote Sensing and GIS techniques etc. with the indigenous knowledge.

In the agro and eco-touristic understanding, an ecological village is described as a community that is largely self reliant through the creation of integrated and ecological food and energy production systems. Ecological villages are situated near nature, and built up around the local supply of energy, water and food (Eronnr, 1991, Malbert, 1993, Berg, 1993, Kullinger and Stromberg, 1992 and Wiberg, 1998). As a result, the uses of natural resources in ecological villages are limited to a minimum because the people take care of sewage and waste products with a circulation of nutrients and heat their houses with environmentally friendly sources.

As reported by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), this is one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry at present (Eagle, 1997). In 1993, the nature tourism generates 7 per cent of all international travel expenditure, where the total annual global earning from tourism was nearly $3 trillion and 212 million people are employed. The year 2002 was declared as an International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) by the United Nations which reflects its global importance (United Nations, 1998),

In a disaster situation, a quick rescue and relief mission is inevitable; however, considerable damage can be minimized if adequate preparedness levels are achieved. Indeed, it has been noticed in the past that when attention has been given to adequate preparedness measures, the loss to life and property has considerably reduced. In a typical disaster management cycle, disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase (Pearson et al., 1991). 37

In the present paper identification of the potential Tsunami hazard sites based on the 2004 Tsunami experiences, in Gandara and Devinuwara area and preparation of the evacuation plan for the locations using GIS and remote sensing technologies are described. The available resources in the vicinity have been used for the preparation of evacuation sites and the maps.

Materials and methods

The Present study was commenced in January 2008 selecting Gandara and Devinuwara areas as the sites of investigations. These villages are situated in the coastal zone of Matara District at 5 46 N, 80 34 E to 5 57 N, 80 37 E (Fig.2.6).

Figure 2.6: Coastal belt of Devinuwara to Gandara in Devinuwara D.S. Division

Both villages are administratively belonged to Devinuwara District Secretariat (DS). Typical landscape of the area is the repetition of hilly terrains with bays opened to the sea. Total population of the Devinuwara DS is 45783 (Department of Census and Statistics (2005). Most of the families living in the area have at least one member engaged in fishing. They wish to have their houses next to the seashore, which are vulnerable to a new Tsunami. In between the bays, there are hilly terrains which can provide enough shelter during Tsunamis. 363 housing units and 1806 people were directly affected due to the 2004 Tsunami in Devinuwara DS Division (Department of Census and Statistics, 2005).

The main objectives of the present study were to, identify and map the tsunami inundation area of 2004, demarcation of future Tsunami risk areas, and prepare Tsunami evacuation plan and the sites for future disaster management and mitigation programs.

In order to achieve the objective Tsunami affected areas were identified through a field visit and structured survey. During the field survey, Tsunami height, inundation distance and other tsunami related data were recorded. A location map was prepared using the ArcGIS software.

For the present study the height of the wave was considered as most significant factor to understand the magnitude of the damages. Potential hazard evacuation sites were identified using the GIS and GPS techniques. Criteria such as nature reserve, energy, food, water, waste and sewage, service and natural resources were specially considered in developing evacuation sites. A tsunami evacuation plan was developed and Tsunami hazard maps were developed for the Tsunami affected coastal belt from Gandara to Devinuwara.

The most important aspect of the survey was the demarcation of the area submerged by water by the tsunami wave in 2004, to locate the evacuation sites and the facilities. Based on the results Hazard Zoning map and evacuation route maps were developed.

Methodology

In order to understand the 2004 tsunami situation a field survey was conducted in the Tsunami affected area through a structured questioner. Data obtained from the ground survey and topographic maps (1:50000), digital maps (1:250,000, 1:50,000 and 1:10,000) prepared by the survey department of Sri Lanka were used for the study. The survey was conducted to catch the entire affected areas which included four bays (Gandara bey, Noonna Wella, Wawwa Wella and Kirala Wella) between the cities of Devinuwara and Gandara. The elevation and the number of destroyed houses were the main criteria adopted for the hazard mapping. GPS coordinates were collected to develop the location map. Tsunami inundation map was developed for the Tsunami in 2004 using the actual data. Future risk areas were identified and mapped based on the 2004, Tsunami inundation map and Digital Elevation Model. Based on these maps suitable areas for the evacuation sites were demarcated. Quickbird images, ESRI ArcGIS and its extensions (Spatial Analyst, 3D Analyst) were used for the GIS analysis. This software was linked with Microsoft Access to work with Geodatabase. The Kandawala coordinate system was used with Transverse Mercator projection for the mapping. A correlation and a regression analysis was conducted to establish the relationship between the wave height and distance with the magnitude of damages.

Results and discussion

Hazard zone identification

In January 2008, which is four years after the Tsunami, the traces of the disaster were observed as broken houses or boats brought to the interior by the tsunami Wave. By this period reconstruction has commenced and the new vegetation has masked most of the material evidences. The only way to obtain the data was through the survey of the witnesses of the disaster (Fig.2.7 and 2.8).

Figure 2.7: Field survey and data collection Figure 2.8: Ground survey

Tsunami inundation area map for 2004 Tsunami prepared for Gandara and Devinuwara is given in the (Fig.2.9). Accordingly inundation areas can be observed in the bays of Gandara and Devinuwara area. In the four investigated areas, the flooded area was demarcated as 172380 square meters and the distance covered by the wave inside the land as 90 meters in average with a maximum of 530m. The maximum ground elevation reached by the wave was around 10 meters.

The results revealed the total inundation area in Gandara, Noonna wella, Wawwa wella, and Kiralawella bay areas were approximately 4.2ha, 4.4ha, 3.2ha and 5.4ha respectively.

Figure 2.9: 2004 Tsunami inundation map of the Gandara and Devinuwara area.

The correlation between the damage intensity and the wave height was high with a coefficient equal to 0.71. But no correlation could be found between intensity and the distance from the sea with R2 inferior to 0.1. Thus the variability of damage intensity may probably depended on other factors like building quality or local phenomena which were difficult to quantify.

Development of evacuation sites

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the area was developed using digital contour data and spot heights. DEM was used to find the evacuation sites. Space, transport, shelters, space and water availability were also considered in location and identification of the sites. Using the Digital Elevation Model, area above 10 meters high was extracted and overlaid with the location map of the evacuation sites. These sites are the ones where people have to gather first in case of a disaster. These sites were demarcated based on the location of the outer skirt of the Tsunami hazard zone, accessible by the road, with the availability of common places such as temples, schools etc in coordination with the Disaster Management Center (Fig.2.10). Accordingly Purana Viharaya and Jayabhodhi Viharaya in Gandara, and Wawwa temple in Devinuwara are demarcated as the primary evacuation sites. The 41 plan for the improvement of the physical structures in the temples to handle the disaster situations, were worked out by the CIDA restoration project.

Figure 2.10: Tsunami evacuation sites and 10m boundary in Gandara area

Evacuation routes detection

Based on the shortest possible distance to move, routes from the bays to the emergency sites and from the emergency sites to the main evacuation site has been demarcated and demonstrated in the Fig. 2.14. In the map Vectors were traced along the roads and their lengths were calculated. Road markings and boards has been prepared according to the international standards and fixed on the roads for the people to follow the routes to the evacuation sites in case of a disaster.

Sign boards

The main objective of installing signboards was to identify the Tsunami danger areas and divert the people to evacuation routes and safe areas with minimal confusion, after receiving a Tsunami warning. These boards are internationally accepted boards in all other countries affected by tsunamis. Accordingly three types of boards were prepared.

The direction boards (Fig.2.11) had to be located in each junction to guide towards correct directions. The appearance of the boards installed in the main evacuation site and in Primary shelters are illustrated in the Fig.2.12 and 2.13. The locations of the boards were initially marked on the map (Fig.2.16) and, then visited through the routes and the position of the boards was demarcated in the map precisely with a GPS.

Figure 2.11: Direction board Figure 2.12: The main evacuation

Figure 2.13: The emergency

Initially 16 direction boards, 3 primary evacuation site boards and 1 main evacuation site board have been installed in coordination with other stake holder institutions (Disaster Management Center, Coast Conservation Department and the Pradeshiya Sabha) (Fig.2.14) .

Figure 2.14: Sign boards establishment

Evacuation map

The final evacuation map prepared for the site is illustrated in Fig.2.11. All the locations of the Tsunami sign board which were positioned using the GPS data are illustrated in the final evacuation map. The pathways towards the shelters and the principal evacuation site in Galgane temple are also depicted in the map. The map gives a clear idea about the probable hazardous areas illustrating escape routes from them in case of a Tsunami alarm. It is worth noting the secondary route to the principal evacuation site, avoiding Galle road which may be submerged in the transact from Wawwe well as demonstrated in Fig.2.15.

Figure 2.15: Tsunami evacuation map

Site maintenance and management

An eco touristic approach is adopted to maintain the sustainability of the sites. People mobilization and training programs were initiated by cataloging the historical and cultural heritages, natural resources, local wisdom and knowledge of

44 the people, etc to convert the sites in to an eco touristic zone. Special awareness programs were conducted among school children.

After conducting a detailed analysis of the available natural resources, Physical structures and the social organizations, the site of the Galgane temple was chosen as the main evacuation site in case of a major disaster (Fig.2.16).

Figure 2.16: Galgane temple Figure 2.17: Historical well after the restoration

The main factors for the selection of the site were the availability of shelter, water, food, medical and communication facilities for a large mass of people. The elevation of the site is 25m with a distance about 400m from the main road.

This was the site where people were instinctively gathered during the 2004 tsunami. Presence of four historical fresh water wells with quality drinking water (Fig.2.17), a capacious temple able to host the refugees a flat grass carpeted ground cover on the top of the hill with an archeological site where thousands of people could gathered are some of the basic features helped for the site demarcation. This site on the hill top could be used for the emergency landing of helicopters in case of a disaster. Furthermore all the telecommunication towers are installed in the vicinity of the site which facilitates the communication. The site has the archeological and landscaping beauty which can attract all the tourists who pass through the Dondra temple with a little improvement. Initial steps have been taken by the project to develop this site as an eco village to maintain the sustainability by cataloging the available natural and historical resources and demarcating them (Fig.2.18).

It is evident from the Fig.2.18 that, the Dondra Temple, Light house, Fisheries harbor, Historical wells which has legends on medicinal value of water, Archeological site associated with Ramayanaya are the main heritage sites which in the vicinity attracts tourists. The site has tropical fauna and flora which are to be made attracted for foreign tourists. With the availability of the principal temple of Vishnu, in Dondra lot of pilgrimages are attracted to the location throughout the year. During the annual Essala Festival time in July, Dondra is heavily crowded 45 with devotees and vendors who come from different corners of the country. Moreover it is a stopping place for all who go to Kataragama. These factors were considered in developing the present Tsunami evacuation site under the concept of an eco-village.

Figure 2.18: Important historical and natural sites

Activities such as home gardening and composting, waste separation, Bio gas technologies are also planned to address the waste management and mosquito problem in the eco village.

The monks in the temple spend their time for their own meditation while welcoming the devotees. The monks have agreed to receive tourists to undergo meditation techniques, Ayrvedha treatments and teaching of Buddhist philosophy. Fisherman in the village is trained to make excursions in the sea with the tourists to discover the way they work and learn about the varieties of the fauna and flora in the ocean. The tourists would also have the possibility to bring back their own fish for local restaurants to cook and eat. A program was envisaged to develop small home restaurants as enterprises to prepare indigenous food for the tourists. A web site development and attraction of funds for the concept development is in the progress under a post graduate Ph.D program.

Conclusion

Physical survey and verification, the GIS, GPS and remote sensing approaches and mapping techniques are being successfully used for the preparation of the disaster assessment, preparedness and evacuation programs. Gandara and Devinuwara areas in the Southern Coastal belt of Sri Lanka.

In Gandara and Devinuwara area the flooded area due to the 2004 Tsunami was demarcated as 172380 square meters; the average distance covered by the wave inside the land was 90m with a maximum distance of 530m. Demarcation and mapping of the levels of the submergence due to 2004 tsunami in the inundated areas have been successfully used to prepare the simulation maps for the planning processes of future Tsunamis of different magnitudes.

The sustainable evacuation shelters for the future Tsunami mitigation programmes in Gandara and Devinuwara areas were identified as Purana Viharaya and Jayabhodhi Viharaya in Gandara, and Wawwa temple in Devinuwara.

Galgane Temple in Devinuwara is identified as the principle evacuation site after considering of elevation of the site, availability of water, food, medical and communication facilities for a large mass of people in case of a disaster. The presence of four historical fresh water wells with quality drinking water, a capacious temple which premises to host the refugees, a flat grass carpeted ground cover on the top of the hill with an archeological site where helicopters would be landed, the availability of on site telecommunication towers are some of the major factors which have been considered for the site identification.

Development of the eco touristic village concept for the principal evacuation site in Galgane temple would be a promising way to maintain its future sustainability. This could be achieved by mobilizing and introducing an awareness building program among the community, while giving a wider publicity on the natural, Historical and cultural assets in the location.

Recommendation

Continuation with the Community training and mobilization programs along with the integration programs of historical, cultural and other assets associated with indigenous knowledge, in harmony with the natural resources and beauty are recommended as a mode to maintain the sustainability of the evacuation sites.

Acknowledgement

Authors wishes to acknowledge the assistance offered by CIDA under the Tsunami restoration program to initiate this research and development program. Thanks are specially due to Dr. Jana Janakiram, Prof. Ranjith Senarathne (Project Director), Prof. D. Atapatu (Deputy Director) for the initiation of the present project and continues support extended in numerous ways to continue with it, despite of different difficulties. We also express our sincere gratitude to the community of the area including temples, schools and other social organizations for the continuous support extended to conduct this program. Assistance offered by Mr. Chandana Lal (President of the Devinuwara Pradeshiya Saba), Officers of the Disaster management center under the leadership of Captain Saman Balasooriya and officers of the Coastal Conservation Dept. is greatly acknowledged.

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TSUNAMI HAZARD AND PREPARATION OF EVACUATION PLAN- A CASE STUDY FROM SOUTH EASTERN COASTAL BELT, SRI LANKA

N.W.B. Balasooriya

Abstract

The tsunami affected two villages, Akbar village and Maligaikadu in the South Eastern Coastal Belt of Sri Lanka were selected for implementing the Disaster Management programmes. Field surveys of the study area were conducted to establish inundation levels, flow directions during the tsunami, record the extent of damage, identify safe areas and residents preferred evacuation routes. Locations were identified for both horizontal and vertical evacuation of people to safe places. The different types of tsunami sign boards were displayed in both villages. Public preparedness through proper awareness programmes of education and training is one of our main tasks and pre-requisites for the success of a disaster management programme.

Introduction

The South Eastern Coastal Belt of Sri Lanka is a vast coast line with a very dense population and it is often affected by natural hazards like surges to tropical storms, monsoon depressions and tsunami etc. On Sunday 26th December, 2004, the tsunami occurred as a sudden event, with no antecedent features were found, tsunami event occurred between 8.30 am to 10 am along the SE coastal belt.

Based on the government information, Sri Lanka’s Tsunami caused 30,196 deaths, 21,411 injured and 516,150 displaced people. It also has had a severe economic and environmental impact (Fig.2.19). 50

Figure 2.19: Impact of Tsunami in Sri Lanka

In the aftermath of the tsunami, everybody focused attention on post disaster management issues strictly focused on disaster management theories and concepts. Post disaster management programmes were aimed at relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and resettlement.

Akbar village (07o 26’ 22” N & 81o 49’ 11” E) and Maligaikadu (07o 23’ 16” N & 81o 50’ 30” E) village are highly affected by the catastrophic tsunami event and were selected for implementing a suitable disaster management programme under CIDA Restore Project of South Eastern University of Sri Lanka. These two villages are situated in the South Eastern Coastal Belt of Sri Lanka. Akbar village is located about 2.5 km north of Kalmunai and Maligaikadu village is located about 2 km south of Kalmunai in Ampara district.

It may be understood that tsunami hazards cannot be prevented with present technological advances but vulnerability can be reduced by resorting to preparation and execution of a well thought out disaster evacuation plan which was the main objective of this project.

Methodology

Field surveys of the study area were conducted to identify the locations to establish inundation levels, to determine the flow directions during the tsunami, to record the 51 extent of damage, to identify safe areas and to identify the residents preferred evacuation routes.

Public preparedness through proper awareness programmes of education and training about tsunami and other natural hazards were conducted for the community and school children. Learning materials about disaster management and tsunami were prepared.

Several types of tsunami sign boards were designed: Evacuation Route (L/R), Safe Shelter, Tsunami Zone, Safe Site, Tsunami Water Level (26.12.2004).

Tsunami and Multi Hazards Warning Center were situated at Akbar Village and it was constructed by the Disaster Management Center of Sri Lanka for issuing warnings for the natural disasters. Under this CIDA Restore Project, renovation of the Tsunami and Multi Hazards Warning Center were conducted.

Results and discussion

On Sunday 26th December, 2004, the tsunami occurred as a sudden event, with no antecedent features found. The tsunami event occurred between 8.30 am to 10 am along SE coastal belt. The maximum height of the wave was observed to be between 20-30 feet. The time of occurrence of maximum wave height varied between 8.40 am- 9.30 am. Maximum inundation observed in the study area was up to 1.2 km at Akbar village towards Kalmunai- Batticaloa main road. Observations indicate that the total number of waves which struck the coast was 4-6. Areas with less vegetation, less elevation, with flat SE coast which were badly affected. This resulted in the erosion of huge sand deposits and broadening of channel inlets.

Best practices of the project Locations were identified for both horizontal and vertical evacuation of people to safe places. Different types of tsunami sign boards, Evacuation Routes (L/R), Safe Shelters, Tsunami Zone, Safe Sites, and Tsunami Water Level (26.12.2004), were displayed in both villages (Fig. 2.20 and 2.21).

Figure 2.20: Evacuation plan: Maligaikadu Village

Figure 2.21: Evacuation plan: Akbar village

Tsunami sign boards were displayed about 10 km stretch of the SE coastal belt from Akbar village to Maligaikadu. Pandiruppu (07o 25’ 42” N & 81o 49’ 33” E), Kalmunai (07o 25’ 11” N & 81o 49’ 47” E), Kalmunaikudi (07o 24’ 48” N & 81o 50’ 13” E), Islamabath (07o 24’ 35” N & 81o 50’ 19” E), and Sainthamaruthu (07o 23’ 44” N & 81o 50’ 26” E) villages are situated between the above selected two villages. Public preparedness through proper awareness programmes of education and training Disaster Management Awareness Programmes for the community and school children were conducted and are listed as follows (Table 2.3). 53

Table 2.3: Disaster management awareness programmes

Date Location Target Group No. of Remarks Participants Male Female 22.11. KM/Al- Hussain School Children 80 75 Following topics were 2007 Vidyalaya, (Grade 6,7 and 8 covered under this Maligaikadu students) programme: 18.03. KM/Pulavimani School Children 75 65 1. Introduction 2008 Sharifdeen (Grade 6,7 and 8 Disasters Vidyalaya, students) 2. Types of Disasters Maruthamunai 3. Natural disasters 05.04. KM/Pulavimani Community 10 60 and Sri 2008 Sharifdeen LankaTsunami Vidyalaya, 4. Responsibilities to Maruthamunai Public, 26.04. KM/Al- Hussain Community 05 45 Government 2008 Vidyalaya, officials, and Maligaikadu Scientists 15.05. KM/Al Manar School Children 80 65 5. Response to Early 2008 Central school, (A/L students) Warning System Maruthamunai 6. Evacuation 22.05. KM/Al Manar School Children 85 70 2008 Central school, (O/L students) Maruthamunai 29.05. KM/Al Sham’s School Children 90 60 2008 Central school, (A/L students) Maruthamunai 05.06. KM/Al Sham’s School Children 85 65 2008 Central school, (O/L students) Maruthamunai 29.10. South Eastern Community- 44 6 2008 University of Sri Divisional Lanka, Oluvil Secretaries, Police Officers, Government Agents, Officials from Disaster management Center, Researchers 30.03. Faculty of Applied Journalist from 48 02 2009 Sciences, Ampara District Sammanthurai

Renovation of Tsunami and multi hazards warning center, Akbar village

Ladder, Tiling of the floor area and other renovation work were completed and also Sign boards for this tower was constructed and fixed (Fig.2.22).

Figure 2.22: Renovation of Tsunami and multi hazards warning center, Akbar village

Maintenance andmanagement of the sign boards:

Disaster Management Committees at the village level and District Disaster Management Center (DMC), Ampara agreed to maintain and to management of the sign boards to protect from corrosion and damaging (Fig.2.23) April 2009.

Figure 2.23: Corrosion and damaging the sign boards

Conclusion

Public preparedness through proper awareness programmes of education and training is one of our main tasks and pre-requisites for the success of a disaster management programme.

The disaster management progarmme and disaster mitigation should be under the Emergency Action Plan to be executed by government and non-government organizations during and after a disaster strikes a particular region. The Emergency Action Plan should include responsibility of all government authorities to build a communication link for reaching the warning to the affected people, activating administrative people for arranging evacuation, mobilizing and relief etc.

Acknowledgement

Financial assistance by CIDA RESTORE PROJECT of South Eastern University is acknowledged.

Bibliography

Ranjith Premalal De Silva. Tsunami in Sri Lanka: Genesis, Impacts and Response, Second Edition, Published by Post Graduate Institute of Agriculture, Sri Lanka. ISBN: 955-589-077-3, pp: 5-24

Balasooriya, N.W.B. and Rislan, M.F.M. Tsunami: What is it? And what to do?, Published by CIDA Restore Project, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, ISBN: 978-955-8027-13-4, pp: 5-8

Balasooriya, N.W.B., Riyas Ahamed A.M. and Murath, M.I.A. Disaster Management, Published by CIDA Restore Project, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, ISBN: 978-955-8027-22-6, pp: 3-9

Mahanti, N.C., Samal, S.K., Datta, P. and Nag, N.K. Disaster Management, Published by Narosa Publishing House, ISBN: 81-7319-727-X, pp:48-68

INTERVENTION OF CIDA RESTORE PROJECT FOR PROVIDING SAFE DRINKING WATER TO THE VILLAGES PALAMEENMADU AND PUTHUKKUDIYIRUPPU

P.R. Fernando and S. Krishanthan

Abstract

The water crisis is one of the most significant issues in Sri Lanka after the Tsunami inclusive of Batticaloa district. The people those who are living in the Batticaloa district especially in Tsunami affected areas are suffering to get drinking water. The CIDA restore project targeted Palameenmadu and Puthukkudiyiruppu areas in order to find out the quality of drinking water. The questionnaire survey showed that even though 100% of the people from these two villages mainly depended on their home well to get drinking water before the Tsunami, none of them use their well for drinking purposes after the Tsunami. Based on this survey it was decided to test the water quality parameters in order to provide safe drinking water. There are 332 and 252 families in the Puthukkudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu areas respectively. It was very difficult to convince them to use their well, because they believed some wrong information about their drinking well water. Several kinds of activities and workshops were undertaken to remove their myths and to disseminate knowledge about the drinking water quality. At present all the villagers have started to use wells for drinking purpose after some practical activities and workshops.

Introduction

Water is the most fundamental building block of life. Most of us are fortunate to be living in a place where water is literally at our fingertips. The world water crisis is one of the most significant public health issues of our time. One-third of the Earth’s population lives in “water-stressed” countries and that number is expected to rise dramatically over the next two decades.

The water crisis is one of the most significant issues in Sri Lanka also after the Tsunami inclusive of Batticaloa district. The people who are living in the Batticaloa district especially in Tsunami affected areas are suffering to get safe drinking water.

Materials and methods

Location: The project was carried out in Puthukkudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu areas in the Batticaloa district, during the period of March 2008-January 2009.

Palameenmadu

PuthukudiyruppuCe nter

Figure 2.24: Map of Palameenmadu and Puthukudiyruppu

Methodology

Field survey

There are 252 and 332 families in Palameenmadu and Puthukudiyruppu areas respectively. A field survey was conducted in these villages to select the families those who are suffering due to the lack of safe drinking water. So initially the both areas were sub divided into sub areas and numbered. Ten to fifteen families were selected in each sub area and interviewed. After that a questionnaire survey was carried out in the entire villages.

Figure 2.25: Palameenmadu area Figure 2.26: Puthukudiyruppu area

Water quality testing

The water quality parameters namely, pH, turbidity, conductivity, salinity and temperature were tested for each well in both selected areas in order to get the exact information about the quality of drinking water. And also biological, chemical and physical parameters were checked. For this initially 10 to 15 wells were selected from each sub area.

Cleaning the wells

Even though the water quality parameters belong within the acceptable range for drinking water, all of the wells in selected areas were cleaned by pumping out the water and chlorination was done to enhance the people’s trust. All these work were carried out by the in-kind contribution of the villagers under the supervision of PHI and GS.

Workshops and training activities

Several Workshops and training activities were conducted for villagers and school students (year 10, 11, ordinary and advance level). Firstly, 75 members in each village (10 to 15 members from each sub area) were invited. Likewise in the school level 60 students were invited from both villages for workshops.

It was decided to disseminate the knowledge and to train the skills from the basic level. For example; testing the quality of drinking water, identifying the quality drinking water, purifying the drinking water, identifying the water related diseases,handling the water testing equipment, testing the physical parameters and comparing values with standard values and so on.

Among the groups (villagers and school students) 20 members were selected for each village. With the assistance of the project leader the knowledge were

60 disseminated to the entire villagers. During this time several strategies were handled to remove their myths.

The head of each family was requested to measure the physical parameters of his or her own well water by using the water quality testing meter. Also they were asked to bring currently using drinking water, which was collected 2 to 3 km far from their home and allowed them to measure the physical parameter. After that, they were trained to compare both readings with our assistance. And again, the quality parameters of well water were compared before and after cleaning the wells. Finally, villagers were trained to purify the drinking water and we convinced them to use their wells without fear.

Strengthening of wells and tube-wells

As per the request of villagers 10 wells and 4 tube-wells in Palameenmadu and 15 wells and 21 tube-wells in Puthukudiyurruppu those were damaged by Tsunami were strengthened.

Installation of new tube-wells

Based on the request of villagers 4 and 12 new tube wells were installed at Puthudukiyruppu and Palameenmadu respectively.

Results and discussions

Quality of water

The results of interview showed that no one was using wells after the disaster. The questionnaire survey showed that, they believed in some myths and lacked knowledge about the quality of drinking water.

The data collected from the questionnaire survey like no of wells, tube wells and their conditions in both villages are shown by the following pie charts.

The table 2.4 shows the ranges of water quality parameters those were taken from the Palameenmadu and Puthukudiyruppu areas.

Table 2.4: Range of water quality parameters (overall average value)

Water Quality Acceptable range Palameenmadu Puthukudiyruppu Parameters (WHO) pH 6.5-8.5 7.16 7.32 Turbidity 5 7 6 Conductivity 1500 710 943 Temperature 280C 29.50C

The report showed that 90% of wells satisfied the WHO standard values. Therefore it was concluded that the well water from these selected areas can be utilized for drinking purposes.

The field survey showed that the people from the Tsunami affected areas believe in some myths about drinking their own well water and, as a result, are finding it difficult to get safe drinking water.

The workshops conducted for these villagers and cleaning the wells enhanced their awareness on drinking water quality and reduced the myths on the quality of Tsunami affected wells.

Strengthening and installations of tube-wells

At Puthukudiyruppu 36 (common and private) tube wells were found, which were provided by some other NGOs or INGOs after the tsunami. Out of 36 only 15 were in working condition. So to reduce the drinking water scarcity CIDA restore project strengthened 21 tube-wells as well as CIDA provided 4 new tube-wells to the BT/ Visnu Vidiyalam Puthukudiyruppu because this school is the focal point of the surrounding villages.

At Palameenmadu 8 common tube wells were found which were provided by some other NGOs or INGOs after the tsunami. Out of 8 only 4 were in working condition. These 4 wells were strengthened. But they have a great demand for drinking water. Because, during the dry season (April to September) the well water becomes salty and therefore unpotable. This was not the effect of tsunami, but it is occurring naturally in this area during dry season. Therefore the people who live near to the coastal region have to move far away to collect safe drinking water. So as to overcome this long term problem, the CIDA Restore project provided 12 common tube-wells in

12 places identified with the help of PHI and GS. Now the village has 20 common tube-wells which can be utilized to get quality drinking water during the dry season.

Strengthening of wells

Ten and sixteen wells were strengthened at Palameenmadu and Puthukudiyruppu areas respectively for the families those who had lost their wells due to Tsunami.

It was observed that this was the highest achievement of this project that the myths of people in these selected areas about the quality of Tsunami affected well and tube-well water were successfully clarified and all the people are now willing to use this water for their drinking purposes.

Bibliography

World Health Organisation. (2004). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 3rd edition, Vol. 1. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Pyne, R. and David, G. (1995). Groundwater Recharge and Wells: A Guide to Aquifer Storage Recovery. Boca Raton. Lewis Publishers.

Mansuy, N. (1999). Water Well Rehabilitation: A Practical Guide to Understanding Well Problems and Solutions (The Sustainable Wells Series).

Webography

Drinking Water. Health Canada [Online] Available at:http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh- semt/water-eau/drink-potab/index-eng.php [Accessed 06.03. 2009]

STUDY ON BEHAVIORAL CHANGES OF ANIMALS PRIOR TO A TSUNAMI NATURAL DISASTER

R.A.U.J. Marapana, D.S. Hewamanage, R.T. Seresinhe and Ranjith Senaratne

Abstract

The establishment of a pre-warning system using unusual behaviors of domestic and wild animals, to predict natural disasters has been given a global attention. Therefore, a base line survey was conducted using a pre-tested questionnaire in order to collect observations from the people who observed unusual behaviors of pets, farm and wild animals prior to the Tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka in 2004. Information was collected from household chiefs and farmers from Tsunami affected in 10 veterinary ranges in Matara, Galle and Hambantota districts and from the field officers at the Yala National Park. Out of the total of 180 respondents, 167 were farmers. Forty two percent farmers reported that they observed at least one instance of unusual behavior with farm animals prior to the disaster. The results revealed that neat cattle, buffaloes, and goats have shown more or less similar behavioral changes. Their changes included shouting, restlessness, looking and listening, acting frightened and behaving agitated. Pigs and poultry showed similar signs as well. In addition poultry birds started pecking of other birds’ feathers. Out of total respondents, 64% had pets at their households. Fifty-four percent of them revealed that they witnessed at least one instance of unusual behavior with their pets before the disaster. Twenty-five percent of the respondents observed barking and howling of dogs without apparent reasons. Dogs became restless, ran away and displaced before the disaster. Fifteen percent of the respondents revealed that cats became frightened and hiding in unusual places. Rabbits also became frightened, trying to hide in secret places and finally ran away. Wild animals such as elephants, monkeys, wild buffaloes etc. also showed similar behavioral changes as domestic animals or pets. The main signs included shouting, looking and listening, agitation, restlessness, and finally running away from the coastal belt before the disaster. None of the animals’ carcasses were found at Yala National Park after the disaster. The most frequent lead time of unusual behavior in animals was 0-4 hrs (68%) before the disaster. The results concluded that, although not taken in to an account by their masters, animals have shown significant behavioral changes prior to the Tsunami disaster. Therefore it is possible to use animal sense as an indicator to develop pre warning system to detect a tsunami disaster in the future. However, systemic approaches and further investigations are necessary before such a system can be developed.

Keywords: behavior, disaster, pre warning system

Introduction

Natural disasters are a complicated problem which many living beings have to face. Natural disasters can be classified in several ways. There are landslides, flood conditions, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunami conditions, cyclones, hurricanes, etc. (Sheldrake, 1995). It’s almost impossible to escape from such a disaster even in highly technically developed modern world. Therefore, the most successful way is by keeping away from these natural disasters. In order to do that it’s very important to predict such disaster conditions.

A study on unusual behavior of animals can be used as a predictable method for such disasters. Animals have the ability of predicting the disaster earlier. Through studying the animal behavior, most of the eastern people have predicted the climatic conditions (Browns, 1990). The sensitivity of animals and humans is different from each other. For instance, some animals have an ability to predict some environmental changes before they happen (Hatai and Abe, 1932). Some animals are highly sensitive to the prospect of earthquakes from these natural disasters (Browns and Sheldrake, 1996). We can find out the records about this type of incidence not only from the recent. Especially Chinese people are aware of this. A large earthquake was occurred in Greece in 383 B.C. The records of Diodrows (383 B.C) showed that, there was an abnormal behavior of rats, reptiles, and worms on the previous day of the earthquake. Diodrows reported that animal behaviors were alert to the impending earthquake. According to the National Earthquake Bureau studies of animal behavior are one of the best methods to predict earthquakes (Wilson, 1974).

The tsunami which occurred on 26th December 2004 was the largest natural disaster to ever hit Sri Lanka. The earthquake occurred in Western Ocean from 200km to Sumatra Island where 2500 km from Sri Lanka. It has recorded as 9.3 on the Richter scale. This was the second largest earthquake ever recorded for the world and the largest natural disaster with resptect to damages to the properties and living beings. It caused a loss about 300,000 humans in the 11 countries situated in Indian Ocean. It affected ¾ of the coastal areas of Sri Lanka and eastern and south beach of Sri Lanka (Lankadeepa, January 2005).

Recorded deaths were 39,000 and 41,000 peoples were displaced. 63,472 of houses in 13 districts were fully damaged and 41,600 houses were partially damaged (Liyanage and Subasinghe, 2005). However, while many numbers of peoples died, recorded animal deaths were very low. For an instance, even a single death was not recorded in Yala National Park area which revealed that many animals have escaped from those areas before the disaster. Based on the previous records, animals are capable of sensing many environmental changes that humans are not sensitive to (Nikonov, 1991). Technical equipment and unusual behaviors of animals are two methods to predict the tsunami conditions in the modern world (Kalpan, 2007). Studying unusual animal behavior is the most suitable way for a third world country like Sri Lanka which is situated in highly tsunami affected area. 67

Methodology

Tsunami affected coastal area in the Southern province of Sri Lanka and Yala National Park area was selected as the study area. A field survey was conducted at selected Grama Niladari (GN) Division of each tsunami affected veterinary office area in Galle, Matara and Hambantota districts. Ambalangoda, Hikkaduwa, GalleandHabaraduwaveterinary office areas wereselected from Galle District. Matara and Weligama veterinary office areas were selected from Matara district andAmbalantota, HambantotaandThissamaharamaveterinary office areas were selected from Hambantota district. Yala National Park area mainly divided from five Blocks. The Block 1 and Block 2 areas were highly susceptible to the Tsunami disaster. The Block 1 and Block 2 areas were selected for data collection.

The detailed list (Names and Addresses) of the farmers in Galle, Matara and Hambantota district was collected from the veterinary office in the area. Two main categories of information are Primary source of information and Secondary source of information were collected.

Primary data were collected from the Personal Interview method through an administration of a structured pre-tested questionnaire to a sample of effected farmers and informal discussions with officials and community organizations. Secondary data were collected from Books, Journals and Reports, News paper articles, Publications, and past research reports in other countries.

Collected data were tabulated using tabulation sheets and transferred subsequently to the computer. Necessary data were extracted from computer sheets and they were subjected to tabular, graphical and economic analysis. Computer packages MS Excel, was used for data analysis.

Results and discussion

In was found that neat cattle, buffaloes, poultries, goats and pigs were mainly reared as farm animals in coastal areas. The three main rearing methods identified were Intensive, Semi-intensive, and Extensivemethods. As reported by respondents, neat cattle and buffaloes showed more similar behavioral changes before the tsunami disaster. The most significant behavior changes of neat cattle and buffaloes were shouting (17%, 11%), frightening (11%, 14%), restlessness (10%, 13%) and refrained from eating (10%, 11%) respectively.

Most significant behavioral changes were shown by goats. They included being frightened (15%), looking and listening (14%), restlessness (12%) and shouting (11%). Approximately ten percent of people reported that goats came closer to them

68 before the disaster. By contrast, this behavior change was not evident either with neat cattle and buffaloes.

Most of the poultry farmers in the Southern Province used the intensive method of poultry rearing. Therefore, some limitations occurred in observing unusual behavior. However, excitement, restlessness, nervousness, agitation (11%), shouting (19%), frightening behaviour (19%), and pecking (19%) were noted as unusual behavior patterns which were observed before the disaster with poultry birds.

When compared with other livestock, pig rearing is not popular in the coastal area of the Southern Province. Therefore the number of piggeries was less and most of there were managed under intensive system. Similar to poultry certain limitations existed in that, observations of the respondents revealed that pigs were frightened (27%), became restlessness (18%), nervousness (18%), and started shouting (18%) before the disaster.

The results revealed that 64% of the respondents were rearing pets in their houses. The most preferred pets were dogs (60%) followed by cats (32%).Seven percent respondents reared rabbits while 1% had other pets such as love birds etc. Three common methods were used to rear pets in collected areas were the free range system, either keeping pets inside thehouse or in a cage.

Fifty four farmers have been noticed unusual behavior of the pets just before the tsunami disaster. Forty six percent farmers had not noticed any behavior changes in their pets prior to the disaster.

Some of important behavior changes observed with dogs were barking (13%), howling (12%), restlessness (11%), running away (11%), missing, running around, nervousness, agitation and going to unusual places. Just before the tsunami disaster many of the dogs have shown continuous barking and howling without any obvious reason, running here and there and restlessness.

Cats also showed major significant behavioral changes before the tsunami. Sixteen percent cats were missing, or shouting (15%), hiding in unusual places (14%) or refraining from eating (12%). Minor behavioral changes showed by cats were nervousness (3%) and excitement (1%).

As we know rabbits are very sensitive animals to changes in the environment. Rabbits are reared as pets in houses and as well for commercial purposes. When they are reared as pets’ the semi-intensive method was mostly used for interviewing. Before the tsunami disaster they have shown few of abnormal behaviors. The main observations regarding behavioral changes were being frightened (38%), hiding (24%), running away and getting closer to people (19%).

Figure 2.27: Percentage of animal deaths during tsunami disaster

Figure 2.27 shows the percentage of death for animals due to the tsunami disaster. The highest percentage of deaths were reported for poultry (89%), pigs (100%) because they were kept in cages and could not have an opportunity for them to ran away.

