822 LK91 NATURAL RESOURCES OF SRI LANKA Conditions and Trends A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE NATURAL RESOURCES, ENERGY AND SCIENCE AUTHO Sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development NATURAL RESOURCES OF SRI LANKA Conditions and Trends LIBRARY : . INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION (IRQ LIBRARY, INTERNATIONAL h'L'FERi "NO1£ CEiJRE FOR Ct)MV.u•;•!!rY WATEri SUPPLY AND SALTATION .(IRC) P.O. Box 93H)0. 2509 AD The hi,: Tel. (070) 814911 ext 141/142 RN: lM O^U LO: O jj , i/q i A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE NATURAL RESOURCES, ENERGY AND SCIENCE AUTHORITY OF SRI LANKA. 1991 Editorial Committee Other Contributors Prof. B.A. Abeywickrama Prof.P. Abeygunawardenc Mr. Malcolm F. Baldwin Dr. A.T.P.L. Abeykoon Mr. Malcolm A.B. Jansen Prof. P, Ashton Prof. CM. Madduma Bandara Mr. (J.B.A. Fernando Mr. L.C.A. de S. Wijesinghc Mr. P. Illangovan Major Contributors Dr. R.C. Kumarasuriya Prof. B.A. Abcywickrama Mr. V. Nandakumar Dr. B.K. Basnayake Dr.R.H. Wickramasinghe Ms. N.D. de Zoysa Dr. Kristin Wulfsberg Mr. S. Dimantha Prof. C.B. Dissanayake Prof. H.P.M. Gunasena Editor Mr. Malcolm F. Baldwin Mr. Malcolm A.B, Jansen Copy Editor Ms Pamela Fabian Mr. R.B.M. Koralc Word - Prof. CM. Madduma Bandara Processing Ms Pushpa Iranganie Ms Beryl Mcldcr Mr. K.A.L. Premaratne Cartography Mr. Milton Liyanage Ms D.H. Sadacharan Photography Studio Times, Ltd. Dr. L.R. Sally Mr. Dharmin Samarajeewa Dr. M.U.A. Tcnnekoon Mr. Dominic Sansoni Mr. M. Watson Keells Business Systems Lt< Dr. S. Wickramaratne Publisher Education Center Mr. L.C.A. de S. Wijesinghe Printed By Uni Walker Packaging Ltd. Colombo Cover Design Masters Advertising Ltd. Acknowledgements This report was prepared under the auspices of the Mr.V.R. Nanayakkara, Mr. M.S. Wijeratne, and Mr. Natural Resources, Energy, and Science Authority of B.P, Sepalage, at the workshop held by NARESA to Sri Lanka, Ministry of Industries, Science and Technol- review preliminary project findings. Thanks are due for ogy. Special thanks from the Editorial Committee are the critical technical review of documents by Ms due to Dr. R. P. Jayewardene, Director-General of Dianne Tsitsos, Dr. Ulrich Ernst, Dr. Glenn Anders, NARESA and members of NARESA's Natural and Mr. Daniel Jenkins of USAID, and for the techni- Resources Working Committee for project encourage- cal design contributions of Mr. Daniel Tunstall of the ment and guidance. Support for this project was World Resources Institute. The Editorial Committee provided by the United States Agency for International is grateful to Keells Business Systems for the careful Development. The Committee is grateful to Mr. Den- work of its staff in preparing the computer graphics, nis Zvinakis, USAID Projects Director, during whose and to Ms Neela D. de Zoysa for her help with the tenure this report was conceived and developed, and report's design and selection of photographs. his successor Mr. William Jeffers. Finally, appreciation must be given to the countless Many experts provided invaluable technical assis- Sri Lankan scientists and concerned citizens whose tance in drafting this report. Refinement of papers was actions have shaped the content of this report and assisted by Mr. Godfrey Gunatilleke, Prof. K.K.Y.W. whose informed energies will be so important to the Perera, Dr. Gamani Corea, Mr. Lalanath de Silva, future environment of Sri Lanka. IV Contents Research Team II Acknowledgements III Contents IV List of Boxes XI Introduction NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT OF SRI LANKA 2 Geographical Setting 2 Physical Features 2 Geology 3 Climate 3 Hydrology 4 People 5 The Economy 6 Constitutional and Administrative Structure 7 Legal Structure Affecting Natural Resource Management 7 Key Issues in Natural Resource Management 8 Heritage in Natural Resource Management 11 Hydraulic Civilization 11 Collapse of the Rajarata Civilization 16 The Kandyan Kingdom 16 The Colonial Period 16 Population Profile ^_^_ ^L POPULATION GROWTH 21 Changes in Fertility 21 Mortality 22 International Migration 24 Projected Population 24 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION 25 Population Density 25 Urban-Rural Distribution 28 Trends 28 FAMILY SIZE AND HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION 30 Growth of Households and Family Formations 30 Size of Households 30 Forecast of Households 32 HOUSING 32 Growth of Housing Stock 32 Quality of Housing Units 32 Materials of Construction / 32 Age of Housing Stock 32 Occupancy and Overcrowding 35 Type of Lighting 35 Main Sources of Drinking Water 35 Toilet Facilities 35 POPULATION AND DOMESTIC FOOD PRODUCTION 40 LABOR SUPPLY 44 Population of Working Age 44 Employment by Industry Sector 45 Occupational Distribution •••••! 