Table 2.5: Number of animal deaths or lost during disaster

Before Disaster AfterDisaster Death/ lost

Neat cattle 1141 955 191 Buffalo 941 858 93 Poultry 3915 195 2720 Goat 465 328 137 Pig 73 0 73 Dog 134 115 19 Cat 76 58 18

120

100

80 In a Cage Tethering 60 Free range

Percentage 40 In a House

0 Neat Buffalo Poultry Goat Pig Dog Cat Rabbit cattle Type of animals

Figure 2.28: Rearing methods of animals during disaster

Figure 2.28 shows rearing methods of the animals when the tsunami was happening. Pigs and rabbits were reared totally in cages and 90% of poultry were reared in cages. According to the figure 100% pigs and 89% of poultry have died. This confirms that there is a relationship between the rearing method and animal deaths. In case of neat cattle many of the tethered cattle died as the result of the tsunami while few of other deaths were reported. The reason for this is tethered animals and that were rearing in cages could not have a chance to escape from the tsunami affected areas.

The wild animals in Yala National Park area (especially elephants, deer, monkeys, peacocks, and other birds) showed most of the unusual behaviors just before the disaster. While they showed signs of looking and listening, shouting, ran away, nervousness, frightening and they flawed as a flock before the disaster. Field officers recorded that, no animal deaths were reported after the disaster.

It was evident that before the disaster elephants were more restless (20%), frightened (16%) and ran away (18%). Shouting, looking and listening and nervousness was least recorded behavioral changes. Thirteen percent of respondents reported elephants were agitated before the disaster.

Deer are very sensitive to changes in the environment. Deer were reared as pets in some hotels in the Southern region and were interviewed using the semi intensive method. Though deer also showed similar behavior changes as elephants. They ran away and were frightened (23%), restless and agitated (20%).

Normally monkeys showed a number of unusual behaviors prior to the tsunami disaster as well as other animals. Those were that they ran away (12%), were restless (21%), nervous (12%), agitated (12%), shouted (21%), and were frightened (15%).

Peacocks and all other birds showed most similar abnormal behavioral changes. Shouting (42%) was the most pre-dominant behavior in peacocks. Flying as flocks (41%) were prominent behavior is other birds. None of them showed behavior changes such as nervousness, agitation and looking and listening.

Sixty-eight percent of animals have shown their abnormal behaviors in the 4 hours before the tsunami. 18% of the animals have shown their abnormal behaviors throughout the 8 hours before thetsunami. Therefore the most suitable time period to observe animal behaviors for predict a natural disaster is 8 hour time period before the disaster. 71

Figure 2.29: Difference of sensitivity in animals

According to the above Fig.2.29 wild animals were more sensitive to the changes of surrounding environment than domestic animals. The reason for that is they have adapted well for the environment and they have many predators and then they are more sensitive for the environment. Out of the domestic animals dogs, cats and cattle are more sensitive.

Conclusion

The results revealed that pets, farm animals and wild animals have shown accountable unusual behavioral changes prior to the tsunami disaster. This may be due to their sharp natural sense and close interaction with the nature due undisturbed life style. Therefore it is possible to use animal sense as an indicator to develop a pre-warning system to detect disasters in the future.

Bibliography

Browns, D.J. (1990). Unusual animal behaviour and earthquake prediction, Etho- Geological forcasting, 1-5.

Browns, D.J., and Sheldrake, R. (1996). Unusual animal behavior prior to earthquakes, Asurvey in North West California, 1-13

Hatai, S., and Abe. (1932). The responses of the catfish parasilurus ascotus to earthquake, Proc .Imperial acad., 374-378

Kalpan, M. (2007). Beastly power, New scientist 12 February issue, 34-37.

Liyanage, M. de S., and Subasinghe, S. (2005). Tsunami damage to Agriculture and Livestock in southern of Sri Lanka. 2,24,42

Nikonov, A.A. (1991). Abnormal animal behaviour as a precursor of the 7 December 1988. spitak ameriana earthquake, Russia academy of Science. 5,6.

Shldrake, R. (1995). Seven experiments that could damage the world, Riverhead books, 4-13.

Wilson, R. (1974). California geological survey, Earthquake DOC, 1-13. 73

III. NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR REBUILDING AND RECONSTRUCTION

A REMEDY FOR THE PROBLEMS CAUSED BY EICHORNIA CRASSIPES IN THE AMPARA DISTRICT

A.M. Razmy, A.N. Ahmed and Y.B. Iqbal

Abstract

Eichornia crassipes (“Japan Japarli” or “Aathu Valai”, Water hyacinth) is non- native invasive freshwater plants to Sri Lanka, which blocks the drainage & irrigation cannels. During heavy rainy season Eichornia crassipes blocks the flow of rivers and by spreading over the paddy fields causes flood frequently. This plant also destroys the aesthetic value of the water bodies and obstructs the fishing activities. Further, this plant acts as host for pests and annually farmers and the irrigation and local authorities spend a significant amount of money to remove this blocks caused by the plant. Due to very rapid growth and spread rate, farmers and local authorities need a large dumping area for disposing the collected Eichornia crassipes plant. A study was conducted to prepare compost using Eichornia crassipes as the main resource material along with the paddy straw and cow dung. Paddy straw is amply available in the Ampara district. Mostly this straw is burnt in the paddy field after harvesting which creates a severe environmental problem. Cow dung also is sufficiently available in this region and currently cow dung is just thrown into the water bodies. These three materials were collected from the environment and spread as layers on the ground. The first layer was 3 inches thick of paddy straw, the second layer was 3 inches thick cow of dung and the third layer was 6 inches thick of Eichornia crassipes. This setup of layers was repeated four times up to 4 feet height and covered with polythene sheet after spraying water. The width and length of the heap was 4 and 18 feet respectively. These heaps were mixed at 3rd and 6th weeks and the moisture content was maintained at 50-60%. In the 10th week, compost was ready and it was sieved. This compost was packed with adding some burnt paddy husk to add some potassium, to improve the colour and keeping quality. The return % of compost from the input was 65. The moisture % of the produced compost is 50.3 and the volatile solid % is 22.8. This compost contains 39.5% carbon and the pH is 8.1. 73.5% of the produced compost was sieved through 4mm sieve. The total production cost to produce one kilogram compost was Rs 4.40. This compost had very good demand and the bidding price is Rs. 13.00 per kilogram. This compost could be a good substitute for inorganic fertilizer for which the Sri Lankan Government had to allocate 40 billion for fertilizer subsidies in the fiscal budget for 2008. Compost composition mainly depends on the input materials used and therefore some analysis including the heavy metal content for this produced compost has to be completed still in order to compare with the standard compost.

Introduction

Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a member of the pickerelweed family (Pontederiaceae). The plants vary in size from a few centimeters to over a meter in height. The glossy green, leathery leaf blades are up to 20cm long and 5-15cm wide and are attached to petioles that are often spongy-inflated. Numerous dark, branched, fibrous roots dangle in the water from the underside of the plant. The inflorescence is a loose terminal spike with showy light-blue to violet flowers (flowers occasionally white). Each flower has 6 bluish-purple petals joined at the base to form a short tube. One petal bears a yellow spot. The fruit is a three-celled capsule containing many minute, ribbed seeds.

Figure 3.1: A natural habitat of Eichornia crassi

1.1 Economic Importance

Water hyacinth is listed as one of the most productive plants on earth and is considered the world's worst aquatic plant (Fig.3.1). It forms dense mats that interfere with navigation, recreation, irrigation, and power generation. These mats competitively exclude native submersed and floating-leaved plants. Low oxygen conditions develop beneath water hyacinth mats and the dense floating mats impede water flow and create good breeding conditions for mosquitoes. Water hyacinths are a severe environmental and economic problem in all of the areas of the world with a sub-tropical or tropical climate. This species has rapidly spread throughout inland and coastal freshwater bays, lakes, and marshes (Fig.3.2 and 3.3).

Figure 3.2: Blocked drainage and irrigation canals

1.2 Habitat

Figure 3.3: During heavy rainy season Eichornia crassipes blocks the flow of rivers and by spreading over the paddy fields causes flood frequently.

Water hyacinths grow over a wide variety of wetland types from lakes, streams, ponds, waterways, ditches, and backwater areas. Water hyacinths obtain their nutrients directly from the water and have been used in wastewater treatment facilities. They prefer and grow most prolifically in nutrient-enriched waters. New plant populations often form from rooted parent plants and wind movements and currents help contribute to their wide distribution. Linked plants form dense rafts in the water and mud. The fibrous root system of water hyacinth provides nesting habitat for invertebrates and insects. Leaf blades and petioles are occasionally used by coots. However, whatever benefits this plant provides to wildlife are greatly overshadowed by the environmental invasiveness of this noxious species.

1.3 Reproduction

Water hyacinth reproduces sexually by seeds and vegetatively by budding and stolen production. Daughter plants sprout from the stolons and doubling times have been reported of 6-18 days. The seeds can germinate in a few days or remain dormant for 15-20 years. They usually sink and remain dormant until periods of stress (droughts). Upon reflooding, the seeds often germinate and renew the growth cycle.

1.4 Response to Herbicides

The use of herbicides to control water hyacinth is common. It can be controlled by the use of the aquatic herbicides 2, 4-D or diquat.

1.5 Response to Mechanical Methods

Mechanical controls such as harvesting have been used in Sri Lanka, but are ineffective for large scale control, very expensive, and cannot keep pace with the rapid plant growth in large water systems.

1.6 Biocontrol Potentials

Three insects have been released for the biological control of water hyacinth. These include two weevil species (Neochetina spp.) and a moth (Sameodes albiguttalis). Unfortunately large scale reductions in water hyacinth populations did not occur. Instead insect predation reduced plant height, decreased the number of seeds produced, and decreased the seasonal growth of the plants. This, in turn, allowed better boat access into plant mats, reduced use of herbicides, and resulted in less plant problems.

The present study was carried out with the following objectives in order to use them in compost preparation: 1. To minimize the problem of Eichornia crassipes in water bodies. 2. To produce bio-compost with low cost and high nutritive plant materials.

1.7 Compost Using Water Hyacinths

Compost is the product resulting from the controlled biological decomposition of organic material. More specifically, compost is the stable, humus-like product resulting from the biological decomposition of organic matter under controlled conditions. A wide range of materials may be composted, but they must consist of 79 principally organic components (i.e. carbon-containing remnants or residues of life processes). Mixtures of organic materials may be more or less heterogeneous, but are rendered more physically homogenous through the composting process. Particles are made smaller and the total volume of the original materials is reduced (usually by 30 to 50 percent). Volume reduction is one of the benefits of composting. Compost products may vary since the properties of any given compost depend on the nature of the original feedstock and the conditions under which it was decomposed. Yet, all compost contains a tremendous variety of chemical substances.

This water-hyacinth has very high water content, ranging from 93 to 95 percent and has tremendous potential for composting. Its composition varies considerably with the media in which it grows. Dymond, did a composition analysis for this plant and reported the following.

Table 3.1: Composition analysis–Water Hyacinth

Water % 93.2 Dry matter % 6.8 Nitrogen% Dry Substance 1.7

Ash % Dry Substance 23.5

Table 3.2: Analysis of the Water Hyacinth Ash

Silica % 48.7 Chlorine % 6.4 Iron and Alumina % 18.2 Sulphates % 2.5 Magnesia % 3.9 Phosphoric Oxide % 2.4 Potash % 8.0

This plant absorbs nitrogen and phosphoric acid very rapidly. In one acre 96 tons of this plant can be collected. It is further estimated that a given area will at least double itself in one month. One acre will yield a maximum of 6.7 tons and a minimum of 4.3 tons of dry matter per month, or 80.4 and 51.6 tons per acre per year. Therefore this plant is a very good source for composting.

Jen-Shaun Chen, et.al. reported that compost made from swine manure (pH 7.1, Organic carbon: 25%, Total N: 2.89%, C/N: 9), and mushroom waste (pH 7.3, Organic carbon: 37%, Total N: 1.95%, C/N: 19) were added to two different acidic soils and found that the availability of N in both soils was increased by the addition

80 of both types of compost. As this water-hyacinth contains significant amount of nitrogen, compost made of this water-hyacinth can be used for soil amendment.

Materials and methods

Water-hyacinth was collected from the nearest water bodies in a large quantity. The other materials such as cow dung and paddy straw which were also collected from the surrounding environment in an adequate quantity were used as sub resources to prepare the low cost and high nutritive content compost. The first layer was 3 inches thick of paddy straw, the second layer was 3 inches thick cow of dung and the third layer was 6 inches thick of water-hyacinth (Fig.3.4). This setup of layers were repeated four times up to 4 feet height and covered with polythene sheet after spraying water. The width and length of the heap was 4 and 18 feet respectively (Fig.3.5).

The heaps were mixed on the 3rd and 6th weeks and the moisture content was maintained at 50 - 60% and with little warm condition in order to accelerate the microbial activity. In the 10th week, compost was ready and it was sieved (Fig.3.6). The compost was packed after mixing it with some amount of burnt paddy husk to add some potassium, to improve the colour and quality (Fig.3.7 and 3.8).

Figure 3.4: Spreading water-hyacinth as layer over the paddy straw and cow dung.

Figure 3.5: Covering the layers of compost materials with thick black colour polythene 81

Figure 3.6:Sieving the compost Figure 3.7: Mixing the compost with burnt paddy husk

Figure 3.8: Mixing, sieving and packing the compost in the compost field

Results and discussion

The compost produced using the Eichornia crassipes as main resource materials had the following properties (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Physical and chemical characters of the compost

Properties Value Moisture 50.3% Carbon content 22.8% Volatile solid 39.5% pH 8.1 4 mm Sieve 73.5%

The cost of production of 1Kg of compost is only Rs. 4.40 and the initial price determined was Rs. 10.00 per Kg (bidding price Rs. 13.00/Kg). This compost could be a solution to solve the burning fertilizer subsidy problem in Sri Lanka. In the fiscal budget for 2008, Sri Lanka allocated 15 billion rupees for fertilizer subsidies, in an interim fiscal report that all the money has been busted in just five months. Therefore 25million extra money was put into this subsidy and the total spending on

82 the fertilizer subsidy was 40 billion rupees (368 million US dollars). Maintaining the fertilizer subsidy is a priority for the government as it decides the support of the public to the Government. Sri Lanka gives a 50 kilogram bag of fertilizer at 350 rupees but the cost of a 50 kilo bag of triple super phosphate (TSP) fertilizer now is Rs. 6,337.00 Muriate of potash (MOP) Rs. 6,150.00 and urea cost Rs. 4,200.00.

Bibliography

Dymond, G.C. (2001). The Water-Hyacinth: A Cinderella of the Plant World, ARS.

Jen-Hshuan Chen, Jeng-Tzung Wu and Wei-Tin Huang, (2001). Effects of Compost on the Availability of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Strongly Acidic Soils, Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute

Webography

California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle). Organic Materials Management, Compost--What Is It? [Online] Available at:http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Organics/CompostMulch/CompostIs.htm

Lanka Business Online. Sri Lanka to more than double spending on fertilizer subsidy [Online] Available at:http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/fullstory.php ?nid=1691326782

Washington State University. Compost Fundamentals: reclamation of nitrogen and other nutrients [Online] Available at:http://whatcom.wsu.edu/ag/compost/ fundamentals/consideration_reclamation.htm

GROUNDWATER DISTRIBUTION IN THE GANDARA AND DEVINUERA AREAS-SOUTHERN SRI LANKA

K.D.N. Weerasinghe, Ranjana U.K. Piyadasa, Ruwan Sampath, L.M.J.R. Wijayawardhana, Y. Moreau and M. Dupin

Abstract

The present research study was conducted in Madiha, Gandara and Devinuwara areas in Southern coastal strip of Sri Lanka to identify the groundwater distribution. A total of 50 dug wells in Madiha and 50 in Gandara were selected from the coastal belt for the initial survey. The ield survey program was initiated in the study area using questionnaires and a dug well monitoring program was subsequently conducted. According to the monitoring data of selected wells reveled that most of well’s diameter at Madiha, Gandara and Devinuwara areas are under 1.0-1.5m range. With respect to the Tsunami affected and Tsunami non-affected category it has shown that higher apron height were not damaged due to tsunami wave. According to the total depth of the wells classification of the study area, 54% of wells are within 2-4m range. These changers of the dug wells characteristics could be explained by place-to-place morphological deference due to topography, elevation, vegetation cover and as well as constructions methodology. In Gandara area electrical condition (EC) values distribution change in the range of 263µS/cm to 693.7µS/cm, Devinuwara it was 918 µS/cm to 483.23µS/cm and Madiha it was 1187.27µS/cm to 1317.12µS/cm. In Madiha there was no significant difference between the Tsunami affected and Tsunami non affected wells due to the morphological characteristics of the area. Water quality in wells at Gandara and Devinuwara is good for drinking purposes. However in Madiha, water quality was inferior in most of the wells. Well water in Madiha could be used for Agricultural and other purposes and quality could be improved with the better management of the wells.

Keywords: alluvium, aquifer, electrical conductivity, geology, GPS,hard rock, pH

Introduction

On 26 December 2004, a magnitude 9.3 earthquake off the south coast of Sumatra generated tsunami waves that left over 280,000 people dead or missing in Asia and Africa. Hundreds of thousands of homes were destroyed resulting in a humanitarian crisis in the hardest hit countries. Illangasekare, T., et al. (2006), investigate the impacts of the tsunami on coastal groundwater resources and review well cleaning 84 methods and their impacts, to develop a conceptual understanding of the seawater mixing phenomenon in coastal aquifers after the tsunami to investigate the medium and long-term impacts of the tsunami on coastal groundwater resources, to develop a joint program to study the regional aquifer hydrology and hydrogeology of Sri Lanka, and to transfer knowledge about coastal aquifer vulnerability to other south Asian nations.

Groundwater forms an important source of potable water which is believed to be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria and suspended matter. Many people in the coastal regions of Sri Lanka depend on shallow groundwater for their domestic needs. Studies indicate that seepage losses from canals and reservoirs have been indispensable for maintaining water levels in shallow wells. Deep groundwater is concentrated in the fractured and weathered aquifers in hard rock areas and alluvial aquifers. Available information indicates that 7 to 10 percent of rainfall contributes to groundwater recharge in the hard rock terrain, and 40 percent in the sandy alluvial aquifers in coastal areas (Panabokke et al., 2002).

According to Panabokke (2001) groundwater resources across most of the Sri Lankan coast are dominated by the ‘‘coastal sand’’ aquifers, which consist primarily of spits and bars, coastal dunes, raised beaches and paleobeach deposits [Cited from Panabokke 2005]. The shallow open dug wells are usually manually pumped whereas the deeper tube wells use electric pumps and are typically managed by the NWSDB or by private agricultural enterprises. Due to the Tsunami tragedy groundwater reserve of the southern coastal belt was highly disturbed.

The objective of the present study was to assess the quality of the ground water in the two villages Viz. Madiha and Gandara in the Southern Coastal belt, which were seriously polluted due to 2004 tsunami to use for the domestic purposes. The wells in the two locations were earlier used by the people for drinking and other purposes and, with the introduction of the pipe borne water after the tsunami; Ground water resource is neglected in most of the cases.

Methodology

The study was conducted from 2007 July in Madiha and from February 2008 in Gandara and Devinuwara to July 2008. The study area falls within the WL2 agro ecological region. Annual rainfall of the area varies between 1875mm-2500mm, mean temperature is 250C and RH is 75%-80%. The elevation of the area is between 0-30m. The top unconfined alluvium aquifer is dominant in the coastal belt and other minor river basins. In the study area, precrembrian metamorphic hard rock covered by quaternary sedimentary deposits are dominant. The basement consists of precrembrian rocks of the so-called Highland Complex and consists of granite silimants with-biotite gneiss. Topsoil mainly consists of sandy clay. Shallow groundwater aquifer is mainly unconfined and consists of sandy-clay, clay, silty- clay and laterite formations. 85

In general, the aquifer consists of calcified sand, in case of the coastal strip of Matara sandstone is dominant. Recharge of the aquifer takes place mainly from rainfall from the Northern region of the catchment area. The hydro-geological conditions are very favorable for saltwater intrusion; therefore, along the coastal belt, alluvial and coastal sand deposits are dominating and forming higher-yielding local aquifers.

To achieve the objectives fifty families have been randomly selected as a sample to represent the area from each location. Oral interview method was used to collect data. Availability of water resource, Maintenance of the water resource, hygienic condition of the family, water related disease history and subsidies for rehabilitation have been the main area of the study. Figure 3.9 shows the observation of wells by the study team.

Figure 3.9: View of the well monitoring program in Madiha

Locations of wells were identified with GPS and mapping has been done using the software MapInfo® associated with surfer8®. The Fig.3.10 and 3.11 below show well network in Madiha and Gandara.

Figure 3.10: Network of wells in Madiha East

Figure 3.11: Network of wells in Gandara and Devinuwara

Monitoring of the water quality has been done in respect to Electrical conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), salinity and pH using a EC/pH meters commencing from July 2007. Some of these wells were monitored since 2005 in a groundwater study conducted by us after the Tsunami. Elevations of wells were recorded using 1:10000 digital map and apron heights were measured with a tape. From the sample of 50 wells, 20 dug wells were selected for analysis on the basis of three EC levels and affected and non affected nature of the Tsunami disaster. All the selected wells were marked by giving them a permanent reference number with the 87 chordMOW (Matara Observation Wells). Water sampling in dug wells were taken once a month during the period of study. Ionic composition of the water was analyzed to categorize the aquifers. Bacteriological analysis has been conducted to assess the bacteriological contamination. Three pumping tests have been done in the area of Madihe East to understand the aquifer, the annual extraction potential, and recharge.

Results and discussion

Distribution and the location map of the wells in the Madiha and Gandara area are depicted in the Fig.3.10. and 3.11. In the map each well is identified a number and GPS positions of the wells are illustrated. Access roads to the wells and other specific information are also depicted in the map. According to the well characteristics, most of the wells distributed in Gandara area were shallow and were in the 0-10 meter depth range (Table3). However more than 35% of the total depths of the dug wells were in 2-4 meter depth. In Madihe area all wells were within 2-4m depth range, and 45% of wells were within 1-1.5m. diameter range.

Well water in Madiha

By the time of the survey Pipe borne water was available for 98% of the families in Madiha. However almost all the families have a dug well in their gardens. Some of them are used it for washing, bathing and irrigation purposes etc (Fig.3.9). 36% of dug well have been neglected after the tsunami, It was revealed in the survey that 67% of family have neglected their wells due to the availability of pipe bone water. 22% of the wells have been neglected due to the unpleasant taste associated with saline water.

The neglected wells were used by the people as waste collection pit or waste water collecting tanks. This contaminated the shallow unconfined aquifer of the area. About 70% of wells had a properly constructed aprons and 20% were partially constructed. The rest of the wells didn’t have an apron due to which contamination of well water and this occurred due to the accumulation of the surface runoff during the rainy period by accelerating the biological contaminations. Water lifting methods that practiced in the wells also had a contribution to the water contamination within the sample only 16% of families used a separate bucket for water lifting and pumps were installed only in the 2% of the wells. 78% of the well didn’t have a net cower on the top.

Howeverthere was no historical evidence on water borne diseases in the area. Most of the families (70%) had well built lavatory systems with the commode type or sit on type of fittings. The rest of the families had at least a pit type toilet.

After the Tsunami most of the households used cement cylinder or bricks to construct the latrine pits. Only 4% of pits were not followed up with linings of cement.

Most of the latrine pits (90%) have been constructed according to the WHO guide lines (minimum distance of 10 m between latrine pit and well). Only 10% of latrine pits were in the perimeter of less than 10m to the well. The survey revealed that most of the people had sufficient knowledge on the legal framework of the construction of latrine pits.

After having the access to the pipe borne water at a very nominal cost 34% the families didn’t expect any subsidies for the reconstruction of their wells. However 54% were expecting some assistance to improve their water sources. Among them 63% had a likeness of a rain water harvesting tank. 26% of them wished to have another dug well. Only 4% of people wished to have a government tap line, Since all other people already had their own pipe borne water.

Water quality parameters

Electrical conductivity is the common parameter to measure the salinity of water. The total amount of dissolved solids (TDS) gives a gravimetric measure of the mass of the soluble salts present in the water (in mg/l) and can also be used to express salinity level.

As depicted in the table 3.4 wells in the area could be categorized under three classes. The class descriptions are given in table 3.5. Accordingly EC is under 1500µS/cm for all the wells of group 1 and 2. This water can be use for common purpose as Washing, bathing, garden irrigation, etc. without any risk. Water in the wells of group 1 are well accepted for drinking purposes. Water in the wells of group 2 is good water for Agricultural purposes and it is also in the accepted range for drinking purposes.

Table 3.4: Wellwater quality classesin Madiha

Classes Statistics EC TDS mg/l pH Median 1971 995 7.26 3 Min 1660 786 6.84 Max 2320 1175 7.4 Median 1245 611 7.03 2 Min 1053 527 6.8 Max 1568 781 7.54 Median 937 459 7.21 1 Min 406 188 6.8 Max 1015 586 7.68

Table 3.5: Criteria adopted for well water classification in the study area

Electrical TDS Class conductivity Impact description (mg/l) (µS/cm) No detrimental effect on agriculture and I <1000 <1500 acceptable as drinking water source Cause for rejection as source of drinking water at 1000- TDS above 1500 mg/l. II 1500-3000 2100 May have adverse effect on many crop and on health 2100- Unfit for drinking and has adverse effect on many III 3000-5250 3500 crop Unfit for drinking water. Salt-tolerant species may 3500- IV 5250-7500 survive on permeable soil with 4900 careful management practice Unfit for drinking as well as for cultivation of V >4900 >7500 most crops

Table 3.6: Type of aquifer

Well No Location Mg2+ Ca2+ Mg2+/Ca2+ Aquifer Type MOW 723 Madiha 1.02 1.49 0.68 Limestone MOW719 Madiha 1.76 3.49 0.51 Limestone MOW818 Gandara 0.68 0.81 0.84 Dolomite MOW803 Devinuwara 0.48 0.39 1.2 Silicate MOW 804 Devinuwara 0.89 1.65 1.8 Silicate

Wells of group 3 have a high concentration of salt above 1500µS/cm. This water cannot be recommended even for the Garden irrigation since it may lead to accumulation of salt in the soil.

Figure 3.12: pH distribution map of Madiha

Groundwater quality especially in Madiha East appeared to be more saline due to the proximity to the sea as evident from the analytical data. Electrical conductivity of water in Madiha East was more than 1000 µS/cm in almost all the locations.

Figure 3.13: Electrical conductivity map of well water in Madiha

Figure 3.14: pH distribution map pH distribution map of groundwater in Madiha is given in Fig.3.12. It reveals ahigh pH of groundwater in the inland area compare to Caostal area. This may be associated with the existance of Dolamitic and limestone aquifer in the coastal zone. The tsunami may contributed much to the dissolution of calcium, magnesium ions to elevate pH values.

The analysis of water quality reveals that contrary to commonly expected high salinity in coastal strip due to sea water influx, there was no correlation with proximity to the sea, except for the wells of group 1 (p-value = 0,102), on the sea side. The concentration of wells belongs to other two groups which were observed in Madiha East (Fig.3.13).

Negligence of wells appears to be an important factor to explain quality deterioration in Madiha. During the Tsunami, a number of wells have been washed out by the waves destructing the apron. However lots of wells have been re- constructed, in the mid locations of Madiha, while the wells in the eastern parts have been given up by the people.

Rehabilitation (apron re-construction, manual cleaning of rubbish) associated with non polluting cleaning methods, exposure of wells to sun light for UV treatment and fish rearing helps to avoid contamination of wells by larvae reproduction in the wells belonging to class 3. Rehabilitation and manual cleaning of these wells will decrease high salinity which would help to use water for common purposes like irrigation, bathing, washing in the future as we have experienced in Weligama (Weerasinghe, 2006). Such rehabilitation would enhance the use of all the wells in Madiha East for common purpose.

Water level analysis is also important to understand dynamics of groundwater in the area. Water table in the proximity to the sea undergoes a mixing with sea water -3 2 since the water intrusion is facilitated by the existing permeable sand (fo= 2.8*10 ) and shallow groundwater reserve in the area. In a pumping test conducted in the well No. 720, and 722 revealed the very rapid influx of groundwater into the well of more than 5 l/s.

Madiha East has an elevated hilly area in the western part. Groundwater recharge from the locality is fully dependant on surface water comes from upper catchment of Madiha East and Walgama South which reaches the sea in the border between Madiha and Polhena, closer to polhena Maha Vidyalaya.

The water table releasing pattern to the sea from the upper boundaries of the catchment in Madiha east is illustrated in the Fig.3.15 and 3.16. The map of water table (Fig.3.16) shows run off of Water from upper part to the sea. According to these maps, the area close to the river and the sea are the sinks where fresh water is released from there to the sea. It reveals that the wells in the influx area were highly contaminated and as such it is not preferable to use these wells without cleaning.

Figure 3.15: Water table in Madiha East

2 Kostiakov-Lewis infiltration parameters 93

Figure 3.16: Water table in 3D dimension in Madiha

Water quality in Gandara and Devinuwara

The diameter of most of the wells at Gandara and Devinuwara areas were within 1.0-1.5m range. The 58% of wells had Apron height in 50-75cm range. Tsunami non-affected wells had a higher apron height compared to the non-affected wells. According to the total depth of the wells, 54% of wells were within 2-4m depth range. This was 100%, in Devinuwara, and 40% in Gandara.

Groundwater flow characteristics of the Gandera area also depended on the morphological features of the area. Elevation and the depth of the groundwater had a very closer relation. In case of the unconfined aquifers, this relationship is an important feature to describe the groundwater distribution of the area. In the Fig.3.16 depth of the wells at different elevations are depicted.

Figure 3.17: Groundwater level and elevation in Gandara area

Within the study area groundwater level fluctuate in between 2.5m to 26.5m from mean sea level groundwater level is deep in elevated areas of the northern boundary of the catchment.

Electrical conductivity of groundwater in Gandara varies from 80-1400µS/cm (Fig.3.18) which is an accepted level for drinking and other purposes. Wells close to the coastal area had higher electrical conductivity compare to the wells which are away from the sea and in higher elevations. However in the coastal strip of Devinuwara area groundwater EC was fluctuated from 1400 to 1800µS/cm as in the case of Madiha. In thecoastal belt of Devinuera area elevation is very low and salinity intrusion was progressing from the sea side. Therefore EC values were much higher compare to the inland areas.

Figure 3.18: Groundwater salinity distribution map of Gandara and Devundara

Figure 3.19: Cross sectional view of wells penetration across Gandara from the coastal line to high elevations (line AB in Fig.3.18)

In the Fig.3.18 cross sectional view of the disposition of wells across the AB line of the Fig.3.15 is demonstrated. Accordingly well No. 819 penetrates the bed rock. The rest of the wells are lying closer to the surface. A lower electrical conductivity below 500µS/cm is observed in the well No MOW 819 which penetrates the hard rock due to which recharge is not taken place.

From top soil layers (Fig.3.18). However in the shallow dug wells, EC values were lower than 400µS/cm. This is associated with the recharge of the hard rock aquifer

96 due to influx from the inland areas without any communication from the coastal influx.

Figure3.20: pH distribution map, Gandara and Devundara

Groundwater pH distribution map of in Gandara is given in Fig.3.20. It was revealed that coastal area has a higher pH level than the inland areas. It is evident that pH values change from 4.0 to 9.4 in different locations. Except in coastal zone of the basin, the pH of groundwater remains within 5 to 7, but in the coastal area the pH elevates above 7. During the period of study any fluctuation of pH was not observed with the atmospheric precipitation. In some localized patches, pH values were slightly acidic and remained around 6.8 which may be associated with local phenomena. Coastal area had the Dolamitic and limestone aquifer which contributes to the dissolution of calcium, magnesium ions to contribute to the higher pH values.

Aquifer quality in Madiha and Gandara

The results of the chemical analysis of water in respect to the dissolved ions are used to assess the aquifer quality in the study area. Based on the total concentration + + 2+ -- 2- - of cations and anions such as Na , K , Ca , Cl , So4 HCO3 ions and there ratios, aquifer could be identified after plotting piper diagrams. Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio of the water can categorize the Aquifer type of the particular area in relation to alkalinity.

As per the results wells designated by MOW 803 and MOW 804 in Devinuwara had Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio greater than 0.9 which shows that the aquifer is a Silicate aquifer. These wells are the wells of MOW 723, MOW 719 in Madiha had Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio within 0.5-0.7 and on such aquifer could be identified on limestone aquifer. The well number MOW 818 in Gandara had Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio between 0.7-0.9 due to Dolamitic nature of the aquifer. 97

Conclusions and Recommendations

Madiha

From the above this demonstrates that the area of Madiha East has the mostfresh water availability; this water has been used by the people for a long period. However after the Tsunami, contamination of wells by salt and bacteria have disturbed the traditional habits. People got tap water without a cost which affected the senses and validity of well water that has been used by them from times immemorial. Even though the salt content in groundwater has escalated after the tsunami, water in Madiha is acceptable for common purposes like bathing, washing, and garden irrigation. Usage of this water will improve the Basin water use.

In the case of the wells belonging to group 1 in Madiha Rehabilitation of them and physical cleaning methods as UV treatment helps to reduce the pollution. This will improve sanitation of the area, decreasing the spread of water borne diseases, and mosquito breeding. Therefore Rehabilitation and sustainable use of traditional wells for common purpose appear as a necessity for the area. This will help to use tap water and well water simultaneously for different purposes.

Gandara

Most of the well water quality parameters in Gandara are within the Sri Lankan standards for drinking water, but the wells are neglected due to the introduction of pipe bone water, after the Tsunami. In the coastal areas EC values are higher due to saline water intrusion. However ground water quality in hard rock areas have in elevated highs are much better with low EC values compare to the shallow unconfined ground water in the coastal zone.

The pH of the ground water resources in the coastal belt of Gandara was identified as static and lies below WHO and Sri Lankan standards for drinking water, and as such it is not a reliable source to meet the water demands of the population.

In order to develop the mind-set of people to conserve water to meet future water needs information and explanation must be provided on the water quality of their wells, dynamic of groundwater, and decrease of future water availability from the urban supply and the possible price escalations.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful for the CIDA restoration project for providing an excellent opportunity to conduct the above research and development program. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Jana Janakiram (Canadian Coordinator), Prof. Ranjith

Senarathne (Sri Lankan Director), Prof. D. Atapattu (Deputy Director Ruhuna) for the continuous interest and support extended to carry out the present program. The assistance offered by the people in Madiha and Gandara are gratefully acknowledged.

Bibliography

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Gavich, E.K, Lysbewa, A.A., and Semionowa, A.A. (1980). Practical problems in hydrogeology, Headra, Moscow.

Hem, J.D. (1970). Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural waters. US. Geol. Survey. Water supply paper 147

Illangasekare, T., et. al. (2006). Impacts of the 2004 tsunami on groundwater resources in Sri Lanka, Water Resour. Res., 42, W05201, doi:10.1029/2006WR 004876.

Ministry of Urban Development. (1993). Manual of Sewerage and sewage treatment. GOI

Murthy, K.S.R. (2000). “Groundwater potential in a semi-arid region of Andhra Pradesh: A geographical information System approach”, International J. of Remote Sensing, Vol. 21 No. 9, 1867-1884.

Panabokke, C.R. (2001). Groundwater studies of the coastal sand aquifers of Sri Lanka, Water Resour. Board, Colombo.

Panabokke, C.R, and Perera, A.P.G.R.L. (2005). Groundwater Resources of Sri Lanka. Water Resources Board, Colombo.Sri Lanka.

Weerasinghe, K.D.N., et. al. (2005). Salinity and microbial contamination and natural remediation of Tsunami-affected groundwater wells at two locations in Weligama, Sri Lanka,

Weerasinghe, K.D.N., et. al. (2006). Natural water Purification system for Local community 32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka

PRODUCING LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE USING TOBACCO WASTES

P.R. Fernando, A. Parvathakeethan and V. Einon Mariya

Abstract

This study was carried out to determine the possibilities of using tobacco wastes in lightweight concrete production. The mixture combinations of materials such as tobacco waste, pumice, sand and cement were used to produce the samples. The results showed that produced material samples were in the lightweight concrete class according to values of consistency, unit weight, compressive strength and thermal conductivity. It was determined that the unit weight of lightweight concrete material samples ranged between 0.48–0.58kgdm-3, compressive strength values ranged between 0.25–0.58Nmm- 2 and thermal conductivity coefficients ranged between 0.198–0.250Wm-1K-1. According to the observations, tests, experiments and evaluations on lightweight concrete material samples, it was concluded that the lightweight concrete with tobacco waste additives could be used as a material in construction.

Keywords: compressive strength, lightweight concrete, thermal conductivity coefficient, tobacco waste

Introduction

In order to provide comfortable conditions for up-to-date buildings, it is important to consider the most costly component, which is energy. Therefore, the most important component of construction designing is heat isolation. In order to take necessary actions concerning heat isolation in the constructed buildings, it is necessary to provide the needed thermal comfort for shelters so that they are not affected negatively from temperature effects. By taking this into account, the design can result in relaxing conditions for people (Postacıoğlu, 1986; Yağanoğlu et. al., 1999).

Due to the low unit weight and high porosity, at present time, lightweight concrete elements are preferred as isolation materials. Comfort temperature values can be provided with lower energy consumption by using lightweight concrete in the construction elements. Recently, due to the superiorities in the lightweight concrete, the production in this field has increased from the early 1980’s until present day and an important industry has developed in that area (Rossignolo and Agnesini, 2001).

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According to the density, lightweight concretes are classified in three groups. Low density and compressive strength concretes which are used in isolation, middle density and middle compressive strength concretes which are used for briquette producing, and the carrier lightweight concretes create the opportunity to use them for constructing foundations and supporting parts (Short and Kinniburg,1978; Bhatty and Reid,1989).

By producing lightweight concrete, a lot of methods are used. The most popular method for lightweight concrete production is to use natural or synthetic lightweight aggregates. Some of the lightweight aggregates used for concrete productions are pumice, coal slag, flying ash, rice husk, straw, sawdust, cork granules, wheat husk and coconut fibbers and coconut shell. The organic wastes that have been used in lightweight concretes are mainly of plant origin and include rice husk, straw, sawdust, cork granules, wheat husk and coconut fibbers and coconut shell. Besides these, leather wastes of animal origin are worth researching (Basri et al., 1999; Khedari et al., 2000; Manan and Ganapathy, 2002).

Generally, the concretes which have a unit weight under 2.0kgdm-3 are in the lightweight concrete class. The lightweight concretes which have a unit weight between 1.6–2.0kgdm-3 can be used constructive elements, unit weights between 0.5–0.6kgdm-3 can be used isolation material (Aka,2001; TS 11222,2001).

The lightweight concretes which have a compressive strength under 1Nmm-2 are used for isolation purposes. In spite of this, if the compressive strength is over 1Nmm-2, the lightweight concretes can be used in the load carried construction elements (Ujhely, 1983).

The compressive strength of lightweight concretes are related to the mixing ratio and quality, quantity of moulding water, mixing and moulding methods of the used material. Generally, as the unit weight and compactness values increase, the compressive strength and heat conduction increase. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity decrease when porosity increases (Tekinsoy, 1984).

The objective of this study was to determine the possibilities of using tobacco waste in lightweight concrete production.

Material and methods

The main material used in this study was tobacco waste, which was the waste left over from cigarette production at a Cigarette Factory (Fig.3.21). Furthermore, mixed pumice aggregate under 10mm sieve (Fig.3.22), river sand and Portland Tokyo cement were used as binding materials. The chemical composition and physical properties of the materials used in the study are summarized in Tables 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9.

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Table 3.7: Chemical composition tobacco waste

Component (%) Fe 0.46 Zn 0.0098 Mn 0.026 Cu 0.0021 Ca 5.72 Mg 0.80 K 1.03 Na 0.09 P 0.20 Organic matter 66.21 Water 25.45

Source: Gülser and Candemir, 2004

Table 3.8: Chemical composition and physical properties of pumice aggregate

Chemical composition Physical properties Component (%) -3 SiO2 70.50 Specific gravity ( kg dm ) 1.80 -3 Al2O3 15.00 Bulk density ( kg dm ) 0.65 Fe2O3 3.50 Water absorption ( % ) 42 CaO 3.00 Na2O 4.26 K2O 2.75 MgO 0.99

Source: Gündüz et al., 2004

Table 3.9: Mechanical and physical properties of Portland Tokyo cement (TS 12143, 2005).

Mechanical and physical properties Specific gravity ( kgdm-3 ) 3.0 Setting time, initial (min.) 230 Setting time, final (min.) 295 Volume expansion (Le Chatelier-mm ) 1.0 7 day compressive strength ( Nmm-2 ) 23.9 28 day compressive strength ( Nmm-2 ) 35.0

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Figure 3.21: Tobacco waste (under Figure 3.22: Pumice aggregate (under 10mm sieve) 4mm sieve)

To prepare the lightweight concrete materials samples, nominal mixing techniques were applied because of the organic origin of tobacco waste (BS 5328, 1976).Organic material contains of the material decreases the compressive strength (Schieder, 1961). Due to the high organic material ratio of the tobacco waste (66.21%), the tobacco waste ratio of the mixing was fixed as a limit value of 40%.

At the first stage of the study, in order to have some specifications in a mixing such as holding itself, limited shrinkage shrinking and having a half fluid consistency, the mixing ratios of the materials were used with hold the W/C value as a constant of 0.44 as given in Table 3.10. The experimental samples were prepared as shown in the Fig.3.23. In addition to these, the consistency, unit weight, compressive strength and thermal conductivity test were performed upon produced lightweight concrete samples.

Figure 3.23: Lightweight concrete samples

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Table 3.10: Mixtures used in the study according to appearance of concrete samples (by weight)

Sample No Mixing (%) Portland Cement Tobacco waste Sand Pumice aggregate 1 40 20 40 - 2 30 20 20 30 3 40 20 - 40 4 30 20 25 25 5 35 15 25 25 6 40 15 15 30

Results and discussion

The test results obtained concerning the effects of the applications on some specifications of Produced lightweight concrete samples are given below and discussed.

1 Unit weight

The test results of the unit weight of the produced lightweight concrete samples are given in Table 3.11.

Table 3.11: Unit weight testing results

Sample No Unit weight( kgdm-3) 1 0.58 2 0.55 3 0.48 4 0.55 5 0.58 6 0.55

The unit weight values of the produced material samples changed between 0.48– 0.58kgdm-3. If there is excess porosity in the material, this is an indicator that the concrete has a low compressive strength (Uluata, 1981). The reflection of this situation was also observed in the produced material samples. Furthermore, the results concerning the unit weight values given in Table 3.11 showed that the produced lightweight concrete samples were in the heat isolated lightweight concrete class (Şahin et.al., 2000).

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Figure 3.24: Sample no.vs. unit weight

2 Compressive strength

The data concerning the 28 days cube compressive strength values of the materials are given in Table 3.12.

Table 3.12: Compressive strength values

Sample 28 days cube compressive No strength( Nmm-2 ) 1 0.25 2 0.34 3 0.58 4 0.25 5 0.53 6 0.46

The 28 days cube compressive strength values of the concrete samples were changed according to the material mixing ratios. Due to low C/N ratio of the tobacco waste, using low amount of organic lightweight aggregate (tobacco waste) in the material composition caused maximum compressive strength values finally at the end of 28 days.

The compressive strength values of lightweight concrete samples were under 1Nmm-2.By reason of its low compressive strength and insulating materials, the lightweight concrete with tobacco waste additive can be recommended for use as a coating and dividing material in constructions because of its insulating features. 105

Graph for Sample No Vs Compressive Strength 0.6

0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sample No

Figure 3.25: Sample no.vs compressive strength

3 Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivities of produced material samples in the scope of the research are given in Table 3.13.

Table 3.13: Thermal conductivity

Sample No Thermal conductivity ( Wm-1K-1 ) 1 0.210 2 0.250 3 0.198 4 0.225 5 0.226 6 0.225

The minimum thermal conductivity of produced material samples was observed in sample no 3 as 0.198Wm-1K-1. Besides this, the thermal conductivities of samples no 4 and 6 were determined as 0.225Wm-1K-1. Evaluating the thermal conductivities of produced material samples together with their compressive strengths, it can be suitable to use lightweight concrete to be produced with tobacco waste additive in buildings as a coating and dividing material insulation.

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Figure 3.26: Sample no vs. thermal conductivity

Conclusions

In this study, the possibilities of using tobacco wastes in lightweight concrete producing were researched and the following conclusions were obtained: Since the unit weights of the produced lightweight concrete samples varied between 0.48 and 0.58kgdm-3, they were into the class of heat insulating lightweight concrete in respect of their unit weight values. When the material samples had a fine aggregate composition (approximately 50%), the compactness and the compressive strength decreased. Due to low C/N ratio of the tobacco waste, using low amount of organic lightweight aggregate (tobacco waste) in the material composition caused maximum compressive strength values finally at the end of 28 days. It was showed that the 28 days cube compressive strength values were lower than 1Nmm-2 for the whole of the lightweight concrete samples. Therefore, it is possible to say that the lightweight concretes including tobacco waste used as a coating and dividing material in buildings is useful because of its insulating features. Comparing the thermal conductivity values of the produced lightweight concrete samples with the materials such as brick (0.45–0.60Wm-1K-1), briquette (0.70–1.0Wm-1K-1), pumice concrete (0.29Wm-1K-1) and ytong (0.23Wm-1K-1), which have a widespread usage area in the buildings, it is seen that the lightweight concretes samples including tobacco waste have lower values (0.198–0.250Wm-1K-1) compared to other masonry materials (Öztürk, 2003). 107

The material used in this research was waste produced at the end of cigarette production at a Factory. According to other building insulation materials, it could be supplied cheaply. Furthermore, decomposition was not observed producing lightweight concrete samples. As to the observations, tests, experiments and evaluations on lightweight concrete material samples, it was concluded that the lightweight concrete with tobacco waste additive can be used as a coating and dividing material in constructions.

Bibliography

Aka, İ. (2001). Reinforced Concrete. Birsen Press, İstanbul.

Basri, H.B., Manan, M.A. and Zain, M.F.M. (1999). Concrete Using Waste Oil Palm Shells as Aggregate. Concrete and Cement Research, pp. 619–622.

Bhatty, J.L. and Reid, K.J. (1989). Moderate Strength Concrete from Lightweight Sludge Ash Aggregates. Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, pp. 179– 187.

BS 5328. (1976). Concrete Preparation Methods. London.

Gülser, C. and Candemir, F. (2004). Change in Atterberg Limits with Different Organic Waste Applications. Natural Resourse Management for Sustainable Land Use and Management, Soil Congress, SSST, Atatürk University, Erzurum-Turkey.

Gündüz, L., Yılmaz, İ., and Hüseyin, A. (2001). The Comparatives of Technical Properties for Expanded Clay and Pumice as the Lighweight Aggregates, 4th National Clay Congress Konya–Turkey.

Manan, M.A. and Ganapathy, C. (2002). Engineering Properties of Concrete with Oil Palm Shells as Coarse Aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, pp. 29– 34.

Öztürk, T. (2003). Farm Buildings. Ondokuz Mayıs University, Agricultural Faculty Press No: 49, Samsun.

Postacıoğlu, B. (1986). Concrete. Volume: 1. Printer House of Press Technicians, İstanbul.

Rossignolo, A.J. and Agnesini, M.V.C. (2001). Mechanical Properties of Polyme Modified Lightweight Concrete. Cement and Concrete Research No: 32 pp. 329-34.

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Schieder, İ. (1961). Manufacture and Use of Lightweight Aggregates of Structural Concrete. Portland Cement Association Research and Development Lab. No: 5420, Illinois.

Short, A. and Kinniburg, W. (1978). Lightweight Concrete.Galliard (Printers), Great Yormouth, Great Britain, pp. 113.

Tekinsoy, M.A. (1984). A Research on the using Possibilities of Concrete Briquette Supplemented Rice Husk for Farm Buildings at Çukurova Region in Turkey. (Unpublished Assoc. Prof. Thesis), Çukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Adana.

TS11222. (2001). Concret and Prepare Concret (Classification, Properties and Performance). Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara.

TS12143. (2002). Cement Composition and Specifications. Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara.

Ujhely, J. (1983). The Letter from Hungarian Institute for Building Science. Budapest. Uluata, A.R.1981.Concrete Materials and Concrete, (Lecture Notes) Atatürk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Erzurum, Turkey.

Yağanoğlu, A.V., Okuroğlu, M., Örüng, İ. and Şahin, S. (1999). The Possibilities of Using Thermal Isolated Materials Supplemented Different Plant Wastes in Farm Buildings. 7th National Agricultural Engineering Congress, Nevşehir, Turkey, pp. 340-350.

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IV. ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION

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REHABILITATION OF MANGROVES IN PAALAMEENMADU AND PUTHUKUDIYIRUPPU, BATTICALOA AND ITS BIODIVERSITY

S. Santharooban and P. Vinobaba

Abstract

Mangroves are one of the rich ecosystems in Batticaloa, Sri Lanka. They provide both economical and ecological benefits to the people and their surroundings. The present paper discusses the rehabilitation of mangroves and preservation of existing mangrove vegetation in the two villages such as Paalameenmadu (Manmunai North DS division) and Puthukudiyeruppu (Manmunaipattu DS division). These two villages (which are selected under the CIDA Restore Project) are located along the Batticaloa lagoon and hence they have mangrove patches. Both areas consist of several true mangrove species such as Rhizophora mucronata, Aegiceras corniculata, Avicennia sp., Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia caseolaris, Excoecaria agallocha, and mangrove associate species such as Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Clerodendron inerme, Dolichandrone spathacea, Sesuvium portulacastrum, and Derris trifoliate. Though there are several species, Lumnitzera sp and rare species Aegiceras corniculata dominant in Palameenmadu while Excoecaria agallocha is dominated in Puthukudiyeruppu. As a mangrove fauna, Cerithidea cingulata, Nerita sp, Saccostrea sp, Gelonia sp, Anadara granosa, Balanus sp, Penaeus monodon, Penaeus semisulcatus, Scylla serrata, and Periophthalmus koelreuteri are present in both areas but species diversity is rich in Paalameenmadu. Mangrove forests in these two villages are being destroyed at an alarming rate due to several anthropogenic activities such as over extraction by local community, destruction for security purposes and destruction by the mismanagement of district administrators. Therefore, it is very essential to preserve the mangrove forest in the two villages. In this regard, a multifaceted approach is pivotally important to preserve the pristine mangrove ecosystem in Batticaloa district. This multifaceted approach should include identification of the mangrove forest, formulation of suitable regulation, conserving existing forests by applying strict and suitable measures to combat further destruction, launching public awareness programs, carrying out mangrove re-vegetation program which are properly planned with the participation of general public. As a part of this multifaceted approach, the CIDA Restore project has established a mangrove nursery with community participation to supply the needed saplings for mangrove afforestation in those villages.

Keywords: afforestation, Batticaloa Lagoon, ecosystem, mangroves, multifaceted approach. 112

Introduction

Mangroves are one among the important natural resources in Batticaloa district and flourished along the coast of the three lagoons such as Batticaloa lagoon, Valachchenai lagoon and Vaakari lagoon. The term mangrove consists of several definitions by different authors. Some indicate that the word mangroves refers to different species of plants growing on the shores of a lagoon with special adaptations to saline conditions (Pinto, 1986; Amarasinghe, 1996), while others indicate that the word mangroves is used to refer to a particular tropical, coastal ecosystem (de Silva and de Silva, 2006). Though the definitions vary, it is a natural ecosystem and it can be called a mangrove ecosystem, which is defined as the inter- tidal and supra tidal zone of muddy shores in bays, lagoons and estuaries dominated by highly adapted woody halophytes, associated with continuous water courses, swamps and backwaters, together with their population of plants and animals (Pinto, 1986). The term inter-tidal indicates a region that is lying between a high tide level (during the rainy season) and a low tide level (during the dry season) in a bank of lagoons, estuaries or the sea. Mangroves inhabit an unstable environment, fluctuating temperature and salinity, alternating aerobic and anaerobic conditions, periodically wet and dry, and shifting substratum (Hogarth, 1999).

This rich ecosystem caters several environmental and economical functions to the surrounding peoples directly and indirectly. Supporting rich biodiversity, prevention of coastal erosion, sea surge mitigation, facilitation of fish and shellfish spawning are some environmental functions of mangroves (Vinobaba, 2008a). Increase of fish and shellfish production, fuel wood, timber, edible products, medicinal use of plants, use in brush pile fishing and tourism are some of the socio-economic functions. The mangroves patches are present along the coast line of Batticaloa and some recent studies carried out by NARA reveals that there are only 960ha of Mangroves in Batticaloa district (NARA, 2008). It is obvious that mangroves of big trees are very rare in Batticaloa. Though the mangroves support the community in several ways in Batticaloa district, it is being continuously destroyed by several factors (2008a).

In this respect, the present concept paper discusses the mangrove biodiversity, its destruction and the need of proper rehabilitation measures that has to be adopted in two villages such as Paalameenmadu and Puthukudiyeruppu. Paalameenmadu and Puthukudiyeruppu are the two villages, which were selected in the CIDA Restore Project. Paalameenmadu is located close to northern Bar Mouth of Batticaloa Lagoon in Manmunai North DS division and Puthukudiyeruppu is also located along the bank of Batticaloa lagoon. These two villages had abundant mangrove forests from the time immemorial but nowadays both villages have only patches of mangroves.

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Present biodiversity in both villages

In Paalemeenmadu village, the present cover of mangroves, the wetland and its associated flora was about 40-50%, the remaining area being under the influence of human such as settlements and coconut plantations. The average height of the mangrove trees was approximately 8m with a maximum of 10m. Trees, herbs and ferns were common in this ecosystem (Mathiventhan, 2007). Mangrove patches are present along the bank of peripheral wetlands and bank of Batticaloa Lagoon (Fig.4.1). Based on the field observation, six true mangroves such as Rhizophora sp, Aegiceras corniculata, Avicennia sp., Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia caseolaris, and Excoecaria agallocha, and five back mangroves (mangroves associates) such as Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Clerodendron inerme, Dolichandrone spathacea, and Cerbera manghas were observed3. The dominant species in this area is Lumnitzera racemosa and rare species is Aegiceras corniculata, only one plant of which is observed in this area. As fauna, Cerithidea cingulata, Gelonia sp, Gafrarium sp, Saccostrea sp, and Terebralia palustris, Crab, Fish and Shrimps were observed.

In Puthukudiyeruppu, mangrove patches are located along the bank of Batticaloa lagoon (Fig.4.2). This village is covered by about 30% of area of mangrove forest which is dominated only by Excoecaria agallocha and Derris trifoliate was also observed in this area. Mangrove floral diversity is low compared to Paalameenmadu. As fauna, Crocodile and bird were observed in addition to the fish (Vinobaba 2008a,b).

Anthropogenic disturbances on mangroves

The Mangrove forest in both villages is being continuously damaged by several anthropogenic impacts. Such impacts can be classified into three major categories i.e. 1. Over extraction by local community. 2. Destruction for security purpose. 3. Destruction by the mismanagement of bureaucrats. These are three major ways by which mangroves can be destroyed.

3 The classification of true mangroves and mangrove associates is based on the Jayatissa et. al., (2002)

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Over extraction by local community

Mangroves are destroyed mainly for fuel wood and in some places mangrove plants were destroyed for the purpose of producing charcoal by public. At the same time, some species of mangrove i.e. Rhizophora sp are destroyed severely for taking bark of this tree, which are then used to dye the fishing net. However, comparatively destruction of mangrove by this way is much less significant.

Destruction for security purpose

This is very common in Batticaloa where mangroves are severely destroyed for security purposes. Due to the warfare of the country, huge areas of the mangrove forest were destroyed for security purposes. This can be observed Puthukudiyeruppu.This includes both regular cutting of trees and regular fire of mangrove forest. About 40% of the mangrove forest was destroyed in this way in Puthukudiyeruppu. Comparatively damage caused by this method is higher than the destruction by local people.

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Figure 4.1: Satellite images showing mangrove patches along the coast of peripheral wetlands of Paalameenmadu

Source: Google Earth.

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Destruction by the mismanagement of district administration

This is very destructive and very common in Batticaloa. The failure of management by district administration in various sectors has resulted in the mangrove destruction. This has increased after the recent Tsunami on 26th December 2004. This is not only restricted in these two villages but common all over the Batticaloa district. The table 4.1 shows the extent of mangrove in Batticaloa district by several authors and government departments (such as Dept. of Forestry, Planning and Statistics Division of Katcheri, Batticaloa).

Figure 4.2: Satellite images showing mangrove patches along the coast of Batticaloa Lagoon in Puthukudiyeruppu

Source: Google Earth

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Table 4.1: Extent of mangrove in Batticaloa district according to different authors

No Author/s or Organization Published Area Year (ha) 01 Pinto, L 1986 1520 02 North-East Report 1993 1390 03 Mala Amaraginha 1996 1303 04 Poikai magazine, Forest Department, Batticaloa 2001 1672 05 Nallairajha & Jeyasingam 2001 1525 06 Eastern Province Coastal Community Development 2002 1421 Project Mid Term Report (March 2002) 07 Statistical handbook, Batticaloa District, Planning 2004 1606 Secretariat 08 Statistical handbook, Batticaloa District, Planning 2005 1606 Secretariat 09 Forest Department 2006 1855 10 Statistical handbook, Batticaloa District, Planning 2006 1606 Secretariat 11 Statistical handbook, Batticaloa District, Planning 2007 1606 Secretariat

According to this table, it is very obvious that both government department and researchers have failed in reporting the correct extent of the mangrove in Batticaloa district. Though there are several mangrove destruction over the district, there is no change in mangrove forest cover from the initial value (1606ha.) according to the district statistics handbook from 2004 to 2007 (the statistical handbook of previous also indicate the same).

Moreover, two publication of Dept of Forestry, Batticaloa show very critical data. According to Poikai magazine in 2001, mangrove extent is 1672ha but according to their 2006 publication it is increased to 1855ha. So according to the Dept of Forestry information, there is no destruction in mangrove but an increase in forest cover. A recent study NARA indicates only 996ha. mangroves are present in Batticaloa (NARA, 2008). Therefore, this depicts how the district administration of various government bodies fail to pay attention to the mangrove ecosystem in Batticaloa.

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The failure in management leads to several consequences in the Paalameenmadu village. Such consequences are urban sprawling, extraction of mangroves for fishing and unplanned development.

a. Urban sprawl

People who live near to mangrove forest expand their fences into the wetlands and occupy the forest land gradually (as a means of extending their land surface- encroachment into the wet land).

b. Extraction for fishing

According to the 2001 regulation of Batticaloa lagoon (under the Fisheries and Aquatic Resource act No 2 of 1996), no one can erect branches into the lagoon for the purpose of taking fish using Brush pile fishery. But failure to enforce this provision of that particular act by Dept of Fisheries leads to a loss of mangrove forest by severe brush pile fishery operation within Batticaloa lagoon.

c. Unplanned development

This is the most destructive of all others. In the recent past especially after the Tsunami 2004, mismanagement of district administration has had a high level of adverse impacts on the forest by permitting some NGOs to implement improper urban development programme (Vinobaba, 2008b). This has resulted in severe destruction of the forest. About 30% of mangroves were destroyed in Paalameenmadu by unplanned developmental activities.

Need for the rehabilitation of mangrove vegetation

Earlier it was reported that about 1606ha of mangroves were present in the Batticaloa but recent studies indicates that there are only about 960ha of mangroves at present. This reduction in forest cover indicates the need to conserve the existing mangrove forest from further declining. Further, deforestation of mangroves leads to long term threats for the existence of macro-benthic mangrove-associated communities (Fondo and Martens, 1998) and ultimately leads to lost fisheries production in Batticaloa Lagoon. Hence, it is very important to rehabilitate the mangrove vegetation in these two villages.

The present trend in mangrove rehabilitation

In recent periods, some non-governmental organizations are engaged in the re- vegetation of mangroves in the Batticaloa district including Paalameenmadu. They brought the mangrove saplings from somewhere and plant them into the lagoon. Different NGOs have co-ordination among them in sharing the coastal area of the 119 lagoon for mangrove re-planting and in the shore allocated for them they replant the mangrove saplings. This method of rehabilitation is common in Batticaloa district.

This mangrove re-vegetation program relies on less scientific approach. Because, mangrove saplings are being planted within the lagoon boundary, this will, in the long run, make drastic geomorphic changes in the lagoon system as it induces sedimentation in the re-vegetated portion of the lagoon. Further, particular areas in the future will be dominated by non-native species, which may become exotic for that particular area. Often they fail to consider the existing mangrove zoning pattern in this district so that it decreases the success of the re-vegetation programme.

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Identification of mangrove Formulation of regulation forest Formulation of Identification of Potential regulations forest Strengthening existing Supporting Research regulation Programme Declaring protected Identification of floral areas and faunal composition

Launching public awareness Launching awareness Components of among General public Multi-Faceted using audio-visual tools. Approach Launching awareness among school children Erection of hoardings

Mangrove re-vegetation Managing the existing forest Carried out with public Applying strict participation measures to protect the Establishing mangrove existing forest. nursery Declaring protected Re-vegetation with areas scientific background Allowing the aboriginal Planting native species use of mangroves by and avoiding non-native local communities. species. Bringing in the public Managing re-planted participation in mangroves. management Establishing Eco- Tourism. Making a self-sustained

Figure 4.3: Components of Multifaceted approach

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Multifaceted approach in mangrove rehabilitation

The mangrove re-vegetation programme is a one dimensional approach to preserve the mangrove ecosystem and it will never be effective in this regard as it fails to prevent the continuing adulteration of the mangrove ecosystem. This entire programme focuses only on re-vegetation in the allocated area but fails to protect the already existing forest.

Therefore, rather than merely depending on the mangrove re-vegetation, it is essential to conserve the existing mangrove forest. Hence, a multifaceted approach is pivotally important to preserve the pristine mangrove ecosystem in Batticaloa district. The multifaceted approach brings a win-win situation where the local people’s economy is protected along with the ecosystem and it ensures the sustainable use of natural resource rather than strict conservation. The components of this multifaceted approach are shown in the figure 3, which consists of a series of major activities in the rehabilitation of the mangrove vegetation in particular areas.

1. Identification of mangrove forest

This should be a first step in the rehabilitation of the mangrove forest, where the mangrove area, which has the potential to be an important to the area of concern and to the environment, should be identified and it includes estimating the extent of mangrove forest, identification of fauna and flora, and valuation of particular mangrove forest. This could be achieved through promoting the research activities and the research should be on various aspects such as biological, environmental and economical aspects.

2. Formulation of Regulation

In order to control the human malpractices on mangrove and associated wetlands, proper legislative background is very important. Proper regulation should control the destruction of mangrove forest and urban encroachment into the wetland and should declare particular mangrove forest as Protected Areas.

The formulation of regulation could be achieved by giving suggestions to the provincial or central government to formulate strict regulations or strengthening the existing regulation to protect the mangrove forest in Batticaloa district. Having a discussion with stakeholders such as environmental officers, district Government Agent, Conservator General of forest, political leaders such as Ministers, chief minister/eastern province, Local authority leaders, and Environmental Ministers or with their secretaries will facilitate the formulation of regulation or strengthening the existing regulation.

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3. Launching Public Awareness

This is one of the important steps in the mangrove rehabilitation process. All the conservation or management measures regarding a natural resource will end in failure unless it is companied with a proper public education programme. The public education programme will earn the support for the particular project from the surrounding general public. Therefore, a public education programme regarding the importance of the mangroves should be launched as a part of preserving this pristine ecosystem. Public awareness could be brought about by having workshops or audio- visual seminars for the general public and by art and essay competition among school children. As a part of public awareness programme, erection of hoardings can also be carried out to make people aware of the importance of mangroves.

4. Managing the existing forest

Management of a natural resource has both natural ecosystem and human components and it does not mean controlling human use of mangrove vegetation but it allows t o use this forest in a sustainable manner. As such, the people of nearby communities should be allowed within the protected areas or the areas under management, for their aboriginal use of mangrove forest but in a non-harmful or non-destructive, environmental friendly manner.

This can also be managed by completely protecting the forest (without any access to local people) for certain periods, then after gradually allowing the people to use the forest in non-harmful manner.

A well managed mangrove forest will be utilized as a place for eco-tourism by establishing the forest as a Mangrove Park. Eco-tourism can be generated through several ways. The tourists can be attracted in order to enjoy the natural beauty within the Mangrove Park, for bird watching, for boating within the some part of Batticaloa lagoon along the mangrove fringe, etc. It is important to say here that some already existing mangrove areas have a great significance for harbouring the migratory birds, which are believed to be native to the Australian continent. Therefore, this will add additional benefits for an Eco-tourism centre. Therefore, it is obvious that the direct economical benefits can be gained from the Eco-tourism. The economic output will cover up the expenditure for the management of the ecosystem. Hence, it works as a self-sustained system.

In addition to direct benefits, people in the surrounding area can enjoy the economic gains in tourism associated activities such as boating, Coffee shop, selling handicraft items, etc.

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5. Re-vegetation of mangroves

This is one of the important aspects of mangrove rehabilitation in order to afforest the areas where mangrove vegetations were destroyed. Re-vegetation should consider the following aspects.

It should have public participation: Without the public’s participation, we could not achieve the success in the replanting. This will create a responsibility to each citizen to protect the mangrove. The public participation is not only necessary in re-planting but essential in nursery practices and even in managing the re-planted mangroves as well.

Native species should be planted and non-native species should be avoided: Introducing a new plant or animals should not be done without proper studies regarding their invasiveness. Newly introduced species may become invasive to that particular area even it is present in other parts of this country. Therefore, avoiding new species and planting native species will not harm at any instances.

Mangrove Nursery should be established locally: Having a locally managed mangrove nursery is another important part for the re-vegetation programme as it carries several benefits such as reducing the expenditure for mangrove saplings and supplying the native species (Vinobaba 2008 a, b).

It should consider the mangrove zoning, commonly present in that area: All the species of mangrove do not grow anywhere in the inter-tidal region. Floral composition varies in a particular pattern from lagoon/sea bank to the landward side. This pattern of floral composition is called as mangrove zonation. The mangrove zoning is not the same everywhere. It varies from country to country and even within a particular country, it varies from place to place. Therefore, before commencing the re-vegetation programme, it is very important to study the mangrove zoning of that particular area unless it will end in failure due to the low survival of re-planted mangrove saplings. Further, re-planting should not be done within the lagoon premises. This will change the lagoon geo-morphology in the long run due to increased sedimentation and the reduced survival rate of re-planted mangroves.

Management of re-planted mangroves: Every replanted sapling should be managed until it stands well in that particular area unless it reduces the success of the programme. This could be accomplished through well organised public participation.

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Conclusion

The mangrove forest is a highly interwoven ecosystem in the villages of Paalameenmadu and Puthukudiyeruppu as it supports the surrounding people both aesthetically and economically. However, the mangrove forest face threats in Batticaloa district in various ways. It includes both natural and anthropogenic factors. Hence, protecting this pristine natural resource is an important aspect of environmental management. In this regard, several organizations (both government and non-government) are engaged in mangrove re-vegetation in recent time. But the re-vegetation only will not result in sound management of natural resource.

Hence, this paper proposes a sound management system through multi-faceted approach. The mangrove re-vegetation is a single part of that multi-faceted approach. The proposed management model will bring both environmental and economical outputs to the surrounding community and will serve as self-sustained management system.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge are to District Administration, Village Heads, Staff of Department of Fisheries, Department of Forestry, Batticaloa, the entire team of CIDA Restore project for the support to conduct the trainings and mangrove rehabilitation needs training workshops and financial support by CIDA throughout.

Bibliography

Amarasinghe, M. (1996). Mangroves in Sri Lanka, NARA

De Silva, P.K and De Silva, M. (2006). Mangroves of Sri Lanka.

Dept. of Forestry, Batticaloa. (2001). Poikai, Mangrove Ecosystem (Tamil)

Dept. of Forestry, Batticaloa. (2006). Mangrove Ecosystem of Sri Lanka (Tamil). Published Under FAO Forest Rehabilitation Project.

District Statistical Handbook, Batticaloa. (2004, 05, 06, 07). published by Planning Secretariat, Kachcheri, Batticaloa.

Fondo, E.N. and Martens, E.E. (1998). Effects of Mangrove Deforestation on Macrofaunal Densities, Gazi bay, Kenya. Mangroves and Salt Marshes. City? Kluwer Academic Publishers. (2). p. 75-83.

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Hogarth, P.J. (1999). The Biology of Mangroves. Biology of Habitats. Oxford University Press. p. 1-32

Jayatissa, L.P., Gahdough-Guebas, F. and Koedam, N. (2002). A Review of the Floral Composition and Distribution of Mangroves in Sri Lanka. Botanical J. of the Linnaean Society. The Linnaean Society London. (138). p. 29-43.

Mathiventhan, T. (2007). Ecological and Social Resilience of Mangroves of Batticaloa, Sri Lanka in the face of Human Activities, Conflict and Natural Hazards. Unpublished M. Sc Thesis. Norwegian University of Life Sciences

Midterm Report. (March 2002). Eastern province coastal community development project, Sri Lanka.

Nallarajah and Jeyasingam. (2001). Economic valuation of depletion of mangroves in the Batticaloa District.

Pinto, L. (1986). Mangroves of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy, and science Authority of Sri Lanka.

Shantharuban, S. and Vinobaba, P. (2008a). Anthropogenic impacts on mangrove vegetation in Palameenmadu and Puthukudiyiruppu, Batticaloa and the needs for an establishment of Nursery.First conference of the CIDA Restore project, Tangerine Beach Hotel- Kalutara, 28th April 2008, p3.

Vinobaba, P. (2008b). Status of the mangrove and associated anthropogenic disturbances to the ecosystem, Batticaloa lagoon, Sri Lanka. International conference on Biodiversity and conservation. BIOCAM 2008. p 20-21.

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MILK FISH FARMING IN CAGES TO ENHANCE THE INCOME FOR FISHERMEN FROM PALAMEENMADU AND TO PRESERVE THE BIODIVERSITY IN THE WILD ECOSYSTEM

P. Vinobaba and S. Dharshini

Abstract

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is an important food fish for South East Asian countries. This is an euryhaline species can have the ability to tolerate wide range of salinity and can survive in fresh water systems. The supply of cheap animal protein is vital for the increasing global human population. In the present context, the per capital consumption for a person is expects at 115 gram per day however, on an average consumes about 80 gram per day. This indicates the need for substitutive aquaculture production expected to meet the market demand for fish. One such option would be farming milk fish in captivity such as pen cages or floating cages. This venture throws the ways and means for hatchery technology to produce milk fish fingerlings, fry and advanced fingerling for stocking ponds. This promotes the healthy fry production and the wild fry will not be touched so the biodiversity will not be affected by the growing concerns of milk fish farming in present day. Small fish of average standard length of 15 mm placed into the floating cages (3’ x 4’ x 2’) and left to grow without fish feed. They feed naturally from the water circulating through the cages such as phytoplankton, algae, where the fertilization takes place regularly to boost the algal production. The fish were left in cages for 6 months and depends on the market price the fish being harvested and sold out to the market.

Keywords: animal protein, chanos chanos, euryhaline,milkfish, tolerate

Introduction

In Sri Lanka, there are no records of any traditional aquacultural practices except perhaps the "wala" fishery referred to by Willey (1910). Brackish water aquaculture was initiated very recently as an experimental venture with a view to its promotion. The brackish water areas of Sri Lanka consist of about 80,000ha of estuaries and large deep lagoons and about 40 000ha of shallow lagoons, tidal flats and mangrove swamps. The brackish water aquaculture potential of Sri Lanka is estimated to be about 120,000ha. (Thayaparan and Chakrabarty, 1984). Several sites were found in 128 beach, river mouth and mangrove areas were potential sites for both fry and fingerling.

Milkfish, Chanos cbanos (Forsk) is a marine fish which grows to a meter in length. Adults approach the coasts to breed and the young are carried or swim into brackish water lagoons, mangrove swamps, and tidal flats (Juario, et.al. 1984). Schuster (1952) points out that spawning of Chanos chanos possibly takes place twice a year. Milkfish fry and fingerlings are abundant in coastal and brackish water areas in Sri Lanka. There is some evidence that there are also two spawning seasons round the coasts of Sri Lanka. The major one extends from March to June with a peak in April-May (Ramanathan and Jayamaha, 1970), and another season in August- September. Fry are available during the season on the west coast in the Mannar, Kalpitiya and Negambo areas. The tidal flats in the Mannar region serve as the main fry grounds. The annual fry production potential of the Mannar tidal flats is estimated to be about 4 million. Surveys indicate the availability of fry along the east coast in the Kokilai and Batticaloa areas, but not in sufficiently large numbers to merit large-scale collections.

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is an important food fish. The success of milkfish as a cultured food fish species may be attributed to its ability to tolerate extremes of environmental conditions. These conditions include extremes of temperatures, salinity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, crowding and starvation (Duenas and Young, 1983). Their adaptability to these factors has allowed milkfish culturists to exploit the species by manipulating culture conditions.

Milkfish is the sole living species in the family Chanidae. Milkfish farms would be not only a good source of protein for human diets and an alternative to the depletion of fish from the sea and thus a way to ameliorate an environmental pressure, but also a source of income for villagers and farmers as tuna bait as well. Over the years, there has been a big steady demand for milkfish in the country. It has also been doing well in the international market.

Sri Lanka is a developing country, with rapid increase in population. This condition results in demand for dietary protein requirement, in order to supplement this need increase the fish yield per unit area with low cost is the only solution .This tremendous level of production from a Milk fish commodity is projected to further increase in the coming years to meet the dietary protein needs of an ever-growing population in Sri Lanka.

The cage aquaculture sub sector has grown very rapidly during the past 20 years and is presently undergoing rapid changes in response to pressures from globalization and a growing global demand for aquatic products. Recent studies have predicted that fish consumption in developing and developed countries will increase by 57 percent and 4 percent, respectively. Rapid population growth, increasing affluence and urbanization in developing countries are leading to major changes in supply and demand for animal protein, from both livestock and fish. 129

Within aquaculture production systems, there has been a move toward the clustering of existing cages as well as toward the development and use of more intensive cage- farming systems. In particular, the need for suitable sites has resulted in the cage aquaculture sub sector accessing and expanding into new untapped open-water culture areas such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers and coastal brackish and marine offshore waters.

Preferred areas for milkfish pond development are areas used for salt production or in salt flats found behind the mangrove zone. Other than environmental consideration, pond selection requires specific water levels, soil texture and supporting infrastructure. Technical aspects of pond site selection criteria are detailed in Requintina et. al. (2006).

Milk fish culture provides a continuous production that supports a steady supply and income for the fish farmers. Sri Lankan’s have more affinity towards fish in their daily diet. Our farming site at Paalameenmadu, in Batticaloa, is an ideal place consists of all water quality requirements for optimal growth, naturally for milk fish; hence we have selected this site as the most suitable place for milk fish farming. It is a small village located about 5 kilometers from the Batticaloa town.

Table 4.2: Physiochemical parameters suitable for milk fish farming

Parameter Optimum level Dissolved oxygen 3-5 ppm Temperature 22-35 oC Salinity 18-32 ppt pH 6.8-8.7

Source: AQUA SEAFDEC News

The place called Paalameenmadu in Batticaloa is popular for milk fish and hence the place is named thus. This area having good environmental conditions for optimal growth as a result there was abundance of milk fish in early days. The main industry of the natives of this area is fishing and the fisher folks of this area having a good knowledge about the milk fish. Later on due to illegal fishing, destruction of mangroves, over fishing and environmental pollution, there is a depletion of milk fish in this area. Due to these reasons also by way of safe guarding the natural stock of milk fish in this area, the environmental friendly milk fish cage culture is introduced through CIDA restore project for enhance their livelihood of fisher folks.

Objectives of the present project are 1. The objective of this study is to find out the milk fish grown in this culture within the 6 month culture period is attaining the marketable size. 2. Employment generation and poverty alleviation in the countryside.

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3. Promotion of fish cage culture as alternative source of livelihood for marginalized and sustenance fisher folk. 4. To develop an area with appropriate equipment and infrastructure that will allow fishermen, fish farmers and investors to operate cost-effectively and securely. 5. Develop skilled and technically capable fisher folk to support the livelihood of fishermen. 6. To promote the use of environment-friendly inputs and farm management practices.

Materials and methods

Through the series of awareness program for the fisher folks of this area are educated in milk fish cage culture. After this program a group of 20 families selected on the basis those who have an affinity towards this cage culture, families worst effected in the Tsunami disaster and families have poor economic stand. Thus selected families were provided with one cage each. Among them 5 cages only selected for experimental studies.

Initially a brackish water pond in Paalamenmadu selected. Then all the water in the said pond is drained out, debris cleared away, all holes, mounds, and depressions were leveled and the pond is allowed to dry until soil cracks on exposing to sunlight for about 1-2 weeks. Thereafter, the pond is filled up to 15cm depth, this water drained after 3 days. In order to sanitize the pond bottom and maintain a pH apply enough lime. Also add urea, chicken manure, ammonium phosphate to fertilize the pond and to stimulate the growth of natural food organisms. Once the colour of water in the pond appears green, due to the floating algal matter, pond is filled gradually. The pond is fertilized to enhance natural food for the culture, by stimulating the growth of blue green algae and phytoplankton. Initially the physiochemical parameters of the water body were measured using the equipments purchased through the CIDA Restore Project.