45 Employment Growth Required to Match Labor Supply 45 Economic Conditions and Trends 53 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 53 RESOURCE AVAILABILITY AND PERFORMANCE IN THE ECONOMY 55 Gross Domestic Product 55 Sectoral Contribution: Agriculture 55 Industry 58 Services and Construction 60 Imports 60 RESOURCE UTILIZATION 60 Trends in Consumption and Investment 60 Exports 62 MICRO-ECONOMIC LIMITATIONS AND PRESSURES 64 Unemployment 64 Income Distribution and Poverty 66 Malnutrition 66 POLICY IMPACT 67 Environmental Degradation and Economic Development 67 Energy Resources ELECTRICITY DEMAND 71 ROLE OF HYDROPOWER 74 Thermal Generation Options 75 Economic and Social Costs of Hydropower 76 PETROLEUM SUPPLY AND DEMAND 77 VI Supply and Processing 77 Sources of Demand 77 BIOMASSFUEL 81 Consumption 81 Future Demand Trends 81 Source of Biomass Fuel 83 Future Trends in Supplies 83 Economic and Social Costs of Fuclwood 85 Other Biofuel Resources 85 MAIN ISSUES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 87 Electricity 87 Conservation 87 Biomas Fuel 88 Land Resources 97 PART I-LAND RESOURCES AND USE 1956 TO PRESENT 99 PRESENT USE 100 Plantation Agriculture--Focus on Tea 100 Cultivation-~ Focus on Paddy 107 Grasslands 108 Forest Gardens 108 ALLOCATION FOR SUITABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY 108 Soils of Sri Lanka 108 Suitability analysis 108 Lands use Allocation Problems and needs 111 POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 111 Land Ownership 111 Major Land Tenure Laws 112 Government Responsibilities 115 Findings of the Land Commission 116 PART II - LAND DEGRADATION 119 Soil Erosion 119 Landslides and Related Phenomena 123 Coastal Erosion 127 Salinity and Waterlogging 128 EVALUATING IMPACTS AND PRIORITIES 129 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 131 Allocation of Authority 131 Long-term Planning 131 Providing Resources 132 Inter-agency Coordination 132 Vil Water Resources __ 137 PART I - WATER RESOURCES AND USE 137 GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 137 PRECIPITATION AND WATER AVAILABILITY 141 Average Rainfall 141 Wet and Dry Zones 141 Evapo-transpiration 142 Inter-annual Variability • 142 Extremes: Floods and Droughts 142 Rainfall Probability : 142 Surface Water j • . 142 Ground Water I 146 WATER USES AND REQUIREMENTS 146 WATER RESOURCES CONDITIONS AND TRENDS 148 Local Rainfall Decreases 148 Increased Runoff 148 Ground Water Exploitation 150 DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 150 Institutional Authority 151 Water Resources Legislation 151 PART II - WATER POLLUTION 157 SOURCES OF POLLUTION 157 Urban Wastes 157 Industrial Waste 160 Rural Sanitation 163 Agricultural Wastes 163 Natural Factors 164 Oil Discharges 164 TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY 165 Kelani Ganga 166 Mahawcli Ganga 166 Other Rivers, Waterways and Water Bodies 167 Ground Water 169 Estuaries and Lagoons 1,70 Other Forms of Water Degradation 171 IMPACTS 171 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE 171 KEY ISSUES 174 Domestic Waste Management 174 Industrial Waste Management 176 Agricultural Waste Management 176 Ground Water Management 176 Research and Data Generation 176 Surface Water Quality Monitoring and Control 177 Waste Reduction Technologies 178 VIII 8 Mineral Resources 181 GEMSTONES 181 Gem Mining 181 The Gem Industry 184 Emerging Market Trends 184 Geuda to Sapphire-The Addition of Value 185 Environmental Impacts 186 Regulation and Controls 188 SAND MINING 190 Environmental Impacts , 190 GRAPHITE 190 ROCK PHOSPHATE 191 CERAMICS 192 MINERAL SANDS 193 Environmental Impacts 193 CEMENT 194 Environmental Impacts 193 FUTURE MINERAL PROSPECTS 194 Forest Resources 197 Forest Cover Today 197 NATURAL FORESTS 198 Forest Ownership 201 Timber Yields from Natural Forests ; 204 FOREST PLANTATIONS 208 Historical Development 208 Timber and Fuelwood Production 208 Ecological Considerations 209 TIMBER AND FUELWOOD DEMAND AND SUPPLY 209 Industrial Wood - Past Trends 209 Industrial Wood - Future Trends 209 Fuelwood - Past Trends 210 Fuelwood - Future Trends 211 KEY ISSUES 211 Minimum Area Under Forest 211 Timber and Fuelwood Supplies 212 Forest Plantations 213 Social Forestry 213 Research 213 IX 10 Biológica! Diversity 215 Importance of Biological Diversity 216 SRI LANKA'S BIODIVERSITY 216 Wild Resources 216 Cultivated Resources 222 STATUS AND TRENDS 226 Loss of Ecosystem Diversity 226 Loss of Genetic Diversity 227 TRENDS OF PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT 229 INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND NEEDS 232 Knowledge Base and Analytical Capability 232 Providing Economic Incentives 233 Expanding Awareness 233 Promotion of Cross-sectoral Collaboration 233 Strengthening Protected area Management 234 Policy Shifts 234 Incorporating values into Economic Planning . 234 11 Coastal And Marine Resources 237 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE 238 PRESENT CONDITIONS 239 Marine Fishery Resources 242 Large Pclagics 246 Small Pelagics 245 Crustaceans 246 Coral Reefs 248 Coastal Wetlands 249 Beaches and Dunes 252 MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE COASTAL ZONE 252 INSTITUTIONAL