Figure 4.4: Pond used for farming Figure 4.5: Plastic coated galvanized wire mesh cage 131

Floating cages were constructed in the following dimensions: 3’ x 4’ x 2’. Frame is made out of metal and covered with plastic coated galvanized wire mesh. Fish cages are set up in shallow water at the depth of about 35cm with appropriate floats and anchors. Fries were brought from Puttalam. Then the standard length and weight of the fries were measured; before caging the fries permit to acclimate, partially submerge the fry container and tilt to one side to allow pond water to flow in, make sure that salinity and temperature levels in the fry container are slowly brought closer to those of pond.

Figure 4.6: Acclimatization process Figure 4.7: Cage in operation

These 5 cages are distributed at 5 meters distance apart in the pond. Every cage is seeded with 30 fingerlings and cages are maintained by the selected families but readings are taken by our project leaders. Weight and standard length of fingerlings along with the salinity of the pond were measured fortnightly. Weight measured by electronic balance, standard length of the fish measured by fish scale while salinity was measured by portable ATAGO, S/MillE Hand Refractometer. Form the average readings obtained from each cages, a final average reading was obtained from all each average readings. This study was carried out from December 2007 to May 2008

In the cage maintenance, the dirt that cling to the cage is removed on weekly basis by brushing manually or spraying high pressurized water to enhance the natural free flow of water for feeding. After 6 month of farming cycle harvest was made, the weights and standard lengths of fish were measured and results compared with natural fish.

In addition, the cost of expenditures of and the income from the milk fish sales were calculated to estimate the net profit per cage.

Results

Results from the milk fish farming indicated that milkfish farming in cages are possible and growth and survival can be achieved through proper management and

132 natural feeding. Table 4.3 shows the water quality parameters of the pond at the beginning of farming.

Table 4.3: Physiochemical parameters at the site of milk fish farming

Parameter Value Dissolved oxygen 2-4 ppm Temperature 31.9oC Salinity 1-15 ppt pH 7.9

Table 4.4: Summary of the stocked, harvested and survival percentage of fish

Cage no No. of fish stocked No. of fish harvested % of survival 1 30 25 83.33 2 30 28 93.33 3 30 30 100 4 30 29 96.67 5 30 28 93.33

In our experiment, the mean survival percentage was 93.33% and mean mortality was 6.67%.

Table 4.5: Summary of the readings from December to May

Week Average length Average Weight Salinity 2 2.56 2.148 1 4 2.68 9.824 1 6 3.16 20.222 1 8 5.8 30.516 2 10 8.32 45.684 2 12 10.36 56.81 5 14 16 164.06 9 16 27.94 220.06 7 18 37.68 318.34 12 20 49.42 395.42 12 22 60.5 492.34 11 24 71.64 558.5 15

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Figure 4.8: Changes of Average length along with Salinity

Figure 4.9: Changes of Average weight along with Salinity

Figure 4.10: Harvested milk fish ready for sale

In this experiment, average weight of a harvested fish during farming cycle was 558.5gm.

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Table 4.6: Cost benefit analysis of each cage in the first farming cycle

Description Quantity Rate (Rs) Total (Rs) Profit Expenditure Floating cage 5 Nos 6000.00 30,000.00 Fingerlings 30 fry/cage 15.00 2,250.00 Fertilization 2200.00 34,450.00 Sales No. of cages No. of Kg harvested Cage 1 13 750.00/Kg 9,750.00 Cage 2 15.38 11,535.00 Cage 3 18.10 13,575.00 Cage 4 14.73 11,047.50 Cage 5 17.14 12,855.00 58,762.50 For five cages 24,312.50 For one cage 4,862.50

Discussion

Initially growth and standard length increment were meager because of the Salinity variation in our pond. Initially up to the February salinity varies between the 0ppt to 5ppt because of heavy shower. However from the March to May salinity varies between 5 ppt to 15ppt. Milk fish is euryhaline fish, shows optimal growth at higher salinity therefore growth and standard length increment were lower in first 3 months here after weight gain and length are suddenly increasing.

In our experiment, the mean survival percentage was 93.33% and mean mortality was 6.67%. The mortality was at an acceptable level and it was experienced at the initial stages of the farming. These initial mortalities occurred during first three months could be due to a highly stressed, new environment, salinity changes and poor handling during transport and stocking. It is therefore felt that the survival rate can be improved considerably through better handling, transporting and stocking.

Lee 1986 stated that, the normal size of fish for stocking is about 2.5 to 5cm long, and about 1 to 2 grams in weight. A marketable size milkfish weighing 250 grams but from our studies same size and weight fingerlings were used but it grows in 6 months 500 to 600 grams.

In cage, the activities of fish is restricted, therefore of energy loss is low hence the chance of increasing the weight of the fish compared to wild is more, However, cage culture site pond water quality more or less same for the optimal growth of milk fish.

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This method is cost effective, because as this process in entirely on natural food which eliminates the expenditure involved in artificial food supply, only the cost involves in enhancing the phytoplankton and blue green contents by fertilizing by chicken manure: urea: ammonium phosphate 3:1:1 ratio, which in no way will appreciably affect in economic point of view. As the cage was made up of galvanized wire mesh, the cleaning of debris and seaweed clinked on it be easily removed by manual brushing or spraying high pressure water, which in turn greatly reduces the maintenance cost.

However very little is known about the seasonal abundance and distribution of milkfish fry along the shorelines and estuarine, areas very little is known about the best harvest methods for fry and fingerlings, this is currently a limiting factor to extensive expansion of farming. There is a need for action research on fingerling/fry collection and transport for commercial farming purposes without jeopardizing the environment.

Milk fish culture provides a continuous production that supports a steady supply and income for the fish farmers, apart from the main job. Whereas, without spending much time for this type of culture. Sri Lankans have greater affinity for fish in their diet. Fishermen and farmers seem increasingly interested in supplying it.

After 6-7 month of culture fish reach 500-600g each. Also nearly 15kg fish can be harvested from each cage which is sold at 750/= per kilo. Cages and fries are supplied by CIDA therefore no expenditure for fisher folks. At off season though the harvests lessen the dried fish fetch a high price in the market thus the economic trend remains same.

In Sri Lanka most lagoons are short and seasonal and do not support sustainable fisheries. The best way of overcome this resistance to this innovation is to introduce Milk fish farming gradually, while ensuring that the methods employed are those most certain to achieve positive economic results. If more fish can thus be made available for food, and additional income can be derived too.

There are abundant shrimp ponds in the coastal belt of Batticaloa. These ponds also can be utilized for milk fish farming in a productive manner with least cost and also unused salt farms, prawn farms or swamps and marshlands can be developed into brackish water productive milkfish ponds.

Milk fish is Euryhaline fish can survive in abrupt environmental conditions. The success of milkfish as a cultured food fish species may be attributed to its ability to tolerate extremes of environmental conditions. These conditions include extremes of temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, crowding and starvation. Their adaptability to these factors has allowed milkfish culturists to exploit the species by manipulating culture conditions. Our farming site closer to the bar mouth will lead the possibilities of fresh water input into our site will cause

136 the change in water quality parameter. This factor will not affect the milk fish culture. Even though the fries have the ability to adjust the crowed condition and starvation will help to increase the number of fries in each cages, thus resulting bloated income.

This method is environment friendly method because this culture is also a better alternative method to prevent depletion of fish from the wild (sea or lagoon) and thus a way to ameliorate an environmental pressure.

Fish culture can actually mitigate the decline of fish stocks decimated by overfishing and environmental changes. In addition to decreasing the dependence on natural stocks, fish culture may help to re-stock populations by the release of cultured larvae or juveniles into the wild to bolster natural populations. From our survey we found the farming site of Batticaloa lagoon is abundance with carnivorous fish like Tachysuras, and Omnivorous Tilapia sp. in order to preserve biodiversity we have choose floating cage farming method. We stocked the fingerlings into the cage until they attain a certain size and some of them are left into wild ecosystem to maintain natural balance.

Using Plastic coated galvanized wire mesh prevents metal erosion and harmful effect to the culture systems and to the enviornment.

It is characteristic of milkfish that given unfavorable living conditions such as crowding, insufficient food, low water temperature, or low pH, etc., their growth would be slow or non-existent. However, when given good living conditions, the fish would grow faster than their normal growth rate even after having been subjected to those previous unfavourable conditions. This process is called “stunting” (Castanos, et.al., 1995). It is common that milkfish farmers buy the total number of fry required for the year during peak collection season, and stunt them until they can sell them at a good price when they are not as plentiful, before the next collection period. This way, the farmers can take advantage of low prices, and the volume they need is available at one time. This can be done in all areas where there is a pronounced peak season of fry collection during the onset of monsoon.

If we provide diet of artificial feed in pellet form, when we over feed unutilized pellet can reach the bottom it decomposed by micro organism thus alternative of natural food web structure can significantly impact the natural environment. Wild stocks of fish can be depleted for use in formulated feeds for milk fish, moreover sedentary animals die in water depleted of O2 resulting from microbes. Although any species of phytoplankton can benefit from an increased nutrient supply, certain species are noxious or even toxic to other marine organisms and to humans. The spines of some diatoms (e.g. Chaetoceros concavicornis) can irritate the gills of fish, causing decreased production or even death. Importantly, blooms of certain species such as Chattonella sp often produce biological toxins that can kill other organisms. Neurotoxins produced by several blue green algal species can create a 137 serious health risk to people consuming contaminated fish. Therefore we are only focusing on natural feeding in order to preserve existing wild stocks.

Biodiversity is impacted in several ways by illegal fishing practices including used undersize mesh net, dynamite fishing, light fishing while shrimp farming practices including destruction of mangrove swamps and pollution of natural water bodies and also our farming site is one of the most environmentally stressed coastal area of the Batticaloa district by both the Tsunami disaster of December 2004 and the destruction of ecologically sensitive (Mangroves) area due to unplanned developmental activities following Tsunami (Santharooban and Vinobaba, 2007). These activities severely impact on milk fish. Above mention activity will pave the path to the loss of important spawning and nursery grounds of milk fish and affects local fisheries resulting in reduced yields for local fishermen. On the other hand destruction of mangroves negatively impacts the milk fish population because of them spend a portion of their lifecycle in mangrove forests. Therefore we are focusing on cage culture farming.

From our results, the Chanos chanos showed good growth and reached marketable size in 6 months. This method is environment friendly and good option for the alternative livelihood. This fish showed good growth performance in higher salinity values.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to CIDA for their financial assistance and their corporation throughout the project period. We wish to thank the fisher folks of the Paalamenmadu for their help us in various ways to carry out the experiments successfully.

Bibliography

Castanos, M., Badilles, D., and Buendia. (1995). Milk fish culture of AQUA SEAFDEC FARM NEWS, Publication of Aquaculture Deaprtment, Tigbauan. Lloilo, Philippines, Vol.XIII No.6, ISSN 0116-6573, pp 4-27

Duenas, C.E. and Young, P.S. (1983). Salinity tolerance and resistance of milkfish larvae. Second International Milkfish Aquaculture Conference Iloilo City, Philippines. 4–8 October 1983. Abstract

Juario, J.V., Ferraris, R.P. and Benitez, L.V. (1984). Advances in Milkfish Biology and Culture. Island Publishing House, Manila. pp. 243

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Lee, C.S., Gordon, M.S., and Watanabe, W.O. (1986). Aquaculture of Milkfish (Chanos chanos): State of the Art. The Oceanic Institute of Hawaii USA. pp. 209– 216.

Ramanathan, S. and Jaysmaha, D.I.S. (1970). On the collection, acclimatization of the fry of Chanos Chanos for brackish water pond culture in Ceylon. Coastal aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific region, oclited by 'T. Tr. K.Pillay. West Byflcet, Surrey, Fishing News (Boolis) Ltd. pp. 244-50

Requintina, E.D., Mmochi, A.J., and Msuya, F.E. (2006). A Guide to Milkfish Culture in Tanzania. Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystems Program. Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Hawaii,Hilo and the Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. p. 49

Santharooban, S. and Vinobaba, P. (2007). How can mangroves be protected and be used in a proper way? An Awareness Hand book. CIDA Restore Project Publication. Eastern University, Sri Lanka.

Schuster, W. H. (1952).Fish culture in brackishwater ponds of Java. P&/. IPFC, (I):143 1'.

Thayaparan, K. and Chakrabarty, R.D. (1984). Conference 2. Milkfish aquaculture in Sri Lanka International Milkfish Aquaculture Conference, Iloilo City (Philippines), Manila (Philippines)

Willey, A. (1910). Note on the freshwater fisheries of Ceylon.7: 88-106

A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO TREAT WASTERWATER FROM DYEING INDUSTRY

M.F. Nawas

Abstract

Dyes production, textilepreparation, dyeing and finishing plants are currentlybeing forced to treat their effluents at least partiallyprior to discharge to environment because of the high organic load, strong and resistantcolour as well as high dissolved solids content of thedischarged wastewater. Acouple of wastewater treatment activities werecarried out under the CIDA Restore Project at Akbar village, where dyeing industries operate traditionally for years. One of those dyeing factories that generates wastewater is located close to the sea beach, which is the main recreactional site of the region. Certainphysico-chemical parameters, such as pH, EC, DO, temperaturewere measured in-situand samples were taken to the Labforfurtheranalysis and trial treatment methods. Thesole objective of this short term project was to reduce the colour intensity of the effluent by any simple means, such as filtration and sedimentation. The exercise provided promissing results (reduction of colour intensity) in the lab and trial field studies. However, when those simple techniques were applied in the field continuously, many drawbacks were noticed. Field trials, thereforerevealedthat theneed for more research components to be incorporated and furtherinvestigationsare required for alonger period of time with larger/varying volumes of wastewater.

Keywords: dye, filtration, sedimantation, wastewater,water pollution

Introduction

A dye can generally be described as a coloured substance, either natural or synthetic, that has an affinity to the substrate (paper, textile, leather, hair, etc) to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fibre.

Discoveries in colour science created new industries and drove changes in fashion and taste. The first human-made (synthetic) dye, Mauveine, (discoveredby William Henry Perkinin 1856) was a forerunner for the development of hundreds of synthetic dyes and pigments.Many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared.Synthetic dyes quickly replaced the traditional natural dyes; they cost less, 140 offered a vast range of new colours, and imparted better properties upon the dyed materials. By the closing decades of the 19th century, textiles, paints, and other commodities in colours such as red, crimson, blue, and purple had become affordable.

As with many other industrialsectors, growing concern about environmentalissues has prompted the dye industry and textile industry to investigate more appropriateand environmentally friendly treatmenttechnologies to meet the discharge restraints that arebecoming stricter every day. Wastewater derived from the production of dyesis highly variable in composition, and contains a largenumber of different compounds such as raw materials (anilines), intermediate products, and even the dyeitself (Sarasa et. al., 1998).Dyes production, textilepreparation, dyeing and finishing plants are currentlybeing forced to treat their effluents at least partiallyprior to discharge to publicly owned treatment worksbecause of the high organic load, strong and resistantcolour as well as high dissolved solids content of thedischarged wastewater (Arslan, 2001).

Conventional treatments of wastewater containingorganic compounds include biological oxidation, chemical coagulation, advanced oxidation andadsorption. Biological methods are generally cheapand simple to apply and are currently used to removeorganics and colour from dyeing and textile wastewater.However, wastewater from dyeing processes cannot be readilydegraded by conventional biological processes, such as the activated sludge process, because the structuresof most commercial dye compounds are generallyvery complex and many dyes arenon-biodegradable due to their chemical nature, molecularsize; thus, this results in sludge bulking (Yuan et. al., 2006). Althoughdyestuffs and colour materials in wastewatercan be effectively destroyed by wet oxidation, advancedchemical oxidation such as H2O2/UV, O3, andadsorption using activated carbon, the costs of thesemethods are relatively high (Kim et. al., 2004; Liu andJiang, 2005; Wen et. al., 2005). Presently, wastewaterfrom dye manufacturing industry is usually treated bycombination process of biological treatment and coagulationtreatment, before being fed to the biologicaltreatment units, coagulation can reduce the wastewaterloading and thus reduce the treatment cost.

The effluents from dyeing industries make the environment unaesthetic, contaminate groundwater and hence will cause ill effects on health the inhabitants. The dyeing industries, considered in this project, contribute a effects on their environment by sending untreated dye wastewater into the environment. The owners of the dyeing industries had either no idea of wastewater treatment or don’t want to spend money on wastewater treatment. As a result, they were facing pressure from the Kalmunai Municipal Council, Physical Health Inspector (PHI), neighbours and the recreational users of the beach. Some of the owners were at the verge of closing the industry, which would have resulted in losing jobs for him and his employees. Also, the handloom industry too would have suffered without raw material (coloured yarn) for their products.

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Although, all the components of the wastewater from the dye industry may cause harm to the environment, the visible and striking factor for those who oppose the industry is the coloured particles of the wastewater. Our main objective in this project, therefore, was to remove or reduce the colour intensity of the effluent, at low cost and effort.

Materials and methods

Site Location

Akbar village is part of Maruthamunai, a village that is located in the eastern province of Sri Lanka at the boarder between the Ampara and Batticaloa districts. The area of Maruthamunai is around 2.11km2 and the population is around 15,420. There are around 7 dyeing processing units operating in Maruthamunai which 6 are located within the Akbar village.

Sampling strategy

Two dyeing industries from Akbar village were selected for treating their wastewaters. Of the two monitored, the one located closse to the beach, was taken for monitoring/research. Four sampling surveys took place over the period of April to July 2008. Three replicate samples were collected fresh from the effluent on each visit and transported quickly (within 3 hours) to the Centre for Soil and Water Research Laboratory, located at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Sammanthurai, while parameters such as Dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature were measured and recorded at the site itself.

Materials

Materials included filter papers (whatman, pore size 100 m), charcoal generated as a by- product of the dyeing process as well assand and coarse soil obtained from the sea beach.

Procedures

First, we provided counseling to the dyeing industry owners.Then we collected samples for laboratory analyses. We tried very simple, basic techniques such as filtration, sedimentation, etc. toremove and/or decrease the colour (intensity) of the wastewater fromdyeing industry so that the operational cost is none or negligibly small.

A portion of the raw wastewater was subjected to chemical analysis; another portion was filtered through filter paper and the filtrate was subjected to chemical analysis. A third portion of the raw wastewater was allowed to stand for the dye particles

142 settling under the influence of gravity and the time of settlementwas recorded.The supernatant was taken for analysis.

Analytical methods

All samples were replicated 3 times for chemical analysis. Samples used for 3- 3- measuring nitrate (NO ) and orthophosphates (PO4 ) were gravity filtered using 100 m (whatman) filter paper. Nitrate was measured using the cadmium reduction method and phosphate used the ascorbic acid method using a HACH, DR-2010 Spectrophotometer. Suspended solids were measured directly using the photometric method of the HACH, DR-2010. COD analysis was performed accordingto Standard Methods (APHA, 1980).

Dissolved oxygen and pH were measured directly using handheld DO and pH meters. Temperature was measured using a handheld mercury thermometer.

Results

Characteristic analysis of wastewater

The majority of the compounds found in wastewaters generated from a dyeing industry are phenol derivatives, aniline derivatives,organic acid and benzene derivatives. Some of the identified compounds arechlorinated derivatives, resulting from the chlorinationtreatment (bleaching) carried out by some industries (Sarasa et. al., 1998). The presence of compounds belonging to List Iof EEC and U.S.E.P.A. “Priority Pollutant List", such asp-nitroaniline, p-nitrophenol is noteworthy. Table 4.7 provides a list of some majorcompounds characterized in raw wastewaters. Thecompounds are classified in groups according to theirprincipal functional group.

This study was severely restricted by resources (such as lack of sophisticated instruments, like HPLC, GC, MS, etc) and therefore was unable to confirm the components present in the wastewater effluents. However, the data acquired (tables 4.8 and 4.9) do indicate that significant amounts of one or many of the the components given in the following Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Major compounds identified in raw andtreated water (Yuan et. al.2006)

Compound Relative content (%) Phenol 1.67 p-Nitrophenol 4.40 Biphenyl-4,4'-diol 1.10 2, 4-Dinitro-phenol 1.13 Phenol derivatives 3.96 143

Aniline 0.97 Benzene-1,3-diamine 1.35 3,4-Dichloro-phenylamine 1.39 3-(phenylamino)-propanenitrile 6.18 N-Propyl-benzenamine 1.91 p-Nitroaniline 1.98 p-Pentylaniline 1.98 2,6-Dichloro-benzene-1,4-diamine 0.43 Benzoic acid 1.41 Benzyl alcohol 8.19 Naphthalene 3.71 Quinoline 1.40 2-Methyl naphthalene 3.97 Biphenyl 3.56

Table 4.8:Values of certain parameters measured in raw and treated dye wastewater

Ex. Parameter Raw Treated water, with No Water Charcoal Sand Filtration (Resulted from (From sea (Commercial dyeing process) beach) filter paper) 01 pH 10.2 8.5 8.7 8.4 02 EC (μS / cm) 4,563 1,439 1,127 1,030 03 TDS (mg/L) 1,200 713 555 505 04 DO (mg/L) 0.3 2.2 3.0 3.2 05 Turbidity (FU) 45 33 24 22 06 Colour (Pt-Co) 98 95 59 44 07 SS (mg/L) 78 42 30 28 08 COD (mg/L) 978 721 585 510

The performance of COD removal by chemicalcoagulation depends upon the solubility of the organiccontaminants. The organic contaminants withlow solubility, such as disperse dyes, have been generallyreported to be removed well by coagulationand/or flotation methods. The organic contaminantswith low solubility can be easily adsorbed and flocculatedby coagulants (Al-Degs et. al., 2000). However,the soluble organic contaminants cannot be wellremoved efficiently by coagulation. As organic acidsand benzyl alcohol have -COO−, -OH groups, thesecontaminants have high solubility and are not prone tobe adsorbed.

144

Table 4.9: A comparison of two different raw water samples

Ex.No. Parameters 05.06.2008 Red Dye Green Dye 01. pH 9.23 10.05 02 EC (μS/cm) 30,900 46,900 03. TDS (mg/l) 18.46 29.6 04. Salinity (ppt) 19.2 30.6 05. DO (mg/l) 4 0.7 06. Color (Units) 43 37 07. Nitrate (mg/l) 662.5 911.3 08. Phosphate (mg/l) 0.00 0.19 09. Fluoride (mg/l) 0.0 0.0 10. Ammonia (mg/l) 45.00 103.75

Discussion

The counselling provided self confidence and hope for the dyeing industry owner and his employees, almost all of them were victims to the 2004 Tsunami. This study is an example of low-cost, water quality monitoring survey/water treatment method in a remote, rural province in Sri Lanka as a number of cost-saving approaches were applied in this project.

The colour reduction at the laboratory studies revealed that with charcoal (burnt firewood) was 3.1%, with sand, 39.8%, and with filter paper, 55.1%. Whereas the field studies indicated, the reduction of the colour intensity was fairly reasonable (around 30%), resulted in minimising at least negative comments from the neighbours and officials, hence, the owner is relaxed now.

The COD studies were also promising. According to the laboratory studies, the COD values were reduced as follows: with charcoal (burnt firewood) the reduction is 26.3%, with sand, 40.2% and with filter paper, 47.9%. The field studies indicated the reduction of the COD values by around 29%.

Although, this project provided self confidence and job security to the dyeing industry owner and his employees, we could not investigate the real components present in the effluent, and hence wouldn’t do the right treatment it needed due to various restrictions and limitations which we had, such as lack of sophisticated instruments (e.g., AAS, GC-MS, HPLC, etc.).

The validity of the above figures were not statistically analysed due to the small sample size. If done repeatedly for a longer period, statistically reliable results could be found.

145

Bibliography

Al-Degs, Y., Khraishen, M.A.M., Al1enand, S.J., Ahmad, M.N. (2000). Effect of carbon surface chemistry on theremoval of reactive dyes from textile effluent. Wat. Res.,34(3):927-935.

APHA. (1980). Standard Methods for the Examination of Waterand Wastewater (16th Ed.). American Public Health Association,Washington, D.C.

Arslan, I. (2001). Treatability of a simulated disperse dye-bathby ferrous iron coagulation, ozonation, and ferrousiron-catalyzed ozonation. J. of Hazardous Materials,B85:229-241.

Kim, T.K., Park, C., Shin, E., and Kim, S. (2004). Decolourization ofdisperse and reactive dye solutions using ferric chloride.Desalination, 161:49-58.

Liu, Y.J., Jiang, and X.Z. (2005). Phenol degradation by a nonpulseddiaphragm glow discharge in an aqueous solution.Environ. Sci. Technol., 39(21):8512-8517.

Sarasa, J., Roche, M.P., Ormad, M.P., Gimeno, E., Puig, A. and Ovelleiro, J.L. (1998). Treatment of a wastewater resultingfrom dyes manufacturing with ozone and chemical coagulation.Wat. Res., 32(9):2721-2727.

Wen, Y.Z., Liu, W.Q., Fang, Z.H., and Liu, W.P. (2005). Effect ofadsorption interferents on removal of reactive red 195 dyein wastewater by chitosan. J. of Environmental Science―China, 17(5):766-769.

YUAN Yu-li, WEN Yue-zhong, LI Xiao-ying, and LUO Si-zhen. (2006). Treatment of wastewater from dye manufacturing industryby coagulation. J. Zhejiang Univ. Science A. 7 (Suppl. II):340-344

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147

SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY BASED HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: LESSONS LEARNED FROM RUHUNA - CIDA RESTORE PROJECT

L.M. Abeywickrama, S. Subasinghe and Ranjith Senaratne

Abstract

The inefficient collection and disposal of solid wastes and the consequent widespread scattering and dumping of garbage is a pressing issue in municipal areas of Sri Lanka. Since the tsunami of 2004 and subsequent activities related to it, much solid waste has been deposited along sea beaches adjoining Matara, creating an unpleasant environment. The Ruhuna-CIDA Tsunami Restoration Project cleaned the beach in the Madiha village through shramadana campaigns and distribution of concrete compost bins among households to produce compost fertilizer using kitchen and garden waste. Urban agricultural techniques were introduced to make compost from household waste, and people were encouraged to cultivate vegetables using modern home-gardening methods. A sample survey was conducted to study the benefits of the waste management and agricultural activities, the attitudes and views of the stakeholders, and problems faced by the project activities. It revealed that about 25 families sell their surplus vegetables to neighbours, trader middlemen and nearby markets. The annual value of sales is up to Rs. 25,000 as informed by the households. As an average family spends about Rs. 2,000 monthly for vegetables, total savings by the households under the project is an estimated Rs. 1,920,000 annually, which exceeds the total cost of the project component for land- based ecosystems. It should be noted that the estimated benefit is conservative as it excludes income from sale of surplus, sharing of harvest with neighbours, the benefit of availability of tasty and pesticide- free fresh vegetables near home, and an increased intake of fresh vegetables. Moreover, the project has induced people outside the project boundaries to buy compost bins. The social impact of the program included another aspect of the project besides reducing garbage in public places. The study aimed to measure the changes in indicators of social harmony resulting from the programme. Transformational Development Indicators (TDIs) were used to measure social impacts of waste management. The analysis revealed that waste related social conflicts and several other forms of conflict have been significantly reduced. Among TDIs, caring for others, sharing the resources, sharing knowledge and experience, community participation in shared voluntary activities, communication among neighbours, leadership and decision making by women, and social recognition of neglected social groups have significantly improved as a result of the project. The study further revealed that trivial conflicts within the society which could be the seeds of

148 catastrophic conflicts can be can be significantly averted and social harmony improved through project activities. The study identified that poor attitudes and lack of understanding of the public, social friction stirred by waste collectors in the municipal system, local tourists, bureaucracy and local politics as significant hindrances to project activities, as they discouraged participants. Correct identification of disruptive groups, strengthening of civil society and conducting awareness programs, and offering a new role for the fleet of waste collectors will help the progress of community-based household waste management program. Despite the hindrances, it can be claimed that the project activities have been relevant, cost effective and sustainable for replication in similar communities.

Introduction

Waste management is an emergent and pressing issue in Sri Lanka and mainly concerns the collection and disposal of solid waste by widespread scattering and deposition of garbage on dumping grounds. Improperly dumped waste impedes water flows in drainage canals, and provides breeding places for disease vectors such as rats, mosquitoes, and flies. The final disposal is predominantly open dumping which leads to worsening environmental degradation and growing health problems. The national solid waste management strategy is to establish proper solid waste management systems throughout the country, and local action plans are urgently needed to implement this strategy. Most of Sri Lanka’s waste is currently disposed of in open dumps. The country lacks appropriate waste management equipment and technologies. Local authorities are seeking affordable and proven technologies as well as funding solutions, especially in matters of resource recovery and landfill management.

Waste dumping has long been a problem and led to health and environmental problems in the community. The size of the problem has increased recently as the proportion of paper, glass and plastics in the waste has increased. Plastics pose problems relating to their decay resistance as they can take centuries to break down naturally. Habit has meant that plastic waste is often thrown onto the street where it attracts and accumulates vermin and insects, which in turn spread disease. Biodegradable waste is also commonly thrown to the street and can cause environmental and health problems. Besides such pollution, water and food contamination have risen, and there is an increased incidence of dengue fever in some areas.

Community-based waste management is considered a promising strategy for improving environmental conditions in low income settlements. One school of thought emphasizes that people should radically change their attitudes and habits, while another emphasizes greater income opportunities in recycling should as the only way to achieve a sustainable garbage collection service. Both schools assume 149 that the community through its leaders and organizations is able to initiate and enforce lasting changes of habits, and that the community is capable of planning and managing waste collection/recycling enterprises. The ability of formal and informal leaders to influence and organize community members is indeed one of the factors underlying successful projects.

Owing to rapid urban growth, the volume of waste added to the waste stream is on the rise. There is a scarcity of land for use as dumping ground or landfill sites. In Sri Lanka, waste management is still the responsibility of local authorities, of whom many face not only the problem of inefficient waste management but also their inability to deal with issues of health and sanitation aggravated by environmental pollution from the urban waste. Formulation of a sustainable waste management system has become a priority for local and central government agencies involved in urban development in Sri Lanka. In this context, segments of the civil society specially, community groups and Non-Governmental Organizations have gained increased recognition as capable institutions to find sustainable solutions for the solid waste problem in urban areas. With the government increasingly unable to provide services, housing and infrastructure to the rapidly growing population, its role is changing from being a provider to enabler. The state becomes the facilitator of the public-private partnerships, as the community also takes responsibilities for providing services to the poor.

The general objective of the study is to develop a sustainable solid waste management model while disseminating the knowledge available in university and other research institutions through community participation. The following are the specific objectives: (1) to estimate different categories of solid waste disposed in Matara; (2) to identify matters affecting the proposed waste management and home gardening model; (3) to identify attitudes towards and impact on solid wastes and different solid waste management techniques; (4) to evaluate the reduction in organic solid waste collection within the area as a result of project activities.

Review of literature and conceptual framework

According to the solid waste study of the National Building Research Organization of Sri Lanka none of the usual methods of treatment such as size-reduction, composting or incineration are used by the CMC. All waste, therefore, is disposed on open dump sites located in adjoining local authorities owing to the non- availability of land within the CMC. None of municipal sites used qualify to be sanitary landfills. A potential landfill with seven years’ capacity has been identified 13km away from Colombo and is to be developed as the first sanitary landfill in the country.

In Sri Lanka, the entire responsibility for Solid Waste Management (SWM) rests on Local Authorities (Table 2.1) under respective legal enactments. Powers in relation to SWM have been vested in the Municipal Council Ordinance – order under

150 section 129, 130 and 131, No 29 dated 1947, Urban Council Ordinance - order under sections 118,119 and 120, No 61 dated 1938 and Pradeshiya Sabha Act – sections 93, 94 and 95, No 15 dated 1986.

According to available information, proposed landfills are expected to generate at least 1000 direct employment opportunities with the setting up of compost plants at Meerigama, Dompe, Kaluthara, Anuradapura, Vaunia, Jaffna, and landfills (having 20 years lifetime) at Panadura, Dompe, Kaluthara, Anuradapura, Polonnaruwa, Hikkaduwa, Matara, Badulla, Kuliyapitiya, Oluvil, Vauniya and Jaffna. In addition to the direct benefits, Pilisaru will reduce the current dependence on fossil fuel, by generating electricity through biogas which produces organic manure and also reduce harmful effect or use of chemical fertilizer. Green tax would be introduced under the Pilisaru Project; this means that polluters have to pay the monetary cost of their pollution. It is estimated that income from this tax will be 2000 million rupees in 2011. Regular monitoring of SWM is carried out though CEO and legal action is taken against local authorities who do not carry out proper SWM programme. (Central Environmental Authority, 2008)

The average waste collection in Matara Municipal Council was estimated at 35 tons/day in 2006. Composition of the Matara District household waste (by volume) was estimated as, kitchen waste 42%, garden waste 39%, plastic and polythene 7%, paper 6%, and others 6%. Per capita household waste generated within the Matara municipal area is 280g per day. The total population of the Matara Municipality is 42,717. Form these data we can estimate the total house hold waste generated within the area as 12 Mt. This waste can be considered as a very good source for composting. (Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment, 2005)

Households generally dump or burn their waste. Dumping is usually in a shallow pit in the ground, along the roadside, on a nearby dumpsite, in low-lying marshland, or in waterways or water bodies. Dumped material is often periodically burned. Local authorities usually dump their collected waste on privately owned land. Finding suitable sites is difficult, and current sites are therefore often over-used. A review of dumpsites of the Greater Colombo Area (GCA) under the Colombo Environmental Improvement Project in 1999/2000 found that the 41 existing disposal sites in the GCA were all open dumps, with the exception of one where market waste buried in trenches. The same study reported that more than 60% of the sites were on privately owned lands. Private lands are released as dump sites largely for reclamation of the land for purposes of building construction. Most of the disposal sites in the GCA are small in extent, with around 70% of them less than 1ha in extent; and 46% of the sites have a remaining life of less than around 3 years. (Central Environmental Authority, 2008)

Vasantharuba (2001) estimated the willingness to pay for the solid waste management, in Kandy and Kalutara urban council areas, based on with open ended questions on willingness to pay. Willingness to pay in Kandy and Kalutara was, on average, Rs 25.77 and 28.93 per month per household, respectively. The mean 151 values for willingness to pay for the same group of sites, based on closed ended questions, were Rs 27.95 and 28.98, respectively. As the reliability of these values was high, several authors suggested using these values to estimate potential revenue from an improved solid waste management system in Kandy and Kalutara urban council areas. Alwis (2002) conducted research on the “Financial Viability Analysis of Solid waste Management Options in Kandy and Kalutara urban Councils”. Ten viable options for SWM were analyzed for financial benefits derived in a form of a user fee achieved by a contingent valuation study conducted in the Kandy and Kalutara municipalities. According to the financial analysis, the lowest cost option was composting the wet part and selling the dry part in the recycling market. With environmental benefits considered, both composting and recycling are desirable options for effective management of solid waste. Thus Alwis recommended composting as the most appropriate method of SWM, among the existing options.

Generation of waste is rising with increasing population, technological development and changes in life style of people. Therefore policies need to be formulated to encourage waste management practices through waste avoidance/reduction, reuse and recycling, and final disposal thereafter in an environmentally sound manner. For policies relating to waste management in Sri Lanka, we may consider the Municipal Council Ordinance, the Urban Council Ordinance, the Pradeshiya Sabha Act, the National Environment Act, Amendment to the National Environmental (Protection & Quality) regulations No.01 of 1990, the Basel Convention and the Rotterdam Convention.

The flow diagram in Fig.4.11 summarises the developed conceptual frame for sustainable waste management based on a review of available literature

152

Effective participation of Planning and management Community Strategic planning, Institutional Institutions arrangement, public participation, Waste generation Waste prevention, Waste minimization, Waste handling Sustainable management of Waste treatment Household waste

Social and cultural Environmental Economic Context context context

Figure 4.11: Conceptual frame for sustainable waste management

Methodology

The study mainly concerned kitchen waste management. The project was planned for implementation at the Madiha GN division in the Matara Municipality. The Ruhuna - CIDA Tsunami Restoration Project cleared the sea beach of debris and litter in the Madiha village through a series of shramadana campaigns and provided concrete compost bins to households to produce compost fertilizer using decomposable kitchen waste and garden waste. Urban agricultural techniques were introduced to use compost from household waste and people were mobilized to cultivate vegetables using modern home - gardening techniques. A sample survey was conducted to find the benefits of this waste management project and subsequent agricultural activities, attitudes and views of the stakeholders, and problems of the project activities. Initially, concrete composting bins, planting materials, and necessary information and training on home gardening were provided free to selected families with the expectation that, as the project activities progressed, others will bear the cost of composting bins and planting materials according to following work plan (see Fig.4.12).

153

nd rd 1st STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP

Initial Group Second Group Third Group

Real price Free Concessionary price

Sustainable management of household waste

Figure 4.12: Plan for sustainable waste management

A baseline survey and social mobilization programme were conducted initially to estimate the solid waste generation and to make the people aware of sustainable household solid waste management. Training included modern techniques of preparation of compost and home gardening. The research survey was conduct to identify the current situation in the part of Madiha where the project was being implemented. The objectives of the survey were to identify the present methods of waste disposal, identify the attitudes of people towards waste management, estimate the composition of household waste, and identify the relationship between composition of household waste and living standard. Project activities were planned using the following model (see Fig.4.13) with a view to develop a pleasant environment, reduce cost of food procurement and increase family income through home garden products, and improve social harmony and the learning environment.

Papers Polythene Idle labour Glasses Kitchen wastes Waste water Bottles Garden waste The project

Economic output Utility Dirty Waster causing Environment of Social Problems of handling harmony

154

Figure 4.13: Model of waste disposal methods

In addition to the use of descriptive statistics to explain the project outcome, social aspects of the project were measured on a five-point scale from -2 (drastically worsened, -1 somewhat worsened, 0 not changed, +1 somewhat improved, +2 highly improved). Measurements were made using the criteria of transformational development indicators (TDIs). The Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test was used to analyze the rank data.

Results and Discussion

The baseline survey showed that 30% of the households separate waste and 70% do not. Also 57% of the households use the municipal council tractor to dispose of the waste. The final survey showed a large reduction in kitchen waste in the municipal waste collection implying a reduction in collection costs and the recycling of kitchen waste for home gardening. Figure 4.14 shows the proportions of solid waste disposed of by municipal collection before and after the project.

Percentage 100 91 90 81 80 70 56 60 50 40 40 30 19 20 9 10 0 Kitchen Garden Paper

Base line Present

Figure 4.14: Disposal of different categories of waste by municipal collection before and after the project

Of the total waste production, 48% was generated as kitchen waste. Least generated waste type is garden waste that percentage is 0.16% that is negligible (see Fig.4.15). 155

39% 48%

0% 7% 6%

Kitchen wastes Plastic/Polythene Paper/Cardboard Garden wastes Glasses

Figure 4.15: Waste composition on volume basis

It was revealed that separation of waste by category is practiced only by 30% of the households. So, for the success of sustainable waste management, the project thus has to target the 70% who do not separate waste by category. Figure 4.16 shows changes in behaviour of the people in the project site after the introduction of project activities.

100

75 (%) (%) Percentage Percentage

0 Compostin Poly bags MC Pits g & throw Tractor At base line survey(%) 30 9 57 4 Present situation(%) 100 0 0 0

Figure 4.16: Reduction in kitchen waste in sample households

Improvement of social harmony and co-operation, and several other criteria were identified. One is relationship with neighbours. Almost 90% of the community are familiar with neighbours and of them 69% shared their harvest and other equipment with neighbours. The remaining 31% needed to improve their relationship with neighbours. The positive impact of the project on the whole community is evident from the rise in the number of households that share from 63% in the baseline survey to 86% in the final survey. Another important criterion concerned the heaping of the waste in front of the houses in the selected house holders.

156

Initially, 97% of the households reported that waste is always heaped in front of their houses and they blamed the neighbours for this situation. Incidence of accumulation of rubbish in front of houses has fallen to 20% and attitudes are more positive towards neighbours. Another criterion was attitude towards the surroundings since the implementation of the waste management project. Social attitude is a critical issue which directly affects social harmony. Changing the attitudes of people requires a long term effort and hard work. However, the introduction of urban agricultural techniques not only improved social harmony but also contributed to closer relationship among family members. Almost 57% of the selected community agreed that they had a beautiful and calm environment as a result of the project, 23% said that it was beautiful but not calm, and 10% that it was calm but not beautiful environment, 6% did not agree that the environment was good, and 4% had no idea.

The project was able to fill a larger gap that existed between two social classes in the project area in the Matara Municipality. The target populations included rich and educated people who are considered as high class, government officers considered as middle class, and poor class. For the success of the research participatory approach of each family was important. But it was not easy to meet families together, but regular visits and arranging awareness programs helped in the development of social harmony in the area. Table 4.10 gives the impressions of the people about selected social aspects of the project activities. The results reveal that many of the social and environmental aspects have improved as a result of the project activities.

Table 4.10: Views of the people on improvements in selected social and environmental aspects

Criteria % of the respondents Reduction of waste related problems 72 Reduction of conflicts 66 Reduction of stray dogs 54 Sharing planting materials 47 Sharing the product 38 Sharing knowledge and experience 43 Caring for others 62 Community participation in shared activities 64 Communication among neighbors 58 Social recognition of neglected group of the society 44 Improved environment 67 Productive use of leisure times 90 Improved learning environment at households 78 Lowering garbage in roads 71

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Table 4.11 shows the results of statistical analysis (The Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test) which tested different hypotheses of social views towards the improvement of different environmental and social aspects. The results revealed that several social and environmental aspects of the project area have been significantly improved with the project activities.

Table 4.11: Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test results for environmental and social aspects of project activities

Criteria Mean Z Reduction of waste related problems 0.78 2.34 Reduction of conflicts 0.67 2.53 Reduction of stray dogs 0.85 3.23 Sharing planting materials 1.03 5.87 Sharing the products 1.12 6.89 Sharing knowledge and experience 1.32 8.98 Caring for others 0.98 3.54 Community participation in shared activities 0.76 2.09 Communication among neighbors 0.74 3.04 Social recognition of neglected group of the society 0.45 2.08 Improved environment 1.16 5.76 Productive use of leisure times 1.23 6.32 Improved learning environment at households 0.97 2.09 Lowering garbage in roads 1.13 4.34 New relationships with different group of people 0.65 2.03

Positive and negative responses were recorded through participatory observations, informal discussions and complaints made by the participants of the project and by interviewing different stakeholders, including officers of the Municipal Council, members of the fleet of waste collectors of Matara Municipality, political authorities in both ruling and opposition parties, participants in the project and the general public of the area. Recorded cases were classified to identify social obstacles to urban household waste management programs. The main obstacle at the beginning was the attitude of the majority of households (63 records) as they thought that all house hold and garden waste should be collected by the municipality to justify the tax collected by the municipality. The second group was the comparatively rich households (23) who do not participate in public activities organized by the community or CBOs. They also threw their household waste on roadsides. The third group was the fleet of garbage collectors (17) including truck drivers working for the municipality. The technical staff of the Municipal Council also were against the community-based waste management projects as some of them misuse the fleet of garbage collectors and other resources of the municipality for their personal benefit and such practices are possible only when a huge amount of garbage is collected daily. The experience gained proved that addressing the issues of social obstacles is important while shifting from a conventional urban

158 household waste collection to community-based household waste management by internalizing the externalities for a pleasant environment. Awareness programs to convince the job security of the labour force involved in the conventional system of waste collection and to change the attitude of the people will help community-based waste management projects.

Regarding the composting bins, 52% were satisfied with no problem, 43% said that it could be better and 5% were not satisfied. Out of the selected households, production of compost occurred within 1-3 months for 6%, within 3-6 months for 43% and after more than 6 months for 51%. The longer period was due to rainy conditions that caused water-logging in the area. This led to the rotting of composting materials so that the householders were advised to start composting afresh. Existing problems for surveyed householders are difficulty in turning or moving the bin 23%, too slow composting 17%, problems with snails and files 14%, low capacity 3%, difficulty in removing compost 3%; and no difficulties were reported by 34%. Overall, the survey respondents were very satisfied with the concrete composting bin, which offered very few problems.

Conclusions

The sustainable household waste management was clearly evident during the research period. Community participation is the key to sustainable solid waste management. The research also guided people to make use of things that they considered to be “waste”. The municipal council has also benefited through the project owing to the reduction in kitchen waste in the area. The per capita kitchen waste generation was estimated at 280 g/day so that the total household waste generation was 12 ton per day in the Matara municipality. The quality of compost from kitchen waste management complied with standard quality parameters for compost. Madiha mainly consists of medium scale land owners who delivered most of their waste to municipal council tractor. But following the project with the initial target group they were able to have their own waste management practice with composting.

The knowledge generated through the participatory research project would help policy makers and planners in planning and formulating policies. In the short term, knowledge disseminated through the project to the general public would increase their income through utilizing the knowledge that they acquire. Industrialists involved in recycling processes would benefit through cleaner raw material in adequate quantity. Institutions such as schools, public places will have a cleaner environment and generate income from their waste.

In the project area, the people are enthusiastic about solid waste management. This positive response helped to establish a positive attitude towards waste management. When waste management methods were introduced it was observed that it had an impact on the knowledge and attitudes of the people. People are aware of new 159 technologies of composting and home gardening. Conversion of waste into economic goods, reducing expenditure on vegetables and producing fresh vegetables in their own home garden, and improved social relationships have been the main achievements of the project.

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COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF NOVEL FISH DRYING EQUIPMENT IN GANDARA CENTRAL, MATARA

H.S.C. Perera, G.K.H. Ganewatta, C.V. Rathnayake, S.A. Buddhika and K.G. Priyashantha

Abstract

Sri Lanka is an island which is mainly having an agriculture based economy. Agriculture, forestry and fishing, is one of major sources of income for GDP. Among those fishing industry is very important and contributing to GDP by 2.3% in 2004, 1.3% in 2005, and 1.8% in 2006. Southern Province is one of the important areas contribute to this achievement. Further, Gandara, Dikwella, Dondra, Mirissa, Thotamuna are the major fishing harbors in Matara District. Gandara cenral was mainly selected by CIDA Restore Project because that area was highly damaged by Tsunami and the incumbents and their livelihood was mainly based on fish related industries. In early times, the people in the area produced dried fish and maldive fish using very traditional methods and technologies. Mainly, women are the key members among the producers of maldive fish and dried fish while the men are engaging with fishing. The livelihood group of the CIDA Restore Project identified the fish and maldive fish industry as viable livelihood industry, specially for women in this area, and found the problems of the industry. As a solution, the livelihood development group got the assistance from an expert of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, who invented a solar-power drier. This drier helps to minimize various costs and maximize benefits of the fish drying process. Hence, 10 Tsunami affected women who are willing, and as well as, previously engaged with this industry in small scale were identified to start a new business. This paper aims to analyze the costs and benefits of the venture as well as feasibility of the solar drier as a fish and maldive fish drying equipment. The costs were analyzed in terms of monetary, time, energy, and psychic costs and benefits were analyzed in terms of product, service, personnel and image. Finally, it was disclosed that the benefits are considerably higher than the cost incurred of the production of both maldive fish and dried fish.

Keywords: benefits, costs, fish drier, livelihood

Introduction

The Tsunami that hit Sri Lanka in December 2004 has brought a great loss of life, livelihood and infrastructure. Fisheries sector was the most damaged sector from the Tsunami disaster, resulting in the loss of lot of lives, and properties. Between 164

90,000 to 100,000 active fishermen lost their livelihoods in Sri Lanka due to the tsunami (Amarasinghe, 2005). About 103,000 people in fisheries based community were displaced and 16,500 fisher houses where destroyed whereas 13,300 houses were damaged. Coastal communities dependent on the fishery industry to provide livelihoods were seriously affected by the tsunami. Damages to the fishing industry in Sri Lanka was immense with 76 percent of the fishing fleet affected, i.e. 53 percent destroyed and 23 percent was damaged (10 of the 12 existing fishery harbours, 37 fishing anchorages and 200 fish landing centers were damaged (nara.ac.lk). Accordingly, the fisheries community in the Southern Province faced a severe problem in restoring their livelihoods.

In fisheries, men and women often have distinct roles. For example in marine fisheries, usually only men go out to fish, but women are often involved in trading and processing They were very active in the revenue generation. Most of them were housewives both before and after the tsunami. However most of those who generated income before the tsunami were unable to conduct these activities in the aftermath in the absence of a place. Even though a large number of NGOs made attempts to restore the lives of the Tsunami victims, most of these NGO focused on supplying consumables and very less attention was paid on the restoration of the livelihood. Sometimes, what were supplied were not what people needed. On the other hand, that affected persons have not been duly consulted in the process.

Women actively participate in the small-scale fishery industry in Sri Lanka. A fishery sector is contributes 4 percent to GNP. 88 percent of this contribution is coming from small-scale fishing community. Women are claimed for 52 percent of this contribution. They are engage in fish processing and fishery business. (http://sudeesa.org/social-development/index.html).

On the southern coast, women are the main managers of income. They have a crucial role in fish sorting, cutting, processing and dragging the boats ashore (www.fao.org) However women in fishing communities have low levels of education, a lack of access to and control over productive assets as well as a lack of investment and working capital. Women also lack access to markets and rural infrastructure, credit and microfinance services. Therefore, women can be considered as an important human resource which can be effectively geared up to facilitate the restoration of the livelihood of Tsunami affected community.

Fish drying is one of the main ways of fish processing in the Southern coast of Sri Lanka. Sun drying has been used for this purpose from the early days. However, this traditional drying method has many disadvantages such as loss of nutritional value, germination, colour, and quality. Further, rain, insects and enzymatic reaction may cause problems.

Based on these grounds, the Tsunami Restore Project of the CIDA focused on developing a community based model of women entrepreneurs which uses local innovations and performs on the basis of business principles. Accordingly, a Solar 165

Drier was introduced to a selected group of potential women entrepreneurs in Gandara, Matara, Sri Lanka. The group was guided by a team of specialists from the CIDA Restore Project, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka to facilitate their livelihood development. This paper explains the project implementation and highlights the costs and benefits of the novel fish drying equipment located in Gandara Central, Matara. The paper analyses the data qualitatively and highlights the important dimensions of this livelihood development attempt.

Review of literature

Fish is a major source of protein and its harvesting, handling, processing and distribution provide livelihoods for millions of people as well as providing foreign exchange earning to many countries (Al- Jufaili and Opara, 2006). Appropriate processing of fish enables maximal use of raw material and production of value- added products which is obviously the basis of processing profitability.

The fisheries sector in Sri Lanka has an important role in terms of employment opportunities, income generation, foreign exchange earnings, and the provision of animal protein for the population. The sector provides direct and indirect employment to approximately 250,000 people, with a dependant population of 1,000,000. The contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP was around 2.7 per cent in 2000. An estimated 65 per cent of the animal protein consumed in Sri Lanka in 1991 was derived from fish. The fisheries sector is also considered as one of the major fields with potential for economic expansion. A predominant obstacle is the deficiency of credit to the coastal fishers (Sydnes and Normann, 2003). The Sri Lankan fishery sector serves both the domestic and export markets, with the domestic component attracting 75 percent of the marine fish production. In 2006, total marine fish production was 215,980MT, and the export market and dried fish production accounted for 9 percent and 15 percent, respectively (Analysis of Fisheries sector in Sri lanka, 2008).

There is a growing demand for fishery products by both local and export markets, and world demand for all types of fish products is increasing. the country has still not been able to fully capture these opportunities and supply remains far below the potential capacity and existing demand. The competitiveness of fish depends on price, quality and the stability of supply. The importance of these factors varies depending on the end market; price is the major factor determining competitiveness in the local market, while quality and regularity of supply play a major role in export market competitiveness. In spite of these important signs of progress, their impact remains limited and recently, Sri Lanka’s fisheries sector has performed less than satisfactorily with domestic supply unable to provide the quantities of fish products required at affordable prices to meet the nutritional needs of the country’s population (www.ips.lk).

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In Matara The fishery industry is the central economic sector of the 4 divisions, especially Devinuwara and Dickwella, and is recognized as a key source of employment and income generation. Every social and economic activity of villagers depends on the climatic conditions in the area. During the Season the fishermen earn a relatively high and constant income, during Off-season the fishermen earn a low and irregular income. The coastal fishing income is high during the Season (September- March), while is low from April till August. (www.sudeesa.org/dp%20matara/01/coir.htm).

Fish drying

Even though technological leaps have enhanced the fish production, due to the perishable nature of fish, an estimated 21% of the harvest is lost due to lack of post harvest processing (IREDA NEWS, 2006). This results in fishermen losing a considerable portion of their profit apart from the loss of considerable nutritional food to the common man. Fish is a highly perishable food product and can be stored only by refrigeration or drying. But the problem affecting the quality of the dried fish is the unhygienic way in which fish is prepared and dried. The open beach drying, results in insects laying eggs inside the fish, that renders the product non- consumable. Therefore, appropriate technology needs to be introduced for fish drying. According to Dennis (1997) drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar food dryers are an appropriate food preservation technology for a sustainable world.

According to the Häuser and Ankila (2000), that traditional sun drying methods often yield poor quality, since the produce is not protected against dust, rain and wind, or even against insects, birds, rodents and domestic animals while drying. soiling, contamination with microorganisms, formation of mycotoxins, and infection with disease-causing germs are the result. They assert that the drying equipment used in industrialized countries overcomes all of these problems, but unfortunately is not very well suited for use in developing countries because it requires substantial investments and a well-developed infrastructure.

Actually, solar food drying is one of the oldest agricultural techniques related to food preservation, but every year, millions of dollars worth of gross national product are lost through spoilage. Reasons include, ignorance about preservation of produce, inadequate transportation systems during the harvest season (mostly climate related), and the low price the rural farmer receives for products during the harvest season (Whitfield, 2000).

An Indian study done on Solar Dryers by Balakrishnan and Banerjee (2006) pointed out that Solar dryer technology can be used in small-scale food processing industries to produce hygienic, good quality food products. Furthermore, they mentioned that solar technology is ideally suited for women since they can place a load in the dryer and then get on with their other numerous tasks. 167

The project: how does this initiative address the development problem?

A livelihood has been defined in many different ways but this study takes Ellis’ (2000) definition of a livelihood as comprising “the assets (natural, physical, human, financial and social capital), the activities, and the access to these (mediated by institutions and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household”. However, introduction of technology to the fisheries community to facilitate livelihood development happens rarely. Thetransfer of technology service by the R&D Institutions seldom reach the large sections of women in fisheries. The major drawback is lack of funds coupled with resistance of planners and administrators to deviate from existing development strategy (Cecily, 1999).

Methodology

After the tsunami, the University of Ruhuna started a 3-year collaborative project on “Environmental and Livelihood Restoration and Development in Tsunami- affected Coastal Areas of Sri Lanka” with the University of Guelph, University of Manitoba, University of Waterloo and Queens University of Canada with financial assistance from the CIDA. The purpose of the project was to implement a multi- sectoral approach to environmental restoration, sustainable livelihoods and community development, with full community input and participation in specific tsunami-affected districts of Matara/Hambantota, Ampara, and Batticaloa in Sri Lanka. Under that project, the Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna worked for sub projects aiming at livelihoods development. Based on the pilot survey, the livelihood development project team selected a fishing village called “Gandara” in Matara district to conduct activities encouraging small enterprises on Fish Processing. The project team visited the village and had discussions with the participation of all stakeholders, including government organisations at the local levels, for example: Assistant Government Agent, Grama Niladhari and discussions with the leaders in women Associations. The group conducted several meetings with villages to identify the problems and did feasibility study to introduce appropriate technology for fish drying using SWOT analysis. It was found that “poor quality” as a one main problem for not having good market price for dried fish and Maldive fish they produced. Addressing these issues, with the participation of all stakeholders, including government organisations at the local levels, the project team initiated a Fish drying project on 09.03.2008 using solar driers at Gandara Central Matara, Sri Lanka.

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Discussion

Venture members

Traditionally, women of fishing communities in many Asian countries have been playing important roles in marketing fresh fish, and processing surplus catch for sale at a later date. However, with modernization of the sector, the growth of the industrial fleet and the expansion of domestic and export markets, the situation has changed fast (Sharma, 2004). However, in Sri Lankan fisheries sector, particularly in the Southern Province, women play a leading role in the fish drying process. Therefore, the CIDA Restore Project focused on the development of women based model to facilitate the livelihood development. Four initial meetings were conducted with the help of “Grama Niladari”, Gandara Central, to provide awareness of the project. At the same meetings, the members were informed about the solar drier and the costs and benefits of the drier were explained to the participants. After those meetings, the members were invited for the interviews. Specially, the women who are engaged with producing fish related products. Those interviews specially focused to understand the factors such as capability of producing fish related products, willingness to work as the team members, number of hours can be dedicated for the business, participation in other social activities and networking, education, family size, family background and the possible contribution to venture. Figure 4.16 shows some of the pictures of the interviewing process and initial guidance to the selected members.

Figure 4.16: Establishment of a model business

Finally, 10 members were selected as venture members to start the project. The initial workshop was conducted to give training on society formation and society leaders were appointed in the following meeting. These activities was conducted under the guidance of CIDA project group of Faculty of Management and Finance. The 10 member venture was registered as a partnership (under the Reg. No: MA.2-7 at Mahawaththa, Jayabodiya Mawatha, Gandara, Matara) and with the participation of selected members, local authorities, villages and CIDA project team, the 169 business was inaugurated. Figure 4.17 shows some pictures of launching the venture.

Figure 4.17: Launching the venture

After launching the venture, the selected members continued their business under the registered name “Gandara Karavala (Gandara Dried Fish) and Gandara Umbalakada (Gandara Maldive Fish).

The introduction of appropriate technology: The “Saviru Solar Drier”

The solar drier (Saviru Solar Drier) was introduced by one of the lecturers (Mr. Kapila Weerathungaarachchi) attached to the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna. Initially, this drier was designed to produce high quality spices. The Saviru Solar drier is made partly of fibre-glass and typically measures 24ft long by 3ft wide. To achieve the required temperature, two small fans blow air through the tunnel. This drier was used at neighboring village for drying spices. Though this is for drying spices, the livelihood group requested to modify the dryer for fish processing. Thus new dryer with more thick mesh was introduced to the venture team for processing their fish. Drier fixing place was selected considering the group’s willingness and amount of sunlight receiving for the place.

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With the installation of the drier, a series of workshops conducted to provide required training to carry out the venture. The CIDA project group of Faculty of Management and Finance conducted workshops on Entrepreneurship Development, Marketing and Leadership while staff of Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology conducted workshops on dried fish production and post harvest technology. During the initial stage, project team had frequent visit to monitor the project. Figure 4.18 shows some pictures of the drier.

Figure 4.18: Solar drier

Cost benefit analysis

The cost benefit analysis of this venture is discussed under four main headings: monetary, time, energy and psychic costs.

Monetary costs

Monetary costs are discussed under fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs were comprised of the cost of the drier, installation cost, cost of the scale, storage containers, boiling barrels, and sealer. Variable costs incurred were fish, salt, 171 goraka, fire wood, packeting materials, transportation, labels and other costs incurred in marketing and sales commissions.

This cost is around Rs.750 per 1Kg of maldive fish and Rs. 375 per 1Kg of dried fish. However, this will change according to the prices of fish, post harvesting activities and the type of the fish. The prices ranged from Rs. 750 to 800 for maldive fish and from Rs. 375 to 450 for dried fish.

Comparatively the above costs are less than the imported dried fish and maldive fish products. However, researchers found that the entrepreneurs of this venture individually contributed in the production process. Hence the transport cost of the materials and other elements were very high. However, they marketed their products according to the cluster marketing under the same brand. It is advisable for them to minimize the production cost through bulk purchase, collective transportation, etc.

Further, it was found that the cost component, especially the variable cost component, varied according to the seasonal variances of fishing. Researchers observed that the entrepreneurs initially purchased raw fish at retail prices without considering the high availability of cheaper types of fish depending on the season. As a result the cost for raw fish has been high and it has been the main reason for the increase in the total cost. Therefore it is recommended that they have to purchase raw fish which are highly available during the seasons at considerably lower prices. Table 4.12 provides a comparison of monetary cost under traditional method and the new method.

Table 4.12: Monetary cost comparison

Monitory cost Using the Solar Dryer Traditional method Fixed cost Rs Rs Cost of the dryer 60000 Scale 3000 3000 containers 1500 1500 Boiling barrels 500 500 Sealer 1900 1900 Variable cost to produce 1kg of dried fish Raw fish 600 600 Salt 20 20 Goraka 20 20 Firewood 20 20 packeting materials, labels etc., 10 10 Fish Transportation 20 20 Marketing, sales 10 10

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Machine depreciation 8 Other depreciation 2 2 Total cost 710 700

Time costs

Time cost for the venture is the time sacrificed for the processing raw fish. With the drier, the man-time needed for cleaning and boiling fish is two man-hours if work is done by one person. Further, it will take six hours to clean the boiled fish and feeding them into the drier.

On the other hand, three hours will be needed for the inspection of the drying process and one hour for packeting and finished goods preparation. Therefore, altogether the total time cost to produce 20Kg of maldive fish out of 120Kg raw fish is equal to 12 hours. If one man-hour is rated at Rs.60 the time cost equals to Rs720/person for producing 20Kg maldve fish. If it is compared with the traditional method, the cleaning, boiling and packeting time will be the same. But inspection time is very high in and it equals to 18 hours. There the cost is very high and it amounts to approximately Rs 2340 for producing 20Kg of maldive fish. This calculation is more or less equal for the dried fish also. Hence, the overall cost will increase. Furthermore, women engaged with this venture can allocate her time for some other work while engaging with fish drying.

The forecast drying time for maldive fish is three days and for dried fish the duration is four days. However, during the second week of March it was rained continuously for five days. As a result the drying process delayed and members were unable to put their portion of raw fish into the drier on time. Due to this reason some members had to keep their portions of raw fish in refrigerators until the drier becomes available to feed up. Therefore, it is advisable to have a contingency plan during the rainy seasons as rain and other weather factors such as humidity is critical in fish drying business.

Energy costs

The energy cost included fire wood, manpower, and electricity. In relation with the drier the energy need for the maldive fish and dried fish production process is very low, especially man power. After feeding raw fish into the drier no manpower needed for other activities. With the traditional method the women had to sacrifice additional energy to bring them into the home when the rain comes, and bring them again to the sunlight. Moreover, when there is sunlight they lay the fish daily in the sunlight. It needs additional energy when compare with the drier as it only needs to lay the fish once in a three or four days. Therefore the energy cost is very low with 173 the drier. Table 4.13 proves a comparison of time and energy cost of these two methods.

Table 4.13: Time and energy costs

Time and Energy cost Using solar dryer Traditional method Number of Man hours needed for Processing 2 2 raw fish, cleaning, boiling Number of Man hours needed for Putting / 6 18 laying fish into the dryer or open space Number of Man hours needed for Inspection 3 18 (6hrsx3days) Number of Man hours needed for Packeting & 1 1 finishing Total Man hours taken to produce 20 kg 12 39 If Rs. 60 given per man-hour total cost Rs. 720 Rs. 2340 Time and Energy Cost to produce 1kg maldive 36 117 fish

Psychic costs

The psychic cost includes the stress due to the bad weather conditions, unexpected delays in the drying process, wastage of fish in processing stage, and cleanliness of the house environment. With the machine the all the psychological efforts are very minimal. With the traditional method, this is very high and they should concentrate on fungal effects, protect from animals, etc. Table 4.14 highlights the psychic costs of these two methods.

Table 4.14: Psychic costs

Stress Factors Using the solar dryer Traditional method Bad weather conditions Very minimal higher unexpected delays in the drying process, Very minimal higher wastage of fish in processing stage Very minimal about 2% Higher about 10% cleanliness of the house environment, No Higher, about 10% smell, pest damage increasing the cost

Additional benefits

All these years, fish farmers have traditionally dried their produce in the open. Fish are dried virtually anywhere; on roads, on cement floors where dogs sleeps and chickens scratch for food. Such open drying gives incomplete results to the dried fish that are of inferior and inconsistent quality, often contaminated with germs, due

174 to mould infections. Table 4.15 provides further details of the benefits of the solar drier.

Table 4.15: Additional benefits of the drier

Using the solar dryer Traditional method Product Quality & Price per kg High & higher price 1000 Low and low price 1000 Features & price High & higher price low Quantity & return High & no return Higher Possibility to (200) getting pest attacks at processing Performance High & very good low taste Service Guarantees Gurantee possible Limited gurantees Personnel Can engage with other Very high Not possible work House cleanliness Very high Highly affected (unclean) Image Consumer perception Once purchased, questionable and attitudes will buy again

Conclusions

The traditional fish drying has been facing a number of disadvantages to the Sri Lankan fishing community and this resulted in the requirement of innovative practices to be introduced to the fisheries community. The Tsunami disaster made the problems faced by fishing community severe and provided the space for the governmental, non-governmental and other organizations to act on the development of livelihood of the fisheries community in the Southern Province, Sri Lanka. The solar drier introduced to a selected group of women in Gadara Central, Matara, Sri Lanka provided numerous benefits to the selected group. This study highlighted the costs and benefits of this solar drier. First, it was revealed that the benefits of the solar drier are mainly “non-monetary” and the monetary benefits of the solar drier are minimal. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the time, energy and the psychic costs of the new solar drier are considerably much less than the traditional method. Furthermore, the quality of the harvest also shows a considerable improvement due to the adaptation of this appropriate technology. Therefore, the solar drier mainly provides an example of an appropriate technology which can be incorporated into 175 the fisheries industry in the province to facilitate the sustainable development of the livelihood.

Bibliography

Al-Jufaili, M.S. and Opara, L. U. (2006). Status of fisheries Postharvest Industry in the Sultanate of Oman: Part1 Handling and Marketing System of Fresh Fish. J. of Fisheries International 1 (2-4):144-149.

Amarasinghe, O. (2005). An Assessment of the Post-Tsunami Recovery Process of the Fisheries Sector: The case of Sri Lanka. ICSF. Colombo.

Cecily, P.J. (1999). National Consultation on S&T for Women-A Millenium Dialogue (Compendium of Papers)

Dennis, S. (1997). The design, construction and use of an indirect, through-pass, solar food dryer; extracted from Home Power magazine, Issue No. 57, pages 62-72,

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford University Press Inc., New York. pp.30

IREDA NEWS. (2006). Application of Solar Air Heating Systems in Food Processing and other Industries, Vol. 3, No. 2, April–June 2006. pp.13-17

Jayasuriya, S., Steele, P. and Weerakoon, D. (2006). Post-Tsunami Recovery: Issues and Challenges in Sri Lanka. The Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan, Asian Economics Centre, University of Melbourne.

Scanlin, Dennis. (1997). The design, construction and use of an indirect, through- pass, solar food dryer; extracted from Home Power magazine, Issue No. 57, pages 62-72

Sydneys, K. and Normann, K.A. (2003). Report on Desk study on the fisheries sector in Sri Lanka commisioned by Noramb–Colombo

Whitfield, V.D.E. (2000). Solar Dryer Systems and the Internet: important resources to improve food preparation, International Conference on Solar Cooking, Kimberly - South Africa 26th - 29th November, 2000

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Webography

Analysis of the fisheries sector in Sri Lanka. [Online] Available at:http://www.ips.lk/research/fishery_sector_020708/research%20_highligt_fishery _sector.pdf. [Accessed 24 June 2009]

Balakrishnan and Banerjee. (2006). Solar Dryers – An Income Generation Option for Poor Women. 17 ENERGIA News vol. 9 , All India Women’s Conference, 6, Bhagwan Dass Road, New Delhi-110001, India. [Online] Available at:http://www.energia.org/resources/newsletter/pdf/en-122006_balakrishnan.pdf. [Accessed 22 June 2009]

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Häuser, Markus and Ankila, Omar. (2000). Morroco Solar Dryer Manual; Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables (CER) Office Regional de Mise en Valeur Agricole du Haouz (ORMVAH) Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. [Online]. Available at:http://lwww.gtz.de/ gate/isat

NARA. (2008). The Fisheries Year Book 2003-2005. [Online]. Available at:http://www.nara.ac.lk/ybook2005/chap2.html. [Accessed 24 June 2009]

[Online]. Available at:http://sudeesa.org/social-development/index.html. [Accessed 24 June 2009]

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V. GENDER ISSUES AND SOCIAL HARMONY

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THE BEREFT WOMEN OF THE EAST: MICRO ENTERPRISES: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURVIVAL AND LIVING

M.I.S. Safeena

Introduction

26th December 2004 will always be remembered by the women of eastern Sri Lanka as a day of terror. Consequences of the tsunami that devastated them are never ending. Four years after the tsunami disaster these women are still struggling to survive. They are single women, widows or divorcees who are heading households of old and or sick people and children who are all dependent on them. In Eastern province, the process of rehabilitation would in the first instance involve re- establishing the livelihood activities of those living just above the poverty line, especially women.

The main objective of the CIDA Restore project is to offer livelihood assistance to the poorest of the poor, those marginalized women who run informal businesses so that they may be rescued from beggary. Most importantly the CIDA Restore project is based on the premise that marginalized communities and especially their women can be mobilized through livelihood enhancement.

CIDA Restore Project has identified many destitute women in Akbar village/ Maruthamunai and Maligaikadu/ Sainthamartuthu in the South Eastern region affected by the repercussions of the tsunami and who are victims of domestic violence, living just above the poverty line. A significant number of women without resources but with initiatives are engaged in micro-enterprises. Such marginalized and vulnerable women who are engaged in economic activities for family survival cannot be left to contend with market forces but need to be equipped with skills and resources to access markets.

Project areas

Akbar village (in Maruthamunai) is a Muslim area with 371 families and having with 575 females (Table 5.1) and the main income is via weaving with handlooms. Many of them live as nuclear families and the average family size in both villages is nearly four. 10-15% families are ‘women headed’ in both villages (Table 5.2). In Akbar village many women are either not formally educated or have either primary or secondary school education (Table 5.3). The trading of handlooms flourished into a cottage industry and their products are sold locally in Sri Lanka and exported to some foreign countries. 180

Maligaikadu village is situated in the southern part of Sainthamruthu. Although it is agricultural area fishing is also one of the sources of income (Table 5.5). Since there are small rivers (karachai) in the area, fresh water fishing is also carried out. A part of the Maligaikadu village is connected with the Tamil populated area called Karaitivu. Many of these women have secondary school education (Table 5.4).

Table 5.1: Population distribution in Akbar and Maligaikadu Villages

Description Akbar village Maligaikadu village Total Families 371 354 Total population 1211 942 Male 636 585 Female 575 357 Average family size 4 4

The above two villages were vastly affected by tsunami caused higher death in the eastern part of Sri Lanka and also led to the large amount of loss of properties.

Table 5.2: Type of household or family in Akbar and Maligaikadu villages

Type of Household/ Family Akbar village Maligaikadu village Average age Nuclear 287 163 Extended - - Woman headed 34 27 45.1 other 03 01

Table 5.3: Education level of woman chief house holder in Akbar village

Sex Non Schooling primary Secondary Tertiary Total Man head 26 89 56 1 172 15.12% 51.74% 32.56% 0.58% 100% Woman head 8 04 12 0 24 34.78% 7.35% 55.02% 0.00% 100% Total 34 103 57 1 195 17.44% 52.82% 29.23% 0.51% 100%

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Table 5.4: Education level of woman chief house holder in Maligaikadu village

Sex Non Schooling primary Secondary Tertiary Total Man head 26 89 56 1 172 15.12% 51.74% 32.56% 0.58% 100% Woman head 01 03 13 0 17 3.04 17.64 79.32% 0.00% 100% Total 34 103 57 1 195 17.44% 52.82% 29.23% 0.51% 100%

Table 5.5: Household income

Before Tsunami Current situation Fishing* 19 (17%) 10 (18.5%) Business* 12 (11%) 5 (9.3%) Weaving Ұ 11 (10%) 5 (9.3%) Selling fish* 8 (7%) 10 (18.5%) Others Ұ 20 (18%) 12 (21%)

* - Main income in Maligaikadu village Ұ - Main income in Akbar village

Beneficiaries of micro enterprises through CIDA restore project

120 of these women are featured under this topic. They live in villages and towns all on the east coast. They perform simple tasks, do small jobs to earn living: de- husking rice, pounding flour, sewing clothes, making food, rearing poultry and animals etc. What all of them need is funding for their micro enterprises. These women do not want financial handouts. Work is their plea. If their micro-enterprises could be funded, once established they could start saving. Many of these women did save, but their meager savings were wiped out by ill health, hospitalization or death.

They wish to engage in micro-enterprises to improve their lives and that of their families and require assistance by way of capital, equipment and technical know- how. The CIDA Restore project is of the view that enabling women to start up their own enterprises will not only prevent them from falling below the poverty line but will also ensure that they continue to improve their lives by becoming economically independent.

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Enterprising activities provided to the women

De–husking rice Pounding flour Sewing cloths Making food/ snacks Starting up of small business/ boutiques Handloom Poultry farming Animal Husbandry

Some stories and pictures of enterprising women

Zuhaira of Sainthamaruthu lost her mother in tsunami. She lives with her grandparent along with her two elder sisters and one brother. Her grandfatherhad a small goat farm, which was lost in tsunami. CIDA helped to initiate and continue the farming.

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Madinah is 49 years old. Her husband cannot work due to ill health and they have two daughters and two sons. The daughters are at home after completing their G.C.E O/L examination. Her daughters have training in dress making. A sewing machine was provided to this family.

Balkis is 50 years old widow with three daughters. Her daughters wanted to start poultry farming and Balkis is also expecting financial assistance to establish a string hopper business. CIDA provided Chicks and financial assistance for starting the business.

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GROUP FORMATION AND SOCIAL HARMONY: A CASE STUDY OF CIDA RESTORE PROJECT

V. Gunaretnam and K.M. Prahasan

Abstract

An ideal society or a nation should find a mechanism for a compromise among all the competing elements within the society. Social harmony is a must for the society so that it grows. For incubation and growth of a life, you need to ensure peace. Life cannot grow in constant war and struggle. Life is a way of compromising and making adjustments. This case study reveals how people got together as beneficiaries under this project and included their flexibility and ability to innovate, grass-roots orientation. The research was carried out in Puthukudiyiruppu area in Batticaloa district. The objective of this study was to find out and analyze some important incidents, case studies and different views which are relevant to the group affiliation in Puthukudiyiruppu village, search for the measures were taken by CIDA to enhance community organizing and explore what the key factors in the village are which can be use to increase the social harmony The researchers were mainly focused on collecting primary data through qualitative means and the key method was through the use of interviews.

Introduction

The very fact that we use the term harmony presupposes that there are many socially discordant groups at work. An ideal society or a nation should find a mechanism for a compromise among all the competing elements within the society and there is a synthesis between different groups' demands and aspirations. Social harmony is a must for the society so that it grows. For incubation and growth of a life, you need to ensure peace. Life cannot grow in constant war and struggle. Life is a way of compromising and making adjustments.

Humans suffer from information overload; there’s much more information on any given subject than a person is able to access. As a result, people are forced to depend upon each other for knowledge. Know-who information rather than know- what, know-how or know-why information has become most crucial. It involves knowing who has the needed information and being able to reach that person.

In this context, understanding the formation, evolution and utilization of social networks becomes important. A social network is a set of people (or organizations 186 or other social entities) connected by a set of social relationships, such as friendship, co-working or information exchange.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a significant role in the social development process in all regions of the world. They are particularly critical in circumstances where State funds are limited, political situations are fluid, natural disasters resulting from both predictable and unpredictable environmental circumstances occur, ethnic strife is rampant, and the level of per capita income severely restricts the ability to purchase needed goods and services–social, educational and economic.

A nation need not be poor to benefit from the contributions made by NGOs. While individual governments are responsible for meeting the needs of its citizens, there is a limit to what central government is willing and able to do in both rich and poor countries. NGOs play a vital role in complementing government efforts in meeting human need in nearly all countries. Very few countries have reached the ideal of sustaining the human condition at an optimal level, whatever the GNP and other indicators of wealth, through dependence on government action alone. NGOs help fill in the gaps while systematically prodding the governments will and the collective conscience.

CIDA as an NGO started to work in the Tsunami disastrous areas, Puthukudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu. This case study reveals how people got together as beneficiaries under this project and included their flexibility and ability to innovate, grass-roots orientation. The researcher recognized that this study basically uses an exploratory research design. The research was carried out in Puthukudiyiruppu area in Batticaloa district. The researchers were mainly focused on collecting primary data through qualitative means and the key method was through the use of interviews.

Objectives of the study

The main objectives of this study were to, 1. Find out and analyze some important incidents, case studies and different views which are relevant to the group affiliation in Puthukudiyiruppu village. 2. Search for the measures were taken by CIDA to enhance community organizing. 3. Explore what the key factors in the village are which can be use to increase the social harmony.

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Methodology

The researchers recognized this research study’s design is exploratory research design. Research was carried out in Puthukudiyiruppu of Arayampathy areas in Batticaloa district. The Researchers were mainly focused on collecting primary data through qualitative means and the key method was the interviews. Accidental sampling was the main sampling methods in this study. Researcher conducted interviews spontaneously according to the direction of particular person's verbal tracking. Secondary data like news reports, special reports or internal documents belongs to governments and NGO’s were collected. Collected data were analyzed and formulated descriptively.

Group participation in making social harmony

Contemporary reconstructive practice has to make links of opposing groups into a process of dialogue and negotiation with the aim of exploring, reaching agreement on and implementing measures to carry on this project. This approach is guided by the belief that the village leaders have the power to reach decisions and bring along their constituencies in support of any resulting settlement. They may sometimes when it is not possible to adequately address the complex and dynamic inter- relationships between CIDA actors and other groups affected by and involved in the natural disaster. People’s independent initiatives in their towns and villages, as well as at regional, national and international level therefore have the potential to become key elements in a broader restore process that is capable of addressing these complexities. The roles of civil society actors in restore processes are determined by a number of factors, including both external factors such as the attitudes of the communal parties and the degree of “economical space” afforded to civic groups, and internal factors such as the resources and skills available for groups to draw on. The particular combination of opportunity and constraint in each context will lead civil society to assume a variety of possible roles. For the purpose of this short overview, these roles are clustered into four broadly distinct and complementary approaches.

1. Advocating dialogue

The public “mood” regarding the disasters and the desirability of a restore process is an important Barometer for the NGOs to take into account. Civil society groups can shift this “mood” by highlighting the Unacceptable costs of the disaster and increasing the stakes for recovery. They can catalyze public mobilization for recovery activities. Groups who may enjoy a certain degree of moral authority in a particular society, such as religious leaders or elders, can use their influence to add weight to public calls for recovery. Advocacy can take diverse forms and benefit from creativity as well as from the richness of cultural traditions. All of these acts communicate civilians’ attempts to resist collusion and articulate alternative approaches to old social order. As such they contribute to shaping the social and

188 political context necessary to underpin sustainable dialogue and agreement between the opposing groups. Educational initiatives can also make a crucial contribution to the broader socio-political dimension of a recovery process, by challenging public perceptions about the natural disaster. This is particularly true in contexts where opposing groups promote divergent and mutually–exclusive analyses of the social and political context. Legitimizing dialogue as a viable and effective tool can encourage vital public support

2. Facilitating dialogue between the groups

Civil society-led dialogue processes and mediation efforts can have a number of impacts: they can build trust and understanding between the grassroots membership of divided communities; they can assist in identifying and resolving local-level conflicts, which can benefit the communities affected as well as build confidence between the conflicting parties; they can create a safe, unofficial space for middle- ranking members of the conflicting parties to engage in problem-solving exercises in advance of negotiations. In some cases, modest activities by civic actors can even lead to their acceptance by the leadership to mediate formal negotiations. The experiences contained in this chapter offer some specific examples of just such roles and impacts. Their work created a foundation of awareness and understanding among the affected communities and contributed to the sustainability of the peace agreement reached between the leaders. In some situations, civil society actors may also become involved in providing assistance to one of the conflicting groups, to help them consider the potential benefits of engaging in a restore process and to assist them in their preparations. While it is a delicate and often dangerous role to play, it may result in the greater likelihood of a sustainable and effective commitment to the negotiations by one of the parties. Again and particularly given the sensitivities surrounding internal conflicts, civic actors are often more able to take up this challenge than governmental or inter-governmental representatives.

Community organizing

1. Barriers to building organizing into community development strategies

There are three fundamental obstacles to organizing community that build healthy communities with effective indigenous leadership. They are: 1. Community planning and development organizations often lack patience and perhaps commitment to-the organizing process. Organizing is frequently not on their radar screens, at least not until problems emerge for which service or other "doing-for" solutions don't work. Organizations focus on developing housing, or businesses, or sewers, not people. Further, organizations are under heavy pressure to produce results efficiently; they do not wish to risk slowing things down by involving many people in decision making. 189

2. The definition of community organizing is so tightly circumscribed. In brief, the traditional action model of organizing-getting people and institutions to fight for and "win" resources for the community-seems to work best in communities where people are already connected to associational life and have some sense of themselves as public actors. Popular education models seem more appropriate in low-income communities of historically oppressed people, where there is first a need to develop people's sense of self-efficacy and consciousness of community. 3. There is a weak funding infrastructure for organizing of any kind, and an especially weak one for organizing to build community. In Puthukudiyiruppu, the few foundations that support organizing favor the traditional action model-they look for turnout numbers and concrete wins as primary evidence of effectiveness. Paradoxically, one reason so few foundations fund organizing is that most are adverse to this model, especially to the extent that it uses confrontational tactics to gain victories.

2. Departing from tradition

The family-focused community-building model from the traditional action organizing model in several ways: 1. We recruit prospective community leaders explicitly from the ranks of low- income families, primarily mothers. We identify these participants through local institutions which families frequent. So far, our projects have focused on schools and daycare centers, but we are exploring efforts to replicate this work in low-income housing developments and settlement houses. 2. We provide leadership training that emphasizes the continuities between family and community leadership and between "private" and "public" issues. The topics we cover in leadership development include: setting and achieving personal goals; neighboring; identifying the public policy roots of "private" family problems; fostering children's healthy development and school achievement; and more standard fare of identifying self-interest, identifying issues, etc. 3. We explicitly frame visioning and agenda-setting conversations in terms of what will make the community a better place for families. Parents and families in their neighborhood are working to involve families in, for example, changing school policies, transforming an elementary school into a community learning center, and eliminating drug and prostitution corridors. 4. Personal, family, and community leadership-in family-supportive communities. We look to various examples of leadership, such as people who watch out for their neighbors' children, who organize parent support groups, or who help out as classroom aides or tutors at school. Thus, leadership training is not veered only in the direction of creating multi-issue organizations to tackle issues.

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5. At the same time, recognizing that many of the issues making communities unsafe and unhealthy places for families are rooted in public policies beyond the local level. Our first goal is to develop a sufficiently large and strong cadre of local leaders so that parents, not policy advocates, drive the process. From the early training, we facilitate local-level dialogue between parents and professional staff and advocates in the communities to raise each party's awareness of the others' perspectives. We teach parents to articulate their ideas and visions for families in the community to institutional partners, and to consider the interests of community institutions in partnering with them. We also informally teach policy advocates and institutional staff about organizing and how to listen to the families.

3. Creating "People’s community development organizations"

Addressing the following issues will help to create more effective organizing structures in low-income communities: 1. There is too little systematic distillation and dissemination of successful-or even promising-efforts to integrate community organizing and development. As a result, development 2. The professionals lack access to ideas about how they might organize resident leadership. 3. An overwhelming number of those interviewed for the of Puthukudiyiruppu community organizing grants making program decried the lack of vision in community planning, development, and organizing. Lacking this vision, the focus of efforts can easily get distorted, making tactics or projects or plans an end rather than a means. One of the strongest recommendations interviewees made to the Woods Fund was to strengthen their funding support of efforts to engage many residents in the process of developing a vision for their communities. 4. We find in Puthukudiyiruppu significant isolation within the development and organizing fields. Development professionals may participate in one or two trade associations, both of which have focused heavily on bricks and mortar and job creation. Organizers may belong to one of several organizing networks, each one of which is quite proprietary. Most organizers do not talk with organizers outside their own network, let alone with community planning and development professionals. These professional development structures mitigate a cross fertilization of ideas and a fusing of disciplines. They also contribute to the isolation organizers feel, especially single-staff organizers in schools, social agencies, and other institutions not primarily concerned with organizing.

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4. Strengthening the funding infrastructure

Funders, organizers, and community developers jointly need to tackle some major problems to better sustain organizing in community development. These include: 1. Few funders understand organizing: few even know it exists as a field of philanthropic endeavor, and those who do tend to view it as insurrectionist. Several area funders support organizing, but only if it is around an issue of interest to the foundation. Although funders' comforts with more traditional - and concrete - philanthropic causes are factors, it also appears that the organizing community has not marketed itself effectively. One grants maker describes organizers' style; another funder of organizing complained about the generally poor quality of proposals from organizers; many organizers we talked with expressed a loathing of grant seeking. Such antipathies do not create an atmosphere of understanding. 2. We find substantial support for the frequently heard complaint that funders seek fast and visible results. Even the few funders who fund organizing as organizing want to see numbers and wins over the short run. This may replace the goal of citizen empowerment with the goal of building a large organization. It also produces incentives to win local actions rather than to build citizen capacity to tackle issues in the policy arena. On the other hand, the organizing community has not developed alternative accountability criteria. It seems possible and timely to create some leadership development benchmarks in the areas of personal development, leadership skills attainment, membership development, and increased civic involvement. It also seems imperative to "track" leadership careers, so that we can indeed demonstrate how increased self confidence leads to increased leadership activity and effectiveness. 3. The Woods Fund evaluation team also found considerable adherence to old "rules" by both funders and CBOs about long-term funding support. Funders cling to the idea that grassroots fundraising can sustain organizing in the long run; organizers cling to the hope of general operating support. Funders look to collaborations to promote efficiency, apparently unaware that collaboration is time consuming and labor intensive, albeit "worth it" in community building. Organizers see fundraising as an extraneous burden and avoid it to the extent that they can. When service creation is part of the strategy, both expect public dollars to absorb the innovation. 4. Funding processes don't permit organizing to put its best foot forward. While the prototype organizing process is fairly straightforward, by definition it must remain messy and tentative. Outcome objectives-both organizational development and issues campaigns - in particular are hard to define, since the very idea is to develop community leaders who will set the agenda and move it forward. This seems particularly an inherent tension in foundation-initiated comprehensive community development projects, where the models and the hoped-for outcomes are defined in advance by the funder.

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It's time for organizers to take their boxing gloves off, for developers to take their hard hats off, and for funders to come out from behind their desks, to begin a serious dialogue about how organizing can be integrated into–and, yes, drive- community development strategies. Funders need to begin to consider broadening their time horizons; organizing needs to develop credible accountability measures and to continually experiment with and evaluate the effectiveness of differing models; bricks-and-mortar developers need to refocus on people (and their families) as the central development purpose; and all of us need to listen more actively to community residents in determining the worthiness of our investments.

Conclusion

All the roles identified above present huge challenges and dilemmas to civil society actors. Firstly, there is often considerable danger in undertaking any of them, as promoting, facilitating or participating in restore processes is often not a popular position to take. Groups may resent the pressure to negotiate, or consider the pressure tantamount to support for the other side. Public information that deviates from the party-line of one or other group may attract censorship or harassment. People or groups making financial profit from the NGOs will have a vested interest in its continuation. Radicalized sectors of society may also be reluctant to concede anything to one or other of the conflicting parties through the inevitable compromise of negotiations. Ironically, once the parties do take a decision to engage in talks, these same groups of civilians may find themselves marginalized from negotiations. The warring parties frequently see themselves as the sole legitimate representatives of “their” people and may be reluctant to concede space or control of the negotiation process to a wider group of participants. The international community of interested governments and multi-lateral actors may compound this marginalization by confining civil society’s role to the harmony–where there is important work to be done, but where the political frameworks have often already been determined. In addition to these external pressures and constraints, civil society also faces its own internal challenges. The first relates to the heterogeneity of what is termed “civil society”: the diverse array of interests, groupings and agendas that are intrinsic to any large mass of people. Given the devastating effects of conflict on communities, building alliances across political divides and identifying points of minimum consensus can be a delicate task requiring time and a great deal of sensitivity. With the capacity for independent initiative and action, developing a helpful degree of coordination and complementarily between different sectors and initiatives can seem an almost insurmountable challenge. Ultimately, however, these challenges are matched by the wealth of resources and diversity of skills that civil society actors can bring to bear in peace processes. These capacities help to create the conditions for talks, build confidence between the parties, shape the conduct and content of negotiations and influence the sustainability of social harmony. By contributing to restore processes in this way, civil society actors also play a part in long-term processes of change in how society deals with conflict.

A GENDER PERSPECTIVE ON TSUNAMI RESTORE ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT UNDER CIDA RESTORE PROJECT IN TWO VILLAGES IN THE AMPARA DISTRICT IN SRI LANKA

E.M.J.M. Rizvi

Abstract

Ampara district was severely affected by the 2004 tsunami. Since then many funding agencies have carried out various kinds of rehabilitation activities and CIDA Restore Project was peculiar in its approach. It selected two villages each from three different tsunami affected districts to be developed as model villages covering all aspects i.e. social, economic, environment and gender for sustainable community development. The aim of this paper is to explore how the various activities carried out by the project have contributed to gender empowerment. Gender needs are grouped in to two categories i.e. ‘practical gender needs’, usually related to immediately perceived basic needs and ‘strategic gender needs’, such as equal wages, right to live free from gender-based violence, legal rights etc. Certain aspects of strategic gender needs such as leadership and gender issues have been addressed at awareness level under CIDA restore project. Some basic needs such as water and power supply provided under CIDA project will indirectly empower women. A major share of livelihood support provided has gone to women. Home garden improvement, restoration and conversion into a recreational site of a highly polluted canal, a cleaner environment, children’s park and school environment improvement all help women directly or indirectly in their reproductive roles and responsibilities. As subtle effects of these measures, women develop greater confidence, increased capacity to earn money and the fact that women are likely to be healthier, happier and have more time to concentrate on making the home a better place to live. Ultimately, what is good for women, is good for the family. Development activities are aimed at improving mainly economy and the ‘standard of living’. The main concern of gender too is empowering women economically. However, the concepts of ‘standard of living’ and ‘quality of life’ are different and the CIDA Restore Project strategically blending all aspects in community development has contributed more towards the latter.

Keywords: gender empowerment, quality of life, tsunami rehabilitation

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Introduction

The tsunami that struck the island on 26 December 2004, was by far the largest natural disaster experienced by Sri Lanka (Ratnasooriya et. al, 2007). It devastated a 800 km stretch of coastal area of the island, killed more than 36,000 and displaced more than 800,000 (Mallawaarachchi and Jayasinghe, 2008). Ampara is the worst affected district in terms of life and property. The main reason was densely populated villages in the coastal belt. The rate of rehabilitation is low compared to other tsunami hit areas due to social, cultural and political reasons.

Disasters affect men and women differently because of the different roles they occupy the different responsibilities they bear in life and because of the differences in their capacities, needs and vulnerabilities (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003). The Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 had differential impacts on women and on men, due to the strong gender-based division of labour of productive and reproductive activities in the areas it struck (APFIC, 2005).

Many funding agencies have carried out various kinds of rehabilitation activities and the CIDA Restore Project is peculiar in its approach. It selected two villages each from three different tsunami affected districts to be developed as model villages covering all aspects i.e. social, economic and environment, gender for sustainable community development.

According to Young (1988), gender refers to a whole set of expectations held as to the likely behaviour, characteristics, aptitudes men and women will have. It refers to the social meaning given to being a man or woman in a given society (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003). Gender is a critical variable in shaping processes of ecological changes, viable livelihoods and prospects for sustainable development (Elmhirst and Resurreccion, 2008).

Gender needs are grouped into two categories. ‘Practical gender needs’ refer to those needs that arise from women’s gender roles and responsibilities such as food, water, fuel etc. and are usually related to immediately perceived basic needs. ‘Strategic gender needs’ refer to those that arise due to women’s subordinate positions in society and include such needs as equal wages, right to live free from gender-based violence, legal rights etc. and are always not visible (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003).

Gender empowerment is one of the components of the CIDA project and the aim of this paper is to explore how the various activities carried out by the project have contributed to gender empowerment.

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Strategic gender needs

Addressing the ‘strategic gender needs’ have to be done carefully, since some issues may conflict with accepted cultural and religious norms. The norms governing the gender identities of men and women are not identical. In fact, the gender identities of a man and a woman may differ greatly on account of time and place and according to the accepted models of gender found in different religious, cultural and class ideologies and social structures (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003). Some relevant issues have been dealt with at awareness level (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6: Awareness programmes carried out

Field Number of participants Men Women Students (O.L & A.L.) Disaster management 346 244 450 Gender issues 430 100 Smoking/Alcoholism 70 Leadership 18 190 Organic manure/composting 38 21 Health/Safe motherhood 220 Total 472 1105 550

Practical gender needs

The other activities of the project have mainly contributed towards practical gender needs of women. Reproductive roles and responsibilities include women’s roles and responsibilities within the household and the family: inclusive of bearing, nurturing, rearing children; cooking; cleaning the house and yard; washing and laundering clothes; fetching water/fuel-wood; marketing; caring for the sick and elderly, etc. This may also include works in agriculture, home gardening and livestock keeping and providing home remedies, indigenous medicine, etc.

There is a growing body of evidence that demonstrates the crucial importance of water, sanitation and hygiene, not only to human health but also for the economic and social development of communities and nations around the world. The scarcity of resources like water, for instance, will affect the entire population but will affect women more adversely because they are more dependant on local water resources for fulfilling their traditional roles in the family i.e. drying up or pollution of natural springs mean women have to walk longer in search of water (Veneman et. al., 2009). In the affected areas, the dependence on wells for water needs was high and (Ratnasooriya et. al., 2007). This was a severe problem in Akbar Village since almost all households were completely dependent on well water before tsunami and some of the wells even after cleaning are unsuitable for drinking. Some basic needs

196 including water supply have been provided by the CIDA project (Table 5.7) and these will indirectly empower women economically.

Table 5.7: Basic needs/services provided

Need/ service Number Approximate number of female beneficiaries Water supply 41 80 Tube wells (common) 06 200 Water analysis 27 54 Power supply 15 30 Eye testing 74 36 Total 163 400

There are more subtle effects of these measures in the lives of women, such as greater confidence, increased capacity to earn money and the fact that women are likely to be healthier, happier and have more time to concentrate on making the home a better place to live. Ultimately, what is good for women is good for the family and the whole community, who share the benefit from all these improvements (Veneman et. al., 2009). A major share of livelihood support provided have gone to women (Table 5.8) and thus their burden as breadwinners in women headed families will be relieved to some extent. Even the livelihood support given to men will indirectly empower the women.

Table 5.8: Livelihood support provided

Material/service Number of direct beneficiaries Men Women Small scale rice processing equipment 30 30 Bicycles for fish mongers 05 Carpentry tools 03 Fishing net 03 Goat/cattle 06 Water pump for agriculture 01 Refrigerator for yoghurt industry 01 Sewing machines 16 Handloom materials 11 Training on cottage industry 30 79 On-farm training 25 Training on food packaging 25 60 Total 129 196

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Although men are the main breadwinners of the families it is women who have to manage the household needs in most of the households. It is the women who are mainly responsible for the food and nutrition of family members. The home garden improvement with above plants will be of some assistance in this regard to some extent (Table 5.9). These may also provide them fuel wood and food for livestock. Thus it will help to save some money spent on these needs and also to earn some additional income.

Table 5.9: Trees planted

Kind Number of plants in Home gardens School gardens Restoration site Teak 50 160 Coconut 815 10 Jak 200 Mango 934 Guava 185 Amberella 215 Orange 320 Potted plants 192 Mangroves 2300 Terminalia arjuna 200 Total 2719 362 2500

More than 500 students are benefiting from the children’s park provided to the primary school in Maligaikadu village. This will thus help to improve both the physical and mental health of these children. This thus indirectly contributes to meeting women’s (mothers’) practical need. Such facilities also help to raise the interest of schooling among children which helps to relieve from that burden of such mothers.

Children learn what they see. Teaching children about a clean environment, hygiene and relevant good practices in the classroom is of no use when they experience exactly the opposite in their immediate surroundings. Mothers too have a certain role in children’s education particularly in the present system of student centered learning which involves a lot of home assignments etc. A clean environment resulting from the above activities thus help women in this task.

The activities carried out under this namely the cleaning and planting mangroves in a highly polluted canal in the middle of the village just by the side of the primary school and a large number of houses are a big relief for these dwellers. Women will enjoy a major share of this relief since they and their children are the ones who are exposed to and interact mostly with the immediate environment.

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Women are the ones who are greatly concerned about the health of their children and elderly. A major complain both from mothers and school authorities was the respiratory difficulties children develop when the weedy Typa plant were in flowers due to their pollen dispersal. The mothers are thus relieved from this problem.

Improper waste disposal was another major problem prevailing in the area. Women usually bear the responsibility of disposing of the domestic waste. Measures taken in this regard for proper disposal of garbage and distribution of bins for composting will help to overcome this problem at least to some extent.

The restoration site will gradually develop into a recreation site. The houses are closely situated with poor ventilation and less space for relaxation. It is women who are mostly affected by this. They rarely go out or take their children out for relaxation due to lack of such places close by. This recreational site will thus relax them and their children.

Conclusion

All developmental projects are aimed at improving economic growth and the standard of living. The modern world has built its ideas of nature and culture on the model of an industrial factory where everything is viewed in financial terms (Shiva, 1993). Is any form of economic growth at the expense of everything else good? Campeau (1996), states that the concepts of ‘standard of living’ and ‘quality of life’ are confused. He questions as to why the recent past in which change has accelerated to a dizzying pace has also seen the most dramatic increases in mental disorders, divorce, violence and substance abuse?

The CIDA Restore Project where community development blended with environmental restoration, awareness on various important issues has thus contributed to improve both standard of living and quality of life.

Bibliography

Ariyabandu, M.M. and Wickramasinghe, M. (2003). Gender dimensions in disaster management: A guide to South Asia. ITDG, South Asia Publications, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Elmhirst, R. and Resurreccion, B.P. (2008). Gender, environment and natural resource management: New dimensions, new debates in gender and natural resource management, livelihoods, mobility and interventions Eds. B.P. Resurreccion and R. Elmhirst, Earthscan UK, London

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Mallawaarachchi, R.S. and Jayasinghe, C. (2008). The effects of cyclones, tsunami and earthquakes on built environment and strategies for reduced damage. J.Natn.Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka 36.1:3-14.

Ratnasooriya, H.A.R., Samarawickrama, S.P. and Imamura, F. (2007). Post Tsunami Recovery Proces in Sri Lanka. J. of Natural Disaser Science, 29.1:21-28

Shiva, V. (1993) Monocultures of the mind, Third World Network, Penang

Veneman, A.M., Johnson, H.F. and Mutagamba, M. Water, sanitation and hygiene

Young, K. (1988). Towards the theory of a social relation of gender. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex.

Webography

APFIC. (2005).Gender and Coastal Zone Management [Online] Available at:http://www.genderandwater.org/content/download/3085/33612/file/Chapter_ 3.10_July%2006.pdf [Accessed 06.01.2009]

Evidence report: It’s the big issue, Putting women at the centre of water supply, sanitation and hygiene. [Online] Available at:http://www.wsscc.org/pdf/ publication/FOR_HER_ITs_THE_BIG_ISSUE_Evidence_Report_en.pdf [Accessed 06.01.2009]

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PERCEPTIONS AND REALITIES: WOMEN’S FACTOR IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

R.M. Ranaweera Banda

The massive destruction caused by the tsunami in December 2004 led many people to explore new ways of mitigating possible effects of natural disasters on human lives, livelihood mechanisms, physical infrastructure and the natural environment. After the tsunami in 2004, various restoration and reconstruction programmes were implemented in the tsunami affected regions of South Asia together with new technology development initiatives and research programmes relating to natural disaster management. According to the lessons learnt from the post-tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction work, some of the interventions became really successful while others ended up as stories of ineffective pooling of human and material resources, perhaps the monumental examples of utter waste of humanitarian assistance raised from people having humanitarian hearts. When looking back, the way in which most aid agencies implemented their post tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction work, they either neglected or did not want to show any serious concern about the gender dimension in disaster management and disaster preparedness. The blame goes not only to those aid agencies involved in tsunami rehabilitation work but also to the local communities which deliberately forgot the ethical aspects of human nature particularly in regard to women and children.

In Sri Lanka, the majority of the tsunami victims were women and children even though a considerable number of men were affected by it. This situation was not exceptional to the Sri Lankan context but common to all other tsunami affected countries of the South Asian region. In a general perspective, one may raise a very basic question as to why women were affected more than men. In fact this is a serious question as far as its social reasons are concerned but it still remains unanswered at both in intellectual level and humanitarian level, particularly with regard to the aid agencies concerned with disaster management. In that sense it is an epistemological question on the one hand and a humanitarian question on the other hand. I believe that a serious social analysis of this situation is required for both developing and practicing knowledge in the future disaster management programmes. It is common knowledge that no selective group in a community can escape from a natural disaster but unfortunately it happened both in Sri Lanka and in Indonesia during the tsunami in 2004. The real story was that men compared to women were more capable of surviving the disaster. The focus of this paper is on that miracle. It is argued in the paper that women are more susceptible than men to be victims of natural disasters in the present male-dominated society and under the prevailing mode of economy of a mercantile capitalism. Under this prevailing mode of economy people are forced to take decisions in both domestic and public spheres 202 in different ways. This latter mentioned factor has been made a significant influence in weakening the chances of protecting women from disaster situations be it man made or natural. The very principles of this mode of economy compel people to depend on their abilities and strengths in escaping from grave situations irrespective of the socio-cultural contexts within which they live. My critique about mercantile capitalism is that it compels everybody to adhere to the forces of the market in dealing with everyday situations, which is absurd when looked at the position of women who live under dependent situations on men in many diverse socio-cultural contexts. The simple argument here is that free market forces do not help persons to assure their survival in disastrous situations. Rather they operate in favour of one group over the other without any ethical justification.

Apart from other things in relation to the position of women in a disaster situation, this is the argument that I want to raise in this brief note. When we pay attention to the way in which women were protected from disasters by migratory herdsmen in Asia and Africa, Aborigines (Veddas) in Sri Lanka, the absurdity of market driven materialist norms can be clearly understood. During droughts or in conflicts with enemy groups these people migrated to secured places, not as individuals but in groups in order to protect everybody’s life. In such cases equal value was given to the lives of men, women and children. This was because of the value system that did not undermine the social value of any individual, whether the person concerned is a man or a woman.

It is unfortunate that the aid agencies did not pay much attention to the naive explanations given by local communities (or others) in terms of the high death toll of women from the tsunami in 2004. Three of those explanations are cited here for your careful reading. 1. Women are physically weak when compared to men and so that they were not able to escape from the tsunami waves. This was the reason given by some to justify the high death toll among women. 2. Women were not able to escape from the waves because of their excessive concern about the movable assets such as money, jewelry etc. which they had accumulated during their lifetime. According to this version of the story, the affected women were busy in taking out such movable assets before leaving the risky places. The story emphasizes this as the main cause of high death toll of women. 3. There was another explanation commonly found in both Sri Lanka and Indonesia. In Sri Lanka, it was found among the Tamil community in the East Coast and in Indonesia among the Muslim community in Banda Aceh. This was a mythical construct in which there is a link between human beings and the cosmological gods who are believed to be the guardians of the universe. In that mythical construct, the two communities mentioned above believed that the tsunami in 2004 was a result of a curse by the cosmological gods in response to immoral behavior of women in the tsunami-affected countries. 203

Among the three stories, the first one is closely relating to the idea of masculinity which is often propagated in patriarchal societies. The conceived idea of this story is that women are physically weaker than men and hence men were able to escape from the tsunami waves due to their physical strength. Therefore, the higher death toll reported among women is justified in this story based on the masculinity conception propagated in the patriarchal societies. The absurdity in this conception is that men are always constructed as a fortunate segment blessed by nature while women, unfortunate and degraded elements, always inferior to men. According to the way in which the masculinity conception was interpreted by the two communities (Tamils in the East coast of Sri Lanka and the Muslims in Banda Aceh), women’s emancipation is denied on the basis of the gift given to the men by nature. Although nature is a common property which should be shared by everybody irrespective of gender differences, ethnicity, race, religion and other types of social constructions within the human society, women are marginalized in sharing that property with men.

The second version among the three stories is related to economy, a domain controlled by men. In a market economy which is driven by the forces of mercantile capitalism, woman is constituted as a dependent element in both domestic and societal spheres. That dependency is created based on the command that a man has over the material assets of a family. Because of their dependency on men, the freedom that women have in decision making at the domestic and societal levels is always secondary. Even though their opinion in the economic matters of the family is elicited and sometimes appreciated, the sole decision making authority is kept with men. In a premature mercantile capitalist economy like what is found in Sri Lanka, this imbalance of decision making power enjoyed by men at the domestic level is concealed by way of distributing other powers to women e.g. managing household assets. In South Asia in general and in Sri Lanka in particular, women are entrusted with the responsibility or command over managing the family assets. The reality is such that the men take the liberty to escape from the burden of managing family assets while holding the decision making power over them. One classic example is the case of jewelry, a prime family asset controlled by women in Sri Lanka. In most cases women possess the ownership of jewelry but ultimate decision of using that asset is with men. For example, the women from the coastal fisher communities in Sri Lanka usually spend their savings for owning jewelry but it is not used for ornamentation and instead jewelry is very often used as an economic asset of the family. Since the decision making power over the economic assets is with men, the assets such as jewelry is mortgaged in instances of economic crisis of the family. This game of the authority in decision making and managing the family assets was an obvious reason of the high death toll among women during the tsunami. Since the woman is given a responsibility to secure the material assets of the family, she did it during the tsunami despite the great risk to her life. If women had an equal power in decision making at the household level, they also could have escaped from the disaster as the men folk among them did.

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The third version of the story regarding the high death toll among women is more interesting when looked at the way in which it was constructed from the point of view of men. According to that social construction of the status of women, the cause of the tsunami was women who provoked the guardian gods of the universe by adhering to wrong morality which is against the divine law of the gods. The absurdity here is that men were constructed as true followers of the divine law of the god while women were constructed as violators of that law. According to this explanation, men are excused by the gods for all kinds of vices they commit but women are punished for an unexplained failing morality. The most serious claim could be sexual misconduct among women but how can it be a punishable offence while men also break the same law. Nevertheless it is difficult to assume every woman in the tsunami affected areas was guilty of that immoral behavior. Then an ethical question arises over this issue. It is about justice. Did the god make justice to those who obey his divine law? The answer is No. The cosmological gods had made a wrong decision to punish the innocents and wrongdoers alike. It was wrong judgment and was ethically wrong. If it is so what could be the truth? The truth is that men transfer their guilty conscience to an easy target that is women. This explanation clearly shows the manner in which men are constructed by themselves as a superior category having qualities of spirituality, wisdom and far sight.

These three stories that justify the high death toll of women during the tsunami provide with us a basis to understand the importance of gender implications in natural disasters. Even though we are not living in a dark age, such naïve justifications or explanations still stand as dominant discourses in our society while challenging humanity. It shows the deficiency of our knowledge in managing the possible adverse effects of natural disasters. The era in which we are living is full of risks from natural disasters such as tsunamis, earthquakes, storms, global warming, sea level rising, health hazards, ethnic and nuclear wars, droughts, etc. But much emphasis has so far not been given to the security of the most vulnerable groups such as women in this case. It is important to mention that disaster management and disaster vigilance are not all about technology development and physical planning. More than that humanistic feeling should be developed among people to rethink about the other. In a broader sense it is the way of disaster vigilance. It requires a new philosophical outlook about nature and a discipline that supports understanding the position of others. An understanding of the position of disadvantaged people in a situation of natural disaster is the most crucial factor in disaster management. The three stories presented in the article show that such an understanding does not present in this globalized society. In such a situation, it is clear that the need of pooling the knowledge of different disciplines is a requirement that so far has not been done adequate in the field of disaster management.

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Bibliography

Ariyabandu, M. and Wickramasinghe. M. (2003). Gender Dimensions in Disaster Management, Colombo: ITDG South Asia Publication.

Mead Margaret. (1963). Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. New York: Moroj.

Ranaweera Banda, R.M. and Ranasinghe, I. (2005). Pilot Project on Alternative Livelihood Opportunities for Tsunami affected people in the Eastern and Southern Sri Lanka, UNDP Colombo (unpublished).

Ranaweera Banda, R.M. (2005). Interface between Government Institutions and Non-governmental Organizations in providing Relief Services to the Tsunami Affected People in the South Coast of Sri Lanka. University of Ruhuna (unpublished).

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IMPACT ON SELECTED SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS ON WOMEN’S INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES IN TSUNAMI AFFECTED AREA IN BATTICALOA DISTRICT

T.H. Seran, I. Brintha and H.S. Balasingham

Abstract

Over the past three decades women’s issues and more recently gender issues have gained prominence of the development platform and women play a significant role in household and community services. Households are the first place of gender socialization. Skill is an important aspect in people’s life and it should be considered as a part of their life. Today, it has been challenging for people in view of improving the people’s living status, improving income level and employment opportunity, especially for those who are in the developing nations affected by the tsunami. The contribution of government and non government organizations is highly expected by the people to empower them to face this challenge. In this way, CIDA has joined with Eastern University, Sri Lanka to contribute a lot to improve their living status in the Batticaloa district. Under the CIDA Restore project, skill training was provided to women, who were affected by tsunami in 2004 to raise their income and reduce poverty. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of the training on these women’s lives. Therefore, the conceptualization frame work for this study was developed based on the objectives of the CIDA Restore project.. It covered four areas such as living standard and income, service quality, self employment opportunity and human development activities. Personal and research information had been collected through structured questionnaires. The five point Likert Scale model of statements was used, which is ranking from one to five. The questionnaires were randomly issued to participants in Palameenmadu village. The present study revealed that women’s participation in skill training was more (31.3%) in the age group of 21-30, followed by the age group of 31-40 (22.8%). Among the respondents, most of them were married (62.5%) while 27.1 % were school girls and 2.1% were women household heads. The main income of the family has declined. According to monthly income obtained before training, 54.2% of respondents had fallen into the family income category of below Rs. 3000 but after getting training, it had been reduced by 47.7%. Also it was found that 37.5% of the women surveyed were self employed and 2.1% were working in the NGO sector. It was further noted that, a large number of respondents participated in a combination of sewing techniques and fabric painting (22.9%). Income level has increased after getting skill trainings provided by CIDA at Palameenmadu village. All the variables derived from the data revealed that the women were highly satisfied by the skill training provided by CIDA. Living standard and income, 208 service quality, self employment opportunity and human development activities had mean scale value of 3.98, 4.17, 4.17 and 4.42 respectively. This present study concluded that skill development program under CIDA Restore project had a capacity to strengthen the living status of the rural community.

Introduction

The devastating tidal wave, the tsunami, that created havoc on the fateful morning of the 26th of December 2004, totally ravaged almost the whole coastal belt of Sri Lanka, victimizing both human lives and properties and livelihood. Batticaloa district is one of the worst tsunami affected districts in the East coast of Sri Lanka. Unprecedented damage was caused to the communities and sometimes re- victimized those who have already suffered as a result of the cival war. However, the world has responded with it all its heart to rush relief to the Batticaloa district. Many people began to negotiate individual ways with which to endure the loss of family, livelihoods, shelter, and basic services such as water, healthcare and education. Even though much progress has been made in rebuilding houses and community buildings, both men and women continue to look for ways to earn a sufficient income with which to support their families’ basic needs. Women are influenced differently than men by natural disasters. Thus, the nature of vulnerability of people to a natural disaster is a direct function of their gender and the ways in which humanitarian agencies respond to the diversity of women’s and men’s vulnerabilities, often reinforced by traditional socio-economic structures and arrangements, which contributes to the inequality between men and women in specific disaster contexts. By responding to disaster with a gendered approach, the differences in power relations and access to resources within the household and society will be emphasized, as well as the ways in which these disparities might be shaped.

The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) working with Eastern University of Sri Lanka in the affected Batticaloa district was implemented programmes, such as livelihoods, education, water and sanitation, gender and community rehabilitation in two affected villages aimed to restore and improve the previous living conditions of the communities. With regard to gender, the CIDA- Eastern Restore project Team acknowledged the necessity to empower women through their programmes and support women’s personal skill development for the community’s benefit. Women need to be empowered to make their own choices and to respond to increasing opportunities. Investment in women’s human capital through education and training, more than any other form of investment, increases women’s capabilities, expands opportunities available to them, empowers them to exercise their choices, removing barriers to the productive use of women’s time, work and energy are key to sustainable and gender-sensitive food security. Goodale (1989) argued that the increasing interest in training for the informal sector during the 1980s failed to recognise the involvement of women, and therefore to develop 209 programmes and strategies which distinguish between women and men as economic producers. He further stated that the failure to recognise that women and men engage in different economic activities in different sets of circumstances and therefore have different training needs has resulted in a relatively male-biased delineation of both skill acquisition and work in the informal sector, in which women are largely invisible. Nevertheless, there is a large body of literature, relating to skills training, which argue that poor women in particular need awareness raising if they are to overcome the barriers that face them when they enter the public arena, which is dominated by men (Moser, 1991; Longwe, 1998; Williams, 1994 and Parker, 1993). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of skill training on women's economic and social status of the participant in the Palameenmadu village and also sought to find out what constitutes effective training for women’s development.

Methodology

The structured questionnaire was designed to capture the impact of skill training on women's economic and social status in the Palameenmadu village. This included collecting information about how and whether the training created changes in the women's personal life, changes in activities carried out, amount of time spent on each, changes in household circumstances, resources required for her productive work, uses made of skills acquired during training, changes in income, changes in external circumstances which might influence her productive work and what she does with any additional income. Case studies were also conducted using structured interviews with participants at the start and the end of the project period at regular intervals. Thus, the sample of the study was limited to the women who were training participants.

Results and discussion

The age of the participants varied in the study area was from 18 to 51 years, with an average of 30.4. About 31.3 percent of the participants fall in the age group of 21 to 30 years and only 6.3 percent of them were over 50 years. According to the survey 62.5 percent of the participants were married while 35.4 percent of them were unmarried and 2.1 percent were widows and current heads of their households.

The education of participants was determined by the highest school grade they had completed. It was observed that educational levels of 58.3 percent of the participants had completed the ordinary secondary level while 18.8 had completed the advanced secondary level. Only two percent of the women had never been to school, the remainder had between one to six years of schooling. Most of the participants had completed their secondary education and unemployment was the reason for their high participation.

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Self employment (37.5 percent) was thea main occupation of the participants. They were very keen to learn new technologies to strengthen their capacity to engage in profitable businesses. This is one of the reasons for the high participaption in the training programme. It was further found that 33.3 percent of participants were house wives wants to start self employment or to fulfill their family needs in order to reduce their economic burdens. Moreover, 27.1 percent of them were unemployed school leavers who had acquired necessary new skill and information to produce items for their own purpose and also for an alternative carrier in future. Women start their own businesses because they are unable to find formal employment. Women’s inability to access formal institutions results in women’s businesses most frequently being situated within the informal sector. Hart (1997) found that women who want to re-enter the work force, after their children are grown, sometimes find employment opportunities closed to them, so the alternative is to become a “domestic entrepreneur”. Women’s businesses are more than likely to be home-based and they can be started quickly (Van Der Wees and Romjin 1995). Domestic responsibilities might require women to remain near their home, hence establishing a business in proximity or in the home resolves potential conflicts. This often results in women’s businesses being part-time.

Regarding preference of skill training 22.9 percent of the participants followed sewing techniques and fabric painting while 20.8 percent of the participant followed fabric painting alone. According to the study, the monthly income of their households before skill training was revealed to be below Rs. 3000, for 54.2 percent of the them. Most of them had had very hard lives and unhappy childhoods were currently engaged in some form of economic activity at the time of training while 10.4 percent in the range of Rs 3000 to 5000 rupees and only 2.1 percent earned above Rs 5000. Furthermore, 33.3 percent of the participants were school leavers not involved in any form of economic activity at the time of the training. The follow–up interview with the participants took place eight weeks after the training. At that time, all of the women had experienced some increase in income, although in some cases, they showed evidence of having used some of the skill acquired during the training. The data clearly documented the way in which these skills were used as well as the impact on their incomes and on their status in the home and the community.The data revealed that the percentage of women whose income was below Rs. 3000 was reduced from 54.2 percent to 47.7 percent while income of Rs. 3000 to 5000 increased by 4.2 percent. Further, the income of those earning above Rs. 5000 increased by 2.1 percent. Most of them made significant changes to their economic activity as a result of the training and saw a significant improvement in income. The impact of the training on woman was immediate. One of those participants reported that before the training she had no work but by the end of the training programme she had bought a sewing machine and started sewing dresses. Interestingly, however, she said that the training had made her more qualityoriented and she had made changes to attract customers but lack of capital investment is the main constraint to expand her business.

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Regarding the result of the study the average living standard and income had a value of 3.98. It falls in the range of 3.5

Benefits and constraints

The benefits to these women from the training are clear. It provided them with some basic business skills, with all but one putting at least one skill into practice to earn income. It also provided them with the self-confidence to move into new areas and to take risks. As a consequence of using these new skills, most of the participants had been able to increase their income. Several women said they felt exhausted from the demands of their productive work combined with domestic duties. Working long hours deprived them of seeing their children and socializing with friends and relatives. This highlights the effects of training on women who must combine both reproductive and productive roles whereas other members of the household particularly men do not take on an equal share of the burden.

Conclusion

There was little doubt that the training enhanced the entrepreneurship knowledge and skills of the trainees and changed their attitude and approach towards running their own micro-enterprises, and in that respect it met its main objectives. Most of the women were seen to exercise one or more of the skills learnt on the course. They all changed their attitude towards their productive work and towards themselves; as a result, their management of their productive work improved due to sustained income increases. The attitude of their families and the community also showed a positive change. Although at the end of the project period, the financial gains for the women were not great and it is likely that the training had provided them with skills which would allow them to survive better in depressed markets than other women who had not had the training. The link between increased income and increased status was very strong, with the women feeling that they earned greater respect from both their families and the community when they began to look

212 like real business women. The link between increased income and access and control of resources also appeared to be quite strong, with the women controlling their own financial affairs. However, the link between increased income and increased household decision-making was much less clear; although the men were usually very appreciative of what the women were doing, and in some cases were actively involved in the business, there did not appear to be any great shift in power and authority within the household. The training provided under this programme was effective in providing a significant number of women with slightly improved livelihoods and an element of empowerment.

Bibliography

Goodale, G. (1989). Training for women in the informal sector. In: F Fluitman (ed) training for Work in the Informal Sector. Geneva: International Labour Organization.

Hart, G. (1997). From Rotten Wives to Good Mothers: Household Models and the Limits of Economism. IDS Bulletin28 (3):14-25.

Longwe, S. (1998). Education for women's empowerment or schooling for women's subordination. Gender and Development 6 (2):19-26

Moser, C. (1991). Gender planning in the third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs. In: T Wallace and C March (eds) Changing perceptions: writings on gender and development. Oxford: Oxfam, pp 158-171.

Parker, R.A. (1993). Another Point of View: A Manual on Gender Analysis Training for Grassroots Workers.UNIFEM.

Van Der Wees, C. and Romijn, H. (1995). Entrepreneurship and Small- and Microenterprise Development for Women: A Problematique in Search of Answers, a Policy in Search of Programs’. In: Dignard and Havet (eds.), Women in Micro- and Small-scale Enterprise Development. Boulder: Westview Press. Pp. 41 - 82.

Williams, S. (1994). The Oxfam Gender Training Manual. Oxford: Oxfam.

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VI. LIVELIHOOD RESTORATION ACTIVITIES

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HOME GARDENING AS A TOOL FOR IMPROVING FOOD AND NUTRITIONAL SECURITY - A CASE STUDY AT MADIHA AND GANDARA IN SRI LANKA

K.K.I.U. Arunakumara, S. Subasinghe and Ranjith Senaratne

Abstract

Improvement of food and nutritional security of coastal communities affected by the Tsunami is a matter of great concern. Home gardening, in this regard, is highly considered as it could make an important contribution towards both livelihood improvement and food security. Waste management through composting is found to be a viable tool in meeting the nutritional requirement of the crops grown in home gardens. The present paper assessed the viability of implementing waste management and home gardening programs together to improve food and nutritional security of the people in Madiha and Gandara. Based on their interest, thirty home gardens from each village were selected for the study. A group of people comprising a member representing each selected garden was trained on home gardening and waste management. They were provided with planting materials, farming tools and bins for composting. Their gardening was routinely monitored and necessary information and guidance was given. Despite no specific way of discharging household waste was found initially, composting was found increasingly popularized among the involved people as the programs proceeds. Crops are now fertilized with only organic manures by the majority (71%) of the people who were totally dependent upon chemical fertilizers. As a consequence of composting, the problem of discharging household waste has now been solved and people begin to receive organic manure at low or no cost. Before the program was implemented, the majority (60%) of the selected families was totally dependent upon the market for their vegetables and none of them consumed homemade vegetables only. As the home gardening program progressed, the vegetable production at home gradually increased and some of them (4%) started to sell the excess creating an extra source of income. However, as most of the gardens (81%) are relatively small (> 0.25 Ac), market oriented farming seemed difficult in these villages. Despite being highly dependent upon the family preference, the species diversity in these gardens is high, minimizing the risk of crop failure. Waste management has also contributed effectively to minimize the pest and disease incidents in the gardens. Consequently, diversity of food which positively influences nutritional security has begun to increase in these villages as they grow more and more vegetables.

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Introduction

Approximately, two-thirds of the coastline of Sri Lanka (over 1,000 Km) was affected by the Tsunami on 26th December 2004 (Asian Development Bank, 2005). The severity of the damage was different from place-to-place depending on water- borne energy received, seabed and terrestrial terrain of the area. The salinization caused by the sea water has direct negative effects on soil biology and crop productivity, and an indirect effects leading to loss of soil stability through changes in soil structure (Szabolcs, 1996). Depleting soil quality would negatively influence plant and animal health also (Doran and Parkin, 1994). However, soil property related crop performances (yield, water and nutrient uptake) could be variable in space (Sparovek and Schnug, 2001).

Home gardening, apart from providing an alternative source of income, can play several other roles such as restoration of affected agro-ecosystems and improvement of food and nutritional security. Diversity of food along with income resources could be considered as the main buffers against the vulnerability of coastal communities. The causes of food insecurity and malnutrition are complex. In some cases, people are food-insecure because they don’t have the income to purchase the food they need. In other cases, they don’t have the income to purchase the inputs whereby they can produce their own food. In still other cases, they don’t have access to cultivable land, or they don’t have enough knowledge about cultivation.

It is generally believed that, in most of the low income groups, food comprises one of the largest components of household expenditure. Any savings on food expenditure thus translates into family income which is then available for non-food expenditures and improvements in living conditions. Out of various strategies available for reducing the expenditure for food, some prefer to grow their own vegetables and fruits in the backyard garden. Estimates suggest that in low income countries, 10-40% of the income of households can come from them producing their own food (Smit Jac, 1998).

The diversity of food in low income groups is limited as they always go for inexpensive sources of energy. Consequently, vulnerable groups, such as children may be badly affected as they can suffer from deficiency of micro-nutrients. The direct economic and health benefits could thus be expected from home gardening which can increase the amount of locally grown food, in particular, vegetables and fruits. Additional environmental and social benefits could also be resulted if successful waste management program is implemented along with the home gardening. The present paper assessed the impacts of introducing waste management and home gardening programs together to improved food and nutritional security of the people in Tsunami affected coastal villages in Southern Sri Lanka.

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Methodology

Study area description

Madiha and Gandara, the selected two villages located in the Southern coastal belt, about 175km away from Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka. About 350 families are living in each village. The most important form of livelihood in Gandara is fishing while in Madiha, service sector and small scale industries are found dominant. Agro-based livelihoods are not prominent in either village. The beaches of the area comprised of predominantly sandy coastline with natural beauty and the nearby home gardens hosted for few coconut and tropical fruit plants have been severely hit by the Tsunami.

Selection of families and trainings

Based on their interest, thirty families from each village were selected for the study. Species diversity, crop performances and some soil quality parameters of selected gardens were assessed before been formulated actions to be implemented. A series of training workshops were then conducted with the participation of members of selected families. Basic home gardening techniques and practices including crop selection, planting season and crop establishment, training and pruning, maturing etc, were the key areas focused. Attention was also paid on composting and waste utilization.

Gardening and monitoring

Selected families were then provided with seeds and other planting materials, farming tools and equipments to start with farming. Their gardening was routinely monitored and guidance and assistance were given as needed. As gardening proceeds, several field demonstrations were also conducted at farmer fields for the best interest of the involved people.

Viability assessment

At the end of one and half years, viability of introducing home gardening and waste utilization programs together was assessed using a questionnaire distributed among the involved people. Field observations were also made in addition to the interviews conducted with villagers. Data were analyzed and interpreted as appropriately.

Results and discussion

Despite the fact that no agro-based livelihoods were reported in the investigated area, home gardens with at least with some crops were found badly affected by the incursion of large amounts of salt water, leading to development of soil salinity. Furthermore the evidence demonstrates that intrusion of debris and marine sediment

192 to home gardens has worsened the consequences. This might be a major reason to keep the householders away from the gardening. Before the program was implemented, the majority (60%) of the selected families was totally dependent upon the market for their vegetables and none of them consumed homemade vegetables only (Fig.6.1). As the home gardening program progressed, it was found that the production of vegetable at home was increased gradually (Fig.6.2).

Figure 6.1: Source of vegetables of the people in Madiha and Gandara before home gardening and waste management (CIDA project) was implemented

Figure 6.2: Source of vegetables of the people in Madiha and Gandara after home gardening and waste management (CIDA project) was implemented

As most of the gardens (81%) are relatively small (> 0.25 Ac), space availability was found major constrain which limits the market oriented production (Fig.6.3).Therefore,thoughsome of them (4%) have started to sell the excess creating an extra source of income, most of the growers shared the excess with the neighboring people. This sort of subsistence farming is traditionally resorted to during times of social stress, economic hardship or war to ensure food security and survival and to supplement income (Curtis, 1995).

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Figure 6.3: Land size distribution of the home gardens in Madiha and Gandara

Time spent on gardening by the involved people was continued to be increased in both villages. This might be due to improved family harmony as mentioned by involved people (86%) who work together and share experiences. A close association between gardening and other family activities could also be found among most of them. Results further revealed that housewives and children have mainly been involved in gardening and thus introduction of home gardening could strengthen the role of women in the society. In addition, the majority (93%) of the people believed that homemade vegetables are more tasty and healthy. This in fact is due to the fresh nature of the produce which has a greater likelihood of having a high quality vegetables compared with produce that has been stored or transported for long periods during which both flavour and nutritional value can deteriorate as reported by Lobstein and Longfield (1999).

Despite the fact that no specific way of discharging household wastes was found initially in these villages, composting was found increasingly popularized among the involved people as the programs proceeds. According to them, around 37% involved people knew nothing about composting before the program was implemented. Some of them (21%) have never practiced it though they possessed adequate knowledge on composting. Crops are now fertilized with only organic manures by the majority (71%) of the people who had been totally dependent upon chemical fertilizers. As a consequence of composting, the problem of discharging household wastes has now been solved and people are beginning to receive organic manure at low or no cost. This of course sounds as frequently found near cities where food production is practiced using the city’s waste (UNDP Publication Series, 1996).

It is a well-known fact that a diet low in vegetables and fruits is associated with an increased health risk. Low intake of vegetables and fruit is also associated with micronutrient deficiencies, hypertension, anaemia, premature delivery, low birth- weight, obesity, diabetes etc., in addition to heart disease and cancer (WHO Technical Report Series-797, 1990). Estimates suggest that 30-40% of certain health hazards are preventable by increasing daily intakes of vegetables, fruit and

194 fibre (World Cancer Research Fund, 1997). Despite being highly dependent upon the family preference, the species diversity in these gardens is high, minimizing the risk of crop failure. Waste management has also contributed effectively to minimize the pest and disease incidents in the gardens. Consequently, diversity of food which positively influences nutritional security has begun to increase in these villages as they grow more and more vegetables.

Conclusion

Though involved people initially knew nothing or very little about gardening they are now confident that they could act almost as model farmers. As there is a great potential for home gardening to improve the livelihoods of people in these communities, the establishment of a few model gardens encourage the involved people and they can act as models in and around the Tsunami affected villages.

Acknowledgements

The financial assistance received from the CIDA Restore Project is greatly appreciated.

Bibliography

Curtis, P. (1995). Urban Household Coping Strategies During War: Bosnia- Hercegovina, Disasters Volume 19: (1).

Lobstein, T. and Longfield, J. (1999). Improving diet and health through European Union food policies: A discussion paper prepared for the Health Education Authority, London, Health Education Authority.

Smit, Jac. (1998). TUAN, Personal Correspondence.

Sparovek, G. and Schnug, E. (2001). Soil tillage and precision agriculture, Soil Tillage Res. 61: 47-54.

Szabolcs, I. (1996). An overview of soil salinity and alkalinity in Europe. In: Soil Salinization and Alkalization in Europe: eds. N. Misopolinos, and I. Szabolcs, pp. 1-12. European Society for Soil Conservation. Giahudis Giapulis. Thessaloniki, Greece.

UNDP Publication Series for Habitat II, Volume 1. (1996). Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs and Sustainable Cities.

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WHO Technical Report Series-797. (1990). Diet, nutrition, and the prevention of chronic diseases: Report of a WHO Study group.

World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research.(1997). Food, nutrition and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective, Washington, DC, World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research.

Webography

Asian Development Bank. (2005). An initial assessment of the impact of the earthquake and tsunami of December 26, 2004 on South and Southeast Asia. [Online] Available at:http://www.adb.org/Documents/Others/Tsunami/ impactearthquake-tsunami.pdf.

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CRAB FATTENING IN WOODEN CAGES AND THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE FISHERMEN FROM PAALMEENMADU, BATTICALOA

P. Vinobaba and M. Prishanthini

Abstract

A community based crab-fattening project was initiated by the CIDA Restore Project at Palameenmadu village of Batticaloa District as an alternative livelihood to the fishermen for proper utilization of available resources in their region and for increasing the opportunity for additional income generation other than fishing. The watery mud crab, Scylla serrata was chosen for crab fattening which is successful in fattening and creating alternate income through this project. The watery crabs were placed for fattening in wooden cages. The feeding was done regularly at the amount of ten percentage of body weight at two times per day with fish offal, chicken meat shop waste materials. In twenty nine days, maximum of about 559 gram weight increment was observed likewise the final product of more than 1300 grams received which have a value of more than Rs.1500 per kg. This is very profitable aquaculture system in this area and if we use the high carapace width crabs then the final product will receive high market demand and profit to the farmer. The technology introduced, economic feasibility of the cage culture system, participation of village community and the effectiveness of this project are discussed in this paper.

Keywords: aquaculture, crab fattening, Scylla serrata, watery crabs

Introduction

In Sri Lanka, brackish water areas are approximately 120,000ha in extent, out of which 40,000ha are shallow lagoons, tidal flats and mangrove swamps. These areas are endowed with rich bottom fauna and flora which provide a good habitat for mud crab, S. serrata. The mud crab or mangrove crab 4is known to occur abundantly in the estuaries, mangrove swamps, tidal flats and shallow lagoons of Srilanka (Pinto 1986). Mud crabs from the Batticaloa lagoon used to be very large and fetch very high prices in the international market but the average size of the crab has declined in the recent times (Samaranayake, 2003).

4 Locally called Peru Nandu in Tamil and Kalapu kakuluwa orKadol kakuluwa in Sinhala 198

Raphael (1972) reported preliminary pond culture trials of S. serrata in Sri Lanka with a survival rate of 36 per cent during an eight-month period. Subsequent experimental culture undertaken by the Government in Pitipana Station showed less success because of high mortality due to cannibalism. Numerous farmers have tried crab culture in net cages in the Negombo Lagoon (Samaranayake, 1986), where juveniles were collected from the wild and fattened in cages using trash fish. Today, there are no known crab culture operations in the island on a commercial scale. Experiments carried out in one private farm with crablings fed on trash fish and shrimp head meal for 15 days have shown 44 percent survival with an average weight gain of 200-300 g (Samarasinghe and Fernando, 1992). At present with the declining catches of crab due to overfishing, widespread clearing of mangroves and increasing consumer demand, the monoculture and fattening of crabs have become increasingly essential and popular in Sri Lanka

The cultured species S. serrata is one of the members of Genus Scylla and there are two other species of this genus, S. oceanica and S. transquebarica which are also used in fattening processes. Sexual maturity in females is reported to be attained at a carapace width of 9-11cm (1 year+) and grow up to 2kg, 22cm carapace. The growth rate is 10-15cm in 1-3 years. Females migrates to offshore to spawn and the larval development occurs in the open sea, while juveniles, sub-adults and adults occupy mangrove habitats, estuaries and lagoons.

The cultures of mud crab are of two kinds such as fattening and grow out. All crustaceans undergo moulting5 and fattening refers to the holding of recently moulted ‘watery crabs’6 for short duration to enable them to acquire certain biological attributes and hence command higher prices. The desire end products of fattening are gravid females with well developed ovaries, or hard shelled crabs with solid meat (Chong, 1995). The mud crab (Scylla serrata) takes 20 to 24 days for fattening. Crab fattening is a cheap and easy to adopt method and is very much preferred by the small-scale farmers because in this operation the losses due to the fluctuations of the physiochemical conditions of the aquatic environment and cannibalism are comparatively low. Experimental studies on Mud crab fattening by Mwaluma (2002) recommends that fattening should be done on the floating cages rather than submersion into pond bottom to obtain better results. The following should be essential to check the quality of the watery crabs for fattening. The weight of the crab should be more than 400g. Damaged crab (one legged, broken carapace) should be avoided. Soft crab should be avoided for the fattening purposes; it may die during the handling process.

5 a process by which their exoskeleton is shed in order to grow 6 recently moulted crabs which do not fetch attractive prices at the market and they are usually discarded in catching 199

Sheltered bays and mangrove areas are selected to locate crab cages for protecting them from strong wind and waves during adverse weather conditions. The water at such sites should be 0.5-1m depth. Areas with low salinities should be preferred, as saline water inhibits the growth of mud crab. There should be availability of abundant and good quality water. Mud crabs are highly tolerant to varying salinity conditions, so brackish water is ideal for crab fattening operations. Table 6.1 shows the physiochemical parameters suitable for crab fattening.

Table 6.1: Physiochemical parameters suitable for crab fattening

Parameter Value Salinity 10 to 34 ppt pH 8.0 t 8.5 Temperature 23oC to 30oC Dissolved oxygen Should be more than 3 ppm

Source: Mudcrab culture. SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture

Trash fish are most commonly used as feed. Fish offal and chicken gut wastes are also employed. Feeding rates are around 10 percent of estimated body weight. After the fattening period, mud crab can be harvested individually by hand. The crabs are then bound with straw or string to enable easy handling. A skilled labourer is hired to bind the pincers of the crab. Exposure of the crab to sun and wind should be avoided, as this may lead to weakening and eventual death.

Background of the selected project area

Paalmeenmadu is a small village located about 5 kilometers from the Batticaloa town. Most of the people of the area are engaged in fishing activities. This is one of the most environmentally stressed coastal area of the Batticaloa district by both the Tsunami disaster of December 2004 and the destruction of ecologically sensitive mangrove area due to unplanned developmental activities following Tsunami (Santharooban and Vinobaba, 2007). Population increases, lack of other employment opportunities, and low literacy level force the local villagers to depend mainly on the fishery resources that can be harvested from the adjoining lagoon nourished with mangrove biota. As most of the fishermen do not have adequate financial support for large vessels, they are restricted to coastal areas and the bar mouth area of the lagoon that are easily accessible with small boats. Strained by decreasing fish catches, they are often compelled to use more effective and also destructive fishing methods, which reduce the productivity of the coastal resources even further. Overfishing and the use of destructive fishing methods have been prevalent for many years in this village.

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In order to improve the living conditions of fisher folk and to reduce the pressure in the coastal marine ecosystem, alternative livelihood schemes were introduced to empower the village community especially for the women to earn extra income on their own and to help their family to enhance their socio-economic status. The Crab fattening programme is one of scheme initiated by the CIDA Restore Project in the Palameenmadu village with support from the Department of Fisheries, Batticaloa. Through the preliminary studies it was identified that village itself has the potential with ideal conditions to carryout crab fattening in cages.

The main objectives of the study are to assess the growth and production performance of mud crab Scylla serrata in wooden cages and to determine the economic feasibility of the floating cage culture system and to assess the enhancement of the economic status of the participating community.

Materials and methods

Twenty families were selected from the whole village trained in the process of crab fattening by the CIDA Restore project (Marine-based Ecosystem) team during September 2008. The training covered all aspects of fattening from choosing the moulted crabs, fattening, feeding the molted crabs with inexpensive feed and the harvest of fattened crabs. A training manual on Crab fattening was prepared and provided free of charge. From the training workshop, 20 candidates, who are interested and having the necessary facilities to hold the cages nearby their homes, were selected. After the training programme, each of them was provided with a crab cage measuring 90cm x 90cm x 45cm. The cages were made up of palmyrah petioles and timber wood. This type of cage was designed in an environmentally friendly manner to minimize the physical damages on the crabs and for the reusability of the cages. Watery crabs weighing more than 400g were purchased from the local markets and dealers and provided to the selected beneficiaries.

Figure 6.4: The wooden crab cage Figure 6.5: Stocking of watery crabs into the cage

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Among the 20, five cages were selected randomly to carry out this study. These five cages were located in a mangrove swamp beside the home of one of our selected farmers at the depth of about 40cm. Initially the physiochemical parameters of the water body were measured using the equipments purchased through the CIDA Restore Project. Each of the cages was stocked with 10 watery crabs after weighed and acclimatized. They were fed twice a day with trash fish, shrimp heads, fish offal and fine pieces of chicken gut wastes obtained from the meat shops, which was10% of the body weight. During the farming period, once a week the fouling organisms and waste feed inside and outside cages were removed to maintain a healthy environment and to facilitate easy circulation of water. At the end of 30 days the crabs which attained expected growth were harvested and the rest were kept for another 5-10 days for further growth. Weights of crabs at the time of harvest were measured. Average weight gain was calculated using the following formula.

Percentage weight gain was calculated using the following formula.

In addition, the cost of expenditures of and the income from the crab sales were calculated to estimate the net profit per cage.

Results and Discussion

Results from the crab fattening indicated that the fattening of crabs is possible and growth and survival can be achieved through proper management and feeding of crabs. The risks involved in fattening are less, culture period short and easy to manage. Table 6.2 shows the physiochemical parameters of the holding water body at the beginning of fattening. The values were at optimal levels for a better growth of crabs.

Table 6.2: Physiochemical parameters at the site of crab fattening

Parameter Value Salinity 12 pH 7.7 Temperature 32.8oC Surface - 6.9-7.9 ppm Dissolved oxygen Bottom - 9.2-9.7 ppm

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In this experiment, the mean survival percentage was 88% and mean mortality was 12%. The mortality was at an acceptable level and it was experienced at the initial stages of the fattening. These initial mortalities occurred during the first ten days could be due to a highly stressed new environment and poor handling during collection and transport. It is therefore felt that the survival rate can be improved considerably through better collection, handling and transportation methods. In crab fattening systems, mortality may also be caused by poor quality of water at the bottom of the mud. But in the floating cage system, this type of mortalities cannot be expected. Table 6.3 provides the data regarding the growth, survival, and production of crabs.

Table 6.3: Growth, survival and production of crabs in the first farming cycle

No. of No. of Avg.wt at Avg.wt at *Avg. **% Cage % Crabs Crabs stocking Harvesting wt wt. No Survival stocked Harvested (gm) (gm) gained gain C 1 10 10 100 540 915 375 69.44 C 2 10 7 70 580 945 365 62.93 C 3 10 8 80 740 1299 559 75.54 C 4 10 10 100 600 1024 424 70.66 C 5 10 9 90 475 825 350 73.68

In this experiment, individual weight gained during fattening was 414.6g for crabs weighing 587g. These growth increments were seem to be very high in comparison with other studies done by Bensam, (1986), who recorded average monthly increments of 8.0-16.2g for crabs of initially weighing 50g, 14.7g for crabs weighing between 51-100g, and 19.6g for crabs initially weighing between 101– 151g. Figure 6.6 indicates the growth performances of crabs from each cage. 203

Figure 6.6: The growth performance of crabs of 5 cages

Feeding was not a problem during the fattening period because all the crab feed employed such as trash fish, fine pieces of chicken gut wastes, shrimp heads, fish offal and kitchen leftovers were well accepted. The feed consumption and calculated FCR values are shown in the Table 6.4. All cages showed values greater than one.

Table 6.4: Feed consumption and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) for the first farming cycle (30 days)

Total wt. of feed FCR(on wet weight Cage No Total wt. gained(kg) provided(kg) basis) C 1 16.275 3.570 4.56:1 C 2 14.210 1.925 7.38:1 C 3 15.440 2.352 6.56:1 C 4 16.870 3.150 5.35:1 C 5 14.940 2.412 6.19:1

Throughout the fattening period totally 45kg of Trash fish (Rs.70.00/kg) was bought from the local fishermen and 45kg chicken wastes (Rs.20.00/kg) were bought from the local markets and meat shops. Except these two main diets other feed were obtained free of charge and employed as supplementary food items. At the end of 30th day the total weight of the crabs which attained expected growth (>1kg) was 38kg and rest of the crabs totally weighing 5.8kg were fattened further for 7 days. After 7 days of fattening, they attained a total weight of 8.2kg. The costs of feed for the first and second phases were computed to determine the feed cost per kg of production. The feed cost for the first phase of fattening was Rs.3870.00 and

204 that of the second phase was Rs.540.00. At the end of fattening total production of crabs was 46.2kg with the cost of Rs.4410.00 and finally the cost of feed per kg of production was Rs.95.45.

Figure 6.7: Crabs of harvestable Figure 6.8: Harvested crabs ready for sale size inside the cage

Maintenance costs of floating crab cages are minimal compared to the fish cages. The crawling of crabs along the wooden poles or side nettings of the cages helps to reduce fouling. Except for attached seaweeds, there is no fouling by barnacles or other organisms. Such organisms probably serve as an alternative food source for the crab.

Table 6.5: Economic analysis for the operation of 5 cages in the first fattening cycle

Particulars Quantity Rate(Rs) Total(Rs) Expenditures Wooden cages 5 Nos 2650.00 13250.00 Cost of Watery crabs 30kg 600.00 18000.00 Feed cost 4410.00 Cage repair and 700.00 maintenance cost Harvesting charges 1000.00 Total 37360.00 Income Crab sales-1 38kg Rs.1500.00/kg 57000.00 Crab sales-2 8.2kg Rs.1500.00/kg 12300.00 Total 69300.00 Profit (5 cages) 31940.00 Profit (1 cage) 6388.00

The net profit of the operation was SL Rs.6388.00 per cage. At the same time in our crab fattening programme the beneficiaries were provided with a wooden crab cage costs, Rs.2650.00 and 10 watery crabs costs, Rs.3000.00. Through the first farming cycle they obtained Rs.5650.00 per cage additionally. This amount of money is 205 enough to establish another cage with watery crabs to continue the next fattening cycle.

If one could run about maximum of 10 fattening cycles in a year the estimated annual income will be Rs.63880.00. This ultimately depends on the effort taken by the individual and the prevailing ecological conditions of the region.

Conclusion

The lack of awareness and viable alternative livelihood programmes are major hindrances to improve the socio-economic status of fisher folk in the Paalmeenmadu village and also threatens the sustainable use of the coastal marine ecosystem. The present ‘demonstration project’, focusing on awareness and alternative livelihood programmes, showed good results among the fisher folk and is now a role model to other coastal villages of the country. The creation of awareness coupled with alternative livelihood programmes in these villages has created considerable interest among the people to protect, conserve and manage the coastal marine resources for the future generations. Such level of awareness and viable options for income and food generating activities should be replicated at a larger geographic scale in order to keep sustainable use of these resources.

Crab fattening is a simple process and it can be used as one of the viable alternate livelihood programmes for earning additional income by the fishermen. The daily economic loss due to ‘moulted crabs’ was unavoidable for fishermen until recently when the crab fattening process was initiated. The crab fattening saves the resource and gives an additional income averaging Rs.6000-6500 per cage as a net profit in a fattening cycle.

Crab fattening has become very popular, as it is highly viable with good market value. Other funding agencies have also come forward to provide training to coastal fisher folk in crab fattening. However, in order to provide more hands on trainings to fisher folk, a training unit in this particular village is essential. This training unit could also help to give proper guidance and monitoring of the fattening activity by the villagers.

The assistance from Government Agencies, NGOs and donor agencies are expected by the people of Palameenmadu to promote this activity in the village and we suggest initiating similar efforts in other villages in the Batticaloa District, having the potential for crab fattening in the near future and throughout Eastern Province in the longer term.

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Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to District Administration, Village Heads, Staff of District Fisheries Extension Office, Assistant Director Fisheries, Batticaloa, the entire team of CIDA restore project for the support to conduct the trainings and crab fattening programme and financial support by CIDA.

Bibliography

Bensam, P. (1986). A culture experiment on the crab Scylla serrata (Forskal) at Tuticorin during 1975-77 to assess growth and production. Proc. Symp. Coastal. Aquaculture, 4:1183- 1189.

Chong, L.P. (1993). The culture and fattening of mud crab. INDOFISH International 3/93:46-49.

Gunarto, A. and Cholik, F. (1990). Effect of stocking densities on mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) in ponds. Coastal Aqua. Res. J.RICA, Mancros, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Mudcrab culture. SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture 19 (3, August 1997): p 10-25

Mwaluma, J. (2002). Pen culture of the mud crab Scylla serrata in Mtwapa mangrove system, Kenya. Western Indian Ocean. J. Mar. Sci. Vol.1. No.2 127- pp.133

Mwaluma, J. (2002). Culture experiment on the growth and production of mud crabs, mullets, milkfish and prawns in Mtwapa mangrove system, Kenya. In: WIOMSA Marg 1: 2002-2003

Pinto, L. (1986). Mangroves of SriLanka. Nat. Res., Energy and Sci. Authority of Sri Lanka, p.27

Raphael, Y.I. (1972). Preliminary Report on the brackishwater pond culture of Scylla serrata (Forskal) in Ceylon. In: Coastal Aqua. in the Indo-Pacific Region p.395.

Samaranayake, R.A.D.B. (1986). Status and prospects for brackishwater aquaculture in Sri Lanka. J. Inland Fish.Vol. 3 88-90.

Samaranayake, R.A.D.B. (2003). Review of national situation in Srilanka. p.987- 1012. In: G. Silvestre, L. Garces, I. Stobutzki, M. Ahmed, R.A. Valmonte–Santos, C. Luna, L. Lachia-Alino, P. Munro, V. Chrstensen and D. Pauly (eds) Assessment, Management and Future Directions of Coastal Fisheries in asian countries.Worldfish Centre Conference Proceedings. pp.67,1120 207

Samarasinghe, R.P. and Fernando, D.Y. (1991). Culture of mudcrab Scylla serratain ponds. Andriesz Mariculture Ltd., Sri Lanka II.

Santharooban, S. and Vinobaba, P. (2007). How can mangroves be protected and be used in a proper way? An Awareness Hand book. CIDA Restore Project Publication. Eastern University, Sri Lanka.

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BIOGAS AS AN APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR RESOURCE POOR FAMILIES TO MEET THEIR ENERGY AND FERTILIZER NEEDS; A CASE STUDY IN MADIHA EAST ON THE ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR A POOR FAMILY WITH MARGINAL RESOURCES

K.D.N.Weerasinghe and S. Wijetunga

Abstract

The present paper gives an overview of the experience gained by the authors as a case study in Madiha village during 2005-2008, under the biogas dissemination program of the CIDA restoration project. It demonstrates how efficiently that biogas technology could be incorporated into the lifestyle of a resource poor farmer who had only 6 perch land with a few heads of cattle. It has been also demonstrated that the success of the program was mainly due to the active role played by the entire family with a devotion and dedication. The technology appeared to be a promising way to double or treble the income of the family which gives number of livelihood options such as sales of compost, slurry for hydroponic media, nursery plants, hydroponically grown leafy vegetables, etc. The technology guaranteed the self sufficiency in energy needs for cooking, and fertilizer need for home gardening during the entire period of three years without any interruptions. The technology is proven as a very efficient technology for cattle farmers to be self sufficient in their home energy needs for cooking and bio fertilizer need for horticultural and gardening practices.

Keywords: biogas, bio fertilizer, energy, technology transfer

Introduction

Energy resources and Technology will be the deciding factors in sharing economic and social progress of a country in the new millennium. As stipulated in the conference on Asia Energy vision 2020, an urgent action has to be focused to tackle the rural poverty and energy gap through the installation of decentralized locally appropriate and affordable renewable energy systems.

In the rural sector of the south Asia region, the fuel wood and agro residues are the dominating energy sources. It has been identified in the number of studies that share of biomass and wood energy in the total consumption of the region will not change 210 substantially in near future. Overall contribution from these sources amounts to about a 40% contribution of non-commercial sources of energy.

In Sri Lanka, still the largest energy production is exploited by the biomass based sources (48%). Most of the biomass based energy sources is used for the preparation of food while tea industry, bakery industry and other few industries are used biomass as an energy source in very limited quantity. The contribution of hydropower is about 8% of the total energy need in Sri Lanka. Over 44% of energy requirement is met by the imported petroleum based fossil fuels1. Therefore, it is apparent that the alternative sources of energies can play a vital role in Sri Lanka for the future energy supply while mitigating the risks involved in the use of conventional energy sources. Micro hydropower, wind energy, geo-thermal energy, wave energy, solar power, bio-energy are the possible sources to be utilized to meet this demand. Bio energy adoption for different situations, as Biogas or bio fuels has received much attention in the recent development programs, to address the climate change and associated global warming problems due to the heavy use of fuels.

Biogas technology which is getting wider popularity at present in developed and developing countries including India, China, European union etc. as a green energy source has the potential to create a big revolution in the years to come as a viable option to address the world burning issues in energy and waste management sectors. The potential of the biogas technology among the other green and clean energy sources such as ethanol and bio-diesel, is enormous since it could have three fold fronts to address the energy crisis by resolving the mess in waste management while producing energy and organic fertilizer for agriculture without leaving any traces of harmful by products which can add to environmental degradation. It also can reduce methane emissions into the atmosphere as a harmful greenhouse gas.

The beauty of the biogas technology is associated with the liberation of the gas as a result of a simple bacteriological process, which does not use any chemicals or hazardous materials other than exploiting naturally existing anaerobic bacteria. In other words it is the harnessing and accelerating of a naturally existing biotechnology process for our benefit. Therefore technology could be adopted at different scales starting from simple micro generators for the home consumption of energy up to the sophisticated systems of mega scales which could provide energy directly to the electric grid.

A research and development program in biogas is commenced by the Dept. of Agric. Engineering in 1996 considering biogas and the byproducts of the biomethanation as a viable alternative source for resource poor people to meet their energy and fertilizer needs. This program emerged as one of the prominent research and development programs in Sri Lanka to meet the rural energy demand for resource poor people.

The Ruhuna CIDA Tsunami Restoration program gave us a rear opportunity to introduce the technology to the affected people of the 2004 Asian Tsunami in 211

Matara District, by way of conducting a community adoption and technology demonstration program in Madiha east and Gandara. In the present paper biogas technology adoption for a very poor farmer with marginal resources, in Madiha east village is described. The objective of the program was to introduce biogas as a viable technology and livelihood option for a resource poor farmer to avail his day to day energy need for cooking and lighting and free access to the organic fertilizer need for the home garden improvement.

Materials and methods

The biogas adoption and demonstration program was conducted in Madiha east, Matara District during March 2007-2009. Madiha comes under the Agro ecological zone Wet Zone Low Country (WL2) with average annual rainfall of 2500mm. Madiha situates within 1km distance of the southern coastal belt, which underwent complete inundation during the 2004 December Tsunami. Soils of the area are sandy soils overlying a hard Calcaric layer. Groundwater is saline and lies at the depth of 1.5 to 3m.

Around 350 families are living in the village and almost all the families are affected by the Tsunami. The total death toll of the village was around 10. Most of the villagers were engaged with fishing and coir based lively hood activities prior to the Tsunami. Very few families are involved with animal rearing.

In order to achieve the objectives of the program, initial search and inquiry was made in early January 2005, to identify the families who would be willing to adopt the biogas option as an appropriate livelihood activity. At the initial survey only one family had given consent for such a program; the technology introduction and adoption program commenced for this family just after the inquiries made in January 2005.

The name of the headman of the family is Sirisena. He is a poor farmer having only 6 perch of land in his home garden. He had about 8 cattle and a bullock cart. He loved to rear cattle. Due to the lack of space in his small home garden his cattle were reared in a coconut land closer to the beach. He had two milking cows just before the Tsunami. During the night two milking cows with the two calves were kept in the cattle shed. He was a father of two daughters and three sons. His wife and three children were dependent on the income gained by him from the bullock cart and milk sales. By the time of introducing the biogas program to his family main income source of the family was the selling of 4 liters of milk per day. The bullock cart had been virtually unused prior to the tsunami restoration work.

Sirisena had just escaped from the tsunami and lived in a congested house. His house, cattle shed, well, toilet and bullock cart occupied almost all the available space in the home garden. His limitations with the un-managed space made his family life very miserable.

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CIDA restoration Project helped him to construct a biogas plant and reconstruct his cattle shed to couple with the biogas plant. He and his family members were trained to use the biogas for cooking purposes. They were also trained to manage the small garden space to raise vegetables using biogas slurry. He was trained to pack and sell excess manure. His daughters were trained to adopt hydroponics technology for crop production. Now the life pattern of Sirisena is changed and he is self sufficient on vegetables for home consumption, and energy for cooking. He is now an owner of a small boutique named “Punchi Watte” Green Corridor (Tiny garden). His income and life style change will be discussed in the present paper.

Biogas story

The technical expertise, material inputs and the cost of the skilled labour for the construction of the biogas plant was provided by the CIDA Tsunami Restore project; the land excavation cost for the preparation of the pits for the biogas digester construction had to be bone by Sirisena, who is going to be the owner of the digester (Fig.6.10). Since a properly constructed cattle shed is very important for the maintaining of a biogas digester, his cattle shed was also renovated to facilitate the digester charging with cow dung.

Figure 6.9: Commencement of digester construction by a mason with the assistance of Sirisena

Technical details

The basic criteria adopted for the design of a suitable digester are the availability of raw materials and the home energy demand to be met with biogas. Based on the available no of cows who could be put in to the cattle shed, a 8m3 digester was designed for the Sirisena’s family. Initially Sirisena was asked to renovate his cattle shed to have the access of the cow done to the inlet of the biogas digester. For a 8m3 213 digester The fresh cow dung requirement is about 40-50kg/day which could be easily obtained from 4-5 adult cows. The digester was designed and constructed according to the SLS standards. The total construction cost of the digester excluding the labor was Rs.40000.00.

Figure 6.10: View of the digester and the inlet just after the construction

For the correct functioning of the digester the cow dung, should be mixed with water at 1:1 ratio and feed to the digester daily. The digested cow dung coming from the digester has good fertilizer value as well as it has pest repellant properties in vegetable crops. Without the use of digested material, the real benefits of the biogas digester could not be enjoyed. Therefore the management of digested material and the use of them in home gardening were initially explained to Sirisena. The construction of the biogas plant was completed in August 2008. Ceremonial opening of the Biogas plant was conducted in August with the blessings of Maha Sanga and Participation of members of the Sri Lankan and German Biogas associations and members of the Goethe Institute, Sri Lanka.

Figure 6.11: Ceremonial opening of the biogas plant with the blessings of Maha Sanga and participation of members of the Sri Lankan and German Biogas Associations and Head of the Goethe Institute

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Benefits from biogas

Production potential of Biogas in a digester of 8m3 capacity is around 2m3 per day and it is sufficient for the preparation of meals (three times a day) for a six member family4. The biogas plant helped Sirisena to perform the kitchen work. Prior to the construction of the biogas plant Siresena’s wife had to spend a considerable amount of time for the collection of fuel wood from nearby lands and occasional purchase of fuel wood. Furthermore the use of fuel woods in the compacted low roof kitchen without a chimney, liberated lot of smokes and it was hazardous for their health. The use of biogas avoided the health risks and made it a smoke free kitchen (Fig.6.12).

Figure 6.12: Sirisena in the smoke free kitchen with biogas stoves

Digested material (Biofertilizer) of the biogas plant

Digested material coming out from the digester has a good fertilizer value. This is an ideal fertilizer with about 3% N, 0.5% p, and 0.1% K. It was successfully used for the Sirisena’s home gardening activities. CIDA project team trained Sirisena family to manage his space to convert his garden to an attractive home garden (Fig.6.13). He never used chemical fertilizer or pesticides for gardening. The total harvest obtained from the garden, was more than sufficient for the home consumption. This helped Sirisena family to earn extra income by selling the excess.

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Figure 6.13: Pesticide free roof garden on the toilet roof

Proper Space management and arrangement of crops within the small space of the garden improved the aesthetic environment in the garden.

Compost production from biogas slurry

The Compost made out of digested material, after dewatering and filtering through soil and drying in the shade has a big market demand. Sirisena learned the technique of packing the bio fertilizer in poly bags and commenced the bio fertilizer selling (Fig.6.14). The project assisted him to buy a balance and polythene sealer for the fertilizer packaging.

Demand for the biogas fertilizer for vegetable and ornamental plants production was increased in the area after observing the Sirisena’s garden by the villagers. He formulated a selling price of a two kg pack of compost as Rs.50. This gives an additional income of about Rs.4000 /month for Sirisena family. Selling figures of the biogas fertilizer for January-October 2008 by the Sirisena family are illustrated in Fig.6.15. As depicted in the Fig.6.15 The total income from the sales of biogas fertilizer selling from 10 months period was Rs.40000. This demonstrates that the construction cost of a biogas digester could have been met alone by the selling of fertilizer material for about 10 months period.

Liquid fertilizer use

After exposing the Sirisena family to use liquid component of the digested material as a hydroponic media for the green vegetables production, they commenced the hydroponic culture using the discarded plastic bottles collected from the beach. Sirisena himself experimented with the dilution ratio of the biogas liquid for the better performance of plants. Leafy vegetable production in diluted liquid biogas slurry media (soilless culture) has opened another income generation activity for

216 him. The selling price of the Kankun plant grown in a discarded plastic bottle was marked as Rs.50, and the day by day the plant selling in Hydroponic media were also improved. According to the analytical results; electrical conductivity of the biogas slurry was 9990 micro siemens/cm and the pH was 7.3. With the dilution of 15 times, conductivity has been reduced to about 1800 siemens/cm which is an acceptable level for the performances of the plants. Now Sirisena plans to bottle the slurry and sell the bottle at a rate of Rs.50/liter.

Rain water harvesting from roof

The expansion of the agricultural activities in a small garden of just 6 perch, while exploiting all the available places including the roofs has increased the water demand for crop irrigation and cleaning activities of the cattle shed. In order to compensate for the part of his water demand a 1.5m3 tank was constructed in a corner of the garden to collect the roof water for different purposes.

Figure 6.14: A 2Kg biofertilizer pack ready for selling (Sirisena stands in front of the garden)

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7000

6000

5000

4000

3000 Income Rs. Income 2000

1000

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Months (2008)

Figure 6.15: Income generated from biogas compost during Jan.-Oct. 2008

Nursery production

With the availability of the fertilizer material and water for irrigation, Sirisena could expand his nursery production to sell the plantlets. The monthly income gain from plant selling was improved day-by-day and in average he got an additional income of about Rs.3000 per month from the nursery production.

Sales outlet

The entrepreneurial activities of Sirisena was improved day by day and CIDA project helped him to construct a small sales outlet and named it as “Green Corridor” (Fig.6.16). This outlet helped Sirisena to change his life pattern to be a vender of the green products, and introduce green concept to the Madiha village. The present day look of the Green corridor is illustrated in Fig.6.17. The school children of the area used to visit Sirisena’s green corridor to buy their day to day requirements including the plantlets to grow in their home gardens from time-to- time.

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Figure 6.16: Opening ceremony of the sales outlet by the Head of the Goethe Institute Sri Lanka, Mr. Richard Lang with the blessings of Maha Sanga

Figure 6.17: Opening of the sales Figure 6.18: Present day appearance outlet green corridor

As a result Sirisena contributed much for the “Waga Sangramaya” (food drive) and the “Api Wawamu Rata Nagamu” program by demonstrating production potential of a 6 perch land which could sufficient for a family of 8 to have a reasonably good life pattern. Rupavahini Corporation made a special program on Sirisena’s development and publicized it through the “Govi Gedara” program which gave a wider popularity to him and the program.

Day-by-day Sirisena’s life pattern and Social recognition has improved. He was offered a garden management program in the Sujatha Vidyalaya, Martara by the principle of the school after observing his gardening practices. He accepted the task for a very nominal fee and within about 6 months the school garden has been immensely improved. The relation which has been built up with the school teachers and children helped him to improve his milk sales in School. He became a friend of virtually all the children of school which may lead to a big change in the minds of the children in time to come.

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Conclusion

The biogas technology is an appropriate technology option for a poor farmer having one or two cattle to raise their living standard at least by doubling their income, while achieving the self-sufficiency in energy need for cooking and the fertilizer need for home gardening.

Construction of a small biogas plant of about 8 m3and the correct utilization of biogas and bi products of it, can help a poor family having one or two cows to add aesthetic beauty to the garden, by reducing the odor problem in the garden arisen from direct disposal of cow dung in an unplanned manner. It helps directly to have a smoke free kitchen, and reduce burden comes on fire wood collection.

The small land holding of about 6 perch may not a constraint to construct a small scale biogas plant to meet home energy needs of a village family of about 8 persons, when available space is properly utilized and managed for home gardening.

A biogas fertilizer can help farmers to raise their home garden crops without adding chemical fertilizer or pesticides to them to enjoy the chemical free fruits and vegetables from the home garden. The correct utilization of the slurry coming out from the Biogas digester for composting can make an additional income of about 4000 Rs per month for over and above the cost reduction on firewood or natural gas for cooking purposes.

Biogas slurry can use as the hydroponic media for leafy vegetables such as Kangkun (Ipomea prescapry) or Gotukola (Centella asiatica ) when it is diluted about 15 times with water. cultivation of Leafy vegetables can be successfullydone in discarded plastic bottles when biogas slurry is used as the hydroponic media.

The case study confirmed that biogas as an appropriate technology for a small farmer family to successfully engage with the Waga sangramaya (Food Drive) and the Api Wawamu Rata Nagamu (Lets grow and develop the Country) program.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful for the CIDA Restore project for providing an excellent opportunity to apply and test the biogas technology as a viable livelihood option for the resource poor farmers. Special thanks in this regard is extended to Dr. Jana Janakiram (Canadian Coordinator), Prof. Ranjith Senarathne (Sri Lankan Director), Prof. D. Atapattu (Deputy Director Ruhuna) for the continuous interest and support extended to carry out the present program. The continuous assistance offered by the Sirisena and members of his family is gratefully acknowledged.

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Bibliography

Mathur, A.N. and Rathore, N.S. (1992). Biogas management and utilization. Himanshu publications, 5k51, Ram singh K1 Badi, Sector 11, Udaipur (Rajasthan).

SLS 1292:2006 - Code of practice for design and construction of biogas systems: Part 1 – Domestic biogas systems (2006). Sri Lanka Standard Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Wijetunga, S. and Weerasinghe, K.D.N. (2008). Construction of biogas digester and its maintenance. CIDA Tsunami restore project, university of Ruhuna (Sinhala).

Webography

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka. [Online] Available at:www.unescap.org/esd/energy/dialogue/community/documents/ Country%20paper%20Sri%20Lanka.pdf [Accessed 03.25.2009]

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VII. LESSONS LEARNED

222

COMMON CHALLENGES IN POST DISASTER RECOVERY: A CIVIL SOCIETY PERSPECTIVE7

G. Vickneswaran and R. Muniyandi

Abstract

The knowledge about the community under recovery is essentially required by the actors engaged in restore projects to carry out developing tasks without much hindrance. Nevertheless it is expected that participatory rural appraisal can facilitate the acquisition of sound knowledge about the community which is under a recovery project, in practice, it is not great enough to get familiar with the community and its problems as well. Civil society actors can make significant contributions to recovery projects in this regard. Their capacities may help to create the conditions for rebuilding their social life. The nature of destructions in the post-disaster recovery period provides the most compelling argument for the participation of civil society in recovery processes. This paper examines the general challenges faced by the CIDA restore project in Puthukudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu villages in civil society perspectives. The main concern of this study is the analysis of the challenges that brought out by the lack of civil society participation in this restore project. The study also scrutinizes the other factors which created difficulties in the implementation of the restore project. This study is mostly based on qualitative methods and to a lesser extent quantitative methods. This study relied both on primary and secondary sources. As far as this study is concerned with village communities, ethnographic data was collected primarily by field work in order to get first hand information. The study discovered that though civil society participation was almost available in the intermediary level of the process of recovery projects, it was hardly found in the primary stage of recovery process.

Introduction

There have been so many efforts undertaken to rebuild a disaster-affected social component in the present days. Recovery is a challenging task and there have to be arrangements and proper coordination of tasks. In a post-disaster recovery activity, there can be several actors engaging recovery activities in a social condition and

7 Action Research on CIDA Restore Project at Batticaloa, Sri Lanka

224 coordination between those actors and incorporation of those several actions in a particular area. Realizing the importance of the coordination of recovery tasks, this action research is aimed at analyzing the part of civil society in post-disaster recovery activities. Participation of civil society in recovery activities is widely acknowledged and seems inevitable for the successful completion of recovery activities.

This paper examines the general challenges faced by the CIDA Restore project in Puthukudiyiruppu and Palameenmadu villages with respect to civil society perspectives. The main concern of this study is the analize the challenges that were brought out by the lack of civil society participation in this restore project. The study also scrutinizes the other factors which created defects in the implementation of the restore project. The objectives of this study were to identify difficulties for any non-governmental organization to work successfully in a post-disaster area the without civil society participation and to find out ways to promote the participation of civil society in recovery activities. This study relied both on primary and secondary sources. As far as this study is concerned with village communities, ethnographic data was collected primarily by field work in order to get first hand information. There is no single method used to collect data in this field work, it varied according to the field background. Primary data was collected by using unstructured and focused interviews, focused group discussions and observation. This combination of methods helped to obtain data from different perspectives.

The term “civil society” is highly ambiguous in academic arena and has been given a wide range of definitions. But this research assumed that civil society is a nexus of free individuals without reference to state.

Importance of civil society recovery activities

When people become directly affected by natural disasters, they develop a central interest in contributing to the recovery of their community. Despite being confronted with harsh realities and huge dilemmas, civil society actors can make significant contributions to recovery projects. Their capacities may help to create the conditions for rebuilding their social life. The nature of destructions in the post- disaster recovery period provides the most compelling argument for the participation of civil society in recovery processes. It is not just that the natural disasters caused death of community members, but devastated their infrastructure and institutional structure and left alone the survivors of the community in a struggle for their existence. Individuals, the family and the community are again entitled to a problem of order. As people become directly affected by a natural disaster, they develop a central interest in contributing to recover their social life. Living in a recovery era and alongside the aid actors, they have greater need, and greater potential to take part in recovery projects. And as recovery processes increasingly result in changes to economic and social institutions and relationships in a society, people also have a right to participate in these processes. 225

It’s necessary for any organization involving in the recovery activities to get a clear understanding about the traditional make-up of the community concerned. Getting familiar with the social structure, primarily norms and values, of the particular society is one of the prerequisite responsibilities for actors engaged in recovery activities to be able to undertake their tasks successful. And it will also be helpful to actors engaged in recovery activities to identify the problems, to recognize the areas to which priority should be given and get clear-eyed with the target activities. Participation of civil society in the recovery activities will be beneficial for actors engaged in recovery activities to furnish the abovementioned necessities. By advocating and facilitating dialogues, civil society can bring the mentality of members of the community towards recovery activities. It can also generate a central interest or help consensus building in the process of recovery. Civil society can have its involvement in recovery from the very outset of the recovery process and it can exert its influence or bestow assistance in designing and implementing recovery activities. Public mobilization via community organizing prominent for the triumphant of recovery process is expected to bring up by civil society.

Condition of civil society at the outset of this project

Less developed in community organizing and participation Fragmented institutional relationship within community Conflicting nature among members Gashed ideas towards process and actors in recovery projects among members No cooperation among community based organizations

Challenges

1. Evil characteristics of civil society While civil society organizations (CSOs) is theoretically expected to play a primary role in articulating central interests of the communities, in the both project areas, CSOs have specific weakness in this regard, since it was fragmented in the communal lines of class, family and gender. In addition to the specific weakness, CSOs of both project areas appeared to have the inherent difficulty of moving beyond articulating specific interests to aggregating a broad agenda. It was identified that CSOs are only capable enough to create general consensus on matters not relevant or not very much important for rebuilding social structure and to some extent played a role intentionally to ignore principle participation with other organizations engaged in recovery project in their areas. Along with these manners, CSOs in these two project areas remained inevitably to take part in a secondary role.

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2. Appalling conditions in equal participation It turned out that, in both project areas, there has been difficulty to get equal participation from members of all categories of the communities. Vulnerable and powerless people were marginalized in the arena of contribution and participation in recovery tasks. Such kinds of marginalization occurred along with the unequal layers of gender, class and caste. In Palameenmadu, for instance, women’s participation was high in the involvement of this project, but the case is vice versa in Puthukuddiyiruppu where women were ignored in paying contribution to this projects. In both areas, lower status groups like members of lower castes and families under the poverty line have been found subservient to higher status members and their contribution in generating central interests were almost lost regarding this project.

3. Feuds Feuds between members of the CSO often led to tit-for-tat retaliation and paved the way to exacerbate existing contradictory nature in these project areas. CSOs failed to address the conflicting nature between members of the community clearly at the outset of this project. They seemed to conceal this conflicting nature between their members with respect to the project coordinators as leaders of CSOs who were in a position not to degrade their community in any way and try to show them as having harmonious relationship among them. Apart from this trend, CSOs of these two project areas created new conflicts or to exacerbated existing hostilities. This added a further burden to the project coordinators as they had to cope with these conflicts.

4. Improper representation and false allegations Some CSO leaders became representatives under this project failed to represent whole communal interests and worked in a biased way showing favoritism and nepotism. Those leaders have been identified as engaged in granting forged information, looting and corruption. When people pointed their fingers towards the CSO representatives alleging that they had been involved in discriminatory activities, the CSO representatives turned this criticism away from themselves toward the project coordinators. These CSO leaders or representatives deliberately in a sophisticated way obscured their forged activities and justified their false allegation toward the project coordinators. This created a gap in making reciprocal relationships between community members and project coordinators.

5. Trouble in coordination The CSO has to develop a permanent dialogue and consensus building mechanism so as to make recovery activities a success. A series of new players emerged often surpassing traditional actors in terms of resource available. This research found that the fragmented relationship and contradictory nature at the individual and institutional levels inevitably led to competition among community based groups and organizations. Those groups and organizations were competitive to get 227 influence in the recovery activities. If one got engaged in one recovery project, the other one tried to trespass it or refrain from the particular project activity. Therefore this project coordinators faced problems in getting coordination among community based organizations of both project areas. For instance, in Palameenmadu, Rural Development Society (RDS) was not happy with the participation of women association in this project and ignored their support to this project and work with other organizations.

Coping strategies

As far as this study is concerned, it was found that in-depth engagement in community organizing is essential to overcome the above said challenges. Promoting community organizing is required to facilitate movement from the traditional model of community organizing towards a new one. Generally, community organizing refers to that process or methodology for motivating people to act as a group towards some developmental goals or objectives. Based on this general concept, traditional model of community organizing are aimed at getting people and institution to fight for and win resources. Working with this narrow scope will not be worth to overcome those challenges arising in implementing recovery activities, since it can create more competitive social relationships within civil society members and complicated situation to be handled for project actors. New model of community organizing is proposing a broad scope and this could be an appropriate one to cope with those issues in recovery activities. According to the new model, community organizing is a process of motivating people to act as a group towards development goals or objectives.

Capacity building is also essential to make social arrangements compatible with recovery activities. It should be conducted at the outset of this project. Capacity building is a critical concern to manage the transition from the relief period to the recovery period since the pace of transition to recovery varies from community to community. This is early need for strengthening civil capabilities to carry out recovery tasks smoothly. As the early concern of recovery is the reconstruction of the community, it is necessary to promote the capacity of the community so as to support recovery activities. Civil society should be strengthened so as to respond spontaneously and rapidly to unmet recovery needs. As civil society groups have also been essential for organizing recovery operations in cooperation with NGOs, local government and national authorities, capacities of civil society members in relation with recovery task can be enhanced through awareness programmes, training seminars, and workshops.

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Conclusion

When people become directly affected by natural disasters, they develop a central interest in contributing to the recovery of their community. Despite being confronted with harsh realities and huge dilemmas, civil society actors can make significant contributions to recovery projects. Their capacities may help to create the conditions for rebuilding their social life. The nature of destruction in the post- disaster recovery period provides the most compelling argument for the participation of civil society in recovery processes. It is not just that the natural disasters caused the death of community members, but it devastated their infrastructure and institutional structures and left alone the survivors of the community in a struggle for their own existence. Individuals, the family and the community are again entitled to social order. As people become directly affected by a natural disaster, they develop a central interest in contributing to recover their social life. Living in a recovery era and alongside the aid actors, they have greater need, and greater potential to take part in recovery projects. And as recovery processes increasingly result in changes to economic and social institutions and relationships in a society, people also have a right to participate in these processes.

LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE RESTORE TSUNAMI PROJECT IN SRI LANKA

Ranjith Senaratne, J. Janakiram and G.C. Filson

Throughout the project cycle from project design to appraisal, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, the Canadian and beneficiary country partners learned a number of key lessons. Each of them is briefly described.

Requests for Projects by CIDA: The request for tsunami projects by CIDA came by the end of 2005, a year after the tsunami devastated the different countries. Luckily, Guelph and a consortium of universities in Canada and Sri Lanka (RESTORE Consortium) with the assistance of the World University Service of Canada (WUSC) had already done a survey of the devastated areas in Sri Lanka. This gave the RESTORE consortium a head start in formulating the proposal for the project. Since the time frame to submit the proposals was very short from the time of request, a detailed needs assessment was not done. A proposal was put together quickly and the partners agreed that if we received the project a needs assessment through PRA would be completed and the findings used to implement the project.

The lesson learned from this was that the needs assessment should be done before the project proposal is submitted and the donors should demand this as a requirement to base the project. The RESTORE consortium believes that completing the needs assessment after the project was approved placed a few restrictions to the implementation of the approved project.

Needs assessment

At the conceptual stage of the project, the partners discussed the needs of the beneficiaries with the assumption that the local partners knew what these needs were. The team decided to validate this idea scientifically and so designed needs assessment surveys. When the Needs Assessments were completed and analyzed, it was clear that though the target beneficiaries were in favour of the project, their needs were different from those initially identified or assumed by the planners.

In the project, it was seen that the needs assessments were extremely important in determining what the real needs of the target populations or beneficiaries were. This showed that planners and project initiators should distinguish between the “situation that is supposed to be” and that which “really is”. An efficient, effective and objective way to make this distinction is to carry out a scientific survey through Participatory Rural Appraisals of the potential population to be affected by the project. 230

Participatory approach to project design and ownership building by stakeholders

From the very beginning of the project, a number of stakeholders were involved in the identification of priorities, the methods to achieve the objectives and the general methodology for implementing the project. Though this was achieved to a certain extent, it was discovered that ownership building is a process that matures through constant and continuous education, understanding, tolerance and above all, system analysis. Ownership of a project does not occur through mere consultation, but through genuine interest in the goals of the project. The partners learned that participatory approaches lend themselves to democratic processes. And since democracy is a slow but sure process, enough time has to be allocated to allow all the partners to participate fully and effectively in the decisions being taken. Thus, this approach should be expanded and more time allocated, so that each phase of the project cycle is considered carefully with the active involvement and participation of a cross-section of the stakeholders. Unfortunately, in this project, much time was not given and since there was a deadline all processes had to be hurried and it appeared as if the “product” was more important than the “process”.

Project leadership - democratic choice

When projects are developed, it is usually the designers or funding agency that have responsibility for, or major say in the implementation of the project. In this project, the situation was deliberately designed to be different. Once the project was approved, a cross-section of the participating members of faculty voted to choose a project leader. Their rationale was that a person may be an excellent proposal writer but may not have the management skills to direct and lead the project. In certain countries, leaders of similar projects are often appointed by the university administration. But the faculty members who mooted the idea and wrote the proposal decided to make a difference by electing a member from their group to the leadership role of the project. This proved to be of immense value to the project as all core members stood by their leader even under difficult circumstances.

Project goals and a shared understanding of the project

The goals or objectives of a project could vary from person to person and from group to group. Many project initiators and designers understand the project differently from those who are expected to benefit from the project, participate in it or implement it. This is no doubt a function of the differential perceptions, divergence in values and experiences and differences in expectations among the implementers and stakeholders and within each group. Our experience with this 231 project suggests that once the various partners sit around a table to streamline project goals and share an understanding of the road ahead, many of the problems that arose in the implementation of projects can be overcome or minimized

Trust, mutual respect

Trust and mutual respect are paramount if the project is to achieve its goals. These qualities are built over years of getting to know each other and through the actions of those who interact on a regular basis in pursuit of a common or collective goal. Trust and respect yield fruitful results if they are cultivated horizontally and vertically. The leaders strived to do this well and have continued to nourish, nurture and protect these values. Furthermore, it is important that the partners commit to the long term. Building trust is not a short-term enterprise and cannot be achieved with deadlines. It takes both time and resources and quite a bit of humility.

True and equal partnership

Partnership is a two way process in which each partner is given an opportunity to demonstrate the qualities of truth and equality towards each other. Our experience has shown that when these values exist between partners prior to the commencement of a project, they have a greater probability to be strengthened and endure throughout the project cycle. In a situation when the executing agency (e.g. University of Guelph) has greater affiliations and enjoys the benefits of greater proximity and understanding of the rules and procedures of the funding agency, it is important that these privileges be passed on to the partners on the other side faithfully. It is at this point that the executing agency will be expected to respect its partner and provide guidance and access to information that the partner institution may need to be more effective and accountable. Information on budgets, reports and plans of work are among the critical materials to share so that effective decisions can be made together for the good of all the partners.

Democratic communication

Effective Communication has been critical in bringing the project to fruition. The establishment of trust and mutual respect among and between the members of the project brought significant, positive impacts on the members of the project and on the project as well. Ground rules were established from the beginning and reviewed as the project progressed to give each member a feeling of belonging, a sense of self-esteem and the recognition they deserve. The members knew that all matters they discussed at meetings were for the benefit of the project and their own improvement. Thus frank and fruitful discussions characterized the projects’

232 meetings and produced diverse inputs that were carefully evaluated by the group and incorporated into project activities.

Support of host institution and administrators

In Canada, the persons who develop and implement projects are the faculty. They enjoy considerable freedom in submitting for and carrying out international projects. Institutional and administrative support are usually forthcoming as long as the university’s policies are followed. In Sri Lankan institutions the administration plays a major role in overseeing the project and they have reasons for it. Therefore, the support of the host institution and administrators are vital for the successful completion of projects. Without their consent, efforts can be crippled and initiatives stalled completely.

Education, information and on-site communication

Recognizing the need to create awareness among institutional leaders, the project management should send copies of all correspondence to the university administration. Photocopies of the project proposal should be distributed to institutional heads. In this project, because of the change in institutional heads at different times during the project period, this was not followed and it did create structural challenges. Without the administrator’s understanding of the project, it is difficult for them to visualize where the project wants to go and how and why the project leader wants to take the project on a chosen path.

Remove barriers to participation by women and marginalized groups

It was expected that women and marginalized groups would participate equally in project activities. This was stated explicitly in the project documents. Unfortunately, the number of women and people belonging to marginalized groups, who actively participated in the project were few. In fact their numbers were fewer than earlier planned. We learned that the project management might have actively encouraged the participation of target groups, but the individuals might not have had the capacities to participate effectively. For example, the percentage of female faculty may be very few in an institution and they are sometimes heavily loaded with duties.

Therefore, there were not many women available for project work. With regards to institutions, we learned some specific lessons. They should enforce policies to encourage hiring, participation, promote shared and experiential learning, provide incentives and improve access.

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Politics

It would be healthy if development projects were to be insulated from partisan politics but this is not the case in most countries. This is a reality and one has to work with the authorities of the government as they are ultimately responsible for development in the country. In this regard, any project must inform the government officers of what is happening in their region and they must be kept informed and involved at all times.

Cultural relativity of time

The timelines often established during a project design are at best guidelines or projections. This must be recognized by all the actors in a project. The datelines set in the project document hardly coincided with the reality in the field during implementation. This was due to unexpected changes in the economic, social and political conditions of the country, whereby faculty and staff had to cope with more work with same or less pay. Also, a number of factors such as transport, electricity fluctuations, poor road networks, lack of repair and maintenance personnel for equipment and lack of incentives hamper implementation. These should be anticipated and factored into all project designs.

Active listening and flexibility

The experience of the team in Guelph was greatly enriched by active listening to the stakeholders in the country. The partners benefited from the careful listening and the flexibility with which project goals and recommendations were reached. When the team in Guelph was unable to meet the requests of their overseas partners, clearance was sought from the donor agency and executing agencies. The flexibility and empathy with which the project officers worked and listened to the suggestions of those implementing the project greatly facilitated project execution and the attainment of results under difficult circumstances.

Sustainability of the project

In Sri Lanka the partner universities have demonstrated their preparedness to continue with the projects. Participating faculty acquired skills which have improved their teaching in on-campus courses and management of other projects. Structurally, the physical facilities are in place and the clients are sensitized to the benefits of community development. It is now the responsibility of the key personnel within those institutions to decide what they would like to do and

234 continue so that the spirit of community development and responsibility to the people are demonstrated.

International development projects such as the ones conducted in partnership with institutions and communities in Sri Lanka are unique. Their uniqueness is characterized by the commitment of the individuals and institutions that work in them, and the institutions that have provided the support that has carried the ideas to the level of concrete projects. The role of participating University of Guelph personnel has been mainly that of facilitation. Through these collaborative partnership projects, the partners have learned a number of lessons, which, at the outset, may have looked insignificant but turned out to be significant, as most challenges were not technical. It is our hope that persons working on future projects will benefit from the lessons learned.

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AUTHOR INDEX

Abe, ...... 66 Abeywickrama, L.M., ...... 147 Agarwal, B., ...... 17 Agnesini, M.V.C., ...... 99 Ahmad, M.N., ...... 143 Ahmed, A.N., ...... 75 Aka, İ., ...... 100 Al-Degs, Y., ...... 143 Alenand, S.J., ...... 143 Al-Jufaili, M.S., ...... 165 Alwis, A.A.P., ...... 151 Amarasinghe, M., ...... 112 Amarasinghe, O., ...... 164 Anderson, M.B., ...... 14 Ankila, O., ...... 166 Antoine, G., ...... 35 Ariyabandu, M.M., ...... 194, 195 Arslan, I., ...... 140 Arunakumara, K.K.I.U., ...... 189 Asahara, H., ...... 28 Ashley, C., ...... 11 Badilles, D., ...... 136 Balakrishnan, ...... 166 Balasingham, H.S., ...... 207 Balasooriya, N.W.B., ...... 49 Banerjee, ...... 166 Basri, H.B., ...... 100 Benitez, L.V., ...... 128 Bensam, P., ...... 202 Berg, P.G., ...... 36 Bhatty, J.L., ...... 100 Bourdieu, P., ...... 15 Browns, D.J., ...... 66 Buddhika, S.A., ...... 163 Buendia, ...... 136 Bunch,, ...... 18 Candemir, F., ...... 101 Cannon, T., ...... 12

236

Carney, D., ...... 11 Castanos, M., ...... 136 Cecily, P.J., ...... 167 Chakrabarty, R.D., ...... 127 Chambers, R., ...... 11, 12, 14 Chandana, P.G., ...... 35 Chayanov, A.V., ...... 17 Chihiro Yamanaka, ...... 28 Chong, L.P., ...... 198 Coleman, J.S., ...... 15 Conway, G., ...... 11, 14 Curtis, P., ...... 192 De Silva, M., ...... 112 De Silva, P.K., ...... 112 Dennis, S., ...... 166 Dharshini, S., ...... 127 Dominey-Howes, D., ...... 28 Doran, ...... 190 Duenas, C.E., ...... 128 Dupin, M., ...... 83 Eagle, P.J., ...... 36 Einon Mariya, V., ...... 99 Ellis, F., ...... 11, 19, 167 Elmhirst, R., ...... 194 Eronnr, ...... 36 Fernando, D.Y., ...... 198 Fernando, P.R., ...... 57, 99 Ferraris, R.P., ...... 128 Filson, G.C., ...... 1, 11, 229 Fondo, E.N., ...... 118 Gahdough-Guebas, F., ...... 113 Ganapathy, C., ...... 100 Ganewatta, G.K.H., ...... 163 Gardner, J., ...... 1 Gimeno, E., ...... 140, 142 Gordon, M.S., ...... 134 Guilhem, S., ...... 35 Gülser, C., ...... 101 Gunaretnam, V., ...... 185 Gunawickrama, S.H.K.K., ...... 25 237

Gündüz, L., ...... 101 Harris-White, B., ...... 17 Hart, G., ...... 210 Hatai, S., ...... 66 Häuser, M., ...... 166 Hewamanage, D.S., ...... 65 Hiroshi Matsumoto, ...... 29 Hogarth, P.J., ...... 112 Hüseyin, A., ...... 101 Ikeda, M., ...... 28 Illangasekare, T., ...... 83 Imamura, F., ...... 194, 195 Iqbal, Y.B., ...... 75 Janakiram, J., ...... 1, 229 Jayasinghe, C., ...... 194 Jayatissa, L.P., ...... 113 Jaysmaha, D.I.S., ...... 128 Jiang, X.Z., ...... 140 Johnson, H.F., ...... 195, 196 Juario, J.V., ...... 128 Kalpan, M., ...... 66 Kerrim, Z., ...... 35 Khraishen, M.A.M., ...... 143 Kim, S., ...... 140 Kim, T.K., ...... 140 Kinniburg, W., ...... 100 Koedam, N., ...... 113 Krishanthan, S., ...... 57 Kullinger, B., ...... 36 Kurniawan, A., ...... 25 Lee, C.S., ...... 134 LI Xiao-ying, ...... 140 Liu, W.Q., ...... 140 Liu, Y.J., ...... 140 Liyanage, M. de S., ...... 66 Lobstein,T., ...... 193 Longfield, J., ...... 193 Longwe, S., ...... 209 LUO Si-zhen, ...... 140 Malbert, B., ...... 36

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Mallawaarachchi, R.S., ...... 194 Manan, M.A., ...... 100 Marapana, R.A.U.J., ...... 65 Martens, E.E., ...... 118 Marx, K., ...... 16, 17 Mathiventhan, T., ...... 113 Matsumoto, H., ...... 28 Mmochi, A.J., ...... 129 Moreau, Y., ...... 83 Moser, C., ...... 209 Motogi Ikeya,, ...... 28 Motoji Ikeya, ...... 29 Msuya, F.E., ...... 129 Muniyandi, R., ...... 223 Mutagamba, M., ...... 195, 196 Mwaluma, J., ...... 198 Nawas, M.F., ...... 139 Nemes, G., ...... 12 Nikonov, A.A., ...... 29, 66 Normann, K.A., ...... 165 O’Laughlin, B., ...... 18 Okuroğlu, M., ...... 99 Opara, L.U., ...... 165 Ormad, M.P., ...... 140, 142 Örüng, İ., ...... 99 Ovelleiro, J.L., ...... 140, 142 Öztürk, T., ...... 106 Panabokke, C.R., ...... 84 Papathoma, M., ...... 28 Park, C., ...... 140 Parker, A.N., ...... 11 Parker, R.A., ...... 209 Parkin, ...... 190 Parvathakeethan, A., ...... 99 Pearson, E., ...... 36 Perera, A.P.G.R.L., ...... 84 Perera, H.S.C., ...... 163 Pinto, L., 112, ...... 197 Pirapaharan, K., ...... 25 Piyadasa, R.U.K.,...... 35, 83 239

Postacıoğlu, B., ...... 99 Prahasan, K.M., ...... 185 Prishanthini, M., ...... 197 Priyashantha, K.G., ...... 163 Puig, A., ...... 140, 142 Putnam, R., ...... 15 Ramanathan, S., ...... 128 Ranaweera Banda, R.M., ...... 201 Rapport, D., ...... 11 Rathnayake, C.V., ...... 163 Ratnasooriya, H.A.R., ...... 194, 195 Razavi, S., ...... 12, 16, 17, 18 Razmy, A.M., ...... 75 Reid, K.J., ...... 100 Requintina, E.D., ...... 129 Resurreccion, B.P., ...... 194 Rizvi, E.M.J.M., ...... 193 Roche, M.P., ...... 140, 142 Romijn, H., ...... 210 Rossignolo, A.J., ...... 99 Rowell, J., ...... 12 Safeena, M.I.S., ...... 179 Şahin, S., ...... 99, 103 Samaranayake, R.A.D.B., ...... 197, 198 Samarasinghe, R.P., ...... 198 Samarawickrama, S.P., ...... 194, 195 Sampath, R., ...... 83 Santharooban, S., ...... 111, 137 Santharooban. S., ...... 199 Sarasa, J., ...... 140, 142 Schieder, İ., ...... 102 Schnug, E., ...... 190 Schuster, W.H., ...... 128 Scoones, I., ...... 11, 14, 16, 17, 18 Senaratne, R., ...... 1, 65, 147, 189, 229 Seran, T.H., ...... 207 Seresinhe, R.T., ...... 65 Shantharuban, S., ...... 123 Sharma, ...... 168 Sheldrake, R., ...... 66

240

Shin, E., ...... 140 Shiva, V., ...... 198 Shldrake, R., ...... 66 Short, A.,...... 100 Sidorin, A.Y., ...... 28 Smit Jac, ...... 190 Smith, D., ...... 28 Sparovek, G., ...... 190 Stromberg, U.B., ...... 36 Subasinghe, S., ...... 66, 147, 189 Sydneys, K., ...... 165 Szabolcs, I., ...... 190 T van der Plas, ...... 25 Tekinsoy, M.A., ...... 100 Thayaparan, K., ...... 127 Tomonori Matsuda, ...... 28 Twigg, J., ...... 12 Ujhely, J., ...... 100 Uluata, ...... 103 Van Der Wees, C., ...... 210 Van Veen, B., ...... 25 Vasantharuba, ...... 150 Vatvani, D., ...... 25 Veneman, A.M., ...... 195, 196 Vickneswaran, G., ...... 223 Vinobaba, P., ...... 111, 112, 113, 118, 123, 127, 137, 197, 199 Wadge, G., ...... 36 Watanabe, W.O., ...... 134 Weerasinghe, K.D.N., ...... 35, 83, 91, 209 Wen Yue-zhong, ...... 140 Whitfield, V.D.E., ...... 166 Wibergk, ...... 36 Wickramasinghe, M., ...... 194, 195 Wijayawardhana, L.M.J.R., ...... 83 Wijetunga, S., ...... 209 Willey, A., ...... 127 Williams, S., ...... 209 Wilson, R., ...... 66 Wiscoski, A.P., ...... 36 Woodrow, P.J., ...... 11, 14 241

Yağanoğlu, A.V., ...... 99 Yamanaka, C., ...... 28 Yılmaz, İ., ...... 101 Young, K., ...... 194 Young, P.S., ...... 128 Yuan, Y.,...... 140 Zain, M.F.M., ...... 100 Zong, Y., ...... 28